text: ^/ THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES J . , The Right Reverend V. S. Azaeiah, /f ?;" \ Bishop of Dornakal. J. N. Farquhar, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.), Already published. The Heart of Buddhism. K. J. Saunders, M.A. Asoka. J. M. Macphail, M.A., M.D. Indian Painting. Principal Percy Brown, Calcutta. Kanarese Literature. E. P. Rice, B.A. The Samkhya System. A. Berriedale Keith, D.C.L., D.Litt. Psalms of Maratha Saints. Nicol Macnicol, M.A., D.Litt. A History of Hindi Literature. F. E. Keay, M.A., Jubbulpore. Hymns of the Tamil ^aiva Saints. Francis Kingsbury, B.A., and G. E. Phillips, M.A., Bangalore. The Karma-Mimamsa. A. Berriedale Keith, D.C.L., D.Litt. Subjects proposed and volumes under preparatioi. SANSKRIT AND PALI LITERATURE. Hymns from the Vedas. Prof. A. A. Macdonell, Oxford. Anthology of Mahayana Literature. Prof. L. de la Vallee Poussin, Ghent. Selections from the Upanishads. F. J. Western, M.A., Delhi. Scenes from the Ramayana. Selections from the Mahabharata. THE PHILOSOPHIES. An Introduction to Hindu Philosophy. J. N. Farquhar and John McKenzie, M.A., Bombay. The Philosophy of the Upanishads. Sank_ara's Vedanjia. A. K. Sharma, M.A., Patiala. Ramanuja's Vedanta. The Buddhist System. FINE ART AND MUSIC. Indian Architecture. R. L. Ewing, B.A., Madras. Indian Sculpture. The Minor Arts. Principal Percy Brown, Calcutta. Indian Coins. C. J. Brown, M.A. (Oxon.), Lucknow. BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT INDIANS. Gautama Buddha. K. J. Saunders, M.A., Rangoon. Ramanuja. Akbar. F. V. Slack, M.A., Calcutta, TulsiDas._ Rabindranath Tagore. E. J. Thompson, M.A., Bankura. VERNACULAR LITERATURE. The Kurral. H. A. Popley, B.A., Erode. Hymns of the Alvars. J. S. M. Hooper, M.A., Madras. Tulsl Das's Ramayana in Miniature. G. J. Dann, M.A., (Oxon.), Patna. Hymns of Bengali Singers. E. J. Thompson, M.A., Bankura. Sufi Hymns. Prof. R. Siraj dd Din, Lahore, and W. R. Wilson, I.C.S., Dera Ghazi Khan. GujaratI Hymns. Kanarese Religious Lyrics. HISTORIES OF VERNACULAR LITERATURE. Bengali. C. S. Paterson, M.A., Calcutta. Gujarat!. R. H. Boyd, M.A., Ahmadabad. Marathi. Nicol Macnicol, M.A,, D.Litt,, Poona, Urdu'. B. Ghoshal, M.A., Bhopal. Tamil, Francis Kingsbury, B.A., Bangalore. Telugu. P. Chenchiah, M.A., Madras, and Raja Bhujanga Rao, Ellore. Malayalam. T. K. Joseph, B.A., L.T,, Trivandrum, Sinhalese. NOTABLE INDIAN PEOPLES. The Rajputs, The Syrian Christians, K, C, Mammen Mapillai, Alleppey. The Sikhs, VARIOUS. Modern Folk Tales, W, Norman Brown, M.A., Ph.D., Philadelphia. Indian Village Government. Poems by Indian Women. Mrs. N, Macnicol, Poona. Indian Temple Legends. K. T, Paul, B,A., Calcutta, Classical Sanskrit Literature, Indian Astronomy and Chronology, Rao Bahadur L, D, Svamikannu PlLt-AI, EDITORIAL PREFACE " Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are honourable, whatso- ever things are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report ; if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things." No section of the population of India can afford to neglect her ancient heritage. In her literature, philo- sophy, art, and regulated life there is much that is worthless, much also that is distinctly unhealthy ; yet the treasures of knowledge, wisdom, and beauty which they contain are too precious to be lost. Every citizen of India needs to use them, if he is to be a cul- tured modern Indian. This is as true of the Christian, the Muslim, the Zoroastrian as of the Hindu. But, while the heritage of India has been largely explored by scholars, and the results of their toil are laid out for us in their books, they cannot be said to be really available for the ordinary man. The volumes are in most cases expensive, and are often technical and difficult. Hence this series of cheap books has been planned by a group of Christian men, in order that every educated Indian, whether rich or poor, may be able to find his way into the treasures of India's past. Many Europeans, both in India and elsewhere, will doubtless be glad to use the series. The utmost care is being taken by the General Editors in selecting writers, and in passing manuscripts for the press. To every book two tests are rigidly applied : everything must be scholarly, and everything must be sympathetic. The purpose is to bring the best out of the ancient treasuries, so that it may be known, enjoyed, and used. f^am ^OK^i mm. KANAKESK STONE INSCRIPTION FROM TALKAD, A.D. 726. A'<nf HI flic Mysore Unii'ersity, Mysore. THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES A History of Kanarese Literature SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED BY EDWARD P. RICE, B.A. ASSOCIATION PRESS 5, RUSSELL STREET, CALCUTTA LONDON : OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNE. BOMBAY. CALCUTTA AND MADRAS 1921 The Right of Translation is Reserved, DEDICATED BY KIND PERMISSION TO prAktana vimarsa vichakshana, rao bahadur, R. NARASIMHACHARYA, M.A., M.R.A.S., DIRECTOR OF ARCH^OLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN MYSORE. 2005019 PRINTED AT THE WESLEY AN MISSION PRESS, MYSORE CITY PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION Fifty years ago verj^ few, even of the Kanarese people themselves, had any idea of the range of Kanarese literature, or of the relative age of the books which constitute it. Our present knowledge is the fruit of patient work on the part of a small number of painstaking scholars, who have laboriously pieced together the scattered information contained in inscrip- tions on stone and copper and in the colophons and text of palm-leaf manuscripts. It is the practice of Kanarese poets to preface their works, not only with invocations of the gods and of the saints of old time, but also with the praise of former poets. This practice is of very great historical value, for it enables us to place the poets in their relative chronological order. As in many instances the writers received patronage from some reigning king, the mention of the name of the royal patron enables us further to give to many of the poets an approximately correct date. In this way a list of Kanarese poets can be drawn up in fairly correct order. The result shows that Kanarese has a literature of vast extent, reaching back till its beginnings are lost in the mists of time in the early centuries of the Christian era. The first modern scholars to give with any fulness a connected view of Kanarese literature were the German missionaries, Wiirth and Kittel. The latter in 1875 prefixed a valuable essay on Kanarese Literature to his edition of Nagavarma's Prosody. Since then a vast deal of additional information has been obtained, more especially through the researches of Mr. Lewis Rice, C.I.E., Director of Archaeological Researches in Mysore, and his assistants and successor. 6 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE I am not aware that there is any separate volume in the English language giving a history of Kanarese literature. The most readable general account is to be found in Mr. Lewis Rice's Gazetteer of Mysore, Vol. I, and in his Mysore and Coorg from the Inscriptio7is. Fuller details are contained in his introduction to Bhattakalanka's Kariiataka Sabd(lnu§asana, a bulky volume now out of print ; and in the Karyiataka Kavi Charite or " Lives of the Kanarese Poets," by Messrs. R. and S. G. Narasimhacharya, respectively Oi^cer in charge of Archaeological Researches and Kanarese Translator to the Government of Mysore. The last-named work being written in Kanarese is available only for those who know that language. Only Part I has so far been published, which carries the history up to the end of the fourteenth century. It gives illustrative extracts from the works described. The present popular account of Kanarese literature is based on the above-named authorities, to whom acknow- ledgement is hereby unreservedly made. Without their researches this work could not have been written. The enumeration of a long series of little known writers cannot be other than tedious to the reader. I have endeavoured to mitigate this effect by introducing as much local colour as was available, and by sketching in as a background an outline of the times in which the poets lived and the atmosphere of religious faith and custom in which they moved. For the sake of English readers I have also explained many Indian terms which require no explanation for the Indian reader. By desire of the Editors, renderings have been given of a few illustrative passages from typical works belonging to different periods. In these, for reasons partially indicated in Chapter X, the attempt has been rather to express the general spirit of the original than to offer a closely literal translation. Graces due to alliteration, rhythm, vocabulary, and double meaning are, of course, lost in any translation. The systematic historical study of Kanarese literature is of such recent origin, and every year is PREFACE 7 adding so much to our knowledge, that on numerous points there will soon be available fuller and more accurate information than that presented in the present volume. My brother, Mr. Lewis Rice, has kindly read through the manuscript and made various suggestions. Hassocks, E. P. R. October, 1915. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION The call for a second edition made it desirable that the account here given of Kanarese literature should be brought, as far as possible in a book of this size, up to the present state of our information. This has been facilitated by the publication, in the meantime, of the .second volume of Mr. Narasirhhacharya's Lives of the Kanarese Poets, bringing the record up to 1700 A.D. Much of the fresh information brought to light in that volume has been here embodied, and so made available for those who cannot read that book in the original Kanarese. Its dates also have generally been followed, as being based on the fullest and most recent data. In other respects also this edition differs from the former. Some re-arrangement of matter has been made. The account of Lihgayat literature has been extended and largely rewritten. Much has been added to the accounts of Jaina and Vaishnava literature also. An attempt has been made to elucidate more fully one or two obscure points, such as the difference between the Jaina and Brahmanical versions of the Ramayana, the meaning of Syadvada, the origin of the Lihgayat Revival, etc. To make room for this additional matter, the Appendices have been omitted ; and also the account of the Kingdoms and Dynasties of the Kanarese country. As much as seemed necessary on these sub- jects has been inserted elsewhere in the book. The 8 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE writer has gladly availed himself of the opportunity to correct minor inaccuracies, some of which were due to the haste, and some to the war conditions, under which the first edition was produced. If, in its new form, this little compilation prove more useful and reliable to students of Kanarese literature ; and if, by disclosing the contents of that literature to others, it contributes toward a better understanding and greater mutual sympathy between East and West, it will have fulfilled the writer's earnest desire. Hassocks, E. P. R. July, 1920. CONTENTS :hap. page Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 I. The KA:srARESE Language and Country .. 11 Periods of the History of Kanarese Literature . . 15 II. The Jaixa Period to A.D. 1160.. .. ..17 The Jaina Religion in the Kanarese Country . . 17 The Kavirajamarga (c. 850) and Earlier Writers 25 Stanzas from Kavirdjanidrga . . . . . . 29 Writers from the Kavirajamarga to the Lihgayat period . . . . . . . . . . 29 Illustrative extract from Panipa Rdmayana . . 38 III. Jaina Literature from 1160-1600 .. ..42 In the time of the Ballal Rajas . . . . . . 42 Under the Rajas of Vijayanagar . . . . . . 45 IV. The Rise of Lingayatism (1160) .. ..49 The Lihgayat or Vira§aiva Religion . . . . 49 Basava and the Early Apostles of Lingayatism . . 52 The Vachana Literature . . . . . . 56 Specimens of the Vachanas . . . . . . 57 V. Lingayat Writers from 1160-1600 .. ..59 Transition from Ancient to Mediaeval Kanarese . . 59 Lihgayat Writers in the time of Ballal Rajas . . 60 Stanzas from Somesvara ^ataka . . . . 62 Lihgayat Writers under Vijayanagar Kings 64, 67 Illustrative Extract from Basava Purdna . . 65 Verses by Sarvajna-murti . . . . . . 73 VI. The Rise of Vaishnava Literature (1440-1600) 75 The Vaishnava Revival . . . . . . . . 75 Early Vaishnava Works . . . . . . 77 Transition from Mediaeval to Modern Kanarese . . 78 Translations of Sanskrit Classics. . .. ..78 Popular Devotional Songs . . . . . . 79 A Song in Praise of Vishnu . . . . . . 82 10 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE CHAP. PAGE VII. Kanarese Literature in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries ,. ». ,.83 Three Outstanding Works .. .. ..83 Extract irom the Jaimini Bkaraia .. ..8$ Literature at the Court of the Rajas of Mysore . . 89 Jaina Writers of the Period . . . . . . 93 Lingayat Writers of the Period .. .. ..94 Works on Advaita Philosophy , . . . . . 95 Collections of Short Stories .. .. .,96 Specimen of Kanarese Humour . . . . 97 VIII. The Modern Period (Nineteenth Century) .. 99 New Classes of Works . . . . , . . . 99 Mysore Royal Anthem . . . . . . 102 Present Position and Prospects of Kanarese Litera- ture .. .. .. ,. ..102 IX. Some Characteristics of Kanarese Literature 105 X. Kanarese Grammarians . . . . . . 110 XI. Sanskrit Writers in the Kanarese Country 114 Leading Dates . . . . . . . . . . 116 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Map of the Kanarese Country (at end of book) I THE KANARESE LANGUAGE AND COUNTRY The Dravidian Languages. Kanarese is one of the Dravidian languages, which are the vernaculars of South India, and which are wholly unrelated to the Aryan languages spoken in North India. The other literary members of the family are Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam. A line drawn from Goa, on the West Coast, to Rajmahal, on the Ganges, will approximately divide the Dravidian languages on the south from the Aryan languages on the north. There is a large population of Dravidian race north of this ; but they no longer speak a Dravidian language. No close connection has been shown between the Dravidian languages and any other languages of the world, if we except Brahui, a non-literary language of Beliichistan. Certain words and forms seem to point to a connection with the ancient Median language used on the Behistun monument (and perhaps with Akkadian). Affinities are also said to exist with the Finnish of North Europe and the Ostiak of Siberia. These call for fuller in- vestigation.^ The Dravidians seem to have occupied their present seats from extreme antiquity. One of the earliest traces of this group of languages is found in the fact that the peacocks imported into Jerusalem by King Solomon 1000 B.C., and which must have come from the west coast of India, have a Tamil name.' ^ See Caldwell's Comparative Gramtnar of the Dravidian Languages. ^ Hebrew tukki = Tamil tokai, which, in ancient Tamil, meant "peacock." 12 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE The Kanarese Country. The population speaking Kanarese is about ten millions. The extent of country in which it is now the vernacular is shown in the map at the end of this volume. It includes the whole of Mysore, the western half of the Nizam's Dominions and the southern (so-called " South Mahratta and North Canara ") districts of the Bombay Presidency, together with the districts of South Canara and Bellary in the Madras Presidency. With the exception of the Western Ghats and the strip of land at their feet, the whole of this tract is an upland plain from 1,200 to 3,000 feet above the sea, with a fiat or gently undulating surface, draining ofE to the East. In the KavirajaniHrga (A.D. 850) the Kanarese country is described as extending from the Kaveri to the Godavari ; which shows that the linguistic area at that time extended further north than at present. Inscriptions, manuscripts, local names and other evidence prove that Kolhapur, where the chief language now is Marathi, was once in the Kanarese area. Also in Sholapur town and district there are many Kanarese inscriptions. The northern limits of Kanarese were pro- bably pushed back by the Maratha raids and conquests. The Name of the Language. Kanarese is called by its own sons Ka?inada or Karyidtaka. The English name is a corrupt form derived from the early Por- tuguese, who entered the country through what is now known as North Canara, and spoke of the country and people as Canarijs. When the English settled on the East Coast, all South India, from the river Krishna to Cape Comorin, was under the rule of a Kanarese dynasty, reigning at Vijayanagar, and was known as the Karnataka Realm. Hence the name "Carnatic" has come to be popularly applied to the coastal plains south of Madras, although these are Tamil-speaking districts and quite outside the Kanarese country proper. Earliest Specimens. In a Greek papyrus of the second century found at Oxyrrhynchus, in Egypt, occur a few words quoted from some Indian language, which Dr. Hultzsch thinks can be identified with Kanarese (See KANARESE LANGUAGE AND COUNTRY 13 J.R.A.S., 1904, p. 399). If this be so, this will be the earliest extant trace of Kanarese. Among the earliest inscriptions, of approximately known date, written in the Kanarese language, are the following, the text and translation of which can be seen in the Epigraphia Carnatica (quoted as E.G.). Those marked with an asterisk are there given also in facsimile. Date Rock inscriptions at Srayana Belgola ; E.G. II, 1-21, 23, 26-35. No. 26* is quoted and translated below (p. 22). Early On a stone in temple at Siragunda ; E.G. VI, Ghikmagalur 50.* c. 500 On a stone in temple at Kigga ; E.G. VI, Koppa 37. c. 675 On a stone found at Talkad, now in Victoria Jubilee Institute, Mysore ; E.G. Ill, Tirumakiadlu Narsipura 11.* It is figured as frontispiece to this book. 726 On a virakal found at Doddahundi representing the death of the Ganga king, Nitimarga ; E.G. Ill, TN 91.* It is now in the Bangalore Museum. c. 869 On a sculptured stone from a temple, in Begur, but now in the Bangalore Museum ; E.G. IX, Bangalore 83.* c. 890 On a stone at Bellatur, a lengthy inscription by the poet, Malla, recording the suicide by fire of a ^udra woman whose husband had been put to death for killing a kinsman, apparently in a wrestling match ; E.G. IV, Heggadadevankote 18. 1057 The Kanarese Alphabet and Written Character. It is to Sanskrit scholars from the north that Kanarese is in- debted for its reduction to writing and its introduction into the world of literature. The grammatical terms and arrangement follow Sanskrit models. The Alphabet is consequently syllabic, and follows the orderly arrangement of the Sanskrit alphabet. It even includes forms for ten aspirates, two sibilants and certain vowels and a semi-vowel not required for Dravidian words ; but there have been added five characters (e, o, la, xa, la,) for sounds not occurring in Sanskrit. The universal practice of making children recite the Amur a Kosa (a metrical Sanskrit glossary) from the very beginning of their education has helped to Sanskritise the pronunciation of the language. The aspirates are now freely used in indigenous words ; and of its own characteristic letters two have dropped out of 2 14 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE use — la about the twelfth century, and ra about the eighteenth century.^ " The written character which is common to Kanna^a and Telugu, and which spread over the south and was carried even to Java, is derived, through that of the cave inscriptions in the west of India, from the South Asoka character, or that of all his inscriptions except in the extreme north-west of the Panjab. It belongs to about 250 B.C., prior to which date no specimens of writing have been discovered in India, though there are numerous earlier allusions to writing. This ancient alphabet has lately been satisfactorily proved by Dr. Biihler to be of Semitic origin. It is properly called the Brahvii lipi, and was introduced into India pro- bably about 800 B.C." {Mysore Gazetteer, I, 491). For the study of the character in successive centuries the student is referred to Burnell's South India Paleography (Triibner, 1878), and to Biihler's hidian PalcEography, a translation of which appeared in the hidian Antiqiiary for 1904. Historic Changes. Dr. Kittel notes three stages in the history of the language during the past thousand years — viz. Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern. The commencement of the second and third stages coincides approximately with the beginning of the Lihgayat and Vaishnava literatures respectively. (See below, pp. 59 and 78 ; also Preface to Kittel's Kajuiada- English Dictio7iary.) It should be noted that the term " Ancient Kanarese" does not always denote an obsolete form of the language. For colloquial purposes it is, of course, obsolete ; but its vocabulary and inflexions are still used for the purposes of poetry. The term, therefore, sometimes denotes a particular antique style of writing. The Influence ol Neighbouring Languages. As regards vocabulary, Kanarese is dependent on Sanskrit for practically all abstract, religious, scientific, and philo- ♦ Both these letters are still retained in Tamil, Malayalam and Badaga ; and the ra is retained in Telugu also. See Kittel's Kannada Grammar, p. 15 note. KANARESE LANGUAGE AND COUNTRY IS sophical terms. Even the oldest extant Kanarese works abound in Sanskrit terms. Andayya (c. 1235) by a tour de force succeeded in excluding tatsamas (unchanged Sanskrit words) from his Kabbigara Kava (see p. 44) ; but even he uses tadbhavas (naturalised Sanskrit words) which occur also freely in all inscriptions. It has been well said that Sanskrit, though not the mother of Kana- rese, is entitled to be called its foster-mother, because it was owing to the vigour infused into it by Sanskrit that it was enabled to become a literary language. {Essays on Kajiarese Grammar , Comparative and Historical, by R. Raghunatha Rau, B.A., Bangalore, 1894.) Telugu seems to have had some influence in modify- ing Kanarese inflections. This was probably due to the extensive intercourse which always existed between the two language areas, which are not separated by any geographical barrier. Moreover, the two languages have a common alphabet ; and their territories have sometimes been under a common or allied sovereignty. The Marathi language has influenced the dialects of the north-west part of the country. That the influence of Tamil has been only slight is partly due to the fact that the two peoples used very dissimilar alphabets. Moreover, the Eastern Ghats formed a geographical boundary between them, Tamil being mostly confined to the plains below, and Kanarese to the plateau above. But some modifications due to Tamil were probably introduced when Sri-Vaishijavism was adopted from Tamil teachers. PERIODS OF THE HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE The history of Kanarese literature can best be divided into periods corresponding to the religious systems dominant in successive times. 1. Until the middle of the twelfth century it is exclusively Jaina, and Jaina literature continues to be prominent for long after. It includes all the more ancient, and many of the most eminent, of Kanarese writings. 16 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE 2. Lingdyat literature commences from about A,D. 1160, when Basavacharya revived the ancient Virasaiva, or Lihgayat religion — an evolution which was signalised by a great outburst of Virasaiva literary activity, wholly different from that of the Jainas. 3. The Vaishyiava revival, beginning under Rama- nujacharya in the beginning of the twelfth century, continued by Madhvacharya (about 1250) and reinforced by Chaitanya (1500), introduced a period in which Brahmanic thought became dominant, an ascendance which has continued up till the present time. Its marked effect upon Kanarese literature may be said to commence from the date of the Kanarese version of the Bharata (c. 1440). 