text:
|Publication number
|Publication type
|Application number
|Publication date
|Sep 16, 2003
|Filing date
|Apr 2, 2002
|Priority date
|Apr 6, 2001
|Fee status
|Also published as
|Publication number
|Christopher M. Gorman
|Original Assignee
|Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V.
|Export Citation
|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Patent Citations (18), Referenced by (22), Classifications (10), Legal Events (6)
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
The present invention relates to digital to analogue converters (DACs) and more specifically to resistor ladder digital to analogue converters.
It is known in the art to use DACs for a wide variety of applications where a digital word needs to be converted to an analogue signal. The need for these devices is increasing greatly as we enter an increasingly digital age, where our music, television, movies and communications are digitally coded.
The basic resistor ladder form of DAC is shown in FIG. 1. There are P−1 resistors connected in series between reference voltage sources Vref+ and Vref−. This divides the voltage into steps of (Vref+−Vref−)/P−1. There are P tap-off points inclusive of Vref+ and Vref−. Each of these tap-off points is connected to the analogue output Vout via a respective switch. The input digital word is decoded and used to close one of the switches. Hence the required output voltage is generated. The output voltage is buffered with a high impedance output stage 2, so that the resistance of the switch causes no voltage drop.
This design is very wasteful as P becomes very large, in that a vast number of resistors and switches may be needed (a 20-bit DAC would need over 1 million resistors and switches). As is well known in the art, providing that P can be factorised to P=MN, it is possible to implement the same function using a lot fewer resistors and switches than the circuit in FIG. 1, by segmenting the resistor array into a number of stages.
For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,495,245 describes a DAC wherein the resistor ladder has been segmented into two separate outer ladders and an inner ladder. Each outer ladder divides a full scale voltage and selects a tap in accordance with the most significant bits (MSBs) of the digital input word. Opposite ends of the inner ladder are connected to the selected tap points on the outer ladders, so that a voltage interval spanned by the inner ladder effectively slides up and down as the MSBs of the input signal vary. Switches on the inner ladder respond to the least significant bits (LSBs), to select the final output voltage, within the interval defined by the MSBs.
Other segmented DAC designs are known from U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,554,986 and 5,703,588. Various sources of error are known in such devices, arising from imperfect matching of resistor values, switch resistances, loading effects and so forth.
Loading of the outer resistor ladders by the second ladder in U.S. Pat. No. 5,495,245 is eliminated by allowing all the current in the two outer ladders to pass through the inner ladder. To work satisfactorily, this requires the inner ladder resistors to be scaled such that the total resistance of the inner ladder is equal to the resistance of a single resistor in the outer ladder. This has the disadvantage of a possible mismatch of resistor values, since matching is only readily achieved between resistors of identical value, or simple ratios. If the resistance is not exactly matched then an error occurs every time the inner ladder is moved.
Furthermore, in known designs some or all of the current flowing between Vref+ and Vref− must be diverted via the MSB switches to operate the inner ladder. Each switch has a non-zero resistance, which may vary from switch to switch in the same ladder and being in series between the outer and inner ladder. This leads to distortion in the matching between the inner ladder resistance and the resistance at each step if the outer ladder. Large switches will be required to keep this error down, which in effect will take up a lot of the area saved by segmenting in the first place.
The inventor has sought to provide an improved segmented ladder DAC design, which eliminates one or both these drawbacks. Independently, the inventor also seeks to provide DAC designs providing differential rather than single-ended outputs, without necessarily doubling the size of the circuit.
The invention in a first aspect provides a digital to analogue converter comprising at least first and second resistor ladders and at least first and second banks of switches, means for controlling said switches in accordance with at least the most significant bits of a digital input signal, first and second connecting means for connecting said first and second resistor ladders at their ends to form a ring topology, said first and second connecting means comprising means for deriving respective first and second analogue output signals to form a differential analogue output signal.
The invention in a second aspect of the invention provides a digital to analogue converter of segmented type, comprising at least first, second and third resistor ladders and at least first, second and third banks of switches, where the first two resistor ladders are connected in series by a load resistor and the third resistor ladder is connected across said load resistor, wherein a reference voltage source is connectable to selected points on each of the first and second resistor ladders via corresponding switches in the first and second banks of switches, said switches being selected in operation in accordance with the most significant bits of a digital input signal, and wherein an output is connectable to a selected point on the third resistor ladder via a corresponding switch in the third bank of switches, said switch being selected in operation in accordance with the least significant bits of said digital input signal.
The invention in a third aspect of the invention provides a digital to analogue converter comprising at least first and second resistor ladders and at least first and second banks of switches, means for controlling said switches in accordance with at least the most significant bits of a digital input signal, wherein each switch of the first and second banks of switches forms one of a matched pair of switches controlled to be closed and opened as a pair, the second switch in operation providing feedback to an amplifier such that a reference voltage can be imposed on the ladder independently of the resistance of the switches.
These and other optional features of the invention are defined in the appended claims. The three aspects of the invention may be applied independently of one another. The three aspects of the invention may also be used in any combination, as illustrated in the detailed description of the embodiments which follows.
A conventional resistor ladder DAC and embodiments of the invention will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:
FIG. 1 illustrates a conventional resistor ladder DAC;
FIG. 2 represents a novel differential resistor ladder DAC having a ring configuration.
FIG. 3 illustrates a novel segmented ladder DAC, having reduced susceptibility to switch resistance and resistor mismatch;
FIG. 4 illustrates a differential segmented resistor ladder DAC combining features of FIGS. 2 and 3; and
FIG. 5 illustrates a further differential segmented resistor ladder DAC with features for the elimination of switch-resistance error.
FIG. 2 shows a differential ring-form DAC in basic form. There is a single stage DAC comprising two MSB resistor ladders (ladder A and ladder B). The resistors in ladder A will be referred to as RA1, RA2, RA3 . . . RA(M−1), where M−1 resistors make up this resistor ladder. Similarly the resistors in ladder B will be referred to as RB1, RB2, RB3 . . . RB(M−1).
Resistor ladder A is connected to source of a reference voltage Vref+via an array of M switches (SwA0, SwA1 . . . SwA(M−1)), each switch connecting a different point on the ladder to the reference voltage Vref+, with switches SWA0 and SwA(M−1) connected at each the top and bottom of the ladder respectively. All resistors RA, RB and Rx have a standard value R. Ladder B is similarly connected to the Vref− terminal by a further array of M switches (SwB0, SwB1 . . . SwB(M−1)).
These two resistor ladders are connected to each other, top to bottom and bottom to top to form a novel ring structure (i.e. RA(M−1) to RB1 and RA1 to RB(M−1)). An output is taken from each of the points where these ladders are connected. This therefore provides for a differential output.
Being only a single stage converter, this embodiment is particularly useful when very low power supplies are required. It has the further advantage in that there are no output switches and therefore no problem of non linearity in T-gates with low power rails.
A segmented DAC is shown in FIG. 3. This DAC comprises three resistor ladders. The first two of these ladders (ladder A and ladder B) are the most significant bit (MSB) or "coarse" ladders, and the third (ladder C) is the least significant bit (LSB) or "fine" ladder. MSB ladders A and B are connected together by a further resistor Rx, in series with both resistor ladders.
Resistor ladder A is connected to source of a reference voltage Vref+ via an array of M switches (SwA0, SwA1 . . . SwA(M−1)), each switch connecting a different point on the ladder to the reference voltage Vref+, with switches SwA0 and SwA(M−1) connected at each the top and bottom of the ladder respectively. Ladder B is similarly connected to the Vref− terminal by a further array of M switches (SwB0, SwB1 . . . SwB(M−1)).
The third resistor ladder (ladder C) is made up of N−1 resistors (RC1, RC2, . . . RC(N−1). connected in series. This second ladder is connected in parallel to the resistor Rx situated between ladder A and ladder B.
All resistors RA, RB, RC and Rx have a standard value R.
