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Ocean acidification refers to the process of lowering the oceans' pH (that is, increasing the concentration of hydrogen ions) by dissolving additional carbon dioxide in seawater from the atmosphere. The word "acidification" refers to lowering pH from any starting point to any end point on the pH scale. This term is used in many other scientific areas (including medicine and food science) to refer to the addition of an acid to a solution, regardless of the solution's pH value. For example, even though seawater's pH is greater than 7.0 (and therefore considered "basic" in terms of the pH scale), increasing atmospheric CO2 levels are still raising the ocean's acidity and lowering its pH. In comparison, this language is similar to the words we use when we talk about temperature. If the air temperature moves from -40°C to -29°C (-40°F to -20°F), it is still cold, but we call it "warming."
James Orr, Senior Scientist, Laboratory for the Sciences of Climate and Environment, France; Christopher L. Sabine, Supervisory Oceanographer, NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, USA; Robert Key, Research Oceanographer, Princeton University, USA
No. The fundamental chemistry of the ocean carbon system, including the presence of calcium carbonate minerals on the ocean floor that can slowly dissolve and help neutralize some of the CO2, prevents the oceans from becoming acidic on a global scale.
Christopher L. Sabine, Supervisory Oceanographer, NOAA Pacific Marine
Environmental Laboratory, USA
No. While ocean acidification and climate change share a common cause (increases in CO2 in the atmosphere), climate change encompasses the effects associated with changes in the Earth's heat budget (due to the greenhouse effect of CO2 and to a lesser extent other climate reactive gases), which cause global warming and changes in weather patterns. Ocean acidification specifically refers to the lowering of ocean pH resulting from its absorption of human-released CO2 from the atmosphere. Ocean acidification does not include the warming of the ocean.
Christopher L. Sabine, Supervisory Oceanographer, NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, USA
Scientists estimate that surface ocean pH has fallen by about 0.1 pH unit from preindustrial times to today. Because pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration and the pH scale is logarithmic — for every drop of 1 pH unit, hydrogen ion levels increase by a factor of 10 — a 0.1-unit pH drop is equivalent to about a 26% increase in the ocean hydrogen ion concentration. If we continue on the expected trajectory for fossil-fuel use and rising atmospheric CO2, pH is likely to drop by 0.3-0.4 units by the end of the 21st century and increase ocean hydrogen ion concentration (or acidity) by 100-150% above what it was in preindustrial times.
Scott Doney, Senior Scientist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA
This is a common point of confusion, because step-by-step equilibrium equations describing the carbonate system in seawater do not capture the dynamic chemical environment of seawater. There are several reactions that can occur between carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), carbonic acid (H2CO3), bicarbonate ion (HCO3-), and carbonate ion (CO32-). One of the possible reactions does create carbonate ions and lowers pH:
However, at the current ocean pH level, another reaction also occurs that consumes carbonate ions and does not change pH:
The second equation describes the reaction that occurs most often in the modern oceans, but the first reaction also occurs, so the resulting overall change is a decrease in carbonate and a decrease in pH.
Christopher L. Sabine, Supervisory Oceanographer, NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, USA
When acids and bases neutralize each other in a laboratory experiment, salt and water form. But in the ocean, the major ions that make seawater "salty" (like sodium, chloride, and magnesium) have come from rock weathering, which provides a balanced amount of positive and negative ions to the seas over many millennia. Variations in ocean pH on shorter time scales of decades to centuries are controlled by weak acids and bases, like bicarbonate or borate. Of these weak acids and bases, the dissolved forms of CO2, known as carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and carbonate, have the largest impact on global ocean pH variations because their concentrations are changing quickly relative to other ions in the ocean.
Christopher L. Sabine, Supervisory Oceanographer, NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, USA
Fresh water from melting ice caps dilutes the concentrations of all the various components of the carbonate system in seawater (described above), as well as the total alkalinity and salinity (both of which affect pH). For example, a liter of "typical" Arctic seawater (temperature, 5°C; salinity, 35; total alkalinity, 2244 micromoles/kilogram) that is exposed to today's atmospheric CO2 level of 390 ppm has a total carbon content of 2100 micromoles/kilogram and a pH of 8.04 (total scale, here and below). Adding a kilogram of freshwater to the kilogram of seawater would dilute the salinity, alkalinity, and carbon content to half of what they were, and the initial pH would increase to 8.21. However, that seawater is out of equilibrium with the atmosphere (it now has a pCO2 of 151 ppm, while the pCO2 level of the overlying atmosphere is 390 ppm) and so it will absorb CO2 until the seawater pCO2 also equals 390 ppm, at which point the pH will have dropped to 7.83.
Richard A. Feely, Senior Scientist, NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, USA; Joan Kleypas, Scientist III, National Center for Atmospheric Research, USA
The CO2 content of the surface waters of the oceans responds to both changes in CO2 content of the atmosphere and changes in temperature. For example, if ocean temperatures were not changing, a doubling of preindustrial CO2 levels (from 280 to 560 ppm) would cause an increase in the total amount of dissolved carbon in the surface ocean from about 2002 to 2131 micromoles/kg of seawater (assuming salinity = 35, temperature = 15°C, and alkalinity = 2300 micromoles/kg). If ocean temperatures warmed by 2°C over that period, then less carbon would be taken up (the increase would be from 2002 to 2117 micromoles/kg). Thus, a 2°C increase in temperature results in about a 10% decrease in carbon uptake in surface waters. The expected warming of the oceans also may alter ocean circulation, further reducing their capacity to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere, but the excess CO2 will still remain in the atmosphere and drive further acidification. For pH, the net effects of climate warming on atmospheric CO2, CO2 solubility, and chemical speciation approximately cancel out.
Scott Doney, Senior Scientist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA; Joan Kleypas, Scientist III, National Center for Atmospheric Research, USA
When ice sheets build up into glaciers, air bubbles become trapped in the freezing ice. Scientists have analyzed the CO2 concentration of air in these bubbles and have developed a record of the atmospheric CO2 concentration in the recent past. Because large parts of the surface ocean CO2 concentration remains roughly in equilibrium with the atmospheric CO2 concentration, the ocean CO2 content can be calculated from these air bubbles, and ocean pH can also be calculated. In fact, the ice core record shows that the atmospheric CO2 concentration has never been higher than about 280 ppm during the last 800,000 years, creating conditions leading to an average preindustrial surface ocean pH of ca. 8.2.
Jelle Bijma, Biogeochemist, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany
Scientists have collected semi-continuous records of seawater pCO2 and pH over the last 20-30 years in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. These time-series records from near Hawaii, Bermuda, and the Canary Islands show that seawater pCO2 is mirroring the increase in atmospheric CO2 and that ocean pH is decreasing. Other measurements of the CO2 content in the North Pacific Ocean, conducted in 1991 and again in 2006, show that the CO2 content in the North Pacific Ocean has increased in accordance with rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations.
Carol Turley, Senior Scientist, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK; Joan Kleypas, Scientist III, National Center for Atmospheric Research, USA
To estimate physical or chemical parameters such as temperature or pH for periods before instruments were available, scientists use so-called proxy parameters or "proxies," which are measurable parameters that can be related to desired but unobservable parameters. For instance, marine calcifying organisms incorporate many other elements into their hard shells and skeletons besides the calcium, carbon, and oxygen in calcium carbonate. When the hard parts of these organisms that are preserved in sediment are analyzed, the additional elements provide information about environmental conditions during the animal's lifetime. Historical ocean pH values and changes can be studied using the concentration of the element boron and the ratio of its stable isotopes (∂10B and ∂11B) in marine carbonates. Additional geochemical evidence and modeling provide strong evidence that the average surface ocean pH has not been much lower than about 8.2 for millions of years.
Jelle Bijma, Biogeochemist, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany
Other human activities certainly are affecting seawater chemistry and the ocean's acid-base balance, but not nearly to the extent of atmospheric CO2-driven acidification. Acid rain, which contains sulfuric and nitric acids originally derived from fossil fuel combustion, falls on the coastal oceans. The impact of acid rain on surface ocean chemistry may be important locally and regionally, but it is small globally and its total effects equal only a few percent of the changes driven by rising atmospheric CO2. Coastal waters are also affected by excess nutrient inputs, mostly nitrogen, from agriculture, fertilizers and sewage. The resulting chemical changes lead to large plankton blooms, and when these blooms collapse and sink below the surface layer the resulting respiration from bacteria leads to a drawdown in seawater oxygen and an increase in CO2, which decreases pH even more in subsurface coastal waters. One of the major differences between OA and these types of human effects is that OA's influence is truly global in scale, affecting pH-sensitive and calcifying organisms in every ocean basin from the equator to the poles. At present, the effects are restricted primarily to the upper 200-500m of the ocean, but every year the effects penetrate to deeper depths. Many of the other impacts of human activities are more local in nature.
Scott Doney, Senior Scientist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA; Chris Langdon, Associate Professor, University of Miami
Geological buffering
The weathering of continental rocks does increase the alkalinity of seawater and increases its ability to counteract pH decreases, but neutralizing all of the CO2 from human activity that is entering the oceans with this process alone would take hundreds of thousands of years. Therefore, on the time scales of importance to humankind (decades to centuries), these processes are not fast enough to significantly buffer ocean acidification.
Richard A. Feely, Senior Scientist, NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, USA; Jelle Bijma, Biogeochemist, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany
The dissolution of calcium carbonate minerals in the water column and in the sediments does increase the alkalinity of seawater, which offsets the decreased pH and carbonate ion concentrations associated with ocean acidification. However, as with rock weathering, this process is slow and would take thousands to tens of thousands of years to neutralize all of the CO2 from human activity that is entering the oceans. Over the decades to centuries that affect human communities, these processes are not fast enough to counteract CO2 invasion into the ocean, and so the chemical changes associated with ocean acidification will last for several centuries.
Richard A. Feely, Senior Scientist, NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, USA
The photosynthesis of some, but not all, algae increases when CO2 rises to levels projected for the end of this century (700-800 ppm). The single-celled algae called zooxanthellae that live within coral animals' cells are some of the algae whose photosynthesis does not significantly increase at projected future CO2 levels. Normally, zooxanthellae and corals maintain a delicately balanced symbiosis, in which the zooxanthellae transfer photosynthetically formed carbon-based nutrition to the coral host and provide an important source of carbon for the coral and for coral calcification (skeleton building). If the algae within the corals' cells do too well and their numbers greatly increase, the transfer of nutrition to the coral host can be disrupted. So even if zooxanthellae photosynthesis were to increase under high CO2, this does not necessarily benefit the corals. In the great majority of experiments, coral calcification rate decreases when the CO2 level increases, so it is clear that the rise in CO2 is decreasing the corals' ability to build their skeletons rather than protecting them by altering zooxanthellae photosynthesis.
Chris Langdon, Associate Professor, University of Miami, USA; Anne Cohen, Research Specialist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA
Communities of organisms found near shallow near-shore volcanic CO2vents demonstrate that certain microalgae, seaweeds and seagrasses grow very well in areas that experience long-term exposure to elevated CO2. However, this work also shows that coastal ecosystems are degraded due to the long-term effects of ocean acidification. Biodiversity is lost: groups of organisms such as coralline algae gradually disappear as pH falls, and they are replaced by thriving stands of invasive algae. This raises concerns that ocean acidification will allow alien algae to proliferate and disrupt coastal habitats.
Jason Hall-Spencer, Lecturer, University of Plymouth, UK
The growth and photosynthesis of certain marine phytoplankton and plant species may increase with higher CO2 levels, but this is by no means a general rule. For other species, higher CO2 and rising acidity will have either negative or neutral effects on their physiology. Therefore some marine phytoplankton and plants will be "winners," while others will be "losers." This means that instead of benefiting all impartially, future acidification will instead probably cause major shifts in the species composition of ocean phytoplankton communities. Some of the experiments that have been done so far suggest that the likely new dominant phytoplankton species in the future acidified ocean may be less able to support the productive food chains that we presently rely on to support healthy ocean ecosystems and fisheries resources.
David Hutchins, Professor of Marine Environmental Biology, University of Southern California, USA
Freshwater fish and plants tend to be more tolerant of lower pH and wider pH changes overall because fresh water contains low alkalinity, which means that the water chemistry does not minimize pH changes (i.e., it does not have the "buffering capacity") the way that seawater chemistry does. The natural variability of pH in lakes and rivers is also higher than in the ocean. Freshwater organisms have evolved special mechanisms that allow them to thrive in these more acidic and variable conditions; for example, freshwater plants may benefit from higher CO2. In saltwater aquaria, corals and fish require a more narrowly balanced pH and owners often add carbonate "hardeners" to increase the water's alkalinity and maintain the pH between 8.0 and 8.4. Devices called "calcium reactors" bubble CO2 gas through crushed calcium carbonate (usually crushed coral), which releases calcium and carbonate ions into the salt water, providing the high-alkalinity, calcium-rich waters that aquarium corals and other calcifying organisms need to continue healthy growth. Unfortunately, these types of devices cannot be used to solve ocean acidification on a global scale, because of the vast amounts of crushed calcium carbonate that are required to carry out the process in the world's oceans.
Helen Findlay, Lord Kingsland Fellow, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK; Joan Kleypas, Scientist III, National Center for Atmospheric Research, USA; Michael Holcomb, Postdoctoral Research Associate, Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Monaco
Organisms that live in fresh water or in salt water with lower pH have developed adaptive mechanisms that allow them to survive under those conditions. In contrast, marine shellfish that have evolved in seawater with a higher and less variable pH are more susceptible to changes in pH. A good example of this is the natural shift in marine organisms to freshwater organisms living along estuaries. A marine shellfish, Thais gradata, that is found along estuaries tends to have higher rates of dissolution at the freshwater end of the estuary, where pH is lower and varies widely, than it does at the seawater end of the estuary where pH is higher and varies less.
Helen Findlay, Lord Kingsland Fellow, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK
Dissolving CO2 in seawater causes a suite of changes in the carbonate system in seawater: the concentrations of dissolved CO2, total dissolved inorganic carbon, and the bicarbonate ion increase, while pH, carbonate ion concentration, and calcium carbonate saturation state decrease. One or several of these changes may affect shell building in marine organisms. The formation of skeletons or shells in most marine organisms is an internal process where most organisms appear to convert bicarbonate to carbonate to form calcium carbonate. But because this conversion creates protons (hydrogen ions), the organisms must exert energy to expel the hydrogen ions into the external environment (seawater). One hypothesis as to why ocean acidification can cause slower calcification rates (and there are several) is that as seawater pH decreases, the organisms must exert more energy to rid themselves of the protons produced by calcification - they are simply working against a steeper gradient. This explains why many calcifying organisms have lower calcification rates when they are physiologically taxed by other stresses (e.g. lack of food); that is, the added stress leaves the organisms with less energy for calcification. Ocean acidification can also indirectly affect shell formation through physiological impacts, such as changes in an organism's respiration rate, which can impact energy budgets and thus alter the animal's ability to produce shell material. While some organisms may grow their shells at normal rates under ocean acidification, the exposed parts of the shell may dissolve more quickly, so that the organism may need to spend more energy in shell maintenance, and less in reproduction or other life activities.
Helen Findlay, Lord Kingsland Fellow, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK; Anne Cohen, Research Specialist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA; Joan Kleypas, , Scientist III, National Center for Atmospheric Research, USA
At least one experimental study showed that the shell mass of several crustaceans, including lobsters, reared in culture for 60 days actually increased with increased CO2. Shell-making requires energy, so increased shell mass almost certainly occurred hand-in-hand with reduced energy for other functions like growth and reproduction. Also, lobsters and other crustaceans make shells using both calcium carbonate and chitin in a different mechanism than other marine organisms. They shed their shell periodically, rather than growing constantly throughout life, and they are thought to retain many of the minerals from their old skeleton to put into the new skeleton. Energy and mineral budgets were not monitored in the above study, so how OA affects the overall health and longevity of these organisms is still not known.
Anne Cohen, Research Specialist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA; Helen Findlay, Lord Kingsland Fellow, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK
The rate of human-driven ocean acidification is about 100 times faster in the surface ocean than that experienced by marine ecosystems globally for tens of millions of years. Different ecosystems will respond differently. In some ecosystems, such as coral reefs, the calcifying organisms form the fundamental architecture of the ecosystem so if they disappear, the ecosystem could disappear. In other ecosystems where calcifiers play a less important role, it is less clear what impact the loss of calcifying species might have on the ecosystem. During profound rapid changes in ocean chemistry like present-day ocean acidification, organisms respond in one of 3 ways: acclimation, adaptation, or extinction. If most species acclimate rapidly, the biodiversity and function of marine ecosystems may be relatively unchanged. Evolutionary adaptation, however, is linked to generation time, meaning that long-lived species that mature slowly will have fewer opportunities to produce offspring more resistant to the rapidly changing environmental conditions. Even species that reproduce more quickly may not be able to adapt; for example, at the edges of regions with favorable temperatures and water chemistry, corals have been trying to adapt to lower carbonate ion concentrations for many millions of years, but they have not been able to succeed in outcompeting algae and other non-calcifying species there. It seems unlikely, therefore, that corals could succeed in adapting to new temperatures and water chemistry in a few decades to respond to OA. If OA drives large shifts in the abundance of key organisms in food webs, or significant rates of extinction, we can expect important changes in the function of ecosystems - how energy and material flow from primary producers like plankton to top predators like fish and mammals. Ecosystems are complex networks of interactions among biological organisms and the environment, and it is difficult to predict the full ecological impacts of changing any of those links. We know from CO2 vent studies that OA affects biological species differently and the mix of marine species shifts, leading to lowered biodiversity and a change in the overall functioning of ecosystems. We depend on a whole range of marine ecosystem services, including food from fisheries, income from tourism and recreation, and oxygen and nutrient recycling from biogeochemical processes; all of these services could be altered, and in many cases degraded, by ocean acidification. Imagine, for example, the economic effects of the disappearance of sea urchins from Japanese fisheries or the decline in fish larvae of commercially important species. Furthermore, decreasing or disappearing calcifying organisms will affect (1) the chemical environment, (2) other calcifying and non-calcifying organisms that may depend on them (e.g., many organisms and hundreds of millions of people depend on coral reefs), and (3) the reservoir of carbon on Earth (the "rock" produced by calcifying organisms falls on the ocean floor to form massive "chalky" deposits that lock away some carbon into geological structures). Just like a neglected aquarium that gives way from fish and shellfish to algae, marine ecosystems may adjust, but they might then be populated by species that are less useful or desirable to humans, making the traditional resources and services provided by the changed ecosystems unavailable, different from before, or unpredictable.