4. A Modern period is now in its early stages, which has been brought into being by the impact of Western thought and the influence of English literature. The whole course of the history may be compared to a river receiving tributaries. During the first millennium of its course it is an unmingled stream of Jaina thought. In the twelfth century this is joined by the stream of Virasaivism ; and the two streams, like the Rhone and Saone at Lyons, flow side by side without mingling. In the beginning of the sixteenth century these two are joined by a Vaishnava afifluent ; and the united stream flows on until in the nineteenth century it is broadened and much modified by a great inrush of Western thought. These different sections of Kanarese literature differ not only in religious background, but also in literary form. Jaina works are generally in cha7)ipu, i.e. mingled prose and verse, the verse being in a great variety of metres and evincing great literary skill. Much Lihgayat literature is in prose ; its poetry is mostly in six-lined stanzas, called shatPadi ; some is in three-lined tripadi or in ragale. The longer Brahman- ical works are also in shatpadi ; but there are beside many lyrical compositions to popular airs. The litera- ture of the Modern period is mostly in prose ; but a popular form of composition is yakshagana. II THE JAINA PERIOD TO A.D. 1160 Sriinat parama gambhlra syddvdd-dnwgla-lajic/iafiani Jiydt trailokya-ndthasya iasaiiani Jina iCLsajiam. " May the sacred Jaina doctrine, the doctrine of the lord of the three worlds, be victorious ; — the supreme, profound syddvdda, the token of unfailing success." This couplet is placed at the head of most Jaina inscriptions. THE JAINA RELIGION IN THE KANARESE COUNTRY Up to the middle of the twelfth century practically every Kanarese writer belonged to the Jaina faith; and even after that date for several centuries some of the most scholarly writers continued to be Jainas. It is, therefore, well to preface the record of this period of the literature with a few notes on the Jaina religion and its connection with the Kanarese country. This is, indeed, necessary in order that there may be a suitable background for the story. Its Dominance in the Kanarese Country. For more than a thousand years after the beginning of the Christian era, Jainism was the religion professed by most of the rulers of the Kanarese people. The Ganga kings of Talka^, the Rashtrakuta and Kalachurya kings of Manyakheta, and the early Hoysalas were all Jainas. Although the Kadambas and early Chalukyas were of the Brahmanical faith, they were very tolerant of Jainism, and did not withhold patronage from its writers. Hiuen Tsang, in the seventh century, records 18 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE that he found the Jainas very numerous in these parts ; and they seem to have been very successful in dispu- tation with their rivals, the Buddhists. The Pandyan kings of Madura were Jainas ; and Jainism was dominant in Gujarat and Kathiawar. On the other hand, the Pallavas of Kahchi, and the Cholas of Uraiyur and Tanjore, were strongly Hindu and hostile to Jainism. Its Introduction into South India. Jainism was intro- duced into South India at some period prior to the Christian era. An eminent Jaina leader, of the name of Bhadrabahu, either in Pataliputra or Ujjayini, antici- pating a prolonged famine in North India, led a large community of Jainas towards the south, and travelled as far as the two rocky hills, now called Sravana Belgola (" Belgola of the Jainas "), in the centre of the Mysore country. This is spoken of by the Jainas as the great Digambara migration, and marks an epoch in their history. So far all scholars are agreed. Jaina traditions state that this Bhadrabahu was the well-known h-tda kSvalin {i.e. one of the six teachers who had complete knowledge of the Jaina Scriptures), who was a con- temporary of Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan Empire. They say, further, that Chandragupta, who ceased to reign in 297 B.C. at the age of fifty, but of whose death the secular histories say nothing, laid aside his sovereignty to become a Jaina ascetic, and that he accompained Bhadrabahu to the south, and was the sole attendant permitted to remain with him when, feeling that his end was approaching, he ascended the smaller hill at Sravana Belgola and took the vow of sallekha7ia, or renunciation of life by voluntary star- vation. Also that Chandragupta remained on the spot, and died there twelve years later by the same rite. Some scholars, on the other hand, are of opinion that the Bhadrabahu in question lived in the first century before Christ, and that the Digambara migration to the south took place then. Whatever may be the actual historical facts, the tradition about Chandragupta has for thirteen hundred iA THE JAINA PERIOD 19 years or more been accepted as true by the Jainas. Sravana Belgola became a place of pilgrimage. Many devotees, both male and female, including some of royal rank, took the vow of euthanasia on the same hill ; and their piety and endurance are recorded in numerous inscriptions on the rocky hillside. The hill became gradually covered with temples, the most ancient being one named after Chandragupta. In A.D, 983 a unique monument was dedicated on the adjoining hill. A colossal image, 57^ feet high, of a nude Jaina ascetic, was carved out of the living rock on the summit of the hill. With serene and placid features it has stood there for almost a thousand years looking over the plain, whence it is visible for many miles. ^ Principal Tenets. The Jaina religion is an offspring of the same movement of thought as that which pro- duced Buddhism ; and the two religions have many points of similarity. In neither is any cognisance taken of a Supreme Being, Creator and Ruler of the World. The reverence of the worshipper is bestowed upon certain men, who are regarded as having by ascetic prac- tices gained complete mastery over bodily passions. These inen are called Ji7ias, or victors, and Tirthan- karas (or Tirthakaras), that is, those who have crossed the ocean of human distraction and reached the shore of eternal placidity.^ Twenty-four of these are especially named, the latest being Vardhamana Mahavira, a slightly older contemporary of Gautama Buddha. The ' There are two similar images of the same saint, Gommata , in the Tuluva country — one at Karkala, 41 feet high, dating from 1432 ; the other at Yenur, 35 feet, executed 1604. They are all on hill tops, and within the Kanarese country; and are said to be the largest free-standing statues in Asia (Vincent Smith's History of Fine Art in hidia) . The name Gommata does not occur else- where in India, and seems not to be known to the Jainas of the North. He is identified in Jaina works with Bahubali, son of the first Tirthankara, and brother of the Emperor Bharata. ' This was the original meaning. But modern Jainas use it in the sense of the Founder of the four tirthas or orders (monks, nuns, lay-brothers and lay-sisters) that collectively constitute 3, Jaipa Sangha (Stevenson, fjeart of Jainism, p. xv). 20 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE images of these Tirthankaras are set up in the temples, and reverenced as embodying the Jaina ideal of the con- quering life. The legendary accounts of their lives, showing the greatness of their renunciation, and through what struggles they succeeded in snapping the bonds of ka?-ma and attaining complete detachment from the senses, form the subject of the Jaina PurClJias. In choosing these as subjects for their poems they were actuated by the same motives as Milton when he wrote the Paradise Lost, or Caedmon when he sang of the Creation. The following are the names of the Tirthankaras, who all bear the epithet of Nat ha, " Lord " : 1. Rishabha 9. Pushpadanta 17. Kunthu 2. Ajita 10. Sitala 18. Ara 3. Sambhava 11. Sreyamsa 19. Malli 4. Abhinandana 12. Vasupujya 20. Munisuvrata 5. Sumati 13. Vimala 21. Nami 6. Padmaprabha 14. Ananta 22. Nemi 7. SuparSva 15. Dharma 23. Pargva 8. Chandraprabha 16. ^anti 24. Vardhamana The lives of the last two closely resemble that of Gautama Buddha ; for, like him, after attaining enlightenment, they tra- velled for many years over the plain of the Ganges, preaching and making disciples, till they died at an advanced age. They may be regarded as historical. The others are purely legendary. All of them are represented as having been Kshatriya princes of North India. All but two belonged to the Ikshvaku line of kings, and ruled over one or another of the states along the Ganges Valley. All but four passed to nirvana from the Pargvanatha Hill in Bengal. The first, Rishabha, is said to have been the father of Bahubali (Gommata) and of Bharata, the Emperor from whom India derives its name of Bharata. The sixteenth, v^antinatha, King of Hastinapura, is said to have been emperor of all India. From his time the Jaina religion, which had been inter- mittent before, became permanently established. The twentieth, Munisuvrata, and twenty-second, Neminatha, were of the Hari line, i.e. of the same family as Krishna. Hence their story is often called a Harivami5a. Like Krishna, they are represented as dark- hued. Neminatha was cousin to Krishna and Balarama ; and his nirvana was from Girnar Hill in Kathiawar. It will thus be seen that the Jaina ideal was asceti- cism. Many of the Jaina writers whose names appear in this book are spoken of as viunis or yatis, i.e. men THE JAINA PERIOD 21 who practised the austerities of the ascetic life. The complete conquest of the weakness of the flesh expressed itself in the renunciation of clothing. The images in the Jaina temples of South India are all nude.^ The Jainas are divided into two sects, Digam- baras ("space-clad"), who, on occasion and as far as possible dispense with clothing altogether (as their founder, Mahavira, did); and ^vStambaras ("clad in white"). The yatis of the Kanarese country are Digambaras ; but they wear a yellow robe, which they cast off when taking meals. One of the most outstanding characteristics of the Jainas is the stress they lay on the duty of not taking animal life in any form. This is carried to such an extreme that Jaina monks wear a muslin cloth over their mouth, lest they should inadvertently breathe in a gnat ; and they carry a small brush with which to sweep the path in front of them, lest they tread on a creeping insect. This scruple largely debars Jainas from engag- ing in agriculture. The Vow of Sallekhana (called in Gujarati, Sa7i- tharo). The most striking illustration of the self- repressive character of Jainism is the vow of sallskhayia referred to above. When old age, incurable disease, sore bereavement, disappointment, or any other cause, had taken away the joy of living, many resolute Jainas, like some Stoics of the West, would hasten Yama's tardy footsteps by taking the vow of euthanasia. In spite of the fact that the taking of life is the greatest sin conceivable to a Jaina, an exception was made in favour of the vow of voluntary starvation, which was looked upon as the highest proof of that victory over the bodily passions which made a perfect Jaina. From the earliest Christian centuries until the nineteenth century the practice has survived. Jainas still take the vow in their homes when death is imminent. * In Gujarat also, Digambara images are nude ; but Svetam- bara images are given loin-cloths (Mrs. Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, p. 250) , 22 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE The most notable scene of the rite is at Sravana Bel- gola. The devotee would renounce all possessions and all earthly ties, and resort to the bare rocky hill atSravana Belgola, immediately to the north of that on which the colossal statue to Gommata stands. There keeping his mind free, on the one hand from relentings and on the other hand from impatience for death, and letting his thoughts dwell on those who had conquered the flesh before and had attained the state of the gods, he would simply await release by death. The rock is covered with inscriptions recording the steadfastness of those who have fulfilled the vow. Among them occur the names of royal personages. Indraraja, the last of the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, being overwhelmed by the Western Chalukyas in A.D. 973, died by this vow at Sravana Belgola in 982. When Vishnuvardhana's queen, Santala Devi, died, childless, at the very same time as her father also died, the widowed mother, Machikabbe, was disconsolate ; and the more so that her son-in-law had abandoned the Jaina faith for Vaish- navism. So she took the vow, and after severe fasting for one month, passed away. Of the numerous inscrip- tions upon the rock, some consist only of a single line. Others are more or less lengthy and florid. The first to be deciphered may be rendered as follows : Swift fading as the rainbow's hue Or lightning flash or morning dew, To whom do pleasure wealth and fame For many years remain the same ? Then why should I, whose thoughts aspire To reach the highest good, desire Here on the earth long days to spend ? Reflecting thus within his mind, The noble Nandi Sen All ties that bound to life resigned, To quit this world of pain. And so this best of anchorites The World of Gods did gain. Syadv^da. Jainas always speak of their philoso- phical system under the name of Syadvdda. Their dis- putants glory in the conquering power of this doctrine. THE JAINA PERIOD 23 and their inscriptions are invariably prefaced with the sloka given at the head of this chapter, and in which the doctrine is extolled. Sydd is the Sanskrit for " it may perhaps be," and Syadvada may be rendered, " the affirmation of alternative possibilities," but it is a highly technical term, The most helpful exposition of the meaning and importance of Syadvada has been given by Prof. Jacobi.^ He points out that it is best understood by considering its relation to the doctrines it was employed to oppose. The great contention of^ Advaitins was that there is only one really existing entity, the Atman, the One-only-without-a-second {ekddvitlyarn) , diUA that this is per- manent (^nitya) , all else being non-existent (a-sai), a mere illusion. Hence it was called the dtma-vdda, eka-vdda and nitya- vdda. Their stock argument was that just as there are no such entities as cup, jar, etc., these being only clay under various names and shapes — so all the phenomena of the universe are only various manifestations of the sole entity, atman. The Buddhists, on the other hand, said that man had no real knowledge of any such permanent entity ; it was pure speculation, man's knowledge being confined to changing phenomena — growth, decay, death. Their doctrine was therefore called anitya-vdda. As against both these, the Jainas opposed a theory of varying possibilities of Being, or various points of view {anekdnta-vdda) . Clay, as a substance may be permanent ; but as a jar, it is impermanent — may come into existence, and perish. In other words. Being is not simple, as Advaitins assert, but complex ; and any statement about it is only part of the truth. The various possibilities were classed under seven heads {sapta-bhafiga) , each beginning with the word sydd, which is combined with one or more of the three terms asti {"is"), ndsti {"isnot"), and avaktavya ("cannot be expressed"). These are enumerated in the following passage in Dr. Bhandar- kar's Search for Jaina Scripttires (pp. 95 fif.), to which Jainas often refer for its exposition : — " You can affirm existence of a thing from one point of view {sydd asti) , A&Tiy it from another (sydd ndsti); and affirm both existence and non-existence with reference to it at different times (sydd asti ndsti) . If you should think of affirming both existence and non-existence at the same time from the same point of view, you must say that the thing cannot be so spoken of (sydd avak- tavyah). Similarly under certain circumstances the affirmation of existence is not possible {sydd asti avaktavyah); of non-existence (sydd ndsti avaktavyah) ; and also of both {sydd asti ndsti avak- ' See Report of the Intertiatiotial Congress of Religions, held at Oxford, 1908 ; and the article, Jainism, in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics > 24 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE tavyah) . What is meant by these seven modes is that a thing should not be considered as existing everywhere, at all times, in all ways, and in the form of everything. It may exist in one place and not in another, and at one time and not at another."* Some Jaina Pandits illustrate the doctrine by pointing out that one and the same man may be spoken of under different relations as father, uncle, father-in-law, son, son-in-law, brother and grandfather. Decline. From about A.D. 1000 the predominance of Jainism in South India began slowly to wane. This was due to a series of causes. First, the influence of Sankaracharya, whose inimical teaching gained ground during the ninth and tenth centuries. Second, the fall of the Ganga kingdom of Talka^ (1004) and the wide conquests and temporary domination of the Chola kings, who were bitterly hostile to Jainas. Rajendra Chola is said to have ravaged the country as far as Puligere, destroying Jaina temples and monasteries. Third, the conversion of the Ballal raja to the Vaishnava faith about 1100, Fourth, the revival of Virasaivism under Basava of Kalyana, about 1160, together with the overthrow of the Kalachuryas (1190), Fifth, the teach- ing of Madhvacharya in the thirteenth century, which gave a powerful impetus to Vaishnavism, Sixth, the rise of the strong Brahmanical kingdom of Vijayanagar in the fourteenth century. And finally, in the sixteenth century, a wave of Vaishnava enthusiasm, inspired by Chaitanya preaching the doctrine of Krishna- bhakti, swept over the peninsula, and completed the alienation of the people from the austere teaching of the Jainas.^ Despite this change in the attitude of the people, many works continued to be written by Jainas ; but their learned men lived in retirement and no longer enjoyed the patronage of courts. In 1838 one of these learned men, named Devachandra, of Maleyur, wrote for a lady of the Mysore royal family a prose work, ' Quoted from Mrs. Stevenson's Heart of Jainism, p. 92, * On the other hand, the conversion to Jainism of Kumarapala, King of Gujarat (1143-73) by the Acharya Hemachandra, led to a great increase of its power in Gujarat. THE JAINA PERIOD 25 entitled Rajavali Kathe, which is an interesting com- pendium of Jaina traditions in South India. THE KAVIRAJAMARGA (850) AND EARLIER WRITERS The earliest extant Kanarese work of which the date is known is the Kaviriijam^rga, or "The Royal Road of the Poets." This has been frequently attributed to the Rashtrakuta king, Nripatunga, and is commonly spoken of as Nripatunga's Kavirdjamdrga. But it is his only in the sense in which the English Authorised Version of the Bible is called King James' Version. Its real author was a poet at Nripatunga's court, whose name appears to have been Srivijaya. Nripatunga ruled from Manyakheta A.D. 814-877, and was a con- temporary of Alfred the Great. The middle of the ninth century, therefore, forms a starting point in the record of Kanarese literature. Whatever was written in Kanarese previous to that date has either not been hitherto recovered, or is not of ascertained date. The middle of the ninth century, however, is far from being the date of the beginning of Kanarese literature. We have abundant information of a large number of earlier writers, extending back into earlier centuries. The Kavirajamarga itself mentions by name eight or ten writers in prose and verse, saying these are but a few of many ; and it quotes, discusses and criticises illustrative stanzas from other poets whose names are not mentioned. Moreover, the character of the book, which is a treatise on the methods of the poets (see p. 110), itself implies that poetical literature was already of long standing and widely known and appre- ciated. The author testifies expressly (I, 38, 39), that "in the Kanarese country, not students only, but the people generally have natural quickness in the use and understanding of verse." In the present chapter such information will be given as is available, not of all, but of the more notable, of these earlier poets, copies of whose works have not yet come to light. 26 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE Early Kanarese writers regularly mention three poets as of especial eminence among their predecessors. These are Samanta-bhadra, Kavi Parameshthi and Pujyapada. These are apparently not among those named in the Kavirajaviarga. We are not absolutely certain that they wrote in Kanarese ; we know only of their Sanskrit works, Sanskrit being the learned language of that time as Latin was of the Middle Ages in Europe. But inasmuch as they are so uniformly named by later Kanarese writers as eminent poets, it is probable that they wrote in Kanarese also ; and what we know of them should be recorded here. Samanta-bhadra should probably be placed in the sixth century. He was a brilliant disputant, and a great preacher of the Jaina religion throughout India. Pataliputra (Patna), Thakka (in the Panjab), Sindh, Vaidisa (Bhilsa, in Central India), Karahataka (Karha^ in Satara district), Vanarasi (Benares), and Kaiichi are especially mentioned as among the places he visited. It was the custom in those days, alluded to by Fa Hian (400) and Hiuen Tsang (630), for a drum to be fixed in a public place in the city, and any learned man, wishing to propagate a doctrine or prove his erudition and skill in debate, would strike it by way of challenge to dispu- tation, much as Luther nailed up his theses on the door of the church at Wittenberg. Samanta-bhadra made full use of this custom, and powerfully maintained the Jaina doctrine of Syadvada. It is told of him that in early life he performed severe penance, and on account of depressing disease was about to make the vow of sallskhana, or starvation ; but was dissuaded by his guru, who foresaw that he would be a great pillar of the Jaina faith. He is said to have converted Sivakoti, the king of Kaiichi,from Saivism, by some miraculous performance in the Kaiichi temple. Old Kanarese commentaries on some of his Sanskrit works still exist, but of any Kan- arese works by him we have no trace. Pujyapada, also called Devanandi, belongs to the sixth or seventh century. He was a Jaina muni, or anchorite, who practised yoga, and was believed to have acquired THE JAINA PERIOD 27 the extraordinary psychic powers which yogis claim. He travelled throughout South India, and went as far as Videha (Behar) in the north. His learning extended over a wide range. He wrote on Jaina philosophy ; and also a treatise in Sanskrit on medicine, which long continued to be an authority (see pp. 37 and 45). But his fame rests chiefly on his grammatical works. He not only wrote a commentary on Panini, called Paymii Sabddvatara, but he composed a Sanskrit grammar of his own, entiled Jamendra, which obtained great repute (see below, p. 110). One of his disciples, Vajranandi, is said to have founded a Tamil sahgha in Madura. Concerning KaviparamSshthi less is known. He probably lived in the fourth century. He may possibly be the same as the KavUvara referred to in Kaviraja- mdrga, and as the KaviparamSivara praised by Chavunda Raya (978) and Nemichandra (1170), all these names having the same meaning (" eminent poet ") and possibly being only epithets. Whether or not the above trio wrote in Kanarese, there is information about many other writers who certainly did. Among these especial mention should be made of ^rtvarddhadeva, called also from his birthplace Tumbuluracharya, who wrote a great work called Chudamayii ("Crest Jewel"). It was a commentary on the Tattvartha Mahasastra, and extended to 96,000 verses. Two facts make clear the greatness of this work. An inscription of A.D. 1128 (E.C. II, No. 54) quotes a couplet by the well-known Sanskrit poet, Dandin, of the sixth century, highly praising its author, Srivarddhadeva, as having "produced Sarasvati \i.e. learning and eloquence] from the tip of his tongue, as Siva produced the Ganges from the tip of his top-knot." And Bhattaka- lahka, the great Kanarese grammarian (1604), refers to the book as the greatest work in the language, and as incontestable proof of the scholarly character and value of Kanarese literature. If the author of the couplet quoted is correctly given as Dandin, Srivarddhadeva must have been earlier than the sixth century. It is unfortunate that no copy has yet been found of this great 28 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE work, which appears to have been still in existence in Bhattakalanka's time. Other early writers mentioned in the Kavirdjamar ga, but whose works are lost, are Vimala, Udaya, Nagdr- ju7ia, Jayabafidhu, DurvmUa and ^rivijaya. For such fragmentary information as is available of these, the Kanarese student is referred to the Karnataka Kavi Charite. Mention may also be made of Gunaiiandi{c. 900), quoted by the grammarian, Bhattakalanka, and always called by him Bhagavdn, "the adorable"; he was the author of a logic, grammar and sahitya, i.e. a composi- tion in literary, rhetorical style. Much interest attaches to the name of Diirvijilta. He was the author of ^abdavatdra ; of a Sanskrit version of Gunadhya's Brihat-Katha ; and of a commentary on the difficult 15th sarga of Bharavi's KirHtarjiuiiya} He has been supposed to be identical with the Ganga king of the same name, who ruled 482-522. Whether this is so or not will depend partly on the dates of Gunadhya and Bharavi. Of Gunadhya see p. 38 note. Of Bharavi we only know that he was earlier than 610, when he is mentioned along with Kalidasa as a famous poet. If he was a contemporary of Kalidasa, he would belong to the fifth century. Unless he was yet earlier, it is scarcely probable that his work would have been known in South India as early as the date of the Ganga king. Future researches may decide this point. Although none of the books mentioned in this chapter have yet come to light, some may still be discovered ; for there are old Jaina libraries which have been jealously guarded from alien eyes (sometimes buried below ground) and whose contents are not yet fully known. * This sarga contains a number of stanzas ilh:stratins? all kinds of verbal tricks, like those described in Dandin's Kdvyddarsa (" Mirror of Poesy, " end of sixth century). E.g . stanza 14 contains no consonant but n except a ^ at the end {A^a nonanunno imnnono, etc.) ; and in stanza 25, each half-line, if read backwards, is identi- cal {Devdka nini kdvdde, etc.). l/lsiQ^oneWs History of Sanskrit Literature . THE JAINA PERIOD 29 Stanzas from the Kavirajamarga. A.D. 850 THE KANARESE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE In all the circle of the earth No fairer land you'll find, Thau that where rich sweet Kannada Voices the people's mind. 