The output of the DAC, Vout, is taken from this third ladder via a further array of N switches SwC0, SwC1 . . . SwC(N−1), one connected at every point on this ladder between each of the resistors with one switch connected at each the top (SwC(N−1)) and bottom (SwC0) of the ladder to RA1 and to RB(M−1) respectively.
The position in which Vref+ and Vref− are connected into the MSB ladder is controlled by the switches SwA and SwB in the MSB resistor ladders. These switches are set in accordance with the MSBs of the digital word by a decoder (not shown). Only one switch is closed in each ladder at any one time. Further, which ever switch is closed in ladder A, the corresponding switch is closed in ladder B. For example, if switch SwA2 is closed then so will be SwB2, and no others in either MSB ladder. This ensures there is always a series of M resistors connected between Vref+ and Vref−.
The two MSB ladders (A and B) can therefore effectively be looked upon as one ladder with M resistors connected between Vref+ and Vref− wherein the Rx resistor (and therefore ladder C connected across Rx) changes position in relation to the other M resistors in this ladder depending on the MSBs at the output of the decoder. Since there are M positions where Rx can be located and N tap off points per position, then there are a total of MN tap off points. Therefore if MN is made to equal P, there is the same number of tap off points as with the basic resistor DAC of FIG. 1 but using far fewer resistors and switches.
The normal use of this circuit is when converting a binary digital word into an analogue voltage with a resolution of P steps. In this case P=2z. This can be factorised in such a way that 2Z=2X2V. Therefore M=2X and N=2Y. The X most significant bits are decoded to select switches in ladders A and B, while the Y least significant bits are decoded and used to select the switch in ladder C.
Looking at the voltages at the various points, as with the basic resistor DAC in FIG. 1, one would expect the design to be such that the LSB step in Vout=would be (Vref+−Vref−)/P−1. This can indeed be shown to be the case. The resistor Rx has a resistor ladder in parallel to it of resistance (N−1)R. Hence the resistance between the end of this resistor is:
There are M resistors including this resistor between Vref+ and Vref−. The ladder resistance is therefore:
This resistance must be broken into (MN−1) (i.e. (P−1)) steps. Hence the resistance in each step should be (1/N)R.
As Rt=((N−1)/N)R and this broken into N−1 parts, each step equals (1/N)R. Furthermore the difference between Rt and a standard R is also (1/N)R. Hence when the switches move the position of Rx up by one, it results in a step of (1/N)R between the bottom of the new position and the top of the old one.
A key distinction between this DAC and conventional designs is that the switches are positioned the opposite side of the resistor ladders to Rx (i.e. on the supply side). This means that, in calculating the equivalent resistance of Rx parallel to ladder C as described above, the inherent resistance of the switches did not need to be taken into account, and a source of non-linearly has been eliminated. An on-resistance will have the effect of reducing the range of values slightly, which was the case in the known designs. Compared with U.S. Pat. No. 5,495,245 identified in the introduction, another advantage is that all resistors have the same value R, such that matching will be easier.
FIG. 4 shows a circuit combining the two ideas above thus providing for a segmented DAC with a differential output. Differential output is desirable so as to eliminate the problem of noise on the ground node appearing on the output, leading to a poor power supply rejection ratio.
As before, there are two MSB ladders, A and B, with a first Rx resistor, Rx1 connected between resistors RA1 and RB(M−1) and a third resistor ladder (ladder C) across it. This resistor ladder is connected by an array of switches to an output Vout+.
In this embodiment, however there is a second Rx resistor, Rx2, which is connected between resistors RA(M−1) and RB1 (i.e the top of ladder A and the bottom of ladder B as depicted in FIG. 3). This resistor has a second LSB resistor ladder (ladder D) connected across it comprising RD1−RD(N−1). This second ladder is connected in the same way as ladder C via switches to a complementary output Vout.−.
Therefore, a ring of resistors made up of Ladder A, Ladder B, Rx1 and Rx2 is formed. When the reference voltages are connected to this ring there are provided two complete segmented DACs in parallel between Vref+ and Vref−, one of which is around Rx1 and the other around Rx2. Rx1 and Rx2 in these DACs are positioned opposite each other. This allows two opposite outputs to be taken, Vout+ and Vout− (one from each of the DACs). The difference between the outputs Vout+ and Vout− represents a differential output corresponding to the digital input. While the LSB ladders have been duplicated, the MSB ladders are shared between the two halves of the differential circuit, achieving a substantial saving in the number of switches and resistors required.
It should be noted that an advantage of keeping a 1:1 ratio between the resistors in the first and second ladders means the loading effect is exactly one LSB. As before, switch resistance is in series with the supply, not the LSB ladder alone, and good linearity is maintained.
An improvement of the differential output version of the DAC according to the invention is depicted in FIG. 5. This depicts an 8-bit implementation of this DAC with M=N−16. This uses the same basic layout as the differential DAC of FIG. 4 with MSB resistor ladders A and B joined by two resistors Rx1 and Rx2, both of which each have a further LSB resistor ladder (C and D) across them. From these LSB ladders, via switches, as before, a differential output is generated.
Instead of if a single switch SwA0, SwB0 etc being included at each point in the MSB ladders A and B, however, a pair of switches is now included at each position. In the diagram each position is labelled 0000 to 1111, the label corresponding to the MSB value 0000 to 1111, in response to which of that particular pair of switches will be closed. One pair of switches is labelled by way of example SwA [1011] and SwA′ [1011]. For each ladder A and B, there is now provided an operational amplifier AMPA and AMPB, and the reference voltage Vref+ and Vref− is applied to the non-inverting input of the appropriate amplifier. The output of the amplifier in each ladder supplies the outer ring of switches SwA, while the inner ring SwA′ etc provides a sensing signal to the inverting input of the respecting amplifier. In this way, a "force-and-sense" arrangement is achieved which drives the desired point on the resistor ladder exactly to the reference voltage therefore eliminating all offset due to the resistance of the switches. Note that the feedback SwA′ switch can be of minimum size as it conducts no current due to the high impedance of the buffer input.
In operation therefore, four most significant bits select which switches in ladders A and B that are turned on. Each code effectively represents an axis of the ring along which four switches are located. For a particular MSB code all the switches on that axis are closed while all other switches are opened. The four closed switches then provide a force-and-sense path for each reference voltage. The two points at which the selected axis intersect the resistor ring are charged by the reference buffers to Vref+ and Vref− respectively. The four LSBs are converted as in the previous example. Note in this specific case there are 15 resistors in parallel with each Rx providing 16 tap off points. There is also the same number of resistors in ladders A and B. Therefore there is a total of 256 or 28 tap off points.
The symbols used in the Figures to represent the switches of the converters denote T-gate switches, which are preferred owing to their versatility. It will be readily appreciated by those skilled in the art that other types of switches may be employed. For example, in the illustrated embodiments, the switches of ladders A and B may instead be PMOS and NMOS devices, respectively, providing that Vref+ is close to the positive rail voltage of the DAC, and Vref− is close to the negative rail voltage.
From reading the present disclosure, other variations and modifications will be apparent to persons skilled in the art. Such variations and modifications may involve equivalent and other features which are already known in the design, manufacture and use of digital to analogue converters, and which may be used instead of or in addition to features already described herein.
Although claims have been formulated in this Application to particular combinations of features, it should be understood that the scope of the disclosure of the present invention also includes any novel feature or any novel combination of features disclosed herein either explicitly or implicitly or any generalisation thereof, whether or not it relates to the same invention as presently claimed in any claim and whether or not it mitigates any or all of the same technical problems as does the present invention. Features which are described in the context of separate embodiments may also be provided in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features which are, for brevity, described in the context of a single embodiment, may also be provided separately or in any suitable subcombination. The Applicants hereby give notice that new claims may be formulated to such features and/or combinations of such features during the prosecution of the present Application or of any further Application derived therefrom.