Debora Iglesias-Rodriguez, Lecturer, National Oceanography Centre of the University of Southampton, U.K; Scott Doney, Senior Scientist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA; Steve Widdicombe, Benthic Ecologist, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK; Jim Barry, Senior Scientist. Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, USA; Ken Caldeira, Senior Scientist, Carnegie Institution for Science, USA; Jason Hall-Spencer, Marine Biology Lecturer, University of Plymouth, UK
No. However, many scientists think that ocean acidification will lead to important changes in marine ecosystems. This prediction is largely based on geologic history: millions of years ago, marine ecosystems experienced rapid changes during ocean acidification events, including some species extinctions (see "Geologic History" below). Today, some species and the ecosystems they sustain are threatened by ocean acidification, particularly in combination with other climate changes such as ocean warming. Examples include tropical corals, deep-sea corals, and swimming snails. These species play key roles in the oceans either because they build three-dimensional structures, which host a considerable biodiversity, or because they are key components of the food chain. Some species that build calcium carbonate structures, such as coral reefs, also provide key services to humans by providing food, protecting shorelines, and supporting tourism. Evidence for the ecological effects of ocean acidification today can be found at "champagne sites," locations where volcanic CO2 vents naturally acidify the water and small CO2 bubbles rise through the water column. At one of these sites around the Island of Ischia (Italy), for example, biodiversity is reduced by 30% at the acidity level that matches the level expected globally in 2100.
Jean-Pierre Gattuso, Senior Scientist, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, France; Jason Hall-Spencer, Marine Biology Lecturer, University of Plymouth, UK
In principle, there may be some benefit from warming for the calcification process, because precipitation of calcium carbonate is enhanced by temperature up to a certain threshold. However, organisms are accustomed to living in a limited thermal range and are performing less well in temperatures outside of this range. In many marine areas, organisms (calcifiers and non-calcifiers alike) are already exposed to temperatures reaching the upper end of their thermal windows. Pilot studies on crab and fish have demonstrated that exposure to CO2 levels expected if CO2 emissions continue to increase reduces the animals' capacity to tolerate extreme temperatures. Studies on corals have also shown that CO2 enhances thermal sensitivity. In this case it encourages the likelihood of bleaching events triggered by warming. Overall, it appears that ocean acidification may enhance the sensitivity of organisms to climate warming.
Hans-Otto Pörtner, Professor, Alfred Wegener Institute, Germany
For common marine organisms, the gametes, eggs, various larval stages, juveniles, and adults may be affected differently by ocean acidification because they have different tolerances and coping strategies to environmental stress. In some cases, the early life stages may be more susceptible to stress, while in other cases, the adults may be. Experiments are necessary on all life stages to understand the full effects on an organism and to highlight stages that represent weak links. It is also important to consider ocean acidification's lifelong impacts on survival and reproduction. In general, early life history phases (gametes, larvae, juveniles) are expected to be more sensitive to ocean acidification than adults. If fewer young organisms survive to adulthood, population size will clearly be reduced. Ongoing stress usually limits the success of organisms – for example, stressed organisms grow slower and smaller, stressed predators will be less effective, and stressed prey may be less able to avoid capture – and ultimately this stress will decrease survival, causing population size to suffer. For adults, stress caused by ocean acidification may not affect everyday activities, but it will ultimately reduce organisms' growth and reproduction rates. Decreased reproduction can also alter the entire population's size. Impacts at any life stage can reduce the potential for a population to grow or to recover from losses due to disturbance or stress.
Jim Barry, Senior Scientist. Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, USA; Helen Findlay, Lord Kingsland Fellow, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK
Just as in seawater, respiratory CO2 reduces the pH within cells. Organisms have evolved mechanisms to buffer, transport, and remove CO2 from their cells at the rate at which it is produced. Ocean acidification reduces the CO2 difference between the inside and outside an animal's body, thereby hindering CO2 removal and causing "respiratory acidosis." (This term is analogous to "ocean acidification" because normal bodily fluids are slightly basic.) Respiratory acidosis may lead to, among other things, reduced metabolism and reduced organism activity. Additionally, many cellular functions are pH sensitive and may respond negatively to respiratory acidosis. For example, respiratory proteins (e.g. hemoglobin) in the blood bind oxygen at high pH and release it at low pH, allowing oxygen uptake at the gills and release at the cells, where metabolically produced CO2 has decreased local pH. Many organisms can compensate for respiratory acidosis by shifting the balance of ions in the body. However, it is unknown whether they can maintain such an ionic imbalance in the long term.
Brad Seibel, Assistant Professor of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, USA
The danger from ocean acidification is related to the current rate of change, the concentration of atmospheric CO2 expected, and the magnitude of change of atmospheric CO2 forecast if we keep emitting CO2 at the same rate. The present rise in atmospheric CO2 is ~2 ppm per year, and atmospheric CO2 has increased more than 100 ppm since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. In the transition between the end of the last ice age to the current warm period, CO2 concentrations increased 80 ppm occurred over more than 10,000 years. Today's rates of CO2 increase in the atmosphere are therefore approximately 100 times greater than most changes sustained over geologic time. Other than at times of the great mass extinctions, there is no evidence in the geologic record for sustained rates of change in atmospheric CO2 that have been as great or greater than today's. Even during extreme ocean chemistry changes in geological history—- for example, during the Paleocene/Eocene thermal maximum 55 million years ago (Ma) when carbonate minerals dissolved in most of the deep and intermediate ocean—-these changes probably happened over several thousands of years. Corals have indeed survived multiple extinction events in Earth history, but each time their "rebound" took millions of years, and their ability to form reefs took even longer. The earliest corals arose during the Ordovician more than 400 million years ago. Known as Tabulate and Rugose corals, these were very different from the corals living today (modern corals belong to the Scleractinia and likely evolved independently from these earlier forms), and the Ordovician reef systems were dominated by sponges rather than corals. These groups went extinct during the Permo-Triassic extinction event 251 million years ago, and different coral lines eventually evolved and flourished again, along with reef-building bivalves that built tremendous reefs during through the Cretaceous period, most of which went extinct (along with the dinosaurs) in the Cretaceous extinction event 65 Ma ago. While coral reefs disappeared at this time, about half of all coral species did survive, but it took millions of years before reefs recovered to become widespread once again. In general, ocean life recovers from extinction episodes by adaptation and evolution of new species, but this takes roughly 10 million years to achieve pre-extinction levels of biodiversity.
Jim Barry, Senior Scientist, Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, USA; Daniela Schmidt, Senior Research Fellow, University of Bristol, UK; Ken Caldeira, Senior Scientist, Carnegie Institution for Science, USA
Present conditions differ from the past largely because the rate of change of atmospheric CO2 does not match the rate of mitigating geological processes. If CO2 is added slowly over hundreds of thousands of years, as it was during the Ordovician by volcanic and plate tectonic activity, the CO2 that enters the ocean has time to mix throughout the ocean from top to bottom. As a result, even though the amount of CO2 that is taken up by the ocean is large, it is spread out over a very great volume of water and the resulting decrease in pH is small. At the same time, as the CO2 level in deep oceans increases over millennia, carbonate sediments lying on the seafloor begin to dissolve and release carbonate ions that neutralize some of the acidity, further minimizing the decrease in pH. Past oceans also contained higher calcium and magnesium ion concentrations, which helped stabilize calcium carbonate minerals in marine animals' skeletons. Today, the CO2 in the atmosphere is increasing much faster than the ocean mixes. During CO2 releases like this over "short" (<10,000 year) timescales, the ability of sediments to regulate ocean chemistry is overwhelmed and both pH and saturation state decline. Even though the amount of CO2 that has entered the ocean in the last 200 years is smaller than that added during the Ordovician, the CO2 has built up to a much higher concentration in the surface ocean. As a result, upper ocean pH has decreased more rapidly and by a greater amount than in the geological past. Both the rate of change of pH and the magnitude of the change present problems for organisms that evolved in an ocean that experienced smaller, slower pH changes in the past.
Chris Langdon, Associate Professor, University of Miami, USA; Andy Ridgwell, Royal Society University Research Fellow, Bristol University, UK; Richard Zeebe, Associate Professor, University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA; Daniela Schmidt, Senior Research Fellow, University of Bristol, UK
When seawater is manipulated through addition of mineral acid, and this is accompanied by the addition of equal (equimolar) amounts of sodium bicarbonate, this approach perfectly simulates the changes in seawater carbonate chemistry induced by CO2 uptake. Even when ocean acidification is simulated by manipulating seawater with mineral acids without adding bicarbonate (or carbonate), it is almost indistinguishable in terms of pH, pCO2, carbonate ion concentration, and saturation state from seawater manipulated through CO2 aeration. The different treatments do result in slightly higher bicarbonate concentrations in CO2-aerated manipulations. However, bicarbonate increases in both approaches. In fact, no systematic difference is found in the responses of calcifying organisms exposed to seawater acidified by mineral acid or through CO2 aeration.
Ulf Riebesell, Professor of Biological Oceanography, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Germany