'Twixt sacred rivers twain it lies — From famed Godavari, To where the pilgrim rqsts his eyes On holy Kaveri. If you would hear its purest tone To Kisuvolal go ; Or listen to the busy crowds Through Kop'na's streets w-hich fiow ; Or seek it in Onkuuda's walls, So justly famed in song. Or where in Puligere's court The learned scholars throng. The people of that land are skilled To speak in rhythmic tone ; And quick to grasp a poet's thought, So kindred to their own. Not students only, but the folk Untutored in the schools. By instinct use and understand The strict poetic rules. (I. 36-39.) The original of the first line in the above verses may be quoted as a specimen of the Alliteration, which forms one of the graces of Kanarese poetical composition, but which cannot be reproduced in a translation : Vasudhd vilaya villna visada vishaya viseshani. JAINA WRITERS FROM THE KAVIRAJAMARGA TO THE LINGAYAT REVIVAL (1160) During the first half of this period, the patrons of Kanarese literature were — in the north, the Rashtrakiitas of Manyakheta, and in the south, the Gangas of Talkad. In 973, the Rashtrakiitas were displaced by the Chalukyas who made Kalyana their capital. Not long afterwards (c. 1000) the Ganga kingdom, which had lasted for 3 30 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE eight centuries, was overthrown by the Cholas. Its power passed, after an interval of Chola domination, to the Hoysalas or Ballal rajas, who ruled from 1040-1326. The Hoysala capital was at Dorasamudra (Halebid). They are noted for the highly ornate temples they erected. TENTH CENTURY The earliest author of whom we have information after the Kavirajamarga was Gtmavarma I , who wrote under the patronage of a Ganga king bearing the title Mahendrantaka, and therefore identical with Ereyappa, 886-913. 'H.Qw^voiesi Harivar>t^a ox Nsmi?iat ha Pur ana, and also a book called ^fldraka, in which he compares his royal patron to King Sudraka, the reputed author of the Sanskrit drama Mricchakaiika, or " Clay Cart." Three poets of the tenth century are sometimes spoken of as the Three Gems. These are Pampa, Ponna and Ranna. They are all highly praised by later Kana- rese poets. Pampa, who will be called Adi Pampa to dis- tinguish him from a later poet, was born in 902. He belonged to a prominent Brahman family of Vengi ; his father however abandoned the Brahmanical faith for Jainism. The son became court-poet, and apparently also a general or minister, under a prince named Ari- kesari, who was a descendant of the early Chalukya kings, but at this time was a tributary of the Rashtrakutas. Arikesari's court was at Puligere (Lakshmesvar), and it is in the especially excellent Kanarese of this capital^ that the poet claims to write. It was in 941, when he was thirty-nine years of age, that the poet composed in a single year the two poems which have made his name famous, and which he says were intended to popularise what to the Jainas were sacred and secular history respectively. The first book was the Adi Pura^ia, and relates the history of the first Tirthankara. Mr. Narasimhacharya, * Compare the stanza quoted on p. 29. THE JAINA PERIOD 31 than whom there could be no better judge, and who has himself written Kanarese poetry, praises it as " unsur- passed in style among the Kanarese poets." In his next work, called Vikratndrjmia Vijaya, but more generally spoken of as the Paj?ipa Bharata, he tells the story of the Mahabharata. It is interesting as being the earliest extant Kanarese version of this epic. The poet, however, states in his preface that there had been many versions before his. It differs from Vyasa's account chiefly in the following particulars : — (1) Drau- padi is the wife of Arjuna only, not of the five Pandavas. (2) Arjuna is the chief hero throughout, and it is he and Subhadra who are finally crowned at Hastinapura. (3) The book terminates at Arjuna's coronation, the later parvas not being included, (4) The poet deliber- ately identifies his patron, Arikesari, with Arjuna, and so makes him the real hero. In Oriental style he compares him to Vishnu, Siva, the Sun, Cupid, etc.^ This flattery mar-s the beauty of the work, although the poem has the advantage of being less Sanskritic in vocabulary than the earlier one. The author was re- warded with the grant of a village. Contemporary with Pampa was Ponna, who, like Pampa's father, was originally of Vengi, and had come into the Kanarese country after his conversion to the Jaina faith. He wrote both in Sanskrit and Kanarese, and hence received the honorific title of Ubhaya-Kavi- Chakravarti ("Imperial Poet in Both Languages"). This title was given to him by his patron, the Rashtra- kuta king, Krishnaraja (called also Akalavarsha and Anupama), who was ruling at Manyakheta, 939-968. The poet's fame rests chiefly on his §anti Purana, which records the legendary history of the sixteenth Tirthankara. It was written at the suggestion of two brothers, who later became generals under a succeeding king, Tailapa, to commemorate the attainment of nirvana by their guru, Jinachandradeva. He was also ' We may perhaps compare the way, much less emphatic, in which the EngUsh poet Spencer makes Queen Elizabeth the " Gloriana " of the Faerie Queen. 32 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE the author of the Jniaksharaviale^ an acrostic poem in praise of the Jinas. Other works attributed to him have not been recovered. Ranna, the third member of the trio, was a Vaisya of the bangle-sellers' caste. Mr. Narasimhacharya speaks in high praise of his skill, fluency and fascinating style. He wrote under the patronage of two Western Chalukya kings, Tailapa (973-997), and his successor (997-1008), and from them received various titles of honour. The poet's first work was the Ajita Purana^ a history of the second Tirthankara, written in 993. It was composed at the suggestion of a devout lady, the daughter of one of the two patrons of Ponna. In his second work, Sahasa Bh'ima Vijaya, called also Gada-yuddha (the " Conflict with Clubs"), he tells the story of how Bhima fulfilled his vow to break the limbs of Duryodhana with his club andslay him. But through- out the poem his royal patron, Ahavamalla, whose name lent itself to the comparison, is likened to Bhima, and becomes the real hero. Other works attributed to this poet have been lost. Chavunda Raya, who was the patron of Ranna and a contemporary of the "Three Gems," was himself an author, and in other respects a very remarkable person- age. He was a minister of the Ganga king, Rachamalla IV (974-984) , and a general who by bravery in many battles had gained numerous titles of distinction. It was he who at enormous cost had the colossal statue of Gommateswara executed at Sravana Bslgola, and it was in recognition of this act of munificence that he received the title of Raya. He was also a patron of the poet Ranna, and himself has gained a place in the history of literature by a prose work, entitled T rishashti-lakshana Ma/ia-puraiia, but better known as Cliavundaraya Purana, containing a complete history of all the twenty- four Tirthankaras. The book is of special interest and value because it is the oldest extant specimen of a book written in continuous prose, and therefore enables us to gain a knowledge of the language as spoken in the tenth century. It is dated 978. THE JAINA PERIOD 33 About 984 Nagavarma I wrote the Chhandoynhiddhi, or " Ocean of Prosody," which, with additions by later writers, still remains the standard work on Kanares;e prosody. It is addressed by the author to his wife. In the account of the vritias, each verse is composed so as to be an example of the metre described in it. To him we also owe a Kanarese version of Bana's Sanskrit Kadambari, which relates the fortunes of a princess of that name. The author's family had come from Vengi, but he is spoken of as a man of Sayyadi, which is said to be a village in the Kisukadu Nad {i.e. near Pattadakal ; see map). He states that he wrote under the king Rakkasa Ganga, who was reigning in 984. He also was patronised by Chavunda Raya. The last three writers were all disciples of the same preceptor, who was also guru to the Ganga king, Racha- malla. ELEVENTH CENTURY In the eleventh century there are not many names of Kanarese writers. This was, perhaps, owing to the disturbed condition of the country caused by the Chola invasions, in which the country was ravaged and many Jaina shrines were destroyed. In 1049, Srldharacharya wrote the earliest extant Kanares_e work on astrology, citing the Sanskrit astro- nomer Aryabhata (499). To about 1079 belongs Chaiidraraja, who (apart from the writers of sasanas) is the earliest Brahmanical poet in Kanarese literature. He lived under the patronage of Machi Raja, a general of the Chalukya king, Jayasimha, and for him wrote the Madana-tilaka, a short poem remarkable on account of its many ingeni- ous stanzas capable of scansion in various ways, or showing feats of literary manipulation of sounds and words. (See Karnataka Kavi Chariie, Vol. I, pp. 74-77.) To about the same time belongs Nagavar7nacharya of Balipura (Belgami, in Shimoga district, capital of the Banavase 12,000), where he built temples and 34 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE bathing ghats. He was an Advaitin. His Chandra Chuciamani Sataka is a cento of verses in praise of detachment (vai?dgya); it sometimes bears the name of Jna,7ia-sara. TWELFTH CENTURY To about 1105 belongs Nagachandra or AbJiiiiava Pampa (the " Second Pampa "), of whom special men- tion must be made, both for the merit of his style and the unique value of one of his works. Little is known of his personal history ; but the statement is probably to be accepted that he was one of a group of poets at the court of the Ballal raja, Bitti Deva, the same who afterwards became a Vaishnava and took the name of Vishnuvardhana (1104-1141). He wrote the Mallinatha Purana, giving the story of the nineteenth Tirthankara, a work which reveals great descriptive power. But especial interest attaches to his Ramachandra- charitra-purdna, commonly known as the Pampa RamAyana, which was written as a pendant to the Pampa Bhdrata of his predecessor. This work has unique value, because it preserves for us a Jaina version of the Ramayana, which differs in important respects from the Brahmanical version. While the main thread of the narrative coincides with that of the Valmiki Ramayana, there is a very wide difference in details. The following are some of the more noteworthy differences: — The whole atmosphere is Jaina. India throughout appears as a Jaina country. No reference is made to Brahmans or Brahman- ism. The hermits in the forest are Jaina yatis. Rama, Ravana and all the characters are Jaina, and generally end their career as Jaina yatis. The Rakshasas are only occasionally called by that name. They are generally stj'led vidyadharas (i.e. beings having the power of movement through the air).* In fact, all the inhabitants of the earth belong to one or other of two classes, khecharas ^movers through the air) and bhiicharas (walkers on the earth). I.e. jinns and men. * The hero and many of the characters of the Sanskrit Buddhist drama Nagdnanda (seventh century) are represented as vidya- dharas, literally " possessors of (magical) knowledge." THE JAINA PERIOD 35 In place of the supernatural and grotesque marvels of the Brahmanic story we have a natural and comparatively credible narrative. For example, Sugriva, Hanumanta and their followers are not monkeys, but human beings whose standard bears the figure of a monkey {vanara-dhvaja) } No bridge is built across the sea to Lanka with torn-off tops of mountains ; the army is transported across the water through the air by nabhogaynana vidyd " as though " on a bridge (XII, 91). Ravana received the name " ten-headed " not because he really had ten heads, but because when he was bom his face was seen reflected on the ten facets of a jewel-mirror which was in the room. Rama and Lakshmana are not incarnations of Vishnu (there is, of course, no horse-sacrifice), but are called kdrana purushas, i.e. beings with a special destiny. They are ultimately identified with the eighth Baladeva and Vasudeva. Lakshmana is called Krishna, Ke§ava, Achyuta. Throughout the wanderings of the exile he is the champion and warrior on behalf of Rama, and per- forms all the great exploits ; and finally it is by his weapon that Ravana is slain. The minor details and episodes differ considerably from the corresponding ones in Valmiki. For example, Lakshmana and Satrughna have different mothers. Rama's mother is not called Kausalya, but Aparajita. Sita has a twin brother named Prabha- mandala, who was stolen in infancy, and only discovered his relationship when wishing to compete for SIta's hand. Nothing is said of Ravana 's being invulnerable by gods and demi-gods. Other Jaina versions of the Ramayana in Kanarese are the KumudSridii Ramayana in shatpadi (c. 1275); the Ramachaiidra-charitra by Chandrasekhara and Padma- nabha (1700-1750); and the Raniakaihavatara in prose by Devachandra (c. 1797). The story is also found, more briefly, in ChaimndaRaya Pura?ia{'^lS) , Nayasena's Dhar7namriia{1112) , andNagaraja's Punyasrava (1331), and other works. There is no equally wide divergence between the Jaina and Brahmanical versions of the Mahabharata. The explanation will probably be found in the fact that the Ramayana epic grew up in North-East India (Kosala and Videha), the home of Jainism and of Bud- dism ; and is the most famous Brahmanical outcome of ' It Is interesting to remember that the standard of the Kadambas of Banavase, who ruled a great part of the Kanarese country from the third century to 566, was a flag bearing the figure of a monkey, and called vdnara-dhvaja. 36 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE a cycle of floating traditions and legends, which took varying and independent forms, not only among Jainas and Buddhists, but among Brahmanisls themselves. The Ravi-charit-manas oi Tulsi Das differs considerably from Valmiki ; so does Kambam's Tamil Ramayana. The Buddhists have a Dasaratha Jataka, which makes no mention of Ravana, The oldest Prakrit poem of the Jainas, the Pafunachariya (= Padma-charita) of Vimala Suri, edited by Prof. Jacobi (Bhavanagar, 1914), and placed by him in the third century A.D., is yet another story dealing with the same characters as the Rama- yana. The Mahabharata, on the other hand, belongs wholly to North-West India. Panini, Pataiijali, and Amarasimha, who all lived in North-West India, mention the Mahabharata characters, but never the Ramayana characters. Hence there are no Buddhist, and only slight Jaina, variants of the Mahabharata story. ^ Other Poets (1100-1160). At the court of the Ballal Raja at Dorasamudra at the same time as Nagachandra were Kanti and Rajaditya. Kanti is the earliest known Kanarese poetess, and was of the Jaina faith. " Kanti " is the name given to Jaina nuns or female devotees. It is related that the king, to test her skill, made Nagachandra recite half a stanza, which Kanti would immediately complete ; somewhat after a fashion recently current in England of completing "Limericks." A further story, but less probable, is told of how Nagachandra laid a wager that he would compel Kanti to eulogise him in verse. To effect this purpose he pretended to swoon, and feigned death. When the poetess, struck with sorrow, had pronounced on him a panegyric, he sprang up and claimed to have won his wager. Rajaditya, a Jaina of Pavinabage, is remarkable in- asmuch as he devoted his poetical talents to the elucida- tion of mathematical subjects. With extraordinary skill he reduced to verse rules and problems in arithmetic, mensuration and kindred subjects. His writings are » See Indian Antiquary, Vol. XIX (1890), p. 378 ff. THE JAINA PERIOD 37 the earliest works on these subjects in the Kanarese language. Nayasena (1112) of Mulugunda, in the Dharwar district, is known by a book on Morals, entitled Dharma- mrita, in which he discourses in easy and pleasant style through fourteen chapters on as many forms of virtue, including courage, truthfulness, chastity, justice, etc. He says in the preface that he has set himself to avoid the needless use of Sanskrit terms, which was a fault of many contemporary poets. Nagavarma II (c. 1145) was the author of three important grammatical works, Kavyavalokana, Kariia- taka- Bhasha-bJulshana and Vastu-kosa. On these see page 111. Karnaparya (c. 1140) wrote, among other works, a Nemi7iatha-purana, or history of the twenty-second Tirthankara. It includes the stories of Krishna, the Pandavas and the War of the Mahabharata. Jagaddala Sovianatha (c, 1150) translated into Kanarese Pujyapada's Sanskrit Kalyana-karaka. This is the oldest extant book on medicine in the Kanarese language. The treatment it prescribes is entirely vegetarian and non-alcoholic. Vritta-vilasa (c. 1160) made a Kanarese version in champu of a Sanskrit work by Amitagati (1014), entitled Dharma-parlkshe . It tells how two Kshatriya princes went to Benares, and in successive meetings with the Brahmans there, exposed the vices of the gods as related in the sacred books ; e.g. it is shown that not one of the gods is fit to be trusted with the care of a girl, and the incredibility is urged of such stories as that of Hanumanta and his monkeys. By these discussions their faith in Jainism is confirmed. The work is of value as throwing light on the religious beliefs of the time when it was written. Brahma Siva of Pottanagere (c. 1125) is another controversial writer. In his Saviaya-parikshe, he points out the defects of rival creeds, and justifies the Jaina position. Br^hmanical Writers. Beside the Madaiia-tilaka and the Chandra-chuddviani-sataka already mentioned, the 38 HISTORY OP KANARESE LITERATURE only work by a non-Jaina in this period was a champu version of the Panchatantra by Durgasiiiiha (c. 1145). He was a Smarta Brahman of Sayyadi in the Kisuka(Ju- nad, and held oflice under the Chahikya king, Jagadeka- malla (1139-1149). His work is based professedly on Guna^hya, whom he speaks of as a poet of the court of " Salivahana," by which we are probably to understand a Satavahana of Paithan.^ There were, it is true, other Brahmanical scholars, but they wrote in Sanskrit. As a rule, their literary work in Kanarese was confined to the composition of iasanas (edicts or deeds of donation, engraved on stone or copper). These are mostly in verse, and often exhibit considerable poetic skill. Special attention may be drawn to the sasanas dated 929, 1084, 1102, 1137 and 1147, quoted by Mr. Narasimhacharya. Illustrative Extract from the Pampa Ramayana A.D.c. 1105 HOW HAVANA SOUGHT THE AID OF MAGIC IN ORDER TO OVERCOME RAMA The following attempt to reproduce, In abridged form, the spirit of a passage in the Pampa Ramayana (XIV, 75-105) will serve to illustrate (i) the Jaina atmosphere of the poem; (ii) its serious ethical tone; (iii) the nature of the champu style of composition — mingled prose and verse — the verse being of various metres. Hearing of Lakshmana's perfect recovery from his wound, and of his preparation for a fresh attack, Ravana's ministers advised him to send Sita back to her rightful lord, and to make an alliance with Rama ; adding that he could not hope for victory, as Rama and Lakshmana were stronger than he, and uncon- querable. Thereat Ravana was greatly enraged, and said : * Of Gunadhya's date It Is only known that it was considerably earlier than' A. D. 600. His Brihat-katful, or " Great Story Book," was written in a " Paifiacha," i.e. local Prakrit, language, and is not now extant. But it was the basis of the great collection of stories on Sanskrit, called Katha-sarit-sagara (" Ocean of Rivers of Story ") by Somadeva (c. 1070). THE JAINA PERIOD 39 " Shall I, who made e'en Swarga's lord Before my feet to fall, Now meekly yield me, — overawed By this mere princeling small ? Nay, better 'twere, if so must be. My life be from me reft. I still could boast, what most I prize, A warrior's honour left. Natheless, to make my victory sure, I'll have recourse to magic lore. There is a spell, the shastras tell, Which multiplies the form. If this rare power I may attain, I'll seem to haunt the battle-plain. My 'wildered enemies shall see. Before, behind, to left, to right, Phantasmal Ravans crowd to fight. Whom darts shall strike in vain. Its name is bahu-rupini . 'Tis won by stern austerity." That nothing might impede him in the acquiring of his magic power, Ravana issued orders that throughout Lanka and its territories no animal life should on any account be taken ; that his warriors should for a time desist from fighting ; and that all his subjects should be diligent in performing the rites of Jina pujd. Then entered he the Jaina fane His palace walls within. Attendant priests before him bore The sacred vessels, as prescribed In books of holy lore. And there to lord SantiSvara He lowly reverence paid ; Omitting no due ritual That might secure his aid. After worship had been performed with due solemnity, he took a vow of silent meditation ; and seating himself in the padmdsana posture, began a course of rigorous concentration of mind and suppression of the bodily senses. And there he sat, like statue fixed ; And not a wandering thought was mixed With his abstraction deep. Upon his hand a chaplet hung, With beads of priceless value strung, And on it he did ceaseless tell The mantras that would serve him well. 40 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE When VibhTshana learned through spies what Ravana was doing, he hastened to Rama, and urged him to attack and slay Ravana before he could fortify himself with this new and formidable power. But Rama replied : " Ravan has sought Jinendra's aid In true religious form. It is not meet that we should fight With one engaged in holy rite, His weapons laid aside. I do not fear his purpose fell. No magic spell can serve him well Who steals his neighbour's bride." Vibhishana and Angadaare disappointed with this reply, and resolve to try and bi'eak Ravana 's devotions without the knowledge of Rama. So they send to disturb him some of the monkey-bannered troops. They rush toward the town in swarms upon swarms : They trample the corn, and they damage the farms ; They frighten and chevy the maidens about ; And all through the temple they shriek and they shout, And make a most fearful din. But Ravana stirred not ; — as still as a stone, His mind was intent on his japa alone. Then the yakshas, or guardian spirits of the Jina shrine, interpose, drive forth the intruders, and appeal to Rama and Lakshmana to withdraw them. Finally it is arranged that any- thing may be done to break Ravana's devotions, so long as his life is not taken and the palace and temples are not destroyed. Then Angada, heir to Kishkindha's wide soil. Determines himself Rilvan's penance to spoil. He mounts on Kishkindha, his elephant proud ; And round him his ape-bannered followers crowd. He rides through the suburbs of Lanka's fair town, Admiring its beauty, its groves of renown. He enters the palace, goes alone^to the fane ; With reverence he walks round Santi^vara's shrine. And in lowliness worships the image divine. When — sudden — he sees giant Ravana there, Seated, still as some mountain, absorbed in his praj'er ! Surprised and indignant, in anger he speaks : — " What ! miscreant, hypocrite, villain ! dost thou " In holiest temple thy proud forehead bow — " Who hast right ways forsaken, thy lineage disgraced, " The good hast imprisoned, the harmless oppressed, " And hast snatched from thy neighbour his virtuous wife, — " How canst t/um dare to pray in Santifivara's hall ! " Better think on thy misdeeds, and turn from them all, THE JAINA PERIOD 41 "Know by Rama's keen arrows in death thou shalt fall ; " And no magical rite the dread doom can forestall. " When the flames round thy palace leap higher and higher, " Too late thou digg'st wells to extinguish the fire ! " Thus saying, he tore off Ravana's upper garment and smote him with it ; he scattered the beads of his chaplet upon the ground ; he stripped Ravana's queen of her jewels, and slandered her sorely ; he tied her maidens in pairs by the hair of their heads ; he snatched off their necklace-s and hung them round the necks of the Jaina images ; and he defied and insulted Ravana in every possible way. The poor trembling women were frantic with fear. And tried to rouse Ravau. They bawled in his ear — " What's the good of thy japa ? Rise, save us from shame ! " Rise quickly and fight for thine ancient good name." But Ravana heard not, nor muscle did move, — As fixed as the Pole Star in heaven above. Then a thunderbolt's crash rent the firmament wide ; And adown the bright flash did a yakshinl glide. And swiftly took station at Ravana's side. " I have come at thy bidding," the visitant said, " I can lay on the field all thine enemies dead ; — " Save Hanuman, Lakshman and Rama divine, " Who are guarded by might that is greater than mine." " Alas ! " answered Ravan, with spirit depressed, " If those three remain, what availeth the rest ? " f NOTE ON THE DATE OF SAMANTA-BHADRA AND PUJYAPADA. I am indebted to Dr. J. N. Farquhar for the following valu- able information. The chronology of all the early Jaina writers who used Sanskrit and wrote on philosophy depends on the date of Umasvati, whose Tattvdrthadhigauta-sutra is the fountain-head of Jaina philosophy and also of the use of Sanskrit by Jainas. This date cannot be earlier than the fourth century, for he quotes the Yoga-sTitra, which cannot be dated earlier than A.D. 300. Samanta-bhadra wrote a commentary on Umasvati 's great work, and the earliest author who quotes him is Kumarila, who flourished A.D. 700. Thus Samanta-bhadra must