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|Takeda Riken Kogyo Kabushikikaisha
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|Nec Corporation
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|Apr 26, 1994
|Feb 27, 1996
|Analog Devices, Inc.
|Digital-to-analog converter with segmented resistor string
|Apr 28, 1995
|Jul 9, 1996
|At&T Corp.
|Resistor string with equal resistance resistors
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|Sep 10, 1996
|Unitrode Corporation
|Digital to analog coverter having multiple resistor ladder stages
|Jun 14, 1995
|Apr 1, 1997
|Lowe, Price, Leblanc & Becker
|Resistance ladder, D-A converter, and A-D converter
|Nov 21, 1994
|May 6, 1997
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|Differential string DAC with improved integral non-linearity performance
|Sep 28, 1995
|Jul 15, 1997
|Unitrode Corporation
|Digital to analog converter
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|Digital to analog converter with dual resistor string
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|Kabushiki Kaisha Toshiba
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|Vlsi Technology, Inc.
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|Nov 17, 1998
|Siemens Aktiengesellschaft
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|Oct 19, 1999
|Analog Devices, Inc.
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|Burr-Brown Corporation
|R/2R ladder circuit and method for digital-to-analog converter
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|Nov 2, 1999
|Texas Instruments Incorporated
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|Apr 20, 1998
|Dec 7, 1999
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|Segmented DAC using PMOS and NMOS switches for improved span
|Title not available
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|May 4, 2004
|Jul 5, 2005
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|Triple resistor string DAC architecture
|Nov 10, 2005
|Aug 21, 2007
|Analog Devices, Inc.
|Balanced dual resistor string digital to analog converter system and method
|Jan 3, 2006
|Oct 16, 2007
|Analog Devices, Inc
|Digital to analog converter having a single cyclic resistor string and multiple current sources
|Jun 13, 2008
|May 12, 2009
|International Business Machines Corporation
|Structures for systems and methods of generating an analog signal
|Dec 8, 2006
|Oct 20, 2009
|Nxp B.V.
|Flash analog-to-digital converter
|Mar 14, 2008
|Jan 26, 2010
|Fujitsu Microelectronics Limited
|D/A converter
|Dec 21, 2007
|May 4, 2010
|International Business Machines Corporation
|Design structures and systems involving digital to analog converters
|Feb 20, 2009
|Jan 11, 2011
|International Business Machines Corporation
|Digital to analog converter having fastpaths
|Jun 12, 2009
|Feb 8, 2011
|Analog Devices, Inc.
|Digital to analog converters having circuit architectures to overcome switch losses
|Nov 14, 2011
|Jul 16, 2013
|Semtech Corporation
|Resistive digital-to-analog conversion
|Dec 12, 2012
|May 6, 2014
|Apple Inc.
|Circular resistor string digital-to-analog converter
|Jun 3, 2015
|Aug 23, 2016
|Analog Devices Global
|Generating comparator thresholds using a rotating ring of resistors
|Nov 10, 2005
|May 18, 2006
|Xavier Haurie
|Balanced dual resistor string digital to analog converter system and method
|Apr 15, 2005
|Oct 19, 2006
|Dempsey Dennis A
|Digital to analog converter
|Jan 3, 2006
|Jul 5, 2007
|Analog Devices, Inc.
|Digital to analog converter having a single cyclic resistor string and multiple current sources
|Mar 14, 2008
|Sep 18, 2008
|Fujitsu Limited
|D/a converter
|Dec 8, 2006
|Dec 18, 2008
|Nxp B.V.
|Flash Analog-to-Digital Converter
|Dec 21, 2007
|Jun 25, 2009
|International Business Machines Corporation
|High speed resistor-based digital-to-analog converter (dac) architecture
|Feb 20, 2009
|Jun 25, 2009
|International Business Machines Corporation
|Digital to Analog Converter Having Fastpaths
|Jun 12, 2009
|Dec 16, 2010
|Analog Devices, Inc.
|Digital to analog converters having circuit architectures to overcome switch losses
|Jan 12, 2011
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|Analog Devices, Inc.
|Digital to analog converters having circuit architectures to overcome switch losses
|Nov 14, 2011
|May 16, 2013
|Semtech Corporation
|Resistive digital-to-analog conversion
|U.S. Classification
|341/154, 341/144
|International Classification
|Cooperative Classification
|European Classification
|Apr 2, 2002
Owner name: KONINKLIJKE PHILIPS ELECTRONICS N.V., NETHERLANDS
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|Mar 12, 2015
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Get an overview of this hotelLuxury New York hotel in Midtown, walk to Rockefeller Center
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The London NYC
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Available in all rooms: Free WiFi , Free wired high-speed Internet
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Pirate Isles is a System Utilities software developed by Yavsoft. After our trial and test, the software was found to be official, secure and free. Here is the official description for Pirate Isles: The game Pirate Isles is a fun game of strategy and luck. Iinvite your friends and family to play with you. The game supports up to four human players in hot-seat mode.
Your task is to command the team of pirates to collect as much sacks of gold as you can, and gather more gold on your ship then other pirate teams.
From 1 to 4 players can play the game. Each player has one ship (the galleon) and four pirates under his/her command. At the game start all pirates are on their ship and the fog hides the cells of the map - there can be anything hidden in the fog.
Register the game to get all the fun of playing on different island sizes from tiny 4x4 (if you prefer the fast action) to the great 12x12 (if you fond of long campaigns). 7x7 and 8x8 are preferred for the balanced game. Also, all options of the Options menu will be available for you to give you the opportunity of the game customization. Lifetime free update to the latest version available as well as completely free tech support are also benefits of registration! you can download Pirate Isles 1.9 free now.
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Always check your spam folder first, If you still haven't gotten it contact me at the bottom of my website and I will send it.
No, PayPal gives you the option to pay with your card once you proceed to the checkout look towards the bottom.
No, There's only one tag at the start of each beat. Unless you buy track-outs which has the option of one tag or no tag.
You will receive an email with your beat(s) immediately after your order.


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The coloured contact& crazy contacts market is now a flourishing industry. You will find even contacts which are used like a bandage after definite surgical treatments. Today, customers have the choice of buying contact cheap on the net & they can receive the same top brand & quality contacts which are obtainable at traditional eye put on merchants.
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One of the most common kinds of contact worn is soft & gas permeable contacts. You will get these online at greatly reduced prices. You may also get other forms of contacts online which include: every day disposables, extended put on contacts, every day put on, toric, coloured, & costume/theatrical contacts. Everyone has their particular characteristics, benefits, in addition to specific put on schedule & maintenance methods. The choice is dependent on your requirements & your lifestyle. Ought to you don't require removing them each evening, you will get extended put on, or in the event you require tossing them following a day's put on & replacing with a new pair, you will get every day disposables. You will get this contact online at reduced prices that may often depend on 70%. Another reason to visit your optician is to find out which kind of contact would be best suited to your specific needs.
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Phone: (07) 3161 8687
Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
Buying Fresh Look Coloured Contact Lenses Online
by adtronics09


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The God of the Underworld, a former (and still aspiring!) world conqueror who would like nothing more than to see Hercules wiped off the face of the planet. With the Coliseum a tangle of bugs and Cloud a tangle of emotional issues, he ought to have found a way, but Sora showed up just in time to show HIM up, and prove once again that sliminess doesn't pay.
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|Optimizing Your Ecommerce Site
|Friday, 05 June 2009
Topic: Optimizing Your Ecommerce Site: New research and test strategies (and a 56% revenue boost)
Here's a question most marketers are grappling with today: Which marketing strategies are getting the buzz and which ones are getting the real gains?
To find the answers, we teamed up with MarketingSherpa's Research Director, Stefan Tornquist, for our May 27 web clinic on optimizing ecommerce sites.
Using a mix of new research and case studies, we identified tactics, channels, and test strategies that are increasing conversion rates and revenue for a variety of companies. We also explored how you can tap into elusive sources of ROI by going the extra step with your metrics and analysis.