There is no argument that seawater chemistry is changing due to rising atmospheric CO2, and that human combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation are the root cause. There is less certainty about the possible biological impacts of ocean acidification, but this primarily reflects the fact that different groups of marine organisms express a wide range of sensitivity to changing seawater chemistry. There is broad agreement among the scientific community that ocean acidification is occurring and that it likely will have significant effects, some positive and some negative, on a large number of marine organisms.
Scott Doney, Senior Scientist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA
There is no disagreement in the chemical data, which show that ocean acidification is happening. However, biological data show varied responses among organisms to OA. It can sometimes seem odd that experiments conducted on the same species can produce apparently contrasting results. However, it is clear that the response of marine organisms to elevated levels of CO2 is influenced not only by the organism's identity but also by the environmental conditions it has experienced during its life. Consequently, members of the same species collected from different areas, populations, or strains can exhibit different responses. This evidence should not be considered as conflicting, but rather an insight into the natural variability that exists among populations. Only by measuring and understanding this variability will we be better able to predict which species, communities, and ecosystems are at greatest risk from ocean acidification.
Steve Widdicombe, Benthic Ecologist, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK
In ocean acidification response experiments, animals are usually not placed immediately in CO2-enriched waters, but instead they are kept in water that is then equilibrated with carefully controlled gas mixtures. Although it is impossible to perform experiments that simulate the rate of anthropogenic CO2 accumulation in the atmosphere and the oceans, the CO2 levels used are far below those that have been shown to cause shock. Nonetheless, these CO2 levels may disturb physiological processes (acid-base regulation, development of larvae, growth) in ways that appear relatively mild on short time scales. Therefore, long-term exposures are usually needed to find out whether these levels are detrimental and cause fatalities. On long time scales, even small decreases in individual animals' health may harm a species, for example, in cases where species compete with others in ecosystems or when they are exposed to another stressor like extreme temperature.
Hans-Otto Pörtner, Professor, Alfred Wegener Institute, Germany
The calcification process does take up carbon, but it causes shifts in the carbon system in seawater that result in a lower pH and an increase in CO2 rather than its removal. Many organisms convert bicarbonate to the carbonate they use to build their shells, and this produces hydrogen ions, thus increasing acidification. Most coral reefs, for example, on the time scales we are interested in, are small sources of CO2 to the atmosphere rather than sinks. From an ecosystems point of view, even well-intended aquaculture could cause unintentional harm by altering coastal landscapes, increasing pollution and disease, or releasing genetically altered or foreign species into the environment. Any activity aimed at reducing ocean acidification should be considered in a wider context to avoid replacing one environmental impact with another.
Anne Cohen, Research Specialist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA; Steve Widdicombe, Benthic Ecologist, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK
Most proposed geoengineering approaches to limit climate change attempt to provide symptomatic relief from climate change without addressing the root cause of the problem — excess carbon dioxide in the environment. Most geoengineering proposals address the climate consequences of our carbon dioxide emissions but do not address the chemical consequences of these emissions. For example, strategies that seek to cool the Earth by reflecting additional sunlight to space would have little direct effect on ocean chemistry and therefore would not significantly diminish ocean acidification. Some proposals have sought to diminish changes in ocean chemistry by adding compounds to the ocean that would chemically neutralize acids. However, reversing ocean acidification this way would require adding an amount of material much larger than the amount of carbon dioxide we are emitting to the atmosphere. Therefore, these proposed solutions would require a new mining and chemical processing infrastructure as large as our current energy system. It seems reasonable to suggest that this level of effort and spending would be better applied to transforming our energy system away from dependence on a finite pool of fossil fuel resources to use of renewable, infinite resources— which would also prevent carbon dioxide from entering the environment in the first place instead of requiring us to consider neutralizing its effects after it is already spreading through the atmosphere and oceans.
Ken Caldeira, Senior Scientist, Carnegie Institution for Science, USA
Atmospheric CO2 is already at 390 ppm and is increasing at about 2 ppm per year. Without dramatic reductions in CO2 emissions, atmospheric CO2 will continue to rise, and most emission forecasts for the near future indicate a likely increase (rather than decrease) in atmospheric CO2 growth rate. The first step in addressing ocean acidification, therefore, is to stabilize and eventually reduce CO2 emissions. Atmospheric CO2 almost certainly will peak well above 400 ppm, because we will not stop increasing emissions in the next 5 years. The impacts on marine life at the peak CO2 level may be substantial. In the long run, it may be possible to reduce atmospheric CO2 through natural and artificial uptake mechanisms. The chemistry of seawater is reversible, and returning to 350-400 ppm would return pH and carbonate saturation levels to approximately their current conditions. However, some research has suggested that even current-day conditions may be deleterious for some organisms, and it is even less clear if future biological impacts due to peak CO2 will be reversible. Even if we stabilized CO2 emissions, atmospheric fossil fuel CO2 will continue to penetrate into the deep ocean for the next several centuries, which may impact deep water organisms such as cold-water corals.
Scott Doney, Senior Scientist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA
Ocean acidification and climate change are two sides of the same coin. Both are direct consequences of anthropogenic CO2 emissions and cannot be separated from each other. The present uptake of about one quarter of anthropogenic CO2 emissions by the ocean indeed serves as a buffer against rising atmospheric CO2, and so this "service" could be considered to diminish, but not prevent, climate change. In the long term, on time scales of tens of thousands of years, the majority of anthropogenic CO2 emissions (80-90%) will end up in the ocean. This, however, will not protect the climate system from global warming during the intervening period. It is also important to point out that the impacts of CO2 uptake by the oceans will have profound effects on the functioning of Earth's ecosystems. The oceans provide vital roles in biogeochemical cycles - not only in the regulation of CO2, but in the production of oxygen, the cycling of nitrogen and other important nutrients, as well as the production of gases that affect such things as cloud formation. Many species use both land and ocean habitats, and many humans rely on healthy oceans for their livelihoods. The oceans are an integral, interconnected part of the Earth system, and cannot be realistically considered as a separate entity.
Ulf Riebesell, Professor, GEOMAR Helnholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Germany; Joan Kleypas, Scientist III, National Center for Atmospheric Research, USA
It is within our technical and economic means to modify our energy and transportation systems and land-use practices to largely eliminate carbon dioxide emissions from our economies by mid-century. It is thought that the cost of doing this — perhaps 2% of the worldwide economic production — would be small, yet at present it has proven difficult for societies to decide to undertake this conversion.
Ken Caldeira, Senior Scientist, Carnegie Institution for Science, USA
Compared to our terrestrial environments, the oceans and their ecosystems are poorly understood. With recent technological advances, our knowledge is rapidly growing; however, we still have much to learn. If policymakers are to make informed decisions regarding climate change and ocean acidification, scientists need to give them the best information possible. That requires research. Everyone must recognize that obtaining and distributing that knowledge takes a great deal of effort, and maintaining clear, open communication among researchers, leaders, and citizens is critical. Scientists have answered the question "Is ocean acidification real?" — yes. We are now confronted with the questions, "How bad will it be?" and, "What can be done?" Most scientists agree that reducing greenhouse gas emissions is the best answer to the latter. The remaining question is the most difficult yet most important question to answer, because we are keenly aware that CO2 levels will continue to rise in the foreseeable future. Many scientists are now focused on what CO2 concentration is considered "dangerous" to the planet and to society. Addressing "What can be done?" has shifted from what can be done about the cause of the problem, CO2, to what can be done about its consequences. Essentially, we seek to answer the question, "What will future marine ecosystems look like, and what ecosystem services will they provide to the planet and humankind?" This is a huge challenge. As evidenced by many of these questions, ocean acidification is a simple problem with complex consequences.
Joan Kleypas, Scientist III, National Center for Atmospheric Research, USA; Carol Turley, Senior Scientist, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK; Robert Key, Research Oceanographer, Princeton University, USA
Although scientists have known for decades that ocean acidification would occur as CO2 increased in the atmosphere, the consequences to marine life were not realized until about 10 years ago. At that time, biologists discovered that ocean acidification affected the ability of many marine organisms to form their shells or skeletons. Since then, many more effects of ocean acidification have been found to influence a wide array of organisms and marine processes. Because the scientific process relies on formal research protocols, peer-review, and publishing, it takes some time for a new finding to be verified and accepted by the scientific community. However, sufficient evidence about ocean acidification existed by 2007 that the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on Climate Change (2007) stated in the Summary for Policy Makers, "The progressive acidification of the oceans due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide is expected to have negative impacts on marine shell-forming organisms (e.g. corals) and their dependent species." Ocean acidification and its effects have now been documented to the point that they are widely accepted by the scientific community and it will be seriously addressed by the Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC. In fact, ocean acidification was a major topic of discussion at side events such as Oceans Day at the December 2009 COP15 climate change negotiations in Copenhagen even though specific considerations about oceans had little or no mention in the text of the proposed agreement.
Joan Kleypas, Scientist III, National Center for Atmospheric Research, USA; Carol Turley, Senior Scientist, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK


text: on locators and fault finders-I have tired of renting the old ones at the supply store and am considering buying one. what is the best? I have seen ones on ebay that promise to find depth of wires, measure/locate faults from either end of the wire to the inch, etc. which ones, namebrands and the like have you guys used and like? Dave g

subset: commoncrawl


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I am going to be in Dallas for 5 days & on Friday, of my trip, I would like to take a drive up to Oklahoma, just to say I have been to Oklahoma. I'll probably drive up to the WinStar Casinos. I would like to have dinner somewhere along the way, off of I-35. I really am looking for delicous home cooking. I just love the local mom & pop, hole in the wall restaurants. I am pretty much open to anything.
Any suggestions for some great Texas Cookin' would be greatly appreciated!


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NADA the Association for Arabic Dance offers you the opportunity to be part of an exciting network by becoming a NADA member today!
NADA aims to:
- Provide a regular, high quality, magazine for its members including information on events, classes and topics of interest for beginners to advanced level dancers on both Belly Dance and other relevant styles including Tribal Belly Dance and other styles of Middle Eastern/Arabic Dance
- Set up special teaching and performance events with national and international teachers and performers for dancers and the wider community
- Provide opportunities to meet and dance together
- Support events held by NADA members
- Promote links with existing national and international Middle Eastern dance associations
- Promote and share the joy of Middle Eastern dance specifically in the North of England and Scotland but also through the UK
- Liaise with existing teacher training facilities nationally and to support the training of teachers
Our members receive 3 magazines a year, discounts on NADA events and reduced rates for advertising in our magazine.
Explore our website to find out more!


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OC's Best Chocolate Maker to Give Truffle-Making Course This Sunday
Courtney Dudman Donley of C Salt Gourmet fame (OC Weekly's Best Chocolate 2008!) will be doing what the headline says this coming Sunday at 2 p.m. at @space Gallery in SanTana. Wish I could tell ustedes it's for free, but $20 to create yum-yums just in time for Valentine's Day is quite the bargain in these times. Added bonus: during the same event, a great OC vegan baker by the name of Luscious Organic Desserts will lecture on and offer free samples of her, well, luscious organic desserts. I've tasted their cupcakes: vegan, many flavors, so so good...For more info, call (714) 836-8727. And now, Homer Simpson in the Land of Chocolate!
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Matthew Morrison has revealed that he's looking forward to having children.
The Glee star, who became engaged to his fiancée Renee Puente earlier this year, said that they aren't ready to start a family yet.
He told OK! magazine: "The thing we're looking forward to is having kids one day - that's the big thing that will change our relationship.
"We want to have a little more time to ourselves first, so we're not quite exactly sure when [we'll have kids]."
Morrison added that he hopes getting married to Puente won't change how they are as a couple.
He said: "I don't think it will change us - I hope it doesn't because I love how we're just the best and have so much fun together!"
The couple, who have been dating for two years, don't plan to walk down the aisle until 2014.
Morrison explained: "We're planning it together but it won't be until early 2015 because my schedule is so busy."
Matthew Morrison and his fiancée Renee Puente


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University as the knowledge base for new solutions
Universities all over the globe create new knowledge, transmit old one, and inspire people to think about things that don't yet exist. This activity brightens the educator, the researcher, the student, who see the world differently, observe the moments of the everyday life differently and as a result discover new problems. These new problems can serve as a base for new solutions that materialize in new products or services.
Different people see new problems, create new solutions
The process, result, specificity of the opportunity-seeking and recognition behavior, which results in inventions and innovations, differs between regions. These differences, if they are integrated and developed by, and transformed through a unified processes can create newer, better and more complex solutions to problems that might be similar in different regions of the world.
The interaction of different cultures expands the horizon for opportunities
If the young entrepreneurs within universities from around the world come together and share their ideas for solving problems the opportunity horizon expands, new products and services emerge, regions converge toward each other, and knowledge diffusion accelerates. The speed of validation, fund raising enhances connecting the demand and supply to each other more efficiently.
Network of multidisciplinary ideation and business model generation program (NetMIB)
NetMIB on the one hand is to establish a common methodology to stimulate multidisciplinary ideas, turn those ideas into solutions to problems in the socio-economic environment. Beside the process of multidisciplinary idea generation within universities the NetMIB establishes a common platform where the participating institutions and the students of these institutions can interact with each other to validate their products and services and also to build coalitions, joint intercultural, interdisciplinary teams.
Want to join?
If you are interested in joining our community in either in the development phase of the common curriculum or in the phase of execution, please send us an email.
You can contact us via our national representative: see the Project Partners page.


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CableTV.com Recommends TV Service from DIRECTV
When choosing
a TV service, it's important to understand the difference between the many cable companies and other television services available in your area. With data from independent consumer
surveys, we are able to rank providers, and have found DIRECTV to be the
best TV service provider among satellite TV or cable companies in Pleasant Hope, MO.
With the extra channels offered in premier TV packages, you'll never have to miss a Kansas City Chiefs or game or any of your favorite TV shows. While it's easy to find packages that include most of the major networks, TV packages in Pleasant Hope can differ from similar packages in other cities when it comes to availability of smaller channels. Our research allows you to compare the channels and features offered by the highest rated providers available in Pleasant Hope. You'll find the selection of channels and features you're looking for at a price that fits your budget so you can choose the best cable company in Pleasant Hope, MO for your household.
Choosing the right TV provider is partly about getting the channels you love, but customer service and reliability are important points to consider, too. That's why these factors are taken into consideration when CableTV.com rates TV providers. By following our recommendations for the best cable company in Pleasant Hope, MO, you can easily find a superior TV package that meets your demands and comes with excellent customer service.


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On Monday, we showed you the video that asked the players who the best prankster on the team was. Today, we bring you one of the best pranks of 2008 - in photo essay form. Though numerous players play pranks on their teammates throughout the course of a season, this year, a particular prank war developed between Marc Burch and Santino Quaranta. Why? We're not sure. By all accounts they like each other - maybe it's just their way of expressing their mutual admiration. Who can tell?
After back-and-forth pranks throughout the year, the photos after the jump show what was done to Mr. Quaranta's car during one of the final weeks of the season.
They very early stages of wrapping Santino's car in 1,000 feet of saran wrap.
The heavy duty wrapping begins...
They made sure to pay particular attention to the rear view mirrors.
Almost done...
And, though Ben Olsen was not involved in the actual wrapping of the car, he put the finishing touch on the prank by including a thank you note from Ben and his wife.
More photos on the Video & Pics page.


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Zen Mobile Cinemax Force Specs and Price in India
Zen Mobile has recently launched its latest ultra low budget 3G smartphone – Zen Cinemax Force. It is a budget oriented device decent specs at a dirt cheap price. The specs of Cinemax Force are not up to the mark of the current smart phones but comparing the price you can not ask for more. At the launch event Sanjay Kalirona, CEO of Zen Mobile, said, "We will continue to focus on strengthening our Cinemax portfolio by offering devices that are loaded with powerful and smart features at a competitive price point."
Zen Mobile Cinemax Force Specs
Zen Mobile Cinemax Force is very low budget device so don't expect AMOLED, beasty performance and mammoth battery. Cinemax Force features 5.5 inches (854 x 480 pixels) FWVGA display. Regarding the chipset it has an unknown 1.3 GHz Quad-Core processor coupled with 1 GB of RAM and 8 GB of internal storage which can be expandable upto 32 GB via micro sd card. Cinemax Force will run Android 6.0 Marshmallow out of the box. It also boasts 5MP rear camera with LED flash and a 2 MP front facing camera. To keep everything in power it also has a good 2900 mAh battery.
Zen Mobile Cinemax Force Features
Cinemax Force is a dual sim device not 4G although, so no Jio sim, it is 3G capable. Its display is protected by not Gorilla Glass but rather cheaper Asahi Dragontrail Glass. It has micro USB port for data syncing and charging. Cinemax Force comes pre-loaded with NexGenTV – Live TV Streaming application Saavn, Ultrazone – WAP Store, Cool Gallery, Xender and smart wake up.
Read Also : Intex Aqua Strong 5.2 Full Specs and Price in India
Zen Mobile has also announced one time free screen breakage replacement offer for its mobile phones for the first 6 months of purchase. There is also an SOS feature on Cinemax Force which allows the person to send his/her location to five pre-selected numbers of choice at a time of an emergency.
Zen Mobile Cinemax Force Price
As already mentioned above that Zen Mobile Cinemax Force is an ultra affordable device and comes with a price tag of Rs. 4290, that is not too much if you consider the offers and features this device offers. It comes in a basic set of colours – Black and Golden.
What do you think about the Zen Mobile Cinemax Force? Share your views in the comments below.
Picture source : fonearena
We hope you like our article. Please share this article on social Media Platforms like Facebook, Google Plus, Twitter, Whatsapp etc.


text: December 25, 2013 • 2 Someday Devotion - Day 25 [sc_embed_player fileurl="http://sandipatty.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Someday-Day-25_mixdown.mp3"] Listen to DAY 25 MP3 At this moment, I am writing the final entry into this devotional in my legal pad. As I have used several pages of this pad, I realized as I flipped the last page over, that some little munchkin, named Sam, has been doodling on these pages. It makes me smile. It immediately makes me think of him and in a split second relive a few moments of his life… and I treasure them. Our oldest daughter, Anna, five months ago gave birth to her first-born son. That's a big deal to a mom. She's nursed him… changed him… and rocked him… and she too treasures these things in her heart. Mary was loyal and faithful to her son, even to the cross. She was one of the last ones to stand by his side. And some of Jesus' last spoken thoughts were to his mother. He wanted to make sure she would be cared for after he was physically gone. Can you imagine all of the emotion of a lifetime she must have felt? She was His mother to the very end… or was it to the very beginning? My prayer and hope for you is that you have been challenged and encouraged as you have journeyed through this Christmas story. Perhaps you see yourself in one of the characters in the story. Perhaps you have journeyed far in your life like the wise men, or you have diligently gone about your dailyness, just like the shepherds. Perhaps you have related to Mary or to Joseph as you face the impossibleness of your life's circumstances. Be not afraid. God is finding favor with you. He calls us to come to the manger and meet the Christ Child - The Son of God. He calls us to fall down and worship Him. He calls us with the signs and wonders of His creation. He calls us to offer ourselves as gifts. He calls us to let Christ be born anew and fresh in our hearts today. He calls you because He loves you. Treasure these things in your heart. Merry Christmas… Sandi Based on Devotional by Sandi Patty Someday: A Book of Days Copyright © 2000 by Sandi Patty All Rights Reserved Go to Someday Devotion - Day 1 Go to Someday Devotion - Day 24 Share Tags News


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We are committed to helping our customers find and understand all that technology has to offer to better their lives.
We invite you to browse our website, learn about us, and become part of the Precision Audio family.