belong to the fifth, sixth or seventh century. Piljyapada, who also wrote a commentary on Umasvati, is placed by the Digambaras between Samanta-bhadra and Akalanka. As Akalanka is attacked by Kumarila, we get this order : — The Voga-sutra, not earlier than A.D. 300; UmSsvati, fourth or fifth century; Samanta-bhadra; Piijyapada; Akalanka; Kumarila, A.D. 700. Ill JAINA LITERATURE FROM 1160-1600 In the twelfth century two new religious movements showed themselves in the Kanarese country, and thenceforward steadily continued to gain strength. These were Lirigayatism, generally represented as originating with Basava in 1160, and Vaishnavism, originating with Ramanuja about 1120. The former began at once to aflect Kanarese literature ; the latter did not influence it to any extent until the fifteenth century. Jaina writers continued to be predominant during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and to hold their own in competition with the others for two centuries more. It will therefore be convenient to continue the account of Jaina literature till the break-up of the Vijayanagar kingdom about 1600. It falls into two periods, corresponding roughly to the times of the later Ballal rajas and of the Vijayanagar kings respectively. IN THE TIME OF THE LATER BALLAL RAJAS (1160-1326) Lives of Tirthankaras. Many of the Jaina works are styled Purdnas, and bear the name of one or another of the Tirthankaras, whose lives they record. Rarely did a decade pass without one or more considerable works of this sort in champu ; as will be seen from the following list : JAINA LITERATURE 43 A.D. Author Name of Purana ^- Jl^' Pf Tirthankara c. 1170 Nemichandra Neminatha 22 1189 Affgala Chandraprabha 8 c. 1195 Achanna Vardhamana 24 c. 1200 Bandhuvarma Harivam§abhyudaya 22 1205 ParSvapandita ParSvanatha 23 1230 Janna Anantanatha 14 c. 1235 Gunavarma II Pushpadanta 9 c. 1235 Kamalabhava SantiSvara 16 1254 Mahabalakavi Neminatha 22 It will be noticed that three of the works treat of the popular twenty-second Tirthankara, who was related to Krishna. Some of the poets in this list deserve mention for works on other subjects also. Nemichandra was the author of the earliest known specimen of the Novel, or genuine work of fiction, in the Kanarese language. It is written in the usual champu in a pleasing style, but disfigured by erotic passages. It is entitled Li/avatl, and tells how a Kadamba prince saw in a dream a beautiful princess (the heroine) and she likewise dreamt of him. They were unacquainted, but after mutual search and various adventures were ultimately wedded. The story is based on the Sanskrit romance Vasavadatta by Subandhu (c. 610), but the scene is transferred from Ujjayini to Banavase. Nemichandra was eminent at the court of Vira Ballala, and at that of Lakshmana-raja, the Silahara ruler of Kolhapur. It was at the suggestion of Vira Ballala's minister that he undertook to write the Neminatlm- ptcrana. As the poet died before its completion, it has become known as the Arddha NSmi, the "Unfinished Life of Nemi." Janna was a man of varied gifts and considerable munificence, being both court-poet and minister at the Ballal court, and also the builder and beaut ifier of temples. He was a pupil of Nagavarma I. Beside the Purana named above, he wrote several metrical iasanas and also the YaSodhara-charitre (1209). This relates how a king was about to sacrifice two boys of noble birth to Mariamma, but was so moved by their story 44 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE that he released them, and abandoned the practice of animal sacrifice. Janna's style is highly praised for its grace and dignity. Bandhiivaryna^ who belonged to the Vaisya caste, published (besides the Harivamsabhyudaya) a well- written book on Morals and Renunciation. It is entitled Jiva Sarnbodhana, because addressed to the jiva or soul. The two poets, Parsva-pandita and Giinavarnia II, lived at the court of the Saundatti rajas. Earliest Sangatya. Sisicniayana (c. 1232) was the earliest poet to write in sahgatya, a form of composi- tion which afterwards came into much vogue. It is especially intended to be intoned to the accompaniment of a musical instrument. He wrote two books in this style — Anjana-charitre, representing a portion of Ravishena's Sanskrit Pad?na-charitra; and Tripura- dahajia, the " Burning of the Triple Fortress," an allegorical poem in which Birth, Decay and Death form the " triple fortress " destroyed. Andayya (c. 1235) was the author of a work in champu usually known as the Kabbigara Kava (" Poets Defender "), but also called Sobagina Suggi ("Harvest of Beauty"), Madana-vijaya and Kd,vana-Gella ("Cupid's Conquest"). The special literary interest of the work is that it is written from beginning to end without the use of a single unnaturalised {tatsama) Sanskrit word, the vocabulary consisting entirely of tadbhava (natura- lised Sanskrit) and desya (indigenous) words. It was written at the suggestion of scholars for the express purpose of showing that this could be done ; but the example has not been followed since. The subject is the victory of Cupid. Angry with Siva, who had imprison- ed the Moon, he assailed him with his arrows, but was cursed by Siva to be separated from his bride ; but he found means to get release from the curse, and to rejoin his bride. Mallikarjuna (c. 1245) was brother-in-lavv to Janna, and father of the Kesiraja who wrote the Sabdamani- darpana. He was a muni and lived in the time of the Hoysala king, Vira Somesvara (1234-1254). He com- JAINA LITERATURE 45 piled the Sukti-Sudh^rnava, called also the Kdvya-sara, a sort of "Gems from the Poets" — a very useful collection of verses from all previous poets, arranged under eighteen topics, such as descriptions of the sea, the mountains, the city, the seasons, the moonlight, the dawn, friendship, love, war, etc. It contains extracts from works otherwise lost. Only fifteen out of the eighteen chapters have as yet been found. He does not give the names of the poets quoted, but eighteen of them have been traced. A later Kavya-sara, " Selections from the Poets," was compiled in 1533 by Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda (see p. 47). Kesiraja (c. 1260) was author of the well-known standard grammar, Sabdamanidarpana (on which see below, p. 111). He came of a very literary family, being the son of Mallikarjuna, the nephew of Janna, and on his mother's side the grandson of another poet, Sahkara or Sumanobana, priest of the Yadava capital, whose works are lost. Kuvuideyidzi (c. 1275) wrote the Kumudendti Rania- ya7ia, in shatpadi metre (see p. 59). It follows the Jaina tradition, and is largely influenced by the Parnpa Ramayana. No perfect copy, however, has yet been found. Rafta-kavi (c. 1300), who was the lord of some Jaina town, is of interest because he wrote a quasi-scientific work, entitled Ratfa Mata or Ratta Sutra, on natural phenomena, such as rain, earthquakes, lightning, planets and omens. It was translated into Telugu by Bhaskara, a Telugu poet of the fourteenth century. Nagaraja (c. 1331) wrote in champu PmiyaSrava, fifty-two tales of Puranik heroes, illustrative of the duties of a householder. They are said to be transla- tions from Sanskrit. Maiigaraja I (c. 1360) wrote a book on medicine, called Khagendra Maiii-darpana, in which he quotes Pujyapada's work on medicine, of the fifth century. UNDER THE RAJAS OF VIJAYANAGAR (1336-1610) Competition with Lingayats and Vaishnavas. Dur- ing the Vijayanagar Period, the Jainas had to compete 4 46 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE with Lingayats and Vaishnavas, both of whom were now increasing in numbers and influence. Often debates took place in the presence of the kings between the rival religionists. As early as 1368 the Jainas com- plained of persecution by the Vaishnavas ; and the king Bukka Raya, doubtless under the advice of his eminent minister, Vidyatirtha Madhavacharya, made them com- pose their quarrel, and decreed that each party should practise its religion with equal freedom. Copies of this degree are still extant. Nevertheless, the influence of the Jainas was steadily waning. Lives ol Jaina Saints. A large proportion of their writings continued to be the lives of Tirthahkaras, and of other devout and exemplary Jainas. The following are lives of Tirthankaras belonging to this time : A.D. Author Name of Purana No. of Tirthankara 1385 Madhura Dharmanatha 15 1508 Mangarasa Nemi-Jinesa 22 1519 ^antiklrti ^antinatha 16 1550 Doddayya Chandraprabha 8 1578 Doddananka " 8 Madhura was court-poet of Harihara of Vijayanagar, whose prime minister was his patron. Besides the above work, he wrote a short poem in praise of Gommatesvara of Sravana Belgola. Although he belonged to the fourteenth century, he wrote in the scholarly style of the earlier Jaina poets. Mangarasa was a general of rank. He wrote several works containing stories of Jaina princes. The life of a pious prince, named Jivandhara-raja, appears to have been a favourite subject with the writers of this time. His story was reproduced from the Sanskrit, and told three times over in shatpadi — by Bhaskara of Penugon<^a (1424), Bommarasa of Terakanambi (c. 1485), and Kotesvara of Tuluva-desa (c. 1500). Another hero-saint was Naga-kumara, a wealthy man who learned to despise riches, and devot- ed himself to a religious life. His story was told by Bahubali of Sringeri (c. 1560). JAINA LITERATURE 47 Poets of the Tuluva Country. The next four poets were all from the country below the Western Ghats. It is worth noting that it was during this period that the two colossal Jaina statues in that part of the country were erected — that at Karkala in 1431 , and that at Yenur in 1603. In 1533 Abhinava Vadi Vtdyananda of Gersoppa (Bhallataki-pura), an able lecturer and disputant, who championed Jainism both at Vijayanagar and at many of the provincial capitals, compiled the Kavya-sdra, an anthology of passages on forty-five different subjects from previous poets. It is similar to Mallikarjuna's Sukti-sudlmrriava. As he gives the names of many of the poets, who range from 900-1430, this collection is very useful. Salva (c. 1550), court poet of a prince named Salva- malla, ruling a city in the Konkan, wrote a Jaina version of the Bharata known as the Sdlva BMrata. It was, perhaps, intended to compete with the Krishia Raya Bharata, which had been finished not long before, as he bids his readers not to listen to faulty versions, but to follow this pure Jaina narrative. It is in shatpadi, and arranged in sixteen parvas, which differ from those of the Brahmanical version. Ratndkara-varni , a Kshatriya of Mudabidire, was the writer of several works. His Triloka-^ataka, written in 1557, gives an account of the universe (heaven, hell and intermediate worlds) as conceived by Jainas. His Aparajita-sataka discourses of morals, renunciation and religious philosophy. His largest work, Bharat- Hvara-charitre, tells the legendary story of the emperor Bharata, who, according to Jainas, was the son of the first Tirthahkara, and became a Jaina yati. Many songs by this author, on moral and doctrinal subjects, are current among Jainas, under the name of Annagala- pada, " Songs of the Brothers." NSmayina, also of the Tuluva country, wrote in 1559 the Jnana-bhaskara-charite, in which he urges that contemplation and the study of the Sastras are far more valuable for the attainment of emancipation than either outward rites or austerities. 48 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE Another poet deserving of mention is Ayata-varma, the author of the Kannac^a Rahia-karandaka (" Casket of Jewels"), a champu rendering from the Sanskrit work of the same name, giving a useful account of the beliefs and duties of Jainas, under the heads of the three Jaina "jewels" — right belief, right knowledge, and right conduct. His date is uncertain. He is conjecturally placed by Mr. Narasimhacharya at about 1400. IV THE RISE OF LINGAYATISM A.D. 1160 Namas tunga-Hras-chumbi-chayidra-chClviara-chdrave Trailokya-nagar-dramb ha-?nula-stamb hciya-Sanib have . "Adoration to Sambhit (Siva), adorned with the moon lightly resting like a royal plume upon his lofty head — to Him who is the foundation pillar for the building of the City of the Three Worlds." This, the opening verse of Bana's Harsha- charita, is usually placed at the commencement of Saiva inscriptions. THE LINGAYAT OR VIRASaIVA RELIGION The Lirigayats are found chiefly in the Kanarese and Telugu countries. They constitute thirty-five per cent, of the total Hindu population in the Belgaum, Bijapur, and Dharwar districts ; and ten per cent, in the Mysore and Kolhaptir States. They call them- selves Sivachars and Virasaivas. The latter name ("stalwart Saivas ") distinguishes them from the three other classes of Saivas, viz. the Samanya-, Misra-, and Suddha-Saivas. The first two of these classes worship Vishnu as well as Siva ; the Suddha- and Vira- Saivas worship Siva exclusively. That which distinguishes the Virasaivas from the Suddha-Saivas, and is their most distinctive peculiarity, is the wearing always, somewhere on the person, of a linga, i.e. a small black cylindrical stone, representing the phallus, but symbolic of the deity. This is worn by both men and women, and is generally kept in a silver or wooden reliquary {karadige) suspended from the neck. The 50 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE Jangamas, or Lingayat "religious," wear it on their head. The investiture with the linga is the most sacred rite of childhood. The lihga is taken out and held in the palm of the hand for worship, but must on no account be parted with throughout life. Lihgayats are strictly vegetarian in diet, and on this account all other castes, except Brahmans, will eat food cooked by them. As they do not admit Brahman claims to pre-eminence, there is hostility or aloofness between them and Brahmans. Basava, indeed, taught that men of all castes, and even outcastes, were eligible to enter the Lingayat community. Other peculiarities are that they do not cremate their dead, but bury them ; and that they permit the remarriage of widows ; and that every Lingayat is connected with some monastery.^ The scriptures of the religion are in Sanskrit, and consist of the twenty-eight Saivagamas, the earlier portions of which are said to be applicable to all Saivas, and the later portions to relate especially to Virasaivas. There is also an ancient Sanskrit work, called ^iva- gttd, to which a high place is given. By the unlearned the Basava- purdna and Chaii7iabasava-purll7ia are treated as authorities for their religion ; but the learned do not give them this place. The leading doctrines and practices of the Virasaiva religion are summed up in the technical terms, ashtava- ra7m?n, the "eight environments," or aids to faith and protections against sin and evil ; and shatsthala, the six stages of salvation. As these terms are peculiar to Lingayats, and continually recur in their literature and in the titles of their books, it is desirable to explain their meaning. The ashtAvaranam, or aids to faith, are: (1) Obedi- ence to a guru\ (2) Worship of a lihga; (3) Rever- ence for the jaiigama as for an incarnation of §iva ; (4) The devout use of ashes {vibhuli) made of cowdung, * See further Farquhar's Outline of the Religious Literature oi India, pp. 259-64. THE RISE OF LINGAYATISM 51 which are supposed to have great cleansing and sanctifying power ; (5) Wearing of a necklace, or rosary, of rudraksha (seeds of the Eleocarpits) , sacred to Siva and a charm of supposed spiritual efficacy ; (6) Padodaka, the washing in, or drinking of, water in which the feet of a guru or jahgama have been bathed ; (7) Prasada, the presentation of food to a guru, lihga or jangama, and eating sacramentally what is left ; (8) Panchakshara, the utterance of the five-syllabled ioxn\\\\2i naniah ^ivaya ("Obeisance to Siva"). With the sacred syllable Om prefixed, it is also called shad- akshara (six syllabled). Nowadays all these eight safeguards are often combined into a single sacramental ritual at the initiation of a Lihgayat child soon after birth. The Shatsthala, or six stages of approximation towards union with the deity (Siva), are termed bhakti, viaheia, prasada, prd7iali?iga, iarana and aikya, the last being absorption into the deity. The word Sthala is also used to denote the eternal, impersonal, divine entity (also called ^iva-tattva), which manifests itself further as Linga-sthala (the personal deity to be worshipped) and Aiiga-sthala (the individual soul or worshipper) . The three degrees of manifestation of the deity are sometimes described as the Bhdva-linga, PrUna-liiiga and Ishta-linga, the first corresponding to spirit, the second to the life or subtile body, and the third to the material body or stone-liriga. Reverence is paid to sixty-three ancient saints, called pnratayias, mentioned also in the Tamil Pcriya-pHra?ia?H and 770 later or mediaeval saints {?mtana-puratana) . Of the former, although all are Saivas, only eight are Virasaivas. Among the later saints are included Basava and his chief disciples. Manikka Vachakar, the famous Tamil mystic (c. 900), is claimed as one of them, and said to be identical with a Manikayya mentioned among the Saiva saints in the Channabasava-Purdna. Lihgayatism was the state religion of the early Wo(^eyars of Mysore and of Umma^iir from 1399-1610, 52 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE and of the Nayaks of Keladi (Ikkeri or Bednur) from 1550-1763. Their principal juafha in the Mysore country is at Chitaldrug. BASAVA AND THE EARLY APOSTLES OF LINGAYATISM Basava, the reputed founder of the Lihgayat faith, but really only one of its revivers and propagandists, was an Aradhya Brahman. According to the traditional account he was the son of Madiraja and Madalambike. He was born at Bagavadi in the Kaladgi district, but was taken to reside at Kappadi, at the junction of the Malaprabha and the Krishna, where there is a shrine dedicated to Siva under the name of Sahgamesvara, " Lord of the Confluence." Here he is said to have become conscious of a call to revive the Virasaiva faith. His first wife was the daughter of his maternal uncle, the prime minister of Bijjala, the Kalachuri king, who ruled at Kalyana, 1156-1167. When his father-in-law died, Basava was invited to succeed him as prime minister. The Jainas say that Basava owed his position and influence largely to his having a very beautiful sister, Padmavati, whom the king became enamoured with and married ; and that the king gave himself up to the charms of his bride and left the reins of power in his minister's hands. Basava had another sister, Nagalambike, who had a son named Channabasava. In concert with him Basava began to propound his new doctrine and new mode of worshipping Siva. He speedily gained a large number of followers, and appointed many priests, who were called Jahgamas. Having charge of the king's treasury, he spent large amounts in supporting these Jangamas. Bijjala had another minister, a Brahman, named Manchanna, who vigorously opposed Basava, and accused him of em- bezzlement. The king tried to arrest Basava ; but he fled, and, being joined by numerous adherents, defeated the king, who was compelled to reinstate him in all his dignities. There was, however, no real reconciliation. THE RISE OF LINGAYATISM 53 Of what followed there are varying accounts. The Lihgayat account is that the king, having wanted to put out the eyes of two Lihgayat devotees, Basava pronounced a curse upon Kalyana, and directed one of his disciples to slay the king ; and that he then fled to Sahgamesvara, and was " absorbed into the Lihga " (i.e. died) there. The Jaina version is that when the king was returning from a military expedition, and was encamped on the bank of the Bhima River, Basava sent him a poisoned fruit, and then fled to Ulavi, at the foot of the Western Ghats, where he was besieged by the king's son, and in despair threw himself into a well.^ An inscription at Manargoli (eleven miles north-west of Bagavadi) of the sixth year (1161) of Bijjala, records a grant to a temple which a Basava had erected there. It gives his lineage, mentioning his father, Chandiraja, and mother, Gangambike, as residing at Manargoli. It speaks of Basava in very high terms as "without an equal in devotion to Siva," and as the "virtuous father of the world " who had brought fame to the village. This seems to refer to the Apostle of Lihgayatism ; but no mention is made of his exaltation to the position of prime minister. Myths afterwards gathered round Basava's name, and later generations regarded him as an incarnation of Nandi, the vehicle of Siva, and as having worked numerous and wonderful miracles. All these things will be found written in the Basava-purdiia (1369), the Mala Basava-7'llja-charitre (c. 1500), the VrishabhSndra Vijaya (1671), and other works. To Basava are attributed some prose works exposi- tory of the Lihgayat faith, viz. Shai-sthala-vachana, * The Jaina account is found in the Bijjala-rdja-charitre (c. 1650); the Lingayat account in the Basava-purana (1369). A later Lingayat account, in the Channabasava-purdna (1584) absolves Basava from any part in the king's death ; but this looks like an apologetic afterthought. A source of information nearer to the time of the occurrences than any of these should be the Telugu Basava-purana of Palkurike Soma (c. 1195), if it is extant. 54 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE or " Discourses on the Six Stages of Salvation "; Kala- jnana-vacha?ia, " Forecasts of the Future "; Ma?itra- goPya, Ghatachakra-vachana and Raja-yoga-vacha?ia. Other Apostles of Ling^Lyatism. As the chief credit of the Lingayat Revival has been universally attributed to Basava, it may be well to state briefly the evidence which shows that he was only one of a number of persons to whom it was due. (i) Several of his personal associates are expressly named. The chief of these was Channabasava. Even in the tradition itself, Channabasava is represented as, in some respects, superior to his uncle. In him the pranava, or sacred syllable Om, is said to have become incarnate, to teach the doctrine of the Virasaiva faith to Basava ; and whereas Basava is represented as an incarnation of Nandi, Channabasava was 6iva himself. As Basava must have been much occupied with affairs of State, the religious portion of the movement may have been, from the beginning, largely under Channa- basava's direction. It appears that when, after his uncle's death, he was readmitted to the royal favour, he became the acknowledged leader. Other leading associates of Basava were Madivala Machayya, Prabhudeva and Siddharama. Of these the last-named is mentioned as having made a tank and consecrated many lihgas at Sonnalige. Of all these early apostles of Lifigayatism wonderful stories are told, which are the subjects of the Chanriabasava-piirajia (1585), the Madivalayya-sHngatya, the Prablmlinga-llle (c. 1430), the SiddhardTna-purdna (c. 1165), and other works. (ii) Frequent mention is made in Lingayat writings of Five Acharyas, whose names are Revana (or Renuka), Marula-siddha, Panditaradhya (or Malli- karjuna), Ekorami-tande (or Ekorama) and Visvesvar- acharya. The first and third of these belonged to the Telugu country — Revana to Kollipaka (midway between Warangal and Golkonda), and Panditaradhya to Vengi. Both of these, as well as Ekorama, must have been contemporaries of Basava. For it is related of THE RISE OF LINGAYATISM 55 Panc^itaradhya that, after having championed the Virasaiva cause at the Chola court, he was on his way to visit Basava when he heard of the latter's death. Of Ekorama it is said that he converted Bijjala's queen ; and of Revana that he was the instructor of Siddharama. The previous incarnations of these acharyas, referred to in the Basava-purapa, may be dismissed as fabulous. (iii) An inscription of about 1200 at Ablur in the Dharwar district records the doings of one, Ekanta Ramayya, an ardent worshipper of Siva, who defeated the Jainas in controversy and displaced their temple by a temple to Siva. He is said to have effected this by laying a wager that he would cut oflE his own head, and that it would be restored seven days later by the grace of Siva. Bijjala, hearing of this miracle, summoned him to court, and gave him gifts of land for the Abliir temple. As these events are placed shortly before 1162, he must have been a contemporary of Basava, but Basava is not named. In the Basava-pura7ia, however, which was written 200 years later, it is said that Basava himself was present when the wager was made. It is to be noted that even the sasana is thirty-three years later than the alleged miracle.'^ (iv) There were in connection with the court of one of the Ballal rajas, three Saiva poets, Harisvara, Raghavahka and Kereya Padmarasa. (See pp. 60, 62.) There has been some difficulty in fixing the particular Ballal raja under whom they lived ; but Mr. Narasimha- charya has given reason to show that it was probably Narasimha I (1141-1173). If so, they must have been contemporaries of Basava. But they make no reference to him, and must have drawn their inspiration from some other source. From these considerations it seems probable that the Virasaiva movement had already been for some time in progress before Basava ; and that the pro- ^ See Epigraphia Indica, v. (1899), Indian Antiquary, xxx. (1901), and Bhandarkar's VaisAnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, pp. 131-40. 