[Editor's Note: Unfortunately, a tech snafu with our webinar provider resulted in a gaping void where our standard audio and full video presentations would be. However, this research brief aims to convey the key points, research and takeaways from the session. You can also access more research data in the new 2009 MarketingSherpa Ecommerce Benchmark Guide, from which these charts were taken.]
How did we get to this point?
The following chart contrasts the year-over-year growth from the fourth quarters of 2007 and 2008. Most marketers won't be surprised by the confirmation that growth was down significantly.
In 2008, fewer than 10% of marketers surveyed reported the strong 20% growth common in 2007. Where none of the companies surveyed in 2007 acknowledged drops in total orders, in 2008, 35% of the companies saw a decrease in total orders.
However, there is optimistic news to balance those drops. Nearly half of the companies recently surveyed confirmed that they are either growing or stable. While the growth might be more moderate in nature, the numbers indicate that growth remains even in tough conditions.
The response to these changes in some ways mirrors the survey: as some marketers are reining in their spending, others see an uncertain economy as a time to push their marketing efforts further.
Marketing optimism remains high overall
The next chart demonstrates the change in budget attitudes, depending on product type and organization size.
In a recent article in The New Yorker, writer James Surowiecki examined two ways companies can respond to economic downturn by contrasting the strategies of Post and Kellogg's cereals during the Great Depression. Post reined in its expenses and cut back on advertising while Kellogg "doubled its budget." By 1933, even with the economy at its worst, Kellogg could report steadily rising profits.
This anecdote, and the rest of Surowiecki's article, supports the 2009 Ecommerce Benchmark Survey's assertion that "a recession creates conditions which favor companies that choose to invest."
There are several reasons to explain why increasing spend during a downturn can be the responsible choice:
However, increased opportunity does not mean that marketers should deploy increased budgets on trendy channels. A sound strategy supported by fewer dollars will be more effective than spending generously on the next big thing, including technologies or trends that may or may not be the best fit for your goals or organization.
Social media is here, but the ROI isn't just yet...
Sherpa asked consumer products and services marketers to rank their primary traffic drivers. As this chart shows, SEO and house email lists are clearly the strongest performers for ecommerce marketers.
Social media doesn't yet come close to competing with search or email in terms of effectiveness. But marketers are still asking themselves whether that is because social media is ineffective or simply because, despite the hype, a huge percentage of people online aren't actively or regularly engaged with social media sites and channels.
So, to boost ROI in this tight economy, should marketers keep forging ahead with these relatively new channels, or focus more on optimizing their proven channels?
The answer largely depends on how hard you want to fight for significant gains.
In our first case study, we reviewed one of the mainstays of ecommerce marketing: changes made to the subject line of a house email list.
Case Study #1: Thank-you email
Large florist with a strong online presence seeking to increase the effectiveness of a "Thank you" email campaign to previous customers.
The challenge:
To increase the rate of return business from customers who made recent purchases.
The goal:
To identify which email subject line will result in the greatest volume of return business.
We conducted an A/B split test using two different subject lines.
The control:
Subject Line #1 – Thank You For Making Us Your Florist Of Choice
The burden of communication in customer appreciation emails involves sharing your intention to commend or thank the customer in a way that does not irritate the customer with additional unwanted email.
In this case:
Let's look at the second subject line...
Treatment: Subject Line #2 – 15% Off - Our Way Of Saying Thank You!
Analysis:As demonstrated in the two screenshots, nothing changed in this email but the subject line.
What you need to understand: The treatment's open rate was more that 25% lower than the control, despite being a better expression of the offer.
At first glance it appears that an explicit expression of thanks performs better than a precise offer.
However, if we look more closely at metrics beyond the open rate, a different story comes to light.
A deeper analysis revealed that the treatment has a much higher clickthrough rate and order amount.
What you need to understand: Despite the lower open rate, the treatment subject line generated a 60% higher clickthrough rate and directly resulted in a 56% boost in revenue.
Key takeaways:
Analyzing your test results effectively
As the email case study demonstrated, if you're only viewing a test through the lens of certain metrics, you can overlook vital information that will help you communicate more effectively with customers.
Sherpa refers to organizations that have demonstrated competence with their analytics and metrics as "High Knowledge" organizations. In many surveys throughout the Ecommerce Benchmark Guide, it is those organizations that typically report higher satisfaction with and greater gains through their campaigns.
Of course, it's always important to keep a close eye on key performance indicators. But watching your metrics also helps you keep abreast of new developments in media and other technologies. Due to these new developments, online stores are providing better and better service for customers, leading to higher customer expectations and changes in customer behavior.
As Stefan Tornquist, Research Director of MarketingSherpa writes, "With each innovation in media and technology, customer behavior gets more nuanced but the need for tracking doesn't diminish."
On the contrary, the need for tracking increases.
Tracking has an external aspect and a self-reflective aspect. Marketers tracking the performance of their sites or pages must also track and acknowledge the strengths or weaknesses of their own capabilities with analytics.
Accuracy of knowledge
The next graph shows companies' own assessments of their PPC tracking capability. There are many other areas in which companies can track their performance and estimate their skills. However, PPC campaigns often have the potential to incur great cost at little return, so for many ecommerce organizations, awareness of their PPC metrics is crucial.
While the tall bars in the "exact knowledge" column appear reassuring, 58% of B2B companies, 39% of B2C companies and 41% of large companies do not have a precise sense of their paid search metrics. As we saw in our May 15th clinic on B2B success stories, attention to poorly performing PPC keywords (and tailoring landing pages to specific keywords) can reveal rich new sources of interested prospects.
Once you've optimized your search campaigns and prospects are finding you, which tactics will then encourage them to buy, or return?
Tactics that do (and don't) work today
The next chart shows how marketers rated the effectiveness of various engagement and sales tactics, aside from dramatic price discounts.
Of those surveyed, 74% reported that adding consumer reviews and product videos produced a positive response. Both of those tactics empower prospective buyers with enhanced information about their product choices and an increased feeling of connection with others, fellow customers or merchants.
In addition, loyalty programs have strong psychological power for little outlay. Frequent flyer programs are good examples of this concept. After all, 30,000 miles sounds better than a $30 discount on a plane ticket.
Marketing tactics such as loyalty programs, customer reviews, and on-site video use advances in technology and behavior tracking capability to let ecommerce sites invest in continually improving customer service and customer experience.
Distilling the research and test results above, here are a handful of ideas and action steps you should consider to boost your ecommerce results:
Related MarketingExperiments Reports:
Managing Editor — Hunter Boyle
Writer(s) — Anna Jacobson
Contributor(s) — Stefan Tornquist
Production — Landon Calabello
Test Protocols:


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Bus Hrubieszow Hrubieszów • Lublin Voivodeship » Peterborough
2 coach and bus timetables from Hrubieszow to Peterborough • 2 bus companies • Voyager and Eurolines Switzerland offer • Cheap online tickets
Find your best option on Hrubieszow - Peterborough route at rebrutto.com.
When you go to tickets offer you can verify your fare in booking system, to which you will be redirected after clicking BUY button. Fill the forms as if you would book your ticket. Set the number and type of tickets, look for available discounts and deals. Cancel your booking without consequences whenever you want, as well just before the payment.
Hrubieszow to Peterborough coach and bus online tickets
Single tickets for trips from Hrubieszow to Peterborough are supported by the following companies: Eurolines Switzerland or Voyager.
Hrubieszow to Peterborough timetables
If you're interested in travelling from Hrubieszow to Peterborough you can go with the following bus companies: Transport Jacek and Super Busy.
Verify other possible journeys from Hrubieszow to cities in United Kingdom at Hrubieszow - United Kingdom page. For your return travel options, visit our offer at Peterborough to Hrubieszow or Peterborough to other cities in Poland.
Travel information for Peterborough is available at Peterborough news and FAQ.
Choose your best option from rebrutto.com offer.


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LPIC-1 is the first level certification from Linux. It is a professionally recognized credential by the NCCA, i.e. National Commission For Certifying Agencies.
In order to achieve this certification, students are required to clear exams 101 and 102.