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Rail Stocks: Insert 'Derailment' Metaphor Here
Rail stocks are, sigh, running off the rails today. Yes I did just use that lame metaphor.
Norfolk Southern, down 6.8%, CSX, off 6.3% and Union Pacific, down 3.3%, are among the worst performers in the S&P 500 today.
They're likely feeling the pain of coal producers, which today lowered forecasts for coal shipments this year. Coal is big business for these freight rail carriers, and they're taking the hit.
Walter Energy is down 9%, Alpha Natural Resources is down 6.5% and Peabody Energy is down 3.3%.
This is yet another blow to former master of the universe John Paulson, who invested heavily in Alpha Natural shares right near their top this Spring.
And all of this speaks volumes, and not good volumes, about the strength of the broader economy. It helps explain why the Dow transports are down 2.2% today, which is also not a great sign for the broader market and suggests the Dow's meager 13-point gain is tenuous at best.


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Yoda has no problem being comfortable no matter where he goes. He feels at home walking through the halls of the Jedi Temple, or wandering the mucky swamps of Dagobah. We've found something that concentrates that immense Jedi Master power into something for your feet! These Star Wars slippers have been recreated in his image to harness the power of the Force (and soft cushy padding) to give your feet the kind of warm and toasty feel fit for any master level Jedi.
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NEW YORK (May. 27)
American Jewry must be prepared to carry out its responsibility of assisting Israel for at least a decade, Rep. Jacob K. Javits declared here at the 16th annual convention of the Yeshiva University Synagogue Council. The council is composed of representatives of 800 synagogues throughout the US.
Rep. Javits outlined the four principal tasks for American Jewry in regard to Israel. They are, he said: responsibility in aiding Israel with the problems of resettlement, development and the earliest possible achievement of economic viability; aid in dealing with the influx of refugees from North Africa and Eastern Europe help in bringing about permanent resettlement of Palestine Arab refugees; and, support of Israel's economic resources in such a way as to make it the basis for future regional economic cooperation in the Near East.


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[CD Review] Various Artists, 'Life Beyond MarsBowie Covered' (Rapster/!K7)
David Bowie undoubtedly has been through some ch-ch-ch-ch-changes. From Ziggy Stardust to Aladdin Sane, from the Thin White Duke to an oddly mottled chameleon colored by post-industrial dissonance, Bowie and his personas have inspired many and outlasted far more. Now Rapster Records/!K7 strives to find out if Bowie's songs can weather their own changes, brought on by 13 diverse artists, including Au Revoir Simone, Heartbreak, Kelley Polar, Matthew Dear, Susumu Yokota, the Emperor Machine, Joakim & the Disco, and others.
Avoiding the glam-slathered Spiders From Mars period, this CD pulls from 1971's Hunky Dory, 1975's Young Americans, the Brian Eno-assisted late-'70s Berlin trilogy (Low, "Heroes," Lodger), 1984's Tonight, the 1986 soundtrack to Labyrinth, and even 2003's Reality. But for all the sound and vision in their original material, the majority of the interpreters on this collection play it too sincere when given leave to redirect the focus.
Having previously released 2006's Exit Music—Songs With Radio Heads, Rapster knows that a varied roster can bring out some surprisingly soulful facets. Even Bowie fans know what the right interpretation can achieve. Case in point: the unaccompanied poignancy of Seu Jorge's Portuguese covers for Wes Anderson's The Life Aquatic With Steve Zissou. But with these Bowie covers on Life Beyond Mars, everyone seems so determined to do the material justice that they do its free spirit little service, save for the polar opposites of Kelley Polar's bizarro Italo-disco take on "Magic Dance" and Richard Walters & Faultline's muted electroacoustic version of "Be My Wife," while certain other tracks prove more can potentially mean less.
Leo Minor goes liquid funk with "Ashes to Ashes," Zoos of Berlin presented by Carl Craig eye krautrock's metronome on "Looking for Water," and Matthew Dear transposes "Sound & Vision" to downcast and detuning synths. It all offsets, but never really sets off, the material. File this one under "Space Oddity"; there's only so much life on Mars.
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The funniest and most painful clips from the second week of May, all in one video.
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To be fair it's her second language. People from North Wales really struggle to speak English.
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Ever seen a boat execute a perfect front flip.
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A Chinese soldier totally messes up this grenade toss and nearly blows himself up.
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Portuguese Navy's drone fail during presentation.
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"For my next trick, I will disappoint you."
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The first step is to NOT BREAK THE STRIPPER POLE.
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Don't you just hate it when you think you got the job done but end up right back at square one? This truck lift attempt is a great example of that.
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Easy going style makes a perfect necklace to relax in after a hard race.
Pam Lazzarotto Designs
Adorn Collar Necklace - Gold
Rewrite the rules on how you wear pearls - one necklace, three different looks.
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Browse The NAHA Bookstore
Create Simple and Effective Bases for your Aromatic Blends
By: Kayla Fioravanti, RA
Category: NAHA Teleseminars & Webinars
In 1999 when Kayla Fioravanti first became a certified aromatherapist she searched the world for safe products to put her essential oils into. Her company Essential Wholesale was born out of a desire to formulate safe cosmetic bases to act as carriers for essential oils.
In this tele-conference Kayla Fioravanti will share some simple basic recipes to help you get on the road to developing products to use in your aromatherapy practice from ointments, salves, balms, to soaps, sprays, scrubs and more. All recipes and blends will be designed to be manufactured in the home or small office setting and not formulas with complex water preservative systems.
Kayla Fioravanti is the Vice President, Chief Formulator, ARC Registered and Certified Aromatherapist for Essential Wholesale and its lab division Essential Labs. Wife and mother of three, Kayla runs her company along with her husband Dennis. In 1998, Kayla started creating products in her kitchen using essential oils. Essential Wholesale grew out of a $50 investment in raw supplies. Dennis and Kayla turned the profit from their first batch of product into more supplies and then repeated that process over and over again. The initial $50 investment from their home kitchen, combined with blood, sweat and tears has now become a multi-million dollar company housed in a 30,000 square foot certified organic facility. Today, Kayla is the go-to-specialist for formulating and supplying information on natural, organic and pure cosmetics and personal care items. She formulates thousands of products including: mineral make up, skin care, body care and products for bath, body, spa, hair, baby and so much more. Through her lab division Essential Labs, Kayla formulates private label products for customers big and small from around the world. Kayla recently earned a spot as a finalist for "Innovation of the Year" by the International Cosmetic Manufactures and Distributors Association. Essential Wholesale, a leader in the industry, was recognized by the INC 5000 as one of the fastest growing companies in America for three years in a row; it also supplies raw ingredients, bulk personal care products, mineral make up, and aromatherapy supplies at wholesale prices. Kayla's articles can be found in Dermascope Magazine, Les Nouvelles Esthetique, New York Metro Parent, Saponifier, National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy, Handmade Beauty Business Magazine, HK Magazine Online, Indie Magazine and Total Mom. Kayla's quotes are featured in the 2009 and 2010 The Woman's Advantage Calendar. Kayla has been a guest on, Millionaire Moms Radio, Organic Beauty Radio, Indie Radio, KPDQ Northwest Showcase, Good Day Oregon, 104.1 The Fish and Podcast From the Heart. Kayla was recently included in a brand new book called, Millionaire Mom, The Art of Raising a Business and a Family at the Same Time by Joyce Bone. She has been a speaker for Handmade Beauty Network and Handcrafted Soap Makers Guild Conference. She also writes Essential U News for Essential Wholesale and for the Essential U blog that launched in 2007. Kayla is the driving force behind the Essential U online University, an educational center for aromatherapy, cosmetics, industry standards and business ownership. What matters most to Kayla Fioravanti is teaching others about the wonders of natural and holistic living.
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text: Prep football schedule September 30, 2013 Story Share Week 6 statewide schedule All games 7:30 p.m. unless notedThursday's gameTygarts Valley at Gilmer CountyFriday's gamesBridgeport (Ohio) at Madonna, 7 p.m.Buffalo at Tyler Consolidated, 7 p.m.Calhoun County at South HarrisonCapital at HuntingtonCorning Miller (Ohio) at HannanDubois (Pa.) at MorgantownEast Fairmont at North MarionEast Hardy at Pendleton CountyEast Liverpool (Ohio) at Wheeling Park, 7 p.m. East Ridge (Ky.) at Tug ValleyFairmont Senior at BridgeportGeorge Washington at PrincetonGrafton at LincolnGreenbrier West at PikeViewHerbert Hoover at Poca James Monroe at ChapmanvilleJohn Marshall at Musselman, 7 p.m.Keyser at Hampshire, 7 p.m.Kiski (Pa.) at Wheeling Central, 7 p.m.Lewis County at Buckhannon-UpshurLiberty Harrison at Braxton CountyMan at FayettevilleMeadow Bridge at Valley FayetteMonroe Central (Ohio) at MagnoliaMontcalm at Northwood (Va.)Moorefield at Berkeley Springs Mountain Ridge (Md.) at Frankfort, 7 p.m.Oak Hill at Shady SpringPaden City at CameronParkersburg at South CharlestonPetersburg at Philip BarbourPocahontas County at Bath County (Va.)Point Pleasant at BrookePreston at Hedgesville, 7 p.m.Richlands (Va.) at BluefieldRipley at NitroRitchie County at RavenswoodRobert C. Byrd at Nicholas CountySherman at IndependenceSt. Albans at RiversideSummers County at Covington (Va.), 7 p.m.Tucker County at Southern Garrett (Md.), 7 p.m.University at Greenbrier East, 7 p.m.Valley Wetzel at Clay-BattelleVan at RichwoodWahama at Racine Southern (Ohio)Washington at Martinsburg, 7 p.m.Wayne at Mingo CentralWebster County at Liberty RaleighWeir at Oak Glen, 7 p.m.Westside at ScottWilliamstown at St. MarysWinfield at Spring ValleyWoodrow Wilson at Cabell MidlandWyoming East at River ViewSaturday, Oct. 5Doddridge County at Parkersburg Catholic, 1:30 p.m.Notre Dame at Danville (Ohio), 7 p.m. Story Share Story Share Trending Now 1 Facebook founder visits Cabin Creek Health Systems 2 Teen pleads guilty to voluntary manslaughter in Oakes Field shooting 3 'Report for America' pilot project begins in Appalachia 4 Rhode Island bank claims Justice companies owe $4.2M on helicopter loan 5 Congressional opioid investigation targets drug wholesaler Miami-Luken Prep golf regional results Previous Story Head east: UTSA drops in on Herd Next Story