56 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE minence which his name has received is clue chiefly to the fact that it was his influence at court which gave the movement the political opportunity that led to its rapid dissemination in the Kanarese districts. THE VACHANA LITERATURE The Lingayat propaganda was aided by a large number of writers who flooded the country with tracts commending the new creed. These tracts are called Vacha7ias, or " Sentences," and form a unique feature of Lingayat literature. They are in easily intelligible (sometimes even alliterative) prose, requiring no learning to understand. To this fact is doubtless due, in considerable measure, the popularity of the move- ment. We may perhaps compare the effect produced in England in the fourteenth century by Wycliffe and his preachers and MS. Gospels. In form, the vachanas are brief disconnected paragraphs, each ending with one or another of the numerous local names under which Siva is worshipped. In style, they are epigrammatical, parallelistic and allusive. They dwell on the vanity of riches, the valuelessness of mere rites or book- learning, the uncertainty of life, and the spiritual privileges of the Siva-bhakta. They call men to give up the desire for worldly wealth and ease, to live lives of sobriety and detachment from the world, and to turn to Siva for refuge. They are seldom controversial, but almost entirely hortatory, devotional and expository. They are still recited by Lingayat acharyas for the instruction of their followers. Some of the vachanas have a section called kala- JTiana, which gives a forecast of the future. These portions speak of the coming of an ideal king, named Vira Vasanta Raya, by whom Kalyana will be rebuilt and the Lifigayat religion come to its full glory. The vachana literature began in the time of Basava, to whom are attributed six works of this sort ; and it continued to be produced through the next three or four centuries. Only a few of the vachanas can be accurately THE RISE OF LINGAYATISM 57 dated, a great number being anonymous. In these cases one author is distinguishable from another only by the divine name which he invokes. Many of the tracts bear identical titles, the most common of which is Shai-sthala-vachana. Specimens of the Vachanas By Basava Oh pay your worship to God now — before the cheek turns wan, and the neck is wrinkled, and the body shrinks — before the teeth fall out, and the back is bowed, and you are wholly depen- dent on others — before you need to lean on a staff, and to raise yourself by your hands on your thighs — before your beauty is destroyed by age, and Death itself arrives. Oh, now worship Kiidala-sangama-deva. Those who have means will not devote them to the building of a temple to God (Siva). Then I, though a poor man, will build Thee one, O Lord. My legs shall be the pillars, my body the shrine, my head the golden finial. Hearken, O Kudala- sangama-deva ! The fixed temple of stone will come to an end ; but this movable temple of the spirit will never perish. The leg does not tire of walking, the eye of seeing, the hand of working. The tongue does not weary of singing ; the head does not ache with the binding of the hair ; nor does the mind of man desist from desire. Neither shall my heart weary of worshipping and serving Thee, O Kiidala-sangama-deva. By Urilinga-peddi (c. 1180) Camphor, when touched by fire, itself turns to flame. Salt immersed in water is dissolved into water itself. So the disciple who companions with the True Guru becomes such as the Guru himself. " Like seed, like shoot," is a true saying. ViSvegvara knows— he who is dear to Urilinga-peddi. By Mahadevi-akka (Of whom it is told that the lord of her city wished to wed her, but she spurned his advances, renounced the pleasures of the world, and went to Kalyana and joined the companions of Basava.) What sort of a man is he who, having built his house on the mountain, is afraid of the wild beasts there ? or, having built it 58 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE on the seashore, is alarmed by the roar of the surf ? or, If he live in the market street, cannot bear the noise of the traffic ? Then seeing we have been born into the world as it is, we must not be afraid of its praise or its blame, but abstain from passion, and rest unperturbed. Hear my prayer, O Mallikarjuna-deva. By Swatantra Siddhalingesvara (c. 1480) How sadly they fall who are bewitched by the harlot Desire ! Be they ministers or monks, be they scholars or saints, inhabitants of earth or dwellers in heaven, she makes them all to hanker after riches. Who is able to resist her enchantments ? Only those who have found a refuge in the True Guru, Swatantra Slddha- lingeSvara. All others she makes to dance at her will. LINGAYAT WRITERS FROM 1160-1600 Transition from Ancient to Mediaeval Kanarese. Whatever the explanation may be, it is a striking fact that the early Lirigayat period was marked by important changes both in grammatical usage and in literary form. The letter la was entirely dropped, and its place taken by (a or the half-letter r. The letter pa at the commencement of a word and in verbal forms was changed to ha. And there was a negligence in the observance of the rules of syntax and of rhyme {prasa), which is in marked contrast with the precision of the early Jaina poets. The hitherto dominant champu form of composition, though it still continued to be used by scholars, fell more and more into desuetude. All the metres hitherto used had been those which occur in Sanskrit ; but at this time new and purely Kanarese metres were introduced. These are especially the shaipadi (six-lined stanzas), the tripadi (three-lined stanzas), and the ragales (lyrical compositions with refrains). The first to use shatpadi was Raghavanka (c. 1165). He was followed, a hundred years later, by the Jaina Kumudendu (c. 1275). A hundred years later still, this metre was adopted in the Basava-purana (1369) and the Padmaraja-purana (c. 1385). It thence- forward became the most common metre of all later works, whether Lingayat or Vaishnava. Another literary form which dates from this period is the sdngatya, which appears first in 1232. It became very common after the middle of the fifteenth century. 60 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE LINGAYAT WRITERS IN THE TIME OF THE LATER BALLAL RAJAS (1160-1310) After Bijjala's death the northern part of the Kana- rese country (Kuntala) was thrown into disorder. The Kalachuri dynasty succumbed to the Yadavas of Deva- giri, whose interests were with the Marathi language. Most of the Kanarese country fell under the sway of the Ballal rajas, whose capital was at Dorasamudra (Halebid). We now proceed to give an account of the chief Lifigayat authors (other than Vachana writers) who lived in the time of these sovereigns. The earliest is Harisvara, called also Harihara, who was for a time chief revenue accountant of Halebi^ under Narasiiiiha Ballala. He lived for many years under the shadow of the Virupaksha temple at Hampe, and there he wrote his works. His first was a lengthy book in lyrical (ragale ) form, in praise of the sixty-three puratanas and other early Saiva saints. It is known as ^iva-ganada- ragale, or from the name of the first saint, Natnbiyafi- nana-ragale. He afterwards composed the Girija- kalyana, or " Legend of the Marriage of Siva and Parvati," which gained much popularity. It is written elegantly in the old Jaina style, and is highly praised by all subsequent Lihgayat writers. He also wrote Pampa-iatakam, a cento in praise of Virupaksha of Hampe. R^ghav^nka was a nephew and disciple of Harisvara. He was born and lived at Hampe ; but he visited and won triumphs at the courts of D5rasamudra and Waran- gal, and spent the last years of his life at Belur in the Hassan district. He wrote Harikhandra-kavya, the legend of the inflexible truthfulness of kingHarischandra. It is said that his uncle, Harisvara, was displeased at his having written the praises of a Vaishnava king, and to make amends he wrote his other works, of which the chief are So7nanlltha-charitre, the history of Somayya of Puligere, whose boast was that he had crushed the Jainas, and compelled them to admit a Siva image into a Jaina temple ; Siddharama-purHna, LINGAYAT writers 61 the history of Siddharama of Sonnalige (See p. 54) ; and Harihara-mahatva, in praise of Harisvara of Hampe. As already mentioned, he was the first to write in shatpadi, the form of verse which afterwards became so popular. An account of him, entitled Raghavaiika- charitre, was written by Siddha-nafijesa in the seven- teenth century. Kcrcya Padmarasa received his proenomen " Kereya" (tank-builder) through having caused to be made the Belur tank. He was minister of the Ballal raja Narasimha. When he had retired for some time from this oifice, and was residing at Belur, he was summoned back to the capital to withstand a Telugu Brahman, who had come to D5rasamudra preaching Vaishnavism. Travelling thither with a company of learned men reciting Saiva texts, he reached the capital, and so triumphantly vindicated the Virasaiva faith that, accord- ing to the contract, his opponent had to embrace it. Then he set out, via Hampe, on a pilgrimage to Benares, where he died. He wrote Diksha-bodhe, a volume in ragale representing a colloquy in which a guru instructs a disciple and occasionally quotes San- skrit slokas in confirmation of Saiva doctrine. He is the hero of the Padmamja-pjirana, written by ope of his descendants about 1385. On the date of Harisvara, Raghavarika and Kereya Padmarasa, see above p. 55. Kumdra Padmarasa, the son of the last-named writer, was the author of the Sananda-charitre, which tells how a rishi's son, hearing of the torments of the lost in hell, attempted to relieve their suffering by the power of the pane haks hart. P^kurike Soma (c. 1195) was a learned scholar born at Palkurike in the Godavari district. After defeating in controversy the Vaishnava sastris there, he moved to Kalleya in the Kanarese country, where, both in prose and verse, he praised Basava and the Virasaiva faith, and where ultimately he died. His date is fixed by the fact that he is praised by Somaraja (1222); and moreover, according to one account, he 5 62 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE was the son of a disciple of Basava. A Telugu Basava- purdtia by him was used by Bhima-kavi in the prepara- tion of his Kanarese Basava-purana. His Kanarese writings include the ^aranu-basava-ragale (108 Kandas), the ^ila-sa7npadana (a list of the 64 virtues of Vira- saivas), Sadguru-ragale and Channabasava-stotrada- ragale. He is the subject of the Palknrike SomeSvara Purana by Virakta T5ntadarya (c. 1560). Somesvara-sataka. Some doubt exists as to the authorship of the SomeSvara-iataka^ a popular and widely-read cento of verses on moral subjects. It has by some been attributed to Palkurike Soma. But Mr. Narasimhacharya says that the work is so loose and faulty, in grammar and style, that it could scarcely have been written by one who, like that scholar, was acquaint- ed with Sanskrit. He also points out that Lihgayats themselves do not include it in the list of writings by Palkurike Soma. Besides which, the author never calls himself Palkurike Soma, but implies that he belonged to Puligere (Lakshmesvar). The date of Puligere Soma is not certainly known, but he may have belonged to this period. Stanzas from the SomeSvara I^ataka By Puligere Soma. A.D. 1200. {?) [As the refrain is capable of being construed in two ways, I have given different renderings of it in alternate verses. Hara and SomeSvara (or SomeSa) are names of ^iva.] Some facts from professors are learnt, And some by the gastras are taught ; Some lore is the fruit of observing, And some is arrived at by thought ; And converse with wise men gives insight ; And thus to ripe knowledge one's brought. Many drops coalescing make rivers ; From rivers the ocean is wrought. Be Hara, great Hara, adored — Some§vara, glorious Lord. (2) The sun like a jewel adorneth the sky, The moon like a jewel the night ; LINGAYAT WRITERS 63 An heir is the cherished gem of the home, The gems of the lake are the lotuses bright : The sacrifice' crown is th' oblation of ghee, The crown of a wife is her sweet chastity ; And that which adorneth the court of a king Is the presence of poets, fit praises to sing. To thee, O SomeSa, I bow ; Death's mighty Destroyer art thou. (18) The moon, though It sometimes is slender, Will swell to full roundness again ; The seed of the banyan, though tender. May become greatest tree of the plain ; The puniest calf to a bullock will grow ; The green fruit will ripen in time ; And so, by the favour of heaven, The poorest to riches may climb. Be Hara, great Hara, adored — SomeSvara, glorious Lord. (45) What avails it to scrub at your skin, If within you are full of foul mire .-' Can the wicked man, clinging to sin, By bathing cleanse sinful desire ? Why, the crows and the buffaloes bathe : If to cleanse their beast nature — how vain ! Steep bitter nim fruit in sugar-cane juice : Yet it never will sweetness attain. To thee, O vSomeSa, I bow ; Death's mighty Destroyer art thou. (64) Who waters the forest unbounded ? On whose strength do the vast mountains rest ? And earth, air, fire, water and ether — Who but Thou dost with vigour invest ? Thou alone are upholder of all things that be ; And mortals are nought ; they subsist but in Thee. Be Hara, great Hara, adored^ SomeSvara, glorious Lord. (43) Two Romances. Two authors of this period call for mention as having written books of romance. Deva-kavi (c. 1200) wrote the Kusiimdvali in champu. Like the Lilavatl of Nemichandra, it is the story of a prince and a princess who fall in love with one another's portraits, and after many days' search meet and are wedded, 64 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE Somaraja (1222), apparently a ruling prince, pro- bably of the Chauta rajas on the West Coast, who had embraced Lingayatism, wrote ^riiigara-rasa, called also Udbhata-kavya. Its hero, Udbhata, the ruler of Ger- soppa (Bhallataki-pura), slays a demon which had been hindering a rishi's sacrifice ; he then marries the daughter of a Chola king ; and in scorn of the thought of going unaccompanied to Kailasa, like another whom he sees, he lays a wager to take the entire population of the city with him thither. LINGAYAT LITERATURE UNDER THE VIJAYANAGAR KINGS (1336-1600) In the time of the Vijayanagar kings who, during two and a half centuries exercised the chief sway in the Kanarese country, literature was being produced by the followers of three religions. The principal Jaina writers have already been mentioned. The Vaishnava writers will be noticed in a later chapter. An account will here be given of the Lihgayat writers only. To enumerate them all would require much more space than this little book can aflford. The chief writings may be classified under two heads — Stories of Virasaiva Reformers and Devotees, and Expositions of Lihgayat doctrine. Stories of Virasaiva Reformers and Devotees. No religion can make way among the common people if its doctrines are stated only in abstract terms. They must be presented also in the form of biographies, as lived out in the actual experience of men. Therefore, as the Jainas wrote lives of the Tirthahkaras, the Lihgayats wrote lives of eminent §iva-bhaktas. The first work of importance, belonging to this class, was the Basava Purina, written in the sliatpadi metre by Bhima-kavi, an Aradhya Brahman of whose personal life little is known. The book was completed in 1369. It speedily became, and has since remained, a very popular book among Lihgayats. Among the authorities on which it is based is mentioned a Telugu work of the same name by Palkurike Soma. LINGAYAT writers 65 It professes to tell the story of the life of Basava; who, however, is now represented as an incarnation of Nandi, Siva's inseparable vehicle, and as especially sent to re-establish the Virasaiva faith upon earth. The bulk of the book is taken up with the wonderful miracles Basava performed. The book is an interesting and typical illustration of the mythopoetic tendency, which shows itself more or less in all religions. The method seems to be this. First, a sectarian boast is made in highly hyperbolical terms — such as, that Basava' s word is so powerful that by it poison can be converted into ambrosia, the dead restored to life, irrational creatures enabled to confute learned men, mountains can be moved, the sun made to stand still in heaven, a tigress yield herself to be milked. Or else a teaching is recorded in metaphorical language — such as, that those of unclean castes and degrading pursuits are sanctified by the performance, however mechanically, of the powerful Saiva rites. And then, concrete stories are invented to justify each of these statements. This will give an idea of the kind of miracle {pavada) attri- buted freely to Basava. Finally, Basava is represented as being re-absorbed into the linga of the Siva temple at Sahgamesvara. "As a column of dust raised by the whirlwind arises from the earth, and is lost upon the earth again ; as froth is produced in mill< when it is churned, and subsides into milk again ; as the lightning flash is born of the sky, and recedes into the sky again ; as hailstones are produced by water, and melt into water again ; so Basava came forth from the Guru and ultimately was re- united with Him in everlasting rest." * Illustrative Extract from the Basava Purana, XI, 9-15. A.D. 1369 BASAVA AND THE KING'S TREASURE Introductory Note. — Basava was in charge of king Bijjala's treasury. Just before the time for paying the army, a * An abridged English translation of the Basava Purana and Channabasava Purana, by Rev. G. Wiirth, will be found in the Journal of the Boynbay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1865-66. 66 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE Jangama came along and asked him for the treasure. Where- upon the pious Basava gave him the whole. The king being informed by Basava's opponents, severely reprimanded him, and threatened him with instant dismissal. The poem then proceeds — But nought perturbed was Basava ; He calmly smiled and said : — " Untold, O king, the wealth of him Who worships ^iva great. His is the stone Chintamani Which finds him all he asks ; And his the Cow of Paradise, — The Kamadhenu famed ; The Kalpa-vriksha too is his, — Th' all-bounteous tree of Heaven ; E'en Meru's golden mount is his : No good thing can he lack. What folly then to think that such Can covet other's wealth ! Will bee that knows the lotus-bloom A thistle seek instead ? Will chakor bird, that has for food The moon's ambrosial rays, Exchange that heavenly banquet for The dark of moonless night ? Will cub of Indra's elephant Suck teat of village sow ? Will hafhsa-swan, that's free to drink Of the boundless Sea of Milk, Seek salt-sea water for its thirst ? O Bijjala, bethink I Or will tlie lion feed on herbs ? Will parrot throw away The mango's luscious fruit to eat Insipid jungle nut ? When these things hap, then may'st thou think The !^iva-bhakta too May cast his heaven-born treasure down To steal man's petty gold. Nay, let the earth reel 'neath our feet. Great Sesha's head sink down ; Quenclied be the raging fires of Hell, Splintered the mountain's crown ; Let moonlight lose its radiance soft ; The sun rise in the west. E'en then would he who Siva knows Not covet other's pelf. LINGAYAT WRITERS 67 Does he whose inmost mind doth glow With heavenly radiance blest Need man's poor earthen lamp to shed For him its sickly gleam ? With thought of Para-Siva's name What sweetness can compare ? Endowed with all the wondrous power That Siva -knowledge gives, I have command of all I wish. Need I thy money, king ? Dismiss the doubts that hold thy mind, And this beside reflect — That gold was never thine at all ; 'Twas Siva's — His alone. Mindful of this, I gladly gave It all to Siva Lord. Yet, mark, O king ! if by my deed Thou hast a farthing lost, I've failed to prove a bhakta true. Call for the chests and see." So the boxes were brought ; The contents were poured forth. Oh the wonder the courtiers saw ! Not a farthing was short ; The whole treasure was there ! 'Twas most dazzling — that golden store. The king beamed with delight At the vision so bright, And honoured Lord Basava more. NoTK. — The above account of one of Basava's alleged miracles, or " signs," shows the ease with which a narrative of professed fact may have grown out of what at first was probably only ethical teaching. It also reveals the consciousness of the possession of valuable spiritual truth which doubtless formed an important part of the dynamic of the Lingayat Revival. Maha-Basava-raja-charitra is the name of another account of Basava's life, written about 1500 by Singi- raja, and sometimes called the Singi-raja-ptirana. It recounts eighty-eight marvellous deeds of Basava, and gives information about his opponents at Bijjala's court. Later works on the same subject, by Sha<^akshara- deva (1671) and Marulusiddha(c. 1700) will be mentioned in later chapters. 68 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE To about the same period as Bhima-kavi belongs Padma7ianka, another Aradhya Brahman (c. 1385), a descendant of Kere-Padmarasa. He wrote the Padmar&ja-purAna, in which he extols the victory which his ancestor of 200 years before had won, when he confuted the advocates of other creeds, as related on p. 61. Prabhulihga, also called Allama-prabhu, is the hero of the Prabhulinga-lile. He was an associate of Basava, by whom he was made head of the Kalyana viatha (monastery). He is regarded in this book as an incar- nation of Ganapati, and it is related how Parvati, in order to test the steadfastness of his detachment from the world, incarnated a portion of herself in a princess of Banavase to tempt him. The author is Chamarasa, an Aradhya Brahman. He read his work at the court of Praudha Deva Ray a (1419-1446) who highly honoured him, and caused it to be translated into Telugu and Tamil. Chamarasa was a valiant champion of the Virasaivas, and held disputations with the Vaishnavas in the presence of the king. He was a rival of Kumara Vyasa, the author of the Kanarese Bharata, who had married his sister. More than a century later, in 1584, when the Vija- yanagar court was now at Penukonda, Virupaksha Pan- dita wrote the Ch^nna Basava Purana. Its hero, Channa- basava, is regarded as an incarnation of Siva. The work relates his birth, and his greatness at Kalyana ; but is mostly taken up with the instruction he gave to Siddharama of Sonnalige on the entire body of Vira- saiva lore — the creation, the wonderful deeds {llle) of Siva, the marvellous efficacy of Saiva rites, and stories of Saiva saints. It has consequently been very popular among Lingayat readers. It is also very useful to the historian of Kanarese literature, because it gives much help in determining the approximate dates of the early Virasaiva saints and poets. The book closes with a prophecy that Vira Vasanta Raya would come and rule the Kanarese country in 1584, and rebuild and beautify Kalyana. It thus identifies Vira Vasanta Raya with LINGAYAT WRITERS 69 Vehkatapati Raya, who ascended the throne in that year.^ There are also lives ol Ach^ryas and Purdtanas. The most popular of the Acharyas was PanditAradhya. His story had been already told by Palkurike Soma both in Telugu and Kanarese, and by Guru-raja (c. 1430) in Sanskrit. It was now retold in Kanarese in the Aradhya-chai'itra of Nilakanthacharya of Ummatiir (c. 1485) and by Mallikarjuna-kavi (1593) in a com- mentary on Guru-raja's Sanskrit work. Revana Siddha, another Acharya, had his story told before, not only in Sanskrit, but also by Harisvara in Kanarese. It was now retold in Mallanna's Revayia-Siddheivara-kdvya (1413) and in Chaturmukha Bommarasa's Revana- Siddhesvara- Parana (c. 1500). The latter author was a disciple of a descendant of Revana. A later work, Chaturasya-piirayia (1698) gives the lives of all the Acharyas except Visvesvara. Concerning the purdtanas we have the following : Author Date Name of Work Subject Bommarasa . . c. 1450 Saundara-purana Nambiyanna Nijagnna-yogi C.1500 Puratanara-tripadi 63 puratanas Suranga-k a v i c. 1500 Trishashti-puratanara- II (of Puligere) charitre (champu) Gubbi Mallan- 1513 ViraSaivamrita- Puratanas and arya purana others Virupa-raja . . 1519 Tribhuvana-tilaka King (sangatya) Cheramanka Kumara- C.1550 Basava-p u r a n a d a- Puratanas and Channabasava puratanara-charitre others Works expository of Virasaiva doctrine. Of the numerous works of this character only a selection can * Venkatapati Raya's father, Tirumala Raya, had done much to restore the prestige of the dynasty after the disastrous defeat of Talik(5ta and the fall of Vijayanagar. Among the many suc- cesses which he claims in inscriptions is the defeat of the Rattas, and he accordingly styles himself " Lord of Kalyanapura." This fact is probably the ground of the poet's hopeful forecast. But as a matter of fact, Kalyana remained in the territory of Bijapur until that State was annexed by the Mughal Emperor. The pro- phecy must be taken therefore as a piece of courtly flattery. 