The training also teaches professionals how to execute simple maintenance activities. These include helping users, adding users to larger networks and systems, rebooting, taking backups, and performing restoration tasks.
While appearing for exams 101 and 102, students also have the choice to achieve CLA, i.e. Certified Linux Administrator certification. This is because there is a partnership between LPI and Novell. Hence individuals who clear exams 101 and 102, automatically qualify for the CLA certification. Participants interested in getting CLA certified, need to specify the same at the time of training.
Koenig provides LPI-1 training in all tracks - Regular, Fast, an Super Fast. Boot camps are conducted in all locations in India - Goa, Dehradun, Shimla, Delhi and Bangalore.
Enquire Now


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Home ›
Budaiya Gifts For Bosses
15 items found
You can send Gifts For Bosses to Bahrain in the following cities.
What our Customers Say about our Service
"Best Service Ever! Our son is in Spain for a semester and got quite sick - had to take himself to the hospital, get antibiotics, had no one to take care of him. So I found Gift Baskets Overseas online, ordered a healthy breakfast basket, paid with PayPal and crossed my fingers that it wasn't a scam. Not only is it legitimate, but when I didn't have a landline to give them for him they tracked one down (and sent it to me so I'd have it too) and when I gave them an incomplete address (because that's all I had), they tracked that down too. My son got his basket and I'm amazed that service like this still exists. Awesome, awesome, awesome.
Betsy B - Arlington MA, USA - Oct 8, 2015
"We were recipients of the basket for Christmas and have really enjoyed it all! The food is very tasty and fresh quality. We are enjoying the wine also! All very enjoyable! "
Barbara - Texas, USA - February 2, 2013
"I gave a very short notice on my order. Giving them less than 2 business days and wanting it delivered on the weekend. Between those two facts, I figured my package wouldn't be on time. But I was pleasantly surprised to realize it arrived exactly when I wanted it to! The service is fantastic and ill definitely be using them again. "
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"Very professional to deal with. Received confirmation phone call soon after I lodged the order and the order was fulfilled as requested. Item was identical as described and pictured in catalogue. Would highly recommend to anyone wishing to send gifts overseas. "
Dancet - USA - Mar 3, 2011
Read more testimonials or leave your feedback here.


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A major international tourism research project into how consumers view Australia and the factors most likely to motivate them to visit here has been undertaken by Tourism Australia.
The scale and depth of the research is unprecedented and provides unique insights into consumer demand in 11 of Australia's most important inbound markets overnight. The findings will contribute towards the industry achieving its Tourism 2020 goal – to increase annual tourism spending by up to A$140bn by the end of the decade.
The research will be used to help shape the future marketing of Australia and identify opportunities to make the country's tourism offering more attractive to overseas visitors.
Key findings
The findings show that most international markets have high expectations of Australia and, for those that visit, the good news is that Australia is delivering strongly – with the destination's greatest drawcards identified as its world class beauty, safe environment and welcoming people.
- Australia's biggest strength is its world class nature, well regarded from all markets and core to our global tourism offering
- The greatest drivers of international visitor demand to Australia are coastal (including beaches), aquatic and wildlife experiences, with Tropical North Queensland, Sydney, and the Gold Coast continuing to rank highest for uniqueness and appeal
- Australia rates No.1 for safety amongst those who have visited – people's actual experiences scoring much higher than perceptions of those who haven't visited, particularly from India and a lesser extent Indonesia and South Korea
- Perceptions of Australia's Food and Wine offering are mixed across markets, although rankings are very high amongst those who have visited and sampled, presenting significant future international marketing opportunities
- Aspiration and intention to visit is very high across the board, however awareness of experiences within Australia and converting interest into actual visits for leisure or holiday travel is lower


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Friday, December 25, 2009
New Asian Folders from Cuttlebug (Sabloane cuttlebug noi cu motive asiatice)
Have you seen the new folders that Provo Craft is launching at winter CHA?
They have Asian motifs and I can already spot some favorites.
Read more about it at Cuttlebug Challenge Blog.
Iarna acesta Provocraft lanseaza un nou set de sabloane, de data acesta cu motive asiatice. Eu am deja cateva favorite.
Cititi mai multe detalii pe Cuttlebug Challenge Blog.
Posted by Meda at Friday, December 25, 2009
Labels: cuttlebug
3 comments:
- Beth said...
Aren't they wonderful Meda and mine are on there way order them Wed. can't wait to get them
- 25 December, 2009
- R.Maria Sabina(Lollyrot) said...
Meda daca intri la mine pe blog o sa gasesti cateva linkuri chiar la inceput de blog.Intra si tu ! Sunt niste Bloguri cu Giveaway! Am uitat sa'ti spun de asta pe mail
- 27 December, 2009
- TexasGrammy said...
Ahhhhhhhhhhhhhh, it seems like 'forever' before the new releases are "really" released to the retailers here! hahaha I'll happily 'look' at these new designs at Winter CHA, and put some on my 'virtual wish list'!
;o) Bev
- 31 December, 2009
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Green Bay Packers (6-3) at Minnesota Vikings (7-2)
No one figured the Vikings would be in a position have a two-game lead over the Packers if they win on Sunday, especially after the Packers started 6-0. Now, however, the Packers are reeling on a three-game losing streak and the Vikings are on a five-game winning streak.
Don't expect the Packers to panic, however, as Mike McCarthy owns a 14-4-1 record over the Vikings and Mike Zimmer is 0-for-2 against Green Bay in his short stint in Minnesota. Still, the Packers can't afford to R-E-L-A-X right now. A loss at TCF Bank Stadium, where the Vikings are 4-0 this year and where Teddy Bridgewater is on a seven-game winning streak, would give Minnesota a two-game lead over Green Bay with a win in hand and an undefeated NFC North record while the Packers would have two divisional losses.
So what's wrong with the Packers and what's right with the Vikings?
The Packers are struggling to get separation with their receivers, a group that has been without Jordy Nelson all season, and former NFL coach Tony Dungy says opponents have figured out how to stop the Packers: keep Aaron Rodgers in the pocket. Despite the presence of Rodgers, Green Bay is ranked only 20th in their passing game, while their shuffling backfield of James Starks and Eddie Lacy is seventh in rushing.
Rodgers is still second in the NFC with a 103.4 passer rating, but he hasn't been above 100 the last three games, the longest stretch like that for him since 2012. Even so, Rodgers has won nine of his last 10 in Minnesota and a 123.8 rating against the Vikings with 26 touchdowns and three interceptions.
The Vikings, meanwhile are winning with defense, the NFL's leading rusher in Adrian Peterson and timely special teams contributions. Peterson leads the NFL by more than 200 yards with his 961 yards rushing, ran for 203 yards last week, and has the 31st-ranked Green Bay rushing defense on Sunday. Peterson has rushed for 1,747 yards and 11 touchdowns in 15 meetings with the Packers. In his last 15 games at home, he is averaging 125.4 yards and one touchdown. Bridgewater hasn't been explosive for the Vikings, but he has managed his ways to wins on a regular basis and has been strong in the fourth quarter when the Vikings needed comebacks.
But with Peterson and the top-ranked rushing attack and the NFL's No. 1 defense in points allowed, Bridgwater hasn't needed to force the issue on a 7-2 team.
Cincinnati Bengals (8-1) at Arizona Cardinals (7-2)
The Bengals were knocked from the perch of the undefeated teams on Monday night and face another prime-time matchup on Sunday night. This time, the opponent appears better than the Houston Texans, who beat the Bengals in Week 10.
Carson Palmer is second in the NFC with 2,749 yards, first with 23 touchdowns and first with a 108.0 passer rating … and he was the No. 1 overall pick of the Bengals in 2003. Palmer is on a roll with the NFL's top offense, winning 20 of his last 24 start, is 11-2 in his past 13 home games and his 23 touchdown passes are the most for a Cardinals quarterback in the first nine games of a season. It helps that he has a running game that can be explosive, too. Chris Johnson is averaging 105 yards per game and a touchdown in his last three home games, and Andre Ellington and David Johnson offer strong support. David Johnson is second among rookies with six touchdowns – three rushing, two receiving and one on a kickoff return.