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After launching its SUV Duster, auto major Renault is planning to unveil its sedan before Diwali, a top company official said on Thursday.
Interacting with reporters at the launch of SUV Duster in Mamallapuram, Renault India's Managing Director Marc Nassif said the last of the five products the company promised earlier would be launched "certainly before Diwali."
However, he declined to elaborate. The French automobile major has already attained a localisation up to 60 per cent, Nassif said, adding that it would soon be 80 per cent on its products.
The company was also investing heavily on the machines, he said. As on July 5, Duster had over 4,000 bookings from across the country, he claimed.
Underlining the prediction that India would become the third largest automobile market by 2020, he said there was enough room for competition and the best product would surpass others.
Renault would open its 100th outlet in the country by 2013 end, with the company already opening 55th outlet by June end this year, he claimed.
Renault has launched Fluence, Koleos, Pulse and now Duster for Indian market.
Renault's Chennai facility would export to the UK by the end of this year, he said, adding, he would look upon South Africa and other countries later.
Asked about the company's investment in the Chennai facility, he said it was planned to invest Rs 4,500 crore by February 2015.


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Are you currently using an electric attic fan or some sort of electric ventilation system at home? Then have you ever thought of installing a solar attic fan? When most people think of solar products, they immediately think "expensive!", but when we investigated getting a solar attic fan…
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Solar Attic Fan: 5 Clear Benefits To Get One NOW
January 23, 2010 – 8:08 am
By Tim and Trudy | Posted in Solar Power, Technology | Also tagged benefits of a solar attic fan, passive solar products, solar attic fan | Comments (4)


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For 2009, Ford has broadened the Ford Edge lineup with an all-new Sport model. Little else has changed in terms of interior or exterior styling for the 2009 Ford Edge, and reviews read by TheCarConnection.com are quite satisfied with the Edge's styling—at least from the outside.
Ford was not the first to arrive on the crossover scene, but over the last couple years, the company certainly seems to have figured out how to produce an attractive CUV. The latest Ford Edge comes in "SE, SEL, and Limited trims," which are "joined by the Sport model for 2009," according to ConsumerGuide. Car and Driver claims that "the styling is terrific" on this latest Ford Edge, and while Cars.com describes it as "a bulky wagon," they don't necessarily mean that in a bad way, since they go on to contend that the Ford 2009 Edge is "a good-looking...capable crossover." The newcomer to the 2009 Ford Edge lineup is the Ford Edge Sport, which offers significant visual enhancements over the base models. Road & Track says the Ford Edge Sport "gains an eight-piece body kit and standard 20-inch wheels (with optional 22s)." Automotive.com adds that the 2009 Ford Edge Sport "marks the first time a 22-inch wheel-and-tire combination has been offered on any crossover." The other major change, according to Cars.com, is the inclusion of "smoked taillights and headlamps."
The 2009 Ford Edge's interior styling is not quite as radical or well received as the exterior, but it also doesn't have any glaring deficiencies. ConsumerGuide gives the interior high marks for its utility, reporting that "the climate controls are handy and simple to use," while "the gauges and available navigation screen are easy to read for the most part." Road & Track notes the interior seats feature "a pleasing fuzzy cloth insert done in a small checkered pattern" that, when "combined with the acid-dipped aluminum center console," helps the Ford Edge Sport achieve the "somewhat old-school character of a sports car." The gripes about the interior are pretty well summarized by Kelley Blue Book reviewers, who feel that the "more familiar interior styling doesn't quite live up to the expectations set by its cutting-edge sheetmetal, but it's nonetheless attractive."


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How Major Studios Missed a Hit
By GERALDINE FABRIKANT
Published: March 6, 1990
When Lili and Richard Zanuck and their partner tried to sell the major Hollywood studios on investing in a movie about an elderly Jewish widow and her black chauffeur, the response was an enthusiastic no. The script was brilliant, they were told, but in terms of appeal to a wide audience, it wasn't exactly ''Batman.''
Desperate, the partners finally persuaded Warner Brothers to back the film, ''Driving Miss Daisy,'' by agreeing to slash its production budget by almost half. Now, two years later, the movie, which cost $7.5 million to make, has become the unexpected hit of the season, taking in $60.6 million in its first 82 days. Warner, which is distributing the film in North America and Britain, expects to gross at least $75 million, and possibly $10 million more if, as expected, it fares well on March 26 in the Academy Awards, for which ''Daisy'' received nine nominations.
That the Zanucks had so much trouble bringing a film as popular as ''Daisy'' to the screen illustrates the intimidating economics governing Hollywood today. Finding financial support for a film that is expected to have limited appeal has become enormously difficult at a time when production and marketing costs have soared. Many studios have become afraid of financing the release of a small film, even one like ''Daisy,'' whose cost was about $20 million less than the Hollywood average.
The Zanucks and their partner at the time, David Brown, bought the rights to ''Daisy'' from Alfred Uhry, the playwright, in mid-1987. That was before the play had reached the Off Broadway stage and before Mr. Uhry had won the Pulitzer Prize for the play.
The producers Steven Spielberg and Rob Reiner had each indicated a preliminary interest in the script. Producers were interested because ''the writing was just so good,'' Lili Zanuck recalled. But her husband added: ''Nothing about it was obvious motion-picture material. For us, it was a gut-level reaction.''
The Zanucks and Mr. Brown agreed to pay $300,000 for movie rights, not a lot by today's standards. Richard Zanuck, son of Darryl F. Zanuck, the founder of 20th Century Fox, and Mr. Brown, with whom he worked until early 1988, had produced numerous films, including ''Jaws,'' ''The Sting,'' ''The Verdict'' and ''Cocoon.'' The partners planned to produce the film for the MGM/UA Entertainment Company, then headed by Alan Ladd Jr., who also liked the script.
The Zanucks signed the Australian director Bruce Beresford, whose credits included ''Crimes of the Heart,'' to direct for a fee of $1.2 million, and signed Jessica Tandy and Morgan Freeman for the lead roles. All had what the industry calls pay-or-play deals. The Zanuck Company was obligated to pay whether or not the film was made.
The film's initial budget was a modest $12.5 million.
Commitment Ends
But in 1988, Mr. Ladd left MGM/ UA, ending the studio's commitment to finance the film. While other studios had indicated an interest in ''Daisy,'' they withdrew after doing the math, Lili Zanuck recalled. ''Their distribution people told them it would not work,'' she said. Among the studios rejecting a deal, her husband added, were Walt Disney, 20th Century Fox, Columbia, Universal and Paramount.
Although a $12.5 million budget is not high for a Hollywood studio, other costs quickly add up. Advertising costs can start at $4 million and go as high as $15 million. ''The industry average is about $9 million,'' said Robert Friedman, president of worldwide theatrical advertising and publicity at Warner Brothers. ''Once you start using television, it really gets expensive.''
If ''Daisy'' was a modest success, it might have brought in $20 million at the box office, which Warner Brothers would have had to share with the theater owners, keeping about $10 million for itself. It also might have earned a little from cable and video. Even so, it would probably not have made any money.
'No Star Awareness'
As Terry Semel, president of Warner Brothers, explained it, the movie was particularly risky because ''you could not describe it in a single phrase and it did not have a star like Tom Cruise; there was no star awareness.''
And despite the growth of the home-video and cable-television businesses, if ''Daisy'' failed to lure audiences to theaters, it would probably not do well in other outlets.
To make the risk even greater, ''Daisy'' was not expected to have much appeal overseas, where many films do more than 50 percent of their business.
Jerry Perenchio, who handles the business side of the Zanucks' production company, found out soon enough just how hard the film was to sell. Not only did the major studios turn it down, but a variety of independent production companies also said no.
Budget Reduced
So the Zanucks started slashing the budget. ''Originally, we had scheduled 63 days of shooting,'' Lili Zanuck said. ''We cut 23 days from that schedule. But we tried very hard not to upset the integrity of the film.''
The Zanucks also cut costs in less dramatic ways. For example, in the film the widow and her chauffeur drive past many billboards. ''It would have cost us $20,000 to paint those billboards the way we wanted,'' Mrs. Zanuck recalled. ''A local painter agreed to do the work for free in exchange for a screen credit. That saved us about $20,000. A day's shooting costs $50,000. That means we have bought ourselves nearly one extra day's shooting.''