70 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE here be named. For the most part, commentaries on Sanskrit works will not be mentioned at all. The reign of Praudha Dcva fiAya (1419-1446) seems to have been a time of much literary activity. Two of his ministers were zealous in the propagation of Lihgayat doctrine. One, named Lakkamia, wrote a treatise on the beliefs and religious rites of the sect, entitled Sivatattva-chbitiWiani, "Handbook of Saiva Doctrine." Another, named Jakkamlrya, not only himself wrote, or reproduced from the Sanskrit, a work entitled Nuroyidu-sthala (" Hundred and One Topics "), but spent large sums on the composition of Lingayat works by other scholars. The chief of these scholars were Kumara-bahka-natha and Mahalinga-deva. Both of them were eminent gurus of the time ; and both wrote Vachanas and books on the Shat-sthala. The former also wrote a Sivatattva-chintclmaTii. Guru Basava, another eminent guru, was the author of seven works, called the Sapta-kavya (or " Seven Classics "), all of which expounded religious teaching in the form of colloquys between a guru and his disciple. All are in shatpadi, except the Avadhilta-gtte, which consists of songs in praise of detachment. Mention is also frequently made of a hu?idred and 07ie Virakias, or teaching Jangamas, who lived during the same king's time. Several of these wrote Vacha- nas and works on the Shat-sthala. The principal were Kalmatha Prabhudeva, who wrote in prose, and Kara- sthala Nagideva. There was great rivalry at the time between Lihgayats and Vaishnavas. Each in turn organised processions through the town in honour of the books of their respective faiths. Chamarasa and Kumara Vyasa, both mentioned elsewhere (pp. 68, 78), are especially noticed as rivals. This rivalry is further illustrated by the Praudha-rayacharitre of Adrisya (c. 1595), which consists of stories of Saiva saints, represented as told to this king by Jakkanarya in order to turn his mind from listening to the Bharata, and to convince him of the superiority of Lihgayatism. LINGAYAT WRITERS 71 In the reign of Virupaksha (1467-1478) there lived a guru named Tontada Siddhesvara or Siddhalinga-yati who had a very large number of disciples and exercised a wide influence. He derived his proenomen Tontada ("garden") from the circumstances that he long practis- ed Siva-yoga in a garden on the bank of the Nagini river near Kaggere. He was buried at Yediyui', near Kunigal, where a 7yiatha was built in memory of him, and where a temple in his honour still exists. All succeeding Lihgayat writers speak his praise. He wrote a prose work of 700 vachanas, entitled Shaisthala- jna7iamrita. One of his vachanas has been quoted above. Several of his disciples were authors of simi- lar works. His history is recorded in the SiddheSvara- purana by Virakta Tontadarya (c. 1560). Nijaguna-siva-yogi lived at some time between 1250 and 1655. His date cannot at present be more accurate- ly given, but he falls somewhere within the period which we are considering. He was a great scholar and a prolific writer. He was the ruler of the country round Sambhulihga hill near Yelandur, and finally retired to that hill and lived there as a Siva-yogi. In all his works he extols Sambhulihga. He did not write, like the others, in shatpadi, but employed tripadi, sahgatya, ragale and prose. One work is a commen- tary on the Sanskrit ^iva-yoga-pradlpika, written especi- ally for the benefit of those ignorant of Sanskrit who desire emancipation. But his best know work is the Viveka-chi7iiama7ii, a very useful encyclopaedia of San- skrit terms and Virasaiva lore. Mallanirya of GubbI was a learned man who lived in the reign of Krishna-deva-raya (1509-1529) . He wrote both in Kanarese and Sanskrit. He is chiefly known by two works. His Bhava-chi7ita.rat7ia (1513^ is a reproduction in Kanarese shatpadi of a Tamil work by Jiiana-sambandhar (Pillai Naynar) of the seventh cen- tury. It is sometimes called the Satyeyidra-Chola-kathe, because it tells a story of the Chola king which was designed to illustrate the power of the panchaksharl. The same story was, at a later date, elaborated in the 72 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE more famous Rajaiekhara of Shadakshara-deva (see p. 84). The other work, Vira^aivCLnirita (1530), also in shatpadi, gives a full statement of Lihgayat beliefs and traditions, supporting its teaching by quotations from the sacred books. It describes Siva's twenty-five liles{or "sports ") and gives stories of the puratanas and their successors. Like many other doctrinal works, it is put in the form of instruction given by a guru to his disciple. ViruPa-raja and Vlrabhadra-raja were two writers of princely lineage. The former has already been mentioned (p. 69). Virabhadra-raja was his son, and wrote five satakas on Virasaiva doctrine and morals. At the close of this period I will place a poet whose date is not yet decisively ascertained. This is Sarvajna- murtii the composer of the Sarvajna-padagahi, very popular verses in tripadi metre, embodying much shrewd wisdom, and frequently quoted by the common people. Sarvajiia is one of those poets whose artless and casual verses so express the better thoughts, which the common people feel but cannot express, that they have become the property and favourites of all, and are loved and quoted alike by ryot and tradesman and wandering mendicant. His real name was Pushpadatta. He tells us that he was the son of a Saiva Brahman of Masiir, in the Dharwar district, by a widow named Mali, whom his father met in a potter's house at Ambalur, while he was on his way home from a pilgrimage to Benares. About a thousand of his verses are current. Various collections of these have been made. Of the printed copies no two are exactly alike ; and these probably include a few verses which imitators have added later. The subjects, which are arranged under 47 or 49 heads, are chiefly religion, morals and society ; but there are also verses on astrology, weather-lore, etc., and even riddles. Sarvajfia occupies much the same place in Kanarese literature that Vemana does in Telugu, and Nam-dev (fourteenth century ?) and Tuka Ram (d. 1649) do in Marathi. Like them he preached the vanity of idol-worship, the inefficiency of pil- LINGAYAT WRITERS 73 grimages and of outward rites, and the need of sincerity in life. The following is the evidence as to his date : — (1) Collections of his verses have been found, written earlier than 1800 ; which proves that a verse in which he is made to foretell the fall of Seringapatam (1799), and probably another in which he speaks of that of Ikkeri (1763) are not authentic. (2) His use of the letter ra shows that he cannot have been later than 1700 ; and the old Kanarese grammatical forms which he employs confirm this judgment. (3) One palm- leaf manuscript found by Mr. Narasiiiihacharya states that the collection was made by Sampadaneya Siddha- viracharya, who is known as a diligent compiler of Virasaiva verses and prose vacha7ias, and who lived some- where about 1600. This would place Sarvajha in the sixteenth century. Mr. Narasiiiihacharya, while stating these facts, places him about 1700. Verses by Sarvajna. (A.D. 1600?) Note. — The terseness of Sarvajna's verses can scarcely be reproduced in a Western language except at the cost of clearness. The following renderii gs only represent the sense. The poet appends his name to e-> ery stanza, much as an artist signs every sketch he makes. CASTE When light enters Pariah dwelling, is it also outcaste for that ? Oh, talk not of " high caste " and " outcaste." The man on whose homestead God's blessing doth shine Is surely a noble of lineage divine. Sarvajna. We all tread the same mother earth ; The water we drink is the same ; Our hearth-fires glow no distinction doth show ; Then whence cometh caste, in God's name ? Sarvajna. FATE They say that Lord Vishnu once lived as a boar ; That Siva went begging from door to door ; The Brahma himself had his head cut away, Who was it that settled their destiny, pray ? Sarvajna. 74 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE IGNORANT WORSHIP The foolish who bow to a wayside stone, And are not aware of the One God alone — These we should only for Pariahs own. SarvajSa. VAIN PILGRIMAGE Why seek for The Good on a distant shore ? Look I meanwhile it grows at your own house door ! Sarvajna. VI THE RISE OF VAISHNAVA LITERATURE 1500-1600 Jayaiy-avishkritam Vishnor varaham kshobit-Hrnavani Dakshino7i?iaia-damshirdg7'a-viha?ita-bhuva7iam vapuh. "Supreme is the boar form of the resplendent Vishuti, which scattered the waters of the ocean and raised up the peaceful earth on the tip of his long right tusk." This couplet usually heads Vaishnava inscriptions. THE VAISHNAVA REVIVAL The Vaishnava Revival was a revolt against the unsatisfying character of the advaita teaching of Sahkaracharya. For three hundred years after Sahkara- charya's time, i.e. from 800-1100, his presentation of monism and his doctrine of illusion {mdya) had held the field of philosophic teaching and dominated the religious thought of the people, unchallenged from within Hinduism. But that system had reduced God to a pure abstraction, an unconscious entity, which could not satisfy man's craving for worship, sympathy and com- munion. The Vaishnava reformers strenuously con- tended against the interpretation put upon the Upanishads by the Illusionists {maya-vadls) , as they called Sahkara's followers. Accepting the same books as authorities, they gave them a new interpretation, and taught that the Supreme, the "One only without a second," was a deity with a personality — a Being to stir, and respond to, devotion, reverence and love. The two great Reformers who initiated the move- ment were Ramanujacharya, early in the twelfth 76 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE century, and Madhvacharya,^ in the thirteenth century. Of these, the former, whose centre was at Srirahgam, was driven by persecution into the Kanarese country, where he converted the Ballal raja from Jainism, and established the important matha of Melkote. His works are in Sanskrit ; those of his followers chiefly in Tamil. The second was born and lived in the Kanarese country, with Udupi as his centre, and although he himself wrote in Sanskrit, he inspired many works in Kanarese. The followers of Ramanuja are called Sri Vaishnavas, and worship Vishnu exclusively ; the Madhvas worship Vishnu chiefly, but not to the exclusion of Siva. It is worthy of note that the revolt against the teaching of Sahkara was shared by Saivas also ; and the feeling that they had a common cause led, during the twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, to various attempts being made to reconcile the rival Vaishnava and Saiva creeds, by building temples to a combined deity, called Harihara or Sahkara-Narayana.' But the most important fact is that, whether the deity worship- ped was called Vishnu (Hari) or Siva (Hara) or Hari- hara, he was conceived of as personal, and not as abstract ; so that bhakti (ardent personal devotion) took the place of tapas (austerities, self-mortification) and of yogabhyasa (self-hypnotism). The personal Siva has been ardently worshipped in the Tamil country, but, speaking generally, has never called forth personal devotion to the same extent as the more human incarnations of Vishnu in Rama and Krishna. In North India, through the teaching of Ramananda, (fifteenth century) followed up by Kabir (1440-1518) and * Madhvacharya is sometimes by European writers confound- ed with Madhavacharya (tlie author of the Sarvadarsana Safigraha, the brother of Sayana, and minister of Bukka Raja in the fourteenth century). ' Witness the Sankara-Narayana temple at Davangere, men- tioned in a grant of 1147 ; the temple to Harihara, erected 1223 (hard by which the agrahara of Harihara was established in 1418); and the name Harihara, borne by the first Vijayanagar king (1336-53), by others of his line, and by the poet Hari§vara (0.1165). RISE OP VAISHl^JAVA LITERATURE 77 Tulasi Das (1532-1623), the new cult of Rama rapidly spread, of the existence of which there is no clear evidence before about the eleventh century/ In South India, Ramanuja and Madhvacharya adhered to the already existing cult of Krishna, as he is represented in the Mahabharata, which (except in interpolated passages) makes no mention of the stories of Krishna's boyhood or of his sports with the gopis. This element, however, soon came in through the popularity of the Bhagavata Purana, which, in its original Sanskrit form, dates from about the ninth or tenth century. In addition to the reason already given, the Vaishnava Revival owed its success to its drawing freely from the rich stores of attractive legend contained in the Sanskrit Epics and the Bhagavata — to its extensive use of song and kirtan — to its large mahatmya literature — and also doubtless to the less austere character of its chief hero. VAISHNAVA LITERATURE TO 1600 Early Vaishnava Works. Actually the earliest Vai- shnava writer of importance in Kanarese would seem to be Rudrabhatta, a Smarta Brahman, of the time of Vira Ballala (1172-1219), and author of the Jagannatha Vijaya, which reproduces in champu the narrative of the Vishnu Purana, from the birth of Kfish9a to his fight with Banasura. Another early writer was Narahari-tirtha of the U^upi matha, third in succession from Madhvacharya. In 1281 he wrote, in Kanarese, songs in praise of Vishnu. Before becoming a sannyasi, he had been an official in Ganjam, where two sasanas composed by him have been found. He is said to have died in 1333. It was not, however, tiU the period of the Vijayanagar kingdom and the reign of Krishna Raya (1509-29) that * See Sir R. G. Bhandarkar's Vaishnavism and ^aivism. Rama had indeed been recognised as an incarnation of Vislinu several centuries earlier ; but there is no evidence that separate temples had been erected in his name. But see also Dr. J. N. Farquhar's Religious Literature of India, pp. 189 f., 249 f. 6 78 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE the Vaishnava movement made itself strongly felt in Kanarese literature. It is at this time, the sixteenth century, and especially in the poetry of the Vaishnavas, that a transition from Mediaeval to Modern Kanarese begins to take place. This shows itself in the following among other ways : — Many ancient verbs and nouns fall into disuse (perhaps because of their association with a different school of religious thought) . The letter ra begins to be used laxly in alliteration with other letters, and is finally dropped altogether. Verbs, nouns and suffixes hitherto having consonantal endings, now have the vowel 71 added to them to assist enunciation. The form of the present tense is changed, and a contingent future is newly introduced.^ Translations of Sanskrit Classics. Vaishnava Kana- rese literature consists very largely of reproductions, in various forms, of Sanskrit works. The progress of the Vaishnava movement was considerably helped in the early years of the sixteenth century by the publication in rapid succession of Kanarese shatpadi versions of its three great classics. The first to appear was the leading story of the Mahabharata, in which Krishna, identified with Vishnu, is the great hero. Of this, the first ten parvas had already been translated by Naranappa, a Brahman gauda or sanabhog of Kodivala in the Dharwar district, but better known by his nom-dc-phime, Kumara Vyasa. Lihgayat writers mention that he was a rival of Chama- rasa, the author of the Prab hu ling all le, and married his sister. He must, therefore, have lived in the reign of Praudha Deva Raya (1419-46). As his work is dedi- cated to the deity at Gadag, it is often called the Gadu- gina Bh^rata. The author, however, died before he could complete his task. The remaining parvas (from Santi onwards) were added about 1510 by Timmanna, who describes his work as blending with that of Kumara Vyasa, as the waters of the Jumna with those of the * Kittel's Kannada- English Dictionary (Preface), and his Grammar of the Kannada Language, RISE OF VAISHNAVA LITERATURE 79 Ganges. His work was entitled, after his royal patron, the Krishna-raya Bharata. The success of the Bharata led to a similar presen- tation of the story of the Ramayana, which was now given to Kanarese readers for the first time from the Brahmanical standpoint. The work was produced at Torave, in the Sholapur district, and is generally known as the Torave R^m^yana. The author calls himself Kumara Valmlki, after the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana ; but his real name was Narahari, His exact date is unknown ; but it is later than Kumara Vyasa, whom he mentions. Mr. Narasimhacharya places him about 1500 ; but no mention of him seems to have been found till the eighteenth century. The Bh^gavata Purina was the third great Vaish- nava classic reproduced in Kanarese about the same time. Its author was Chatu-Vitthala-natha, who appears to have lived at Vijayanagar in the time of Krishna Raya and Achyuta Raya. His date is about 1530. He also prepared a fuller rendering of the Pauloma and Astika parvas of the Mahabharata, which had only been briefly summarised by Kumara Vyasa. It will be observed that the three great Vaishnava classics were probably all completed during the reigns of Krishna Raya (1509-29) and Achyuta Raya (1530-42). This was a period in which the literatures of Kanarese and Telugu meet, both languages being equally patro- nised by these princes, who are said to have had eight celebrated poets at their court. Beside the Vaishnavas just mentioned, there were, among those who flourished at the same time, the Lihgayat MaUanarya, and the Jainas, Mangarasa and Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda. Popular Devotional Songs. The worship of Krishna was further popularised by short songs in ragale metres by Vaishnava dasas, or mendicant singers, who wandered from village to village. They received their inspiration from Madhvacharya, to whom they all express indebted- ness, and from Chaitanya, who, about 1510, visited all the chief shrines of South India, teaching men every- where to chant the name of Hari, and who died at Puri 80 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE in 1533. A collection of 402 of these devotional songs in Kanarese was made by Rev. Dr. Moegling, who published 174 of them in Mangalore in 1853, and these have since been reprinted in Bangalore. They are known as the Dasara Padagalu. The earliest, most prolific and most famous of the singers was Purandara Dasa, who lived at Pandharpur, and visited Vijayanagar in the time of Achyuta Raya. It is said that as a young man he was rich and close- fisted ; but afterwards gave away his possessions, and lived as a mendicant, singing the praises of Vishnu in Pandharpur, where he died in 1564. All his songs end with the name Purandara Vitthala.^ A contemporary of his was of Kanaka D^sa, of Kaginele in the Dharwar district. He was of the beda (hunter) caste, or, as some say, a kuruba (shepherd). Like Purandara, he owed his change of life to Vyasa-raya, the head of the Madhva matha at Sosile, who himself composed lyrics in praise of Krishna. Beside hymns extolling Vishnu, Kanaka Dasa wrote, in sahgatya, the Mohajia-taraiigiyil ("River of Delight," consisting of Puranic stories chiefly about Krishna) ; and, in shatpadi, a Nala-charitre and a Hari-bhakti-sdra. This last, which treats of morals, devotion and renunciation (wf/z, bhakti, vairdgya), has long been in popular use as a book for children to learn. There exists a pretty little poem of fancy by Kanaka Dasa, entitled Rdma-d/ia?iya-charitre ("The Story of Rama's Chosen Grain"), in which he invents an ingenious, and characteristically religious, derivation for the word ragi, which is the name of the staple food of a great part of the Kanarese country. The poem says that, after the death of Ravana, Rama visited a hermitage, and enjoyed the food set before him by the ascetics. He then proposed for discussion the question — " Which of all the grains is most excellent ? " The claims of rice being disputed by another grain, known as naredalega * Vitthala and VitJiobd are corrupt Kanarese forms of Vishnu (Vitthu) with the affixes la and ba to denote tenderness or reverence, (Dr. Bhandarkar.) RISE OF VAISHIJJAVA LITERATURE 81 (" grey-head "), the gods came down to investigate the case. After hearing the arguments on both sides, Indra decided in favour of naredalega. Whereupon Rama conferred upon it his own royal name of rdghava ; whence its present name of rdgil^ The names of other singers are Vitthala Dasa, Vehkata Dasa, Vijaya Dasa, and Krishna Dasa, the last three all being of Udupi. Along with these may be mentioned Varaha Timmappa Dasa, who was only less prolific than Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa ; but he lived two centuries later, in the time of Haidar Ali. When Sagar fell into the hands of Haidar, he fled to Tirupati, Contemporary with him was Madhva Dasa, of U^upi. The chief object of the poems is to extol Vishnu above all other gods, and exhort men to worship him. The gist of one of the songs is — "There is no god equal to Vishnu; no tirtha equal to the Saligram ; no book equal to the Bharata ; no life-force {chaita?iya) equal to Vayu ; no teaching equal to that of Madhva ; no caste equal to the Brahman caste." They record the exploits of Krishna and commend pilgrimages to his shrines. They also give expression to weariness of the world, the sense of sin and helplessness, a depre- ciation of outward rites and a yearning after purity and divine help ; and, warning men of the approach of death and the penalties of hell, call them to a religious life. Mr. Charles Gover, in his Folk Songs of Southern hidia, has given a free translation into English verse of twenty-eight of these songs. Of these I quote one by Purandara Dasa. * In y.^.^. 5., July, 1920, Mr. Havell gives reasons for identify- ing raji with the plant from which soma, the sacrificial drink of the original Aryan Brahmans, was made. If this can be sub- stantiated, it is of much interest. 82 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE A Song in Praise of Vishnu BUY MY SUGAR-CANDY (THE NAME OF HARI) My stock is not packed on the backs of strong kine ; Nor pressed into bags strongly fastened with twine. Wherever it goes it no taxes doth pay But still is most sweet, and brings profit, I say. Refrain: Oh buy sugar-candy, my candy so good, For those who have tasted say nought is so sweet As the honey-like name of the godlike Vishnu. It wastes not with time ; never gives a bad smell ; You've nothing to pay, though you take it right well ; White ants cannot eat the fine sugar with me ; The city resounds as its virtue men see. From market to market 'tis needless to run ; The shops know it not, the bazaar can have none. My candy, you see, is the name of Vishnu, So sweet to the tongue that gives praise as is due. Another work popularising the worship of Krishna was the Haj-i Bhakti Rasdyana (" Elixir of Devotion to Vishnu"), by Chidananda, of the eighteenth century.