The Cardinals also have playmakers on defense. They are tied for the NFL lead with 14 interceptions and four players – Rashad Johnson, Tyrann Mathieu, Tony Jefferson and Patrick Peterson – all have two or more.
Bengals QB Andy Dalton has won four straight on the road, passing for 1,126 yards, nine touchdowns and three interceptions in those games and needs one more road win to break the record he currently shares with Dan Marino, Ben Roethlisberger and Matt Ryan for most road wins (currently at 23) in a quarterback's first five seasons. Dalton is third in the AFC with a 104.6 passer rating with 18 touchdowns and five interceptions, backed with a strong set of receivers.
A.J. Green has 47 catches for 661 yards and TE Tyler Eifert leads with the NFL with nine touchdown catches. And the one-two backfield punch of Giovani Bernard, averaging 120 scrimmage yards in his past four games against the NFC, and Jeremy Hill, who has four touchdowns in the past six games, offers a balanced attack that has the Bengals No. 7 in overall offense.
Buffalo Bills (5-4) at New England Patriots (9-0)
Bill Belichick has won seven of his last eight against the Bills, and first-year Buffalo coach Rex Ryan is throwing the compliments the Patriots' way.
In September, the Patriots won a 40-32 shootout as Tom Brady passed for 466 yards and three touchdowns and Julian Edelman caught 11 passes for 97 yards and two touchdowns. This time, however, could be different. Edelman is out for the first game this year and the Patriots will be forced to adapt once again. That could mean a heavier dose of TE Rob Gronkowski, who has 806 yards, is averaging 16.8 yards per catch and is tied for second in the NFL with eight touchdown catches in the AFC's top offense.
This game features two of the three most efficient quarterbacks in the league. Brady has been both efficient and productive, racking up 3,043 yards passing and 24 touchdowns for a 111.1 rating – all marks that lead the NFL – with only three interceptions. But Tyrod Taylor is enjoying a strong initial season as the Bills' starter, throwing 11 touchdowns and only four interceptions for a 106.2 rating, third in the league. If Taylor can sustain that rating for the rest of the year, he will pass Jim Kelly for the highest single-season rating in Bills history, and Buffalo has won four of the last five starts for Taylor as he has passed for 999 yards, seven touchdowns and one interception in that span.
It helps that he has LeSean McCoy and Karlos Williams in the backfield. McCoy is averaging 119 scrimmage yards in his past four games and Williams has a touchdown in each of his last six games, just one of two players in NFL history with a touchdown in each of his first six career games.
But Taylor will be facing the defensive mastery of Belichick, who has Chandler Jones' league-leading 10½ sacks, with Jamie Collins not far behind with 8½ sacks. The Patriots are ranked second in overall defense and second pass defense. And, while the Patriots have the second-ranked rushing attack, the Bills have the second-ranked run defense.


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But a new exhibition is intent on proving that the American was also one of the most original photographic artists of the 20th century.
The Art Of Lee Miller at the Victoria & Albert Museum begins with photographs of her when she was a model and muse to artist Man Ray.
But the majority of the 140 images in the show - the most significant of her work ever held - are by Miller herself.
They include striking Surrealist images and portraits of Charlie Chaplin and her friend Picasso.
Also included is her work as a photojournalist on the frontline of the Second World War, as well as advertisements and commissions for Vogue.
There are some pictures never shown before, including Severed Breast, which shows a breast removed in a radical mastectomy.
Miller's son Antony Penrose said today: "She had such a sensational life.
"Everyone is overwhelmed by this beautiful woman who was Man Ray's model, took her clothes off at every opportunity and went to bed with everybody and the devil with the consequences that they don't look at the person who had huge artistic potential and integrity."
Curator Mark Haworth-Booth said: "I'm not sure people in some quarters have taken her that seriously as a photographer but she made a number of photographs that no one else in the 20th century made. They came out of something inside her that was unique."
The Art Of Lee Miller, sponsored by Olympus, runs from Saturday until 6 January next year. For further information, visit www.vam.ac.uk/leemiller
- More about:
- Photographers
- Photography


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First Quantum Mineralshttp://www.first-quantum.com
First Quantum Minerals' $2bn Sentinel copper mining project in Zambia's north-western province is providing yet another example of the company's unparalleled ability to deliver mine construction ahead of schedule and on-budget.
Work on Sentinel, the latest site in its Zambian Trident project, is currently 70 percent complete, months ahead of commissioning schedule and safely within its $2bn budget, a situation Project Manager Randy Findlay had never experienced before joining FQM.
He said: "In every other project I've been on, and I've been doing this 35 years now, I've never seen a multi-billion dollar job that finished where they started on time and cost.
"FQM is delivering this; we're pretty well spot on budget, and our original delivery date for being commercial was October 1, 2014 for chain one operations but we're now on schedule to be commercial with chain one operations by July 1, 2014. That is a complete industry change, there's nobody else that can say they've done that."
In-house solutions
It is a success Findlay attributes to FQM managing all phases in-house, including engineering, construction execution and commissioning, before turning things over to its operations team, allowing him in his role as Project Manager to optimise all processes for maximum efficiency.
"We manage our crews by productivity and we're very cognisant of keeping people fully engaged and keeping equipment and materials in front of them so they always have a place to go and something productive to do.
"FQM utilises all the basic building blocks expected from a first class contracting entity but we just pay an extremely high level of attention to planning and productivity. Those team efforts allow us to keep the plan fed with the fuel of man-power, equipment and materials. When you've got all that in front of the workforce, it makes it a lot more efficient, and that efficiency is what drives the schedule."
This is something Findlay believes is unmatched by the larger mining companies with which he is familiar, having worked for several on projects around the world. Most other contractors, he said, typically are motivated to run up huge costs through sub-contracting construction elements.
"I've got experience in doing work the way bigger companies do work, larger companies that do mining jobs, and I was never happy with the way they were managing their projects. I knew there had to be a better way and working as part of the FQM team, I found it," he said.
"There are very few multi-billion jobs that have all those facets under one hat. Typically, an Owner will go to a large contractor and a separate engineering firm which creates a huge infrastructure and divided interests. They'll run in-direct labour (overheads) from 12 to as much as 16 percent; while our total in-directs on this project are less than 3.5 percent."
The shortening of the date for Train One operations, is very welcome as the mine will then be able to begin production translating to a worth of around US$2.5m a day in revenue stream. The second train will complete and be operational January 1, 1014 with a capacity of 55 million tonnes per annum.
"When you consider that the revenue stream on this project will be nominally 20 percent of Zambia's GDP, our efficiency is significant," Findlay commented.
Corporate social responsibility
While FQM is proud locals comprise more than 80 percent of its 4,600-strong workforce on Sentinel, it is not only through employment opportunities that the company is benefiting the lives of people in the vicinity. The company is creating a whole new affluent community around Sentinel with solid infrastructure and services.
Findlay explained: "The unique thing about the project is that FQM are providing full-on development of the north west region. Sentinel's power infrastructure in coordination with ZESCO, will bring the north west region growth for what we believe will be the Zambian "Copper-belt". It is a privilege to be a small part of this regional growth."
With the new community, FQM is applying lessons learned from the previous developers of the Kansanshi project in Solwezi. The town rapidly grew up around the mine without much planning in what Findlay describes as a rather "haphazard" fashion.
This time round, being in a position to develop a new area, FQM was able to carefully plan all aspects in advance, including the power servitudes, plots of land up to a quarter of an acre and affordable quality housing of various sizes, with running water, sewage collection and waste disposal, robust roads, Medical clinics, police stations, a commercial market area and supermarkets as well as schools.
Perhaps even more importantly to the long-term prosperity of the north-western region, FQM is also bringing 600 km of power lines stretching from Lusaka and Solwezi to the site, bringing reliable energy to the entire region for years to come.