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NetWellness is a global, community service providing quality, unbiased health information from our partner university faculty. NetWellness is commercial-free and does not accept advertising.
Saturday, September 23, 2017
Arthritis and Rheumatism
RA in Feet?
I have been dx`d in RA for 6-7 years now, started to have foot pain 3 years ago. I have had surgery and had nodules removed and bone scraped in the 3rd & 4th metatarsals. That has did well, however the pain now in my heal is unbearable, Dr`s tell me ????? and MRI showed fluid. I have been advised to be basically in bed until this heals. Can you please recommend any test etc that could tell me more?
It is difficult to recommend additional tests other than what you have already had. That said you are always free to get copies of those tests and seek a second opinion on diagnosis and treatment.
Jeffrey M Robbins, DPM
Clinical Assistant Professor of Surgery
School of Medicine
Case Western Reserve University


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Farmington Hills, MI (February 25, 2009)--- Eugene Lin, M.D., has joined the medical staff at Botsford Hospital.
Dr. Lin is board certified in Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. He is a Diplomate of the American Board of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation and a member of the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation.
Dr. Lin practices at Michigan Sports & Spine Center located at 1819 E. Big Beaver, Suite 210 in Troy and 18312 Middlebelt Rd. in Livonia. The Troy number is (248) 680-9000 and the Livonia number is (248) 426-9944.
Dr. Lin received his medical education from Marshall University School of Medicine in West Virginia. He completed a residency in Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in Baltimore. Dr. Lin also performed an NIH Research Fellowship at the MetroHealth Medical Center/ Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland.
Botsford Hospital, an independent 330-bed community teaching hospital in Farmington Hills, Mich., was founded in 1965. Nationally recognized for quality, safety and medical education programs, Botsford has received the 2007 Governor's Award for Improving Patient Safety and Quality of Care in the Hospital Setting, and, in 2007, a three-year recertification as a Chest Pain Center from the Society of Chest Pain Centers. Botsford's Web address is www.botsford.org.
MEDIA CONTACT: Nancy Dumas, Beth Montalvo or Stacy Brand


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I chose this as my sample from Butiki because I thought these stars were so cute. I was not disappointed – they are super cute! Picture: http://instagram.com/p/ZwdcMNRM3t/
The suggested steep time produced a very light brew that was buttery and sweetly vegetal. I liked it, but had a feeling I should do a longer steep. This was much better – it tastes much more full bodied and even more buttery. Slightly drying, but not bitter.


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Marketing Information
Take office organization to new levels of productivity with the world's No. 1 desktop document management software. PaperPort Professional 14 combines fast, easy scanning with powerful PDF creation for simplified management of all your documents.
And now, PaperPort Anywhere uses the cloud to its full potential - to deliver files easily and securely to users of Windows and Macintosh personal computers, netbooks, tablets, and smart phones. PaperPort Anywhere extends the same concept to any computing device with a browser, giving you a better way to find, edit, and share files and documents.
General Information
|Product Type
|Distribution Media/Method
|Manufacturer Part Number
|Manufacturer Website Address
|Nuance Communications, Inc
|Product Name
|PaperPort v.14.0 Professional
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Product Information
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Professional-Only Features:
Document management your way:
Reduce waste, conserve energy:
Create and combine PDF Files:
View, edit, and share PDFs faster:
Protect sensitive documents:
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Works with any scanner:
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Easily route documents from digital copiers and MFPs:
Convert paper into text:
Manage Documents Across the Network:
Superior Access to PaperPort and Microsoft Windows Features:
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|PaperPort v.14.0 Professional
|Software Sub Type
|Document Management
|Software Main Type
|Operating System Supported
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|Complete Product
|License Quantity
|1 User
This product is shipped only within Canada and Warranty valid for Canada only.
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However for complete and updated descriptions, compatibilities, specifications and actual photo we recommend our clients to consult with manufacturer's websites or simply call us for proper clarifications. Computer Valley is not responsible and will not accept returns for items purchased that are not compatible with your system. Please ensure that you have verified compatibility and actual photo with your system by visiting the manufacturer's web site prior to purchase or give us a call to make sure what you are purchasing.
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text: The Owl Creek Reservoir Commission held its third annual Owl Creek Egg Hunt Saturday. Over 300 children were registered to participate. The event included pictures with the Easter bunny, food, prizes, games and a campfire. Top photo, Nathan Sissick, 3, and his twin sister Katie Sissick, 3, grab for an egg during the hunt. Middle left, Robert "Little Bob" Wieand, Jr., 4, of Tamaqua waits patiently for the next hunt to start. Middle right, Kalleen May, 3, adds pinecones to her egg basket. Left, one of the most coveted eggs was one painted as Spiderman.


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About MoneyGram International, Inc.MoneyGram International, Inc. is a leading global payment services company. The Company's major products and services include global money transfers, money orders and payment processing solutions for financial institutions and retail customers. MoneyGram is a New York Stock Exchange listed company with 293,000 global money transfer agent locations in 197 countries and territories. For more information, visit the Company's website at moneygram.com. Forward Looking Statements This press release may contain forward-looking statements within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995, including statements with respect to, among other things, the financial condition, results of operations, plans, objectives, future performance and business of MoneyGram and its subsidiaries. Forward-looking statements can be identified by words such as "believes," "estimates," "expects," "projects," "plans," "will," "should," "could," "would" and other similar expressions. These forward-looking statements speak only as of the date they are made, and MoneyGram undertakes no obligation to publicly update or revise any forward-looking statement, except as required by federal securities law. These forward-looking statements are based on management's current expectations and are subject to certain risks, uncertainties and changes in circumstances due to a number of factors. These factors include, but are not limited to: the impact of the $100 million forfeiture on our financial condition and results of operations, the Company's compliance with the terms of the deferred prosecution agreement, the effect of the settlement and compliance with the deferred prosecution agreement on the Company's reputation and business; the outcome of ongoing investigations by several state governments; our ability to maintain key agent or biller relationships, or a reduction in transaction volume from these relationships; our substantial debt service obligations, significant debt covenant requirements and credit rating; our capital structure and the special voting rights provided to designees of Thomas H. Lee Partners, L.P. on our Board of Directors; sustained financial market illiquidity, or illiquidity at our clearing, cash management and custodial financial institutions; continued weakness in economic conditions, in both the United States and global markets; a material slow down or complete disruption of international migration patterns; litigation involving MoneyGram or its agents, which could result in material settlements, fines or penalties; fluctuations in interest rates; our ability to manage credit risks from our retail agents and official check financial institution customers; our ability to manage fraud risks from consumers or agents; the ability of MoneyGram and its agents to maintain adequate banking relationships; our ability to retain partners to operate our official check and money order businesses; our ability to maintain sufficient capital; our ability to attract and retain key employees; our ability to successfully develop and timely introduce new and enhanced products and services; investments in new products, services or infrastructure changes; our ability to adequately protect our brand and intellectual property rights and to avoid infringing on the rights of others; our ability to compete effectively; the ability of us and our agents to comply with U.S. and international laws and regulations, including the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010; changes in tax laws or an unfavorable outcome with respect to the audit of our tax returns or tax positions, or a failure by us to establish adequate reserves for tax events; our offering of money transfer services through agents in regions that are politically volatile or, in a limited number of cases, are subject to certain restrictions by the Office of Foreign Assets Control; a security or privacy breach in our facilities, networks or databases; disruptions to our computer network systems and data centers; our ability to effectively operate and adapt our technology to match our business growth; our ability to manage risks related to the operation of retail locations and the acquisition or start-up of businesses; our ability to manage risks associated with our international sales and operations; our ability to maintain effective internal controls; and the risks and uncertainties described in the "Risk Factors" and "Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations" sections of MoneyGram's public reports filed with the SEC, including MoneyGram's Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2011 and its Form 10-Q for the quarters ended September 30, 2012.
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