^ * There exists also a ^aiva (not Vira§aiva) Bhakti-rasdyana in shatpadi by Sahajananda, a Smarta, of the seventeenth century. VII KANARESE LITERATURE IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES During the seventeenth century the Vijayanagar Empire broke up into many small states, or palayagaris, each vassal chieftain declaring his independence. The Mysore State gradually absorbed many of these, and finally emerged as the dominant power in the southern part of the Kanarese country. THREE OUTSTANDING WORKS In the seventeenth and early in the eighteenth century there were three writers who deserve especial mention, as each produced something eminent in its own department. They belong to each of the three chief faiths of the people— one a Jaina, another a Lingayat and the third a Vaishnava Brahman ; and they were all independent of royal patronage. The first was B hatidkalanka Deva, a disciple of the Jaina guru of the Haduvalli t)ia(ha, in South Kanara. He was an accomplished scholar in both Sanskrit and Kanarese and is said to have been learned in six languages. He is also said on many occasions to have defended the Jaina faith in public assemblies. In 1604 he completed an exhaustive grammar of the Kanarese language in 592 Sanskrit stitras, accompanied with a gloss (vfitti) and a commentary (vyakhya) in the same language. The sutras or mnemonic lines alone would fill but a few pages, but the full commentary accompany- ing them expands the book to 50 times that bulk. The work is entitled KarnditaJia Sabd^nus^sanam. It is enriched with references to numerous previous authori- 84 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE ties and quotations from leading Kanarese writers. The author earnestly vindicates the claim of Kanarese to receive as serious treatment as Sanskrit ; and says that his aim has been to bring the language to the notice of the learned, to promote its cultivation, and to help to elegance and precision in its use. Although the work is in Sanskrit, it deserves a place in any history of Kanarese literature, because it is the most important grammar of the language, being fuller than the Sabdamanidarpana or any other. ^ The second writer was Shadakshara Deva, a Linga- yat of Yelandur and head of a neighbouring matha. He is said to have shown poetic talent from the age of eleven. He composed poems both in Sanskrit and Kanarese. He wrote three works in Kanarese — viz. Rajaiekhara Vilasa (1657), VrishabhByidra Vijaya (1671) and Sahara ^aiikara Vildsa. The second of these is the story of Basava retold in champu. The third describes one of the llles of Siva. But it is his earliest work, the R^jasekhara, on which his fame chiefly rests. It divides with the Jaimhii Bharata the distinction of being the most highly esteemed poem in the language. It is written in champu of the best period. Although many metres are used, there is no shatpadi. The poem is an elaboration of the story told in the Bhava- cJmita-ratna (see p. 71). The following is an outline of the plot : RajaSekhara, the hero of the story, is the son of Satyendra Chola, niling at Dharmavati. He forms a very intimate friend- ship with Mitavachana, the son of the prime minister, who has been brought up with him. Together they conduct a victorious campaign against Ceylon, where RajaSekhara weds the king's daughter. Some time after his return to the capital, he receives a gift of two spirited horses from the Raja of Sindh, and proposes to his friend that they should ride them through the crowded town. Mitavachana earnestly tries to dissuade him, reminding him that any loss of life caused is punishable by death, and that * It has been published in Kanarese and Roman characters, and with English translation of the si:tras, by Mr. Lewis Rice in the Bibliotheca Carnatica (1890). A second edition is being pre- pared by Mr. Narasimhacharya. IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 85 it is his father's boast that he will carry out the law impartially, however high the rank of the defaulter. RajaSekhara replies that he will take all the consequences upon himself. They set out, and Mitavachana, unable to control his horse, runs over and kills a boy. The bereaved mother appeals to the king. RajaSekhara admits that he alone is to blame, and is put to death. In grief thereat, Mitavachana kills himself ; whereupon his father and mother also commit suicide. RajaSekhara's mother, the queen, and his widow are both in the very act of doing the same, when ^iva intervenes, raises to life all those who have died, commends Satyendra Chola for his unflinching consistency, and takes him to the joys of heaven. The third writer, LakshmlSa, a §ri-Vaishnava Brah- man of Devanur in Kadur taluk, is the author of the Jaimini Bhiirata, which is more famous than any other work of Kanarese literature, esteemed alike by learned and unlearned, and universally studied. Little is known of the poet, and his exact date is not yet determined. An initial date is given by the fact that he has imitated a number of verses from Virupaksha (1585). As the earliest reference yet found to him is by Lakshma-kavi (1724), and thenceforth he is frequently mentioned, it is probable that he lived in or about the close of the seventeenth century. Unlike the Jaina poets, he does not name his predecessors. His poem is written throughout in shatpadi, and is the best specimen of that style. It is a free rendering of a Sanskrit work which bears the name of Jaimini Bhdrata or Ah'a-Jaimi?ii, ascribed to the legendary sage Jaimini. The narrator of the story is Jaimini-muni, who tells it to Janamejaya. The sub- ject is the wanderings of the horse appointed for Yudhishthira's horse- sacrifice. It, therefore, corres- ponds to a portion of the Asvamedha Parva of the Mahabharata\ but it differs widely from the Sanskrit in details. The real motive of the poem is to extol Krishna. His greatness and the magical power of meditation on his name constitute the recurring theme throughout. The name of Krishna of Devapura occurs in the closing stanza of each chapter. The following is an outline of the story : A horse-sacrifice, it must be remembered, was in ancient times a proof of universal sovereignty. A horse had to be set free 86 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE to roam for a year through neighbouring countries, and an army followed to overthrow any sovereign who dared to detain it. Yudhishthira, having overcome the Kauravas, determines to per- form such a sacrifice. Bhima is first sent to seize a horse from the neighbouring country of Bhadravati, whose king he defeats. He then visits Krishna at Dwaraka and brings him to Hastinavati. The horse is sent forth, bearing on its head a gold plate with a challenge to any king to detain it ; and is followed by Arjuna and an army and Krishna. It wanders in turn to Mahishmati, Champakapura, Stri Rajya (the Women's Realm, i.e. the Pandya and Malayalam countries), the Rakshasa country, Manipura (identified with a city in the south of the Mysore Province), Ratnapura, Saraswata, and Kuntala, and finally crossing an arm of the sea (probably the Ran of Kach), returns, via Sindh to Hastinapura, the vanquished kings following in its train. The geography is partly imaginary. The interest of the poem consists largely in its episodes, of which four may be mentioned : (1) In Champakapura the prince, Sudhanwa, is punished for delay in going to battle by being plunged into a caldron of boiling oil, but by meditation on Krishna he is able to remain in it, cool and uninjured. (2) At Manipura, the ruler is Babhru-vahana, a natural son of Arjuna himself ; and Arjuna is under a curse to be slain by his hand. He is accordingly slain and his head cut off, but by means of the stone sanjivaka and Krishna's blessing, he is restored to life. At this point the story is told at length of how Rama fought with his sons, Ku§a and Lava. (3) At Mayuradhvaja's court in Ratna- pura Krishna appears in the disguise of a mendicant Brahman, who says that a lion has seized his son and refuses to release him, unless it is given instead one half of the king's body. The queen and heir-apparent both ofifer their lives as ransom, but are rejected. On the king's preparing to give his life, Krishna reveals himself. (4) At Kuntala the story is told of the romantic early career of the king Chandrahasa, whose life was repeatedly plotted against by the previous king's minister, Dushtabuddhi, but the minister's schemes all turned against himself, and as the result of them Chandrahasa weds the minister's daughter and comes to the throne ; while the minister himself and his sou and his hired assassins all meet with their death. Extract from the Jaimini Bhdrata by LakshmiSa (XXX, 24-33). c. A.D. 1700 CHANDRAHASA AND VISHAYE Note. — Dushtabuddhi, prime minister of Kuntala, pays a visit to the tributary prince of Chandanavati. Before leaving he tells his daughter, Vishaye, that he will seek her a suitable hus- band ; and he leaves his son Madana as regent. Arrived at IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 87 Chandanavati, he recognizes in Chandrahasa a prince of that place, the boy whom the Brahman astrologers had previously in- dicated as destined to become ruler of Kuntala, and whom he thought he had killed in infancy, having paid hired assassins to murder him. So he now resolves to compass his death by poison. Pretending friendship, he sends him with a letter to his son, Madana. Chandrahasa arrives in the outskirts of Kuntalapura, takes his meal in the royal garden, and falls asleep under a mango tree. Just then Vishaye has strayed from her companions to gather flowers ; and sees him asleep, and falls in love with him. From this point the poet proceeds as follows : Listen, O king ! While thus the maiden gazed, With heart enamoured, on that princely form. So beauteous in its youthful grace, and now So deep in slumber wrapt, her eyes discerned A palm-leaf scroll tied in his garment's hem, Which lay full loose outspread upon the ground. By sudden impulse moved, she forward stepped, and quick Drew forth the scroll. And theu, with wonderment. She found 'twas by her own dear father writ. Elate with joy, she opened it, and read — " His Excellency Dushtabuddhi, First Minister of Kuntala's fair realm. To Madana, his much beloved son, A father's blessing sends. No common man Is he who brings this note. 'Tis plainly shown That this same Chandrahasa shall become The sovereign lord of Kuntala. Bethink What promise this holds forth for me and mine. And how by us he should esteemed be.* Wherefore make no delay ; nor idly ask His birth or rank, his prowess or his fame. But forthwith give him vishava, displayed In such wise as to stir his heart's desire. So shalt thou bring a royal benefit To all our house. Farewell." — Now vishava Doth " poison " mean. And such the writer meant. But where is he can alter by one jot • In the original the ambiguity of the message depends on two possible ways of dividing niahahita ("great friend" or " great enemy ") and sarvathaniitra ("in all respects a friend " or "in all respects an enemy"), and on the two meanings of mohisu (" desire " or " fall in love with "). As it is impossible to reproduce these in English, I have tried to imitate the ambi- guity in another way. HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE What Destiny hath on the forehead writ ? And so it was. That gentle maiden pure, Whose heart was full of tender hopes of love, Remembering oft what, ere her father went. He promised her, — that he a bridegroom fit Would find and send — saw here the promise kept, In such wise as should bring a royal benefit To all their house. Since this most princely youth Was marked by Fate to be the sovereign lord On Kuntala's wide realm, what need to ask His birth, his rank, or deeds already done. " My father writes to give him Vishaye. " 'Tis well. But by some mere mischance my name " Is wrongly writ. From this one letter's fault " Lest mischief fall, I will amend it straight." Upon the mango bark within her reach A gum exuding trickled down. This served For ink. And with the point of finger-nail For pen, she deftly scratched the palm-leaf scroll. And changed the va to ye. Then fastened swift The seal as 'twas before, and tied the note Once more within the garment's hem ; and turned To leave the place — yet treading soft, lest sound Of rustling feet and bangles should betray From whence she swiftly came. So she rejoined Her folk. But when they looked upon her face, They noted there a new-born light, as of Some happy secret found. They questioned her — " How now ? " they said, " where didst thou stray so long ? " And what doth please thee so ? " But she was coy, And would not tell. Whereat they laughing said — "Thy face is like a book that can be read. " As well might wand 'ring zephyr try to keep " The secret of the scented cinnamon grove " As thou to hide thy heart's new happiness. " Well, well ! Secrets will out ; and eftsoons we " Thy secret too shall know." She sweetly smiled. And strove by forced merriment to hide Hoxv fast her heart did leap ; — till evening fell. And to the town they bent returning steps. It was the Marriage Season of the year. The jocund sounds of wedding-songs and dance, Of tabret, drum and tinkling cymbal, filled The air ; and troops of joyous matrons passed, IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 89 Busy with bridal rites. 'Twas such Auspicious sounds and sights did greet the path Of love-lorn Vishaye. The very gods Did smile upon her hopes. VAISHNAVA LITERATURE AT THE COURT OF THE RAJAS OF MYSORE During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the patrons of Kanarese literature were chiefly the Rajas of Mysore, who had become independent from about 1610. At the same time they began to withdraw from the Lingayat faith, and to adopt the worship of Vishnu. They also commenced to extend their narrow territory, and to build up a strong kingdom by absorbing the surrounding paleyagaris. Histories. Several of the books of the Mysore period belong to the department of History. This had hitherto been represented mostly by inscriptions, many of which were elaborate compositions in verse and prose by distinguished scholars. Now it took more and more the form of books. Among these may be named Kanthirava Narasa Rdja Charitra, by Nanja- kavi ; and Kanthirava Narasa Rdja Vijaya, by Govinda Vaidya, both dealing with that raja's reign (1638-59); Deva Raja Vijaya, a metrical history of the reign of Do^da Deva Raja (1659-72), by Channarya ; Chikka Deva Rdja Yaso-bhushana and Chikka Deva Rdja Vamsdvali (1672-1704), by Tirumalayengar ; and Maisuru Arasugala Purvdbhyzidaya, by Puttaiya (1713). This last was one of the chief authorities used by Wilks in his History of Mysore. The manuscript was fortu- nately saved from among many which Tipu Sultan had contemptously ordered, in 1796, to be taken for boiling the gram for the horses. In this connection mention may suitably be made of the Rajendra-7idme, or Chronicles of the Coorg Rajas, by Vira-rajendra, of Mercara (1808); of which there is an English transla- tion by Lieutenant Abercrombie (Mangalore). Chikka Deva Haya's reign (1672-1704) calls for especial mention in connection with Kanarese literature. He had spent his early life in Yelandur, and must have 90 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE been in that town when the Rajaiekhara was written. He formed there an intimate friendship with a Jaina scholar, named Vishalaksha Pandit, who afterwards shared his captivity, when for 1.'^ years (1659-72) he was kept in confinement in an obscure fort by his uncle, the reigning prince, and who ultimately became his first prime minister. His after ministers also were great scholars and authors ; and doubtless these circumstances encouraged him in his patronage of literature. He caused a valuable library to be made of historical materials, including copies of the inscriptions in his dominions. Unfortunately, most of these were destroy- ed by Tipu. The raja himself is credited with the authorship of several books. Two of these are prose commentaries — on the Sanskrit Bhagavata, and on the later parvas (XII-XVIII) of the Mahabharata. Another, the Gita Gopala, consists of songs in praise of Krishna, with prose summaries. But the best known is the Chikka Deva Raja Binnapam (or " King's Petition"). This is a series of thirty verses on religious subjects, each fol- lowed by a prose amplification in the form of a prayer to Narayana. The prose is in Old Kanarese, and pro- fesses to give the gist of Visishtadvaita doctrine for the benefit of all, in accordance with Bhagavad-gita, ix, 32. All his works, however, make considerable mention of the author's territorial conquests. The raja was doubtless aided in the composition of his works by TirumalArya, or Tirumalayengar, who had grown up with him, and been his companion in study. He was a great favourite with his sovereign, and became, first, court poet, and then, minister. Beside the two histories already mentioned, he wrote a work on rhetoric, entitled Apratinia-vlra-charitra ("History of a Peerless Hero "), in which every illustrative stanza is in praise of his royal patron. Chikupddhy^ya, called also Lakshmipati, another minister, was a very prolific author, and wrote some thirty works in champu, sahgatya and prose. He appears to have been a very zealous propagator of the IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 91 Vaishnava faith. Several of his works are translations from the Sanskrit, including two versions of the Vishmt Purana, one in champu, the other in prose. Three are from the Tamil, viz. Divya-suri-charitre, a history of the Twelve Alvars ; the Artha-panchaka, or "Five Truths," of Pillai Lokacharya, a principal Tehgalai authority, who is said to have lived in the thirteenth century ; and a commentary on the Tiru- vayi-mole of Nammalvar. Six are in praise of Rahga- natha of Seringapatam, the local form under which Vishnu is worshipped. Several are mdhatmyas, or commendations of Vaishnava sacred places. They treat of Kaiichi, Melkote, Tirupati, Srirahgam, Seringa- patam, and Gopalswami Hill (near Gundalpet) , Encour- aged by him, many works of the same character were written by others. SingarArya, another poet of Chikka Deva Raja's court, and brother of Tirumalarya, has the distinction of having written what, until recent years, was the only drama in Kanarese literature. It is entitled Mitravindd Govinda. It is a free rendering of the Sanskrit Ratnavali{'^ Pearl Necklace ") attributed to king Harsha- deva of Kanauj. In the original, it is a story of an amour between Udayana, king of Vatsa, and a maiden of the court, who is ultimately discovered to be the Princess Ratnavali of Ceylon, who had been shipwrecked on the coast. It is a mark of the strong Vaishnava enthusiasm of the time that, in the later work, Krishna is made the hero, instead of king Udayana. The heroine also is renamed Mitravinda ; and the names of the other characters have been correspondingly altered. Honnamvia, a Sudra woman, attendant on the queen, and called from her occupation " Saiichiya Honni," or " Honni of the betel bag," was a pupil of Singararya's. She showed literary talent, and wrote in sahgatya a a book entitled Hadibadeya-dharma ("the Duty of a Faithful Wife "), in which she cites illustrations from the Epics and Manu. The great literary activity of the Vaishnavas in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries is further 92 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE evidenced by the number of fresh presentations of the Vaishnava classics which appeared at this time. The Bharata is represented by the Jaimiyii Bhdrata, by the Lakshma-kavi Bharata (c. 1728), and by a translation of the Bhagavad-glta by Nagarasa of Pandharpur, who gave a Kanarese rendering in shatpadi for each verse of the original. Vehkayarya, a Madhva Brahman, who was a Haridasa of Penukonda region, reproduced the story of Krishna as contained in the tenth chapter of the Bhagavata, in a work called Krishnalilabhyudaya. Then there were no less than three fresh versions of the Ramayana in whole or part. Tirumala-vaidya (c. 1650) completed the work of Kumara Valmiki by rendering into Kanarese the Uttara-kdnda, the only portion of Valmiki's Ramayana which the earlier poets had left untranslated. Timmarasa (c. 1650) translated the abridged version of the story of Rama, which forms an episode in the Forest Section of the Mahabharata, where it is told by Markandeya to Yudhishthira. He entitled it Markandeya Ramayana. Another rendering is the Anatida Ramayana by Timmarya, of Sadali near Anekal (c. 1708). Of him it is said that, although he was without scholarly education, a natural poetic gift showed itself in him from his fifteenth year ; and every morning he would pour forth his stanzas before his god, Timmaraya-swami, while a relative noted them down. This is probably typical of the way in which many Indian books have been written. The vaidika Brahman in his agrahara is a leisurely person ; and before or after his ablutions, when the body was fresh, the intellect clear, and the devotional feelings stimulated by worship, he would sit in the open air in a retired spot, and compose and chant his stanzas, and embellish them with the pictures of sunrise, sunset or other seasonal changes, with which they abound. The latter half of the eighteenth century was not favourable to authorship, as the country was frequently overrun by alien armies, and the throne of Mysore was IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 93 occupied by the Muhammadan rulers — Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan. JAINA WRITERS OF THE PERIOD Although the Jainas had lost their former pre- dominant position, their continued zeal for their religion is shown by the fact that in 1603 the colossal statue of Gommatesvara at Yenur was sculptured. A re-anointing of the statue at Sravaija Belgola in 1612 is described by the poet Paiichabana of that town in his Blmjabali- charitre (1614). In 1646, the Karkala image also was re-dedicated. The history of this image and of Gommata is given by Chandrama of the Tuluva country in his Kurkala-GoniniaieSvara-charitre. Occasionally the Jainas were subject to persecution. The Telugu paleyagar Jagaddeva-raya of Channapatna even went so far as to suppress the worship of Gommata. Not long after, however, his dominions were annexed by Mysore ; and on appeal being made to the raja, and the antiquity of the worship proved by the numerous sasanas, the priests, who had retired to Gersoppa, were recalled, and the worship resumed. These facts are mentioned by Chidananda-kavi (c. 1680) in his Muni-vam^dbhyudaya, a genealogical account of the Jaina munis. In addition to these works, and to Bhattakalanka's great grammar (1604) already mentioned, the following Jaina works belong to the seventeenth century: — Bijjala- rdja-charitre, which gives the Jaina version of Basava's life at the Kalyana court ; Jina-mu7ii-tanaya, a cento on morals from the Jaina standpoint ; and Ra?nacka7idra- charitre, a new version of the Ramayana story, com- menced by Chandrasekhara (c. 1700) and completed by Padmanabha (1750). Our account of the Jaina literature in Kanarese may be closed with the mention of the Rajdvali-kathe, a prose summary of Jaina history and traditions, drawn up by Devachandra (1838) for a princess of the Mysore royal family. It has been of great assistance as a guide to the history of Jaina literature. The same scholar 7 94 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE wrote a Ramakathavatara (prose) based on the Pampa Ramayana. LINGAYAT WRITERS OF THE PERIOD In addition to the writings of Shadakshara-deva already mentioned, the following are the most noticeable Lihga- yat writers of the period under review : Basava-linga (1611) wrote ^ivadhikya-fiurajia, on the pre-eminence of Siva, and in it he incidentally justifies the reception of even the lowest classes into the Lingayat community. Siddha-naiijesa, a guru of Nandial(c. 1650), wrote the history of the poet Raghavahka ; and also the Guru- raja-charitre, or " History of the Great Gurus," which is a very useful account of the Virasaiva gurus, acharyas, saints and poets. It contains also an account of Siva's twenty-five liles. Kavi-Madanna (c. 1650) retold the story of Nannayya, a contemporary of Basava's, whose devotion is often referred to in Lingayat literature, on account of his having cut off his own head to do honour to his guru. Santa-linga-desika (1672), setting out to tell more fully in prose the stories briefly referred to in the Bhairave§vara-kavya of Kikkeri Nanjunda (c. 1550), enlarged his scope, and drawing tales from a wide circle of early writings, finally produced a collection of 81 tales and 618 vakyas. Apart from the tales, it is of consider- able value owing to the fact that it gives incidentally much information about Virasaiva writers and their works. It is entitled Bhairavesvara-kavyada-Kath/l- sutra-ratnakara ("Mine of Stories from the Bhaira- vesvara-kavya "). Lihgay atism received a severe blow when the Jangama priests were massacred and the Lingayat mathas des- troyed by Chikka Deva Raja, about 1680 ; and there appear to have been few Lingayat writers for some time after. But Marulu-siddha (c. 1700), in his admira- tion for Basava, made an enumeration in prose of the miracles wrought by him, in thought, word or deed, and entitled it "The Marvels {pavada) of Basava-raja/' IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 95 They had now grown to be no less than 360. The BraJunottara-kayida, a favourite 6aiva work, also pro- bably belongs to this period. WORKS ON ADVAITA PHILOSOPHY We have thus far spoken of Kanarese works on three religions, but have said nothing of works on the Advaita philosophy. This has been because all works on this subject had hitherto been in Sanskrit. In the seventeenth century, this form of religion also was brought within reach of the Kanarese reader by Ranganatha, called also Rangavadhiita. As he appears to have been a disciple of the author of the Bhakti- rasayana (c. 1650), his date is about 1675. At the opening of his work he thus justifies his use of the vernacular : Scorn not my words because I seek In common speech deep truths to speak. A glass may lack a Sanskrit name, Yet show one's features all the same. The way to bliss is hard to find When wrapped within a Sanskrit rind ; But, told in homely Kanarese, Is free for every man to seize. 