Add to this the anti-Malaria work FQM performs in the townships that are home to many of its workers and it is clear that the company is fully committed socially to neighbouring communities.
Dynamic and different
Looking ahead to future projects, First Quantum is keen to replicate the successful practices engaged at Sentinel. Findlay's position as Project Manager for the upcoming Cobre Project in Panama, will provide consistency of strategy come July next year, after Sentinel's first train is commissioned.
"FQM is a dynamic company," he said. "It looks forward to making positive changes and adopts new ways of thinking and doing things. They've been a joy to work with because of the support the team receives from our corporate team. First Quantum has the ability to embrace change and be aggressive in the market where so many companies have pulled back investment dollars."
He gave several examples of multi-billion dollar projects he had been involved in for larger mining companies before joining FQM, all of which had added billions, sometimes doubling budgets while being delivered years behind schedule. It is a situation he is enjoying no longer having to endure in his current position.
"First Quantum is pushing forward in mining, and it's the efficiencies we have; that 12 percent indirect versus three percent philosophy on how to run a project that makes this team so much more efficient," he said.
"Every single job I'd worked on there'd been nothing but escalation; inefficiencies with the way work is executed and late delivery to the market place. With FQM you get exactly the opposite- a lean machine, a competent budget at much less than other companies would do for a 55 million tonne per annum project. First Quantum drives efficiencies in engineering, planning, construction and operations. That's what's so different about this company."
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Balance, my new and very fast dual-core Shuttle SN25P, is finally firing on all cylinders. I was having problems with intermittent crashing when I had my data drives in a RAID configuration. These went away when I installed good old 32-bit Windows XP over the newfangled 64-bit version. My guess is that the RAID drivers for the 64-bit version just aren't as well tested since no one's using them. Which, in one of those classic computing catch-22's, is because the drivers are too buggy. Anyway, it's nice to have a dependable, fast, and much quieter desktop PC to draw strips on. As for the Shuttle SN25P, I highly recommend it. It's, well, cool.
I put it off until after the last minute, but the second printing of What Would Dewey Do? is finally underway. The art is over at Quebecor, and Diamond Book Distributors has agreed to take a fairly hefty allotment of books because, well, they've been selling a lot of our books. I even think we might have them ready in time for ALA in January, which is good because I'd hate to just be selling volumes 1 and 3 there.
Meanwhile we have about 70 copies left to sell here at the Overdue Media store. If you care about first editions, these are all there are.
In related news, Gene and I have a title and a cover idea for volume 4. It's hard to believe we're on the tail end of our fourth year, but here we are. I won't stop and reminisce now - that's what our anniversary (February 16th) is for. But still, wow. And wow that our first two books are in second printings. And the third book, well, we made a lot of those so it'll be a while yet.
March 28 North Little Rock, AR
Staff Day (Gene)
March 30 - 31 Hershey, PA
Pennsylvania School Librarian's Association (Gene)
May 3 Worcester, MA
Massachusetts Library System (Gene)
May 4 Portsmouth, NH
New Hampshire Library Association conference (Gene)
June 23 - 26 Chicago, IL
ALA Annual (Gene -- Library Comic booth #1321)
Check out our Full Schedule


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Species Focus: The Wall Brown
The Decline of the Wall Brown in Ireland (Lasiommata megera (L.)) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) by J.Harding.
This article examines the phenology, brood structure, breeding habitat, status and possible reasons for the decline of the Wall Brown Lasiommata megera in Ireland. This butterfly occurs in most of Europe, North Africa, Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Transcaucasus and Turkmenistan. It may be extinct in southern Latvia (Tolman 2009).
Phenology and Brood Structure
There are two generations in Ireland annually. The first brood flies from around April to early June with the second flight typically from mid-August to mid-September. The first brood is less numerous than the second. The larval stage can last a month in summer and seven or eight months when it over-winters in this stage (Harding 2008). It is possible that some over-wintering occurs in the pupal stage when some larvae from the second brood develop more quickly (Nash et al. 2012). In some years, a very small third brood may fly from late September (Thomas and Lewington 2010).
Breeding Habitat
The Wall lay eggs on a wide range of mainly finer-bladed grass species including Annual Meadow Grass Poa annua, Sheep's Fescue Festuca ovina, Red Fescue Festuca rubra and Common Bent Agrostis capillaris. Some broad-leaved grasses, such as Yorkshire Fog Holcus lanatus, Cock's-foot Dactylis glomerata and False Brome Brachypodium sylvaticum are also used. The butterfly is very particular over egg-sites. Grasses abutting bare ground such as on the edge of tracks, ruts, rabbit burrows and steep banks highlight the species need for warm, dry situations (Thomas and Lewington 2010). In spring the larva basks, sometimes away from the food plant, highlighting its need for insolation (Heath et al. 1990). These requirements are met on unshaded grassy areas with bare ground such as eroding sand dunes, quarries, limestone pavement, eskers, rocky outcrops on mountains and hills, spoil heaps, steep banks, cliff walks, broad sandy or stony rides at the edges of plantation forestry, stony lakeshores, tracks through dry heath and drier areas of patchily vegetated peat on cutaway bogs (Harding 2008).
Status of Wall Brown Population
The status of the Wall in Ireland is a cause for concern. Hickin (1992) described the Wall as "widely distributed and often abundant throughout Ireland." However, the population has been in a state of continuous decline for many years, probably since the mid-1980's. The threat category assigned in the Ireland Red List No. 4 Butterflies 2010 is Endangered. It was assessed as Critically Endangered in Northern Ireland (Regan et al. 2010). Nash et al. (2012) shows the declining figures for recorded sightings in 10km squares over three five year periods (see Figure1).
|No. 10 km records 1995-1999
|No. 10 km records 2000-2004
|No. 10 km records 2005-2009
Figure 1.No. of 10km square records for the Wall for three successive 5-year periods
(Nash et al. 2012)
From 2013-2016 there is some evidence of a further decline (see Figure 2). In 2016 the highest number recorded at any site was eight, on Inisbofin Island, Co. Galway, in May (Butterfly Conservation Ireland 2016). The Wall was not observed in Northern Ireland in 2016 (Ian Rippey pers. comm.) where it is/was on the brink of extinction (Nash et al. 2012). Regarding the Republic of Ireland in 2016, records exist for only seven counties. The majority are from coastal locations, highlighting the more severe declines inland (Butterfly Conservation Ireland) (Dublin Naturalists' Field Club).
|Counties reporting Wall Brown 2013-16
|Totals per year
Figure 2. No. of county records for the Wall Brown 2013-2016 (Butterfly Conservation Ireland) (Dublin Naturalists' Field Club).
Historically the butterfly is known to be subject to periods of decline followed by recovery; the Wall disappeared from vast areas during a series of cold, wet summers in the 1860's but recovered over the next 50 years. It declined after World War II owing to the widespread use of fertilisers and herbicides and the end of grazing of unfertilised pastures. It recovered on these following the recovery of the rabbit population (rabbits scrape/disturb soil, leading to the development of fine swards, higher ground temperatures and improved drainage) only to decline since the mid-1980's. However, the species is highly mobile and able to recolonise areas that become suitable (Thomas and Lewington 2010).
Discussion of Reasons for Decline
The reasons for this widespread and prolonged decline are poorly understood. The habitat assessments from National Parks & Wildlife Service (2008) which cover the Republic of Ireland assess the following habitats associated with the Wall Brown (see Figure 3).
|Annex I Habitat
|Future prospects
|1230 Vegetated sea cliffs
|2130 Fixed (grey) dunes
|2140 Machair
|4030 Dry heath
|6210 Orchid rich/Calcareous grassland
|7120 Degraded raised bogs
|8240 Limestone pavement
Figure 3. Assessments of habitats on Annex I of the Habitats' Directive associated with the Wall Brown (Regan et al. 2010).
However, these negative habitat ratings do not conclusively explain the butterfly's decline. Habitat specialists including the Grayling Hipparchia semele a species that also requires dry conditions and even higher temperatures at egg-sites (Thomas and Lewington 2010) and Dark Green Fritillary Argynnis aglaja aglaja share the same habitats but none of these have suffered the severe decline that afflicts the Wall Brown which has undergone a population reduction of over 50% 1995-2010 (Regan et al. 2010). Furthermore, a species that is sun-loving/warmth-loving might be expected to do well in a warming climate, especially when some of its habitats, especially in the Burren region in County Clare, remain highly suitable but numbers recorded there (10 in 2016) and in many other good habitats remain low (Butterfly Conservation Ireland 2016).
The start of the current decline is traced to four very wet summers in the mid-1980's by Thomas and Lewington (2010) when farmers were unable to save hay and a greater concentration on silage production followed together with inputs of synthetic grassland fertiliser. The increase in chemical inputs is blamed for the decline of butterflies because fertilisers change the character of grassland vegetation, helping the more nutrient-demanding species to flourish at the expense of butterfly food plants (Asher et al. 2001). The fine-leaved species of grass used by the Wall in its warm habitats are replaced by more vigorous tufted grasses (Regan et al. 2010) which may also quickly invade bare ground needed by the adult and larva (pers. comm.).
Higher rainfall levels may be a factor behind the Wall's decline (Asher et al. 2001). Met Éireann data shows the past two decades have seen increased rainfall levels and this coincides with the current decline in the Wall's distribution. While rainfall shows great inter-annual variability, a 30-year mean of the national annual rainfall indicates an increase in average national rainfall of approximately 70mm over the last two decades. All seasons show a small increase in totals over the last few decades. Extreme rainfall leading to severe flooding especially in early winter in some recent years may result in over-wintering larvae drowning during floods and habitats taking longer to dry out. In addition, flooding may change habitats by depositing nutrients onto higher ground where the butterfly breeds (pers. comm.).
The butterfly is not abundant in areas of high rainfall; in Co. Donegal, where strong populations remain it is less common in the far south of the county, including the coast around the south side of Donegal Bay where it is found in four of the nineteen 10km squares (Aldwell and Smyth 2016). Interestingly, the rainfall map show this area to be in a zone of high rainfall, receiving a mean annual rainfall of 1600-2400mm from 1981-2010. The coastal areas to the north and west receive much less precipitation, showing a mean annual rainfall of 1000-1400mm from 1981-2010 (Met Éireann). The distribution map in Aldwell and Smyth 2016 shows the Wall's presence in all but one of the seventeen 10km squares along the coast that receive the lower rainfall, apart from Inishowen.
While the distribution pattern of the butterfly in Co. Donegal suggests a relationship with rainfall levels the distribution pattern in Co. Wexford does not suggest this correlation. The Co. Wexford coast is in the 800-1000mm annual mean rainfall zone 1981-2010 while inland areas are in the 1000-1200mm zone (Met Éireann). The distribution map for the Wall in O'Donnell and Wilson 2009 shows a decline from a presence in twenty-three 10km squares before 1989 to fifteen by the end of 2008 (out of a total of forty-two in the county)-a decline of 35%. In addition, it was absent from eight 10km squares with a coastline during 1989-2008 (O'Donnell and Wilson 2009). Perhaps declines in Co. Wexford are more attributable to agricultural intensification or other land use changes (pers. comm.).
Nevertheless, the species is strongest in coastal locations in Donegal (Aldwell and Smyth 2016) Wexford (O' Donnell and Wilson 2009) Galway (Butterfly Conservation Ireland 2016) and Dublin (Dublin Naturalists' Field Club 2016) where free draining, low fertility soils and lower rainfall levels exist.
The State of the UK's Butterflies 2015 (Fox et al. 2015) which records a 77% decrease in occurrence and an 87% decrease in abundance in the UK since 1976 has suggested reasons for the Wall's decline there. Fox et al. (2015) suggests that nitrogen pollution might be involved in the Wall's decline. Fox et al. (2015) raises the issue of climate change, posing the question of whether the shift to a third generation in the autumn that produces few offspring might be part of the problem. The resulting larvae may be too small to survive the winter, leading to few or no butterflies particularly in inland areas the following spring.
There is evidence that this may happen in Ireland with four reports of suspected third brood individuals reported to the Dublin Naturalists' Field Club in 2015. If a third brood was having the impact suggested by Fox et al, it is possible that natural selection would ensure that the genotype of Wall Browns that are more likely to produce a third brood are selected out of existence (Barkham, 2014). In captive indoor breeding of second generation Walls by this author, some larvae developed directly to become third brood adults in October/November while same age siblings reared in the same container over-wintered in the larval state, suggesting a genetic basis for third brood production (pers. obs.).
Conclusion and Outlook
Given that the Wall is scarce or absent from many habitats that remain in good condition, it appears that climate change may be playing a more significant role than habitat quality in the Wall's demise. However, while absent from or very rare in areas of high rainfall it is not present in some areas of low rainfall where apparently suitable habitat exists. A research study to investigate the cause/s of the Wall's decline should be commissioned. Targeted monitoring of the Wall at sites owned by the National Parks and Wildlife Service and on transects established under the auspices of the National Biodiversity Centre might generate important data concerning abundance, distribution and brood structure. In the absence of a determination of the factors driving the Wall's decline and the availability and implementation of amelioration measures one can only hope that there is an upturn in its fortunes as occurred during the second half of the nineteenth century. Otherwise we could be lamenting the extinction of one of our formerly common and widespread butterflies.
Asher, J., Warren, M., Fox, R., Harding, P., Jeffcoate, G. and Jeffcoate, S. (2001) The Millennium Atlas of Butterflies in Britain and Ireland. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Butterfly Conservation Ireland (2013-2016) Records. Butterfly Conservation Ireland. Online at: http://www.butterflyconservation.ie/wordpress/?page_id=4408 Accessed 26 December 2016.
Dublin Naturalists' Field Club (2013-2015) Records. Dublin Naturalists' Field Club. Online at: http://www.butterflyireland.com/ButterflySearch.aspx Accessed 26 December 2016
Emmet, A.M. and Heath, J. (eds) (1990) The Butterflies of Great Britain and Ireland. 7 (2). Harley Books, Colchester.
Fox, R., et al (2015). The State of the UK's Butterflies 2015. Butterfly Conservation and the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wareham, Dorset.
Harding, J.M. (2008) Discovering Irish Butterflies and their Habitats. Jesmond Harding, Kildare.
Hickin, N. (1992) The Butterflies of Ireland: A Field Guide. Robert Rinehart, Cork.
Met Éireann. Online at: http://www.met.ie/climate-ireland/rainfall.asp Accessed 26 December 2016
Met Éireann. Online at: http://www.met.ie/climate-ireland/weather-extremes.asp Accessed 26 December 2016
Nash, D., Boyd, T. and Hardiman, D. (2012) Ireland's Butterflies A Review. The Dublin Naturalists' Field Club, Dublin.
O' Donnell, M and Wilson, C. (2009) The Lepidoptera of County Wexford. Wexford Naturalists' Field Club, Wexford.
Regan, E.C., et al (2010) Ireland Red List No. 4 – Butterflies. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, Ireland.
The Guardian (24 December 2014) Wall brown butterfly "may be a victim of climate change" The Guardian. Online at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/dec/24/wall-brown-butterfly-may-be-a-victim-of-climate-change Accessed 31 December 2016.
Thomas, J. and Lewington, R. (2010) The Butterflies of Britain and Ireland (Revised edition) British Wildlife Publishing, Dorset.
Tolman, T., and Lewington, L. (2009) Collins Butterfly Guide. Collins, London.


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This is a pair of continental heel and toe taps......Number 4s........Used from the 60s.....Aluminum.....the toes are worn more than the heels , nice vintage collectable or could still be used..............
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Album Notes
Recording information: Mt. Slippery, Clifton Heights, PA.
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