'Tis then like plantain's luscious pulp When stripped of intervening skin ; Or cocoanut which, broken, shows The rich sweet milk which lies within. If one's intent to gain release From bonds that bind the soul, What matters if he reach that goal By Sanskrit or by Kanarese ? The book is entitled Anubhav^mrita, or " Nectar of Fruition." It is written in shatpadi, and expounds the expression Tat twam asi ("'That art thou"), the doctrines of the Universal Soul (atman) and of Illusion (maya), the mode of attaining emancipation, and the worship of the Absolute (nirgunaradhane), and other matters. The work is still studied as a leading text-book of the Vedanta in Kanarese. On it is largely based 96 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE another well-known work, the Jyiana-diidhii (" Ocean of Knowledge"), by Chidanandavadhuta (c. 1750). The epithet avadhtlta, which both writers bear, signifies that they claimed to have cast off all family and property ties. COLLECTIONS OF SHORT STORIES Collections of short stories form another branch of literature which, popular at all times, flourished in this period. Most of these collections are in prose, and have a very large reading public. They are generally from Sanskrit originals, and in one form or another are known all over India. The famous Brihat-katha, or " Great Story Book," of Guna(^hya was, as we have seen (pp. 28 and 38), rendered into Kanarese very early. Another such collection, based on the Bhairaveivara- kavya, has also been already mentioned (p. 94). Other very popular ones are the following : The Panchatantra. A champu version of this has already been mentioned as having been made by Durga- sirhha as early as 1145. The same stories, however, are found besides in more than one prose version in Kana- rese, the order of the tales varying somewhat in differ- ent recensions. This famoiis work corresponds in a general way to the Fables of Bidpay ov Pilpay, ma.d.e known in Europe through a transla- tion from the Arabic. Bidpay and Pilpay are indeed believed to be corruptions of the Sanskrit vidyapati, " learned man." The work relates how some unpromising princes were taught political science by a clever minister under the guise of stories and fables about animals. It receives its name from its " five chapters," which treat of as many conditions of political success. The first, Mitrabheda, " the Sowing of Dissension among allied enemies," is illustrated by the story of a lion and a bull, who were close friends until a jackal poisoned the mind of each against the other. The second, iT///ra- labha, or the "Acquisition of Allies," is illustrated by the tale of a tortoise, deer, crow and mouse, whose friendship proved useful to them all. Chapter iii, Kakoluklya, or the " War between the Crows and the Owls," illustrates the danger of alliance between those whose conflicting interests make them natural enemies. Chapter iv, Labda-pranasa, " The Loss of what has been Gained," enforces the warning that what has been acquired may again be lost, and that opportunities not utilised may never return. This is illustrated by several stories, the chief of which is about a IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 97 monkey, which, having once escaped from the clutch of a crocodile, could not be caught a second time. Chapter v, Aparlkshita- karita, " Precipitate Action," teaches that actions done without due consideration may lead to disaster, as, e.g. when the owner of a mungoose, through not waiting to investigate, slew the faithful creature which had saved the life of his child. Battlsa-puttali-kathe, a collection of thirty-two stories about Vikramaditya, supposed to be told to Bhoja Raja by the thirty-two images which adorned the steps of his throne, Betdla-fianchavimsati-kathe, which exists in three forms, champu, tripadi and prose. It tells how Vik- rama, of Ujjayini, in order to obtain certain magical powers, is directed to remove a corpse from a tree by night in perfect silence. On each of twenty-five attempts a vStala (a goblin or sprite) accosts him and tells him some story involving a knotty problem. His interest being aroused, he is led to speak, and so to fail of his object. Stika-saptati, seventy tales, related by a parrot to a married woman whose husband was away on his travels. HaMsa-vimiati-kathe, twenty tales by a swan. Kat/id-7naniari, and Katha-sangraha, tales, often with morals, from various sources, which include the Epics and Puranas. Ten7iala-ramakrishna7ia-kat he, ^jzoWeciion of laughable anecdotes of the court jester at Anegundi, in the time of Krishna Ray a, of Vijayanagar (1508-30). The king and his chief minister appear in many of the stories. It may be well to mention that Tennala Ramakrishna was not only a jester ; he was a scholarly Brahman who, under the name of Ramalihga, wrote several works in Telugu. A Specimen of Kanarese Humour TENNALA RAMAKRISHNA AND THE HUNCHBACKED MAN When one day Tennala Ramakrishna had played on the king a practical joke of more than usual audacity, the king was so angered that he determined that the jester should die. He 98 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE ordered that he be buried in the earth up to his neck, and trampl- ed to death by elephants. The bodyguard accordingly took Tennala Ramakrishna to the open plain outside the city, dug a pit, placed him in it, and shovelled the earth around him, leaving his head exposed. They then went off to fetch the royal elephants. While they were gone, a hunchbacked man came that way ; and seeing a man's head projecting from the ground, asked in astonishment how he had managed to get buried like that. Tennala Ramakrishna replied that for years he had suffered much from having a hunchback, and had spent his all on doctors, but none of them had been able to cure him ; that some one had suggested that if he got buried up to his neck in the ground, his back would straighten of itself. Being very anxious for relief, he had got his friends to bury him. What he now wanted was that some one should kindly dig him out. The hunchbacked man at once set to work and released him. Then Tennala Ramakrishna expressed great delight, and said, " See, I have lost my hunch- back, and am perfectly straight again ! Now yon get In, and lose j/c?7^r hunchback." So the man got in, and Tennala Ramakrishna filled in the earth : and then went his way and hid himself. When the bodyguard returned with the elephants, they were astonished to find buried in the ground a man other than the one they had put there. Having heard the man's story, they reported the matter to the king, who laughed so heartily at his jester's wit and ingenuity, that he forgot his anger, pardoned the offender and restored him to his office. VIII THE MODERN PERIOD NINETEENTH CENTURY With the nineteenth century begins an entirely new period of Kanarese literature, brought about by the influence of English rule in India, the impact of European civilisation, and the introduction of Western scientific methods of research and ideals of scholarship. The reorganisation of the education of the country on Western lines has largely increased the reading public, and extended the knowledge of and desire for literature, which now takes the form almost entirely of prose. NEW CLASSES OF WORKS The scope of this book, which treats rather of India's heritage from the past than of its productions in the present, as well as limitation of space, forbid any attempt to enumerate the authors and writers of this period. Their number has been very great, especially during the past fifty years. It will be sufficient to indicate the classes of works most character- istic of it, and to name a few examples. i. Educational and informational works have been produced in large numbers and of steadily increasing value. These have included works on linguistics, history, biography, mathematics, agriculture, hygiene, medicine, law and other subjects. Thus has been brought about the beginning of a scientific literature — all earlier works of quasi-scientific character being hopelessly out of date. Although works on astrology and omens are still much in demand, they will gradually yield to the advancing wave of exact science. 100 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE ii. Tikas, or verbal paraphrases, of the chief Brahmanical poems of the past have been prepared in large numbers, to bring them within the understanding of students. This does not extend, however, to the old classical Jaina works, which are still very much neg- lected owing to their religious standpoint being out of favour. iii. A class of books very largely in demand consist of stories from the Epics and Puranas, in a new literary form which sprang up in the eighteenth century, and is called Yaksha Gana. It is a sort of dramatic composi- tion suitable for recitation before rustic audiences by professional or amateur actors. The earliest example with which I am acquainted was by Madhva Dasa of Udupi. Santayya, a Brahman of Gersoppa, who became Principal Sadar Amin at Mangalore, wrote a large number of works in this style. Dramatic works of a higher order are now being produced — a department of literature in which only a single specimen (p. 91) has been found In earlier centuries. During the past thirty years, however, quite a considerable number have been published. The Epics, Puranas and Kavya literature supply an inex- haustible fund of material. Such stories as those of Sakuntala, Harischandra, Nala and Prahlada are favour- ite subjects. The RajaSekhara has been dramatised ; and several of Shakespeare's plays have been adapted. Among the earlier productions of this class may be mentioned the ^akjintala by Basavappa 6astri, court poet of Chamarajendra Wodeyar (1868-94) and the Tapatl Parinaya by Vehkatavaradacharya of Sargur. One of the most prolific dramatic authors has been Bellavi Narahari Sastri. Another is Sama Rau. But it is almost invidious to mention names. iv. Novels are becoming increasingly popular. Most of those hitherto published have been reproduc- tions from English or Bengali. Several of the plays of Shakespeare have been reproduced in this form, e.g. Bhranti Vilasa (Comedy of Errors); also such works as Sir Conan Doyle's detective stories of Sherlock Holmes. THE MODERN PERIOD 101 The Bengali novels of Babu Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyaya and of vSurendra Nath have been reproduced, chiefly by Mr. B. Vehkatacharya, a retired munsiff. The most esteemed of these are the Durgesa- 7ia?idi7ii and Devlcha7idhi-rdni. V. Periodical literature, in the form of daily or weekly newspapers, and monthly magazines, are characteristic of this period. Some of these are prepared especially to meet the needs of female readers. Others are representative of Government departments {i.e. the Economic Journal) , or of particular classes in the community {i.e. the Vokkaligara Patrike) . The Vritta7ita Patrike, a weekly published at Mysore, has, I believe, the largest circulation of any newspaper. vi. All the various sects continue freely to produce works illustrative of their creeds and praising the deities of their choice. Many Brahmanical works, including a prose version of the Bhagavaia (entitled Krish7ia Raja Vanivildsa) were produced under the patronage of Krishna Raja Wodeyar III (1799-1868). Other works are of the Bhakti-sHra class, or are expositions of the Vedanta. Some are the utterances of the modern theistic movement, or are exhortations to morality. Special mention may be made of the Niti-manjari, by Mr. R. Narasimhacharya, which reproduces in ancient Kanarese poetic form portions of some of the striking moral treatises existing in Tamil, including the Knrral, of Tiruvalluvar ; the Mudarai and Nalvale, of Auvai ; the Ndladiydr, etc. Christianity has entered the field with versions of the Bible, Biblical Commentaries, books for the instruc- tion of the Indian Christian community in the history and teachings of Christianity, translations of such Christian classics as Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress {DSsdntriya Praydria or Ydtrika Sahchdra) , Augustine's Co7i{essions, etc., and lyrics for use in Christian worship. It deserves to be added that Kanarese is indebted to the missionaries probably for the introduction of printing, and certainly for the improvement of its typography by the preparation of fresh founts of beautiful type for the 102 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE printing of successive editions of the Bible. Mission- aries have also led the way in the careful study of the language and literature. Witness the English-Carnataca, and Carnataca- English Dictionaries prepared by Rev. W. Reeve, of Bellary ; the scholarly Kamiada-Ryiglish Dictionai'y and historical Karmada Grammar, by Rev. F. Kittel ; the same scholar's editions of the Chhandom- buddhi and Sabdamanidarpa^ia ; and useful anthologies, grammars, etc., by Revs. Moegling, Weigle, Wiirth, and others. As a specimen of recent productions we have only space to quote the following : — Mysore Royal Anthem Refrain : Great Gauri, thou lotus-eyed goddess benign, Pour forth on our Raja thy blessings divine. Thou Lady celestial, of loveliest grace, Upholding all being — unbounded as space. As Indra the demons — Agastya the sea — Thou makest all powers of evil to flee. All good that men seek is, by thy hand outpoured, The Consort co-equal of Sambhu, thy Lord. O Chamundi, dark-visaged lady divine. Watch over Thy namesake of Chamendra's line. For our gracious and good Maharaja we pray. Oh cherish him, guide him, and guard him alway. Note. — The vocabulary of this anthem is almost entirely Sanskrit, though the forms are Kanarese. Chamundi is another name of Gauri. Her temple on Chamundi Hill looks down upon Mysore City. Like Krishna, she is represented as of dark-blue countenance. Chama, a modification of Sanskrit Syatna, means " dark-blue " or " black." The founder of the present dynasty, and father of the reigning Maharaja, bore the name of Chama Rajendra. PRESENT POSITION AND PROSPECTS OF KANARESE LITERATURE It has already been mentioned in the Preface, that by the researches, especially of the German missionaries and of Mr. Lewis Rice and his coadjutor and successor THE MODERN PERIOD 103 in the Archaeological Department of the Mysore Govern- ment, the wealth of Kanarese literature has been made known, the chronological position of the chief writers determined, andalarge amount of information about them made accessible. An extensive collection of manuscript work has been assembled in the Oriental Library, established in Mysore. Some important works have been edited in the Biblioiheca Carriatica under the auspices of the Mysore Government, and others by private scholars, especially in two series, entitled Kavya-manjari and Kdvya-kaldnidhi , and are thus available for general study. Jaina works (but mostly Sanskrit with Kanarese tlkas or verbal commentaries) are being edited by B. Padmaraja Pandita, who also publishes a monthly journal, Jai?ia-tnata-p7-akasika, on Jaina subjects. Some Lihgayat works have been edited by Kari Basappa Sastri of Mysore, and others at Poona. In May, 1915, while the present little book has been under preparation, an Association has been formed at Bangalore, under the auspices of the Mysore Govern- ment, and named the " Kannada Sahitya Parishad," or " Kannada Academy." This association includes repre- sentatives from all parts of the Kanarese country. It has as its object not only the study of past literature and the encouragement of present writers of merit, but the cultivation and improvement of the language — e.g. by the unification of dialects, the fixing of scientific terminology, and the formation of a common literary style. These are matters of much importance, as the language is undergoing rapid changes, and is exposed to dangers which need to be held in check. It is evident that the bulk of the literature will henceforth be in prose instead of in verse, and that a vocabulary and style intelligible to all readers of ordinary education will more and more take the place of archaic words and forms. It behoves writers to see that in giving expression to the thoughts of a new age they do no violence to the genius of the language. Three examples will illustrate the dangers of a time like the present. 104 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE 1. During the brief period of Muhammadan rule in Mysore, Persian was made the language of the courts, and large numbers of Persian words and idioms were needlessly imported into Kanarese. Many of these still survive in Government notifications and legal documents, and form an object lesson of how Kanarese ought 7iot to be written. Again, at the present time, in the conversation of English-educated Kanarese persons, English expressions are being similarly imported whole- sale, without any attempt at naturalisation. These reappear in hurriedly written newspaper articles, and, being widely read, are apt to affect the style of public speech, and denationalise and deprave the language. 2. One of the beauties of Kanarese is that all the pauses and intonations, which in English are represented by punctuation, are expressed by the vernacular idiom itself ; so that no well-constructed Kanarese sentence requires any marks of punctuation whatsoever. Never- theless, most modern Kanarese books are disfigured with all the cumbrous apparatus of Western commas, semicolons, inverted commas and marks of interrogation and exclamation. The result is, that there is growing up a slovenly mode of writing, in which the sense is no longer clear without these alien aids. 3. Another evil tendency appears in books rendered from Western languages by incompetent translators. Complicated sentences are reproduced in facsimile, in which one adverbial clause is subordinate to another, and that to a third. Such a mode of expression is wholly foreign to Kanarese idiom and destructive to good writing — a native Kanarese sentence, however lengthy, being always simple in structure and pellucid in meaning. It is to be hoped that no encouragement will be given to the introduction of foreign idioms involving intricacy and obscurity ; but that Western languages will be utilised only to €?irich Kanarese literature (1) by fertilising it with new and noble thoughts, and (2) by lending it such additional vocabulary as is absolutely necessary to express the ideas that result from world- wide intercourse. IX SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF KANARESE LITERATURE It will be helpful to the English reader if we mention a few characteristics of Kanarese literature, some of which will be found to be characteristic of other Indian languages as well. 1. It will be noticed that the interest of Kanarese writers is almost entirely religious. If we exclude grammatical and linguistic works, there is, until the nineteenth century, extremely little that is not connected with religion. The history is mostly sacred history or hagiology ; the works of imagination centre round puranic and mythological subjects ; and every book opens with a lengthy invocation of all the gods and saints of the author's sect. Secular history, except as represented by the records contained in sasanas on stone or copper, begins to appear only at a late period. 2. The great bulk of the literature until the nine- teenth century had been in verse. The Jaina poets used a form of composition called champu, in which passages of prose were interspersed among the metrical stanzas ; but complete prose works have been compara- tively few until recent years, when they have become common enough. To read Kanarese books in the ordinary tone of speaking is to miss much of their beauty ; they are intended to be chanted. When thus chanted with correct phrasing and musical intonation, all the author's grace of alliteration, metaphor and metre are brought out, and the effect is highly pleasing. Even those who cannot follow the meaning will listen to such chanting with delight. 106 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE 3. Literary and poetic usage demands the use of archaic forms and words, as well as of Sanskrit terms for common things. Hence the ordinary Kanarese man is no more able to follow the meaning of the great poets than an ordinary Englishman is to understand an Anglo- Saxon book. The books are written for scholars, not for the man in the street. In indigenous schools it is a common practice for boys to repeat large portions of such books as the Jaimini Bhdrata without understand- ing in the least what it is all about. 4. Indians have great admiration for the wit and ingenuity shown in what is called iUsha or double entendre ; and a writer's fame is much enhanced if his work abounds with stanzas which are capable of two or more meanings. This effect is facilitated by the fact that consecutive words are ordinarily run together, so that the letters are capable of being divided up in different ways. The Pandava- Raghaviya, a Sanskrit work of the sixteenth century, is written throughout on this principle, so that, divided up in one way, it tells the story of the Ramayaiia and divided up in another way, the story of the Mahabhdrata ! In English literature the practice of punning is confined to works which are semi-comic, such as some of the writings of Tom Hood. From the use of slesha and of archaic words and forms two results follow. The first is that the writings of the poets need to be elucidated by commentaries or tikas^ which give modern forms for ancient, and vernacular terms for Sanskrit, and which expound the double or treble meanings and the allusions to mythologic story. The other is that a Kanarese poem defies anything like literal translation into another language. To give any idea of the spirit of the original it would be necessary to paraphrase freely, to expand the terse and frequent metaphors into similes, and to give a double rendering of many stanzas. An example will make this clear. The opening stanza of the Jaimini Bharata is given in Sanderson's translation as follows : May the moon-face of Vishnu, of Devapura, always suffused with moonlight smile, full of delightful favour-ambrosial rays — at SOME CHARACTERISTICS 107 which the chakora-eye of Lakshmi is enraptured, the lotus-bud heart of the devout expands, and the sea of the world's pure happiness rises and overflows its bounds — give us joy. The following is an attempt, by means of a freer rendering, to retain something of the spirit of the original : When the full moon through heaven rides, Broad Ocean swells with all its tides ; The lotus blossom on the stream Opens to drink the silv'ry beam ; And far aloft with tranced gaze The chakor bird feeds on the rays. So, when great Vishnu's face is seen, — Whom men adore at Devapore — Like to the sea, the devotee Thrills with a tide of joy ; Like to the flower, that blissful hour The heart of the devout expands ; And Lakshmi Queen, with rapture keen, Watches with ever-radiant face For her great Consort's heavenly grace. O may that grace be ours I 5. There is a number of stock metaphors, drawn from the lotus, the carpenter bee, the tide, etc., of which Indian writers seem never to weary, and of which use is made with infinite ingenuity in practically every Indian poem. Some of these do not correspond with the facts of natural history, but are mere poetic conventions ; such as that the chakora bird feeds only on the rays of the moon, that the lotus grows in rivers, that the Asoka tree has no fruit, and that the lily blooms only by night. ^ There is an interesting chapter on this subject in the Kavyavalokana of the twelfth century. 6. One misses in India the poetry of pure human love, which forms so large and rich an element in the * Compare the popular, but erroneous, belief, current in Europe, that the ostrich hides its head in the sand to escape danger — an idea probably derived from some fable. Also the old Greek and Roman idea that the swan sings sweetly, especially when death approaches. 108 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE literature of the West. This is partly due to the very inferior position accorded to woman ; but it is also largely due to the fact that marriages are arranged and consummated in very early life, so that neither men nor women ordinarily pass through that beautiful and romantic period of courtship, with all its mutual reverence, shyness and mystery, which is natural to full-grown unwedded youth. The practice of early marriage, it is true, safeguards youth from many serious dangers. But its unfortunate effect on literature is that the sweetheart is replaced by the courtesan ; and instead of the healthy sentiment of a pure love we have nauseous passages of erotic description, which disfigure a very large proportion of the poetical writings. Against this may perhaps be set touching examples of wifely fidelity, such as Sita, Damayanti and Savitri. 7. I am afraid it must be confessed that Kanarese writers, highly skilful though they are in the manipula- tion of their language, and very pleasing to listen to in the original, have as yet contributed extremely little to the stock of the world's knowledge and inspiration. They excel in the grammatical study of their own language, and in description of the recurring phenomena of the seasons ; but there is little original and imperish- able thought on the questions of perennial interest to man. There are earnest calls to detachment from the world ; but this, after all, is only a negative virtue. High counsels of morality are given ; but they are too abstract ; they lack embodiment in genuine historical characters. The legendary illustrations offered are marred by unreal- ity, if not also by moral imperfection and faulty ideals. The writers are dominated by the depressing conception of life as either an endless and unprogressive round of transmigration or a quest of the tranquil dreamless sleep of nirvana. Hence a lack of that which stimulates hope and inspires to great enterprises. Moreover, their thought moves ever within the circle of Hindu mytho- logical ideas, and is not likely long to survive the passing of those ideas, which are now rapidly on the wane. Among their writers one looks in vain for any rousing SOME CHARACTERISTICS 109 moral preacher comparable to the prophets of Israel, to the great Greeks and Romans, or such modern writers as Ruskin, Tolstoi and Carlyle. As historic testimony to a phase of human thought the literature is valuable. But while there is abundant evidence of earnest spirits perplexed with the mystery of the universe and seeking to know THAT which lies at the back of what is seen and temporary, there is no such answer to these questions of the heart as to provide permanent solace and inspiration. But a new and vitalising force has now entered the land. The people are learning the new truth that they are children of a Heavenly Father, that life is an education for something better, that self- sacrificing service of the brotherhood of mankind is nobler than a selfish asceticism, and that righteousness and sympathy are the qualities that unite to God — the true path of yoga. And so, conscience is awaking as never before, new ideals of integrity and duty are beginning to inspire the mind of the people, and before them shines a star of immortal hope. X KANARESE GRAMMARIANS From a very early period Kanarese writers have shown marked eminence in the department of Grammar and allied siabjects, such as Rhetoric and the Art of Poetry ; and this subject demands a chapter to itself. It will be convenient to give a connected account of the works of the chief grammarians, although their works extend over several centuries. Most of these scholars belonged to the Jaina community, to which Kanarese literature owes so great a debt. As early as. A.D. 600 Devanandi Piijyapada (see p. 27), wrote a Sanskrit grammar known as Jainendra, which is quoted by Vopadeva (thirteenth century) as one of the eight original authorities on Sanskrit grammar. It is said to have received its name from the title, Jinendra, which Pujyapada bore. It has also the name of A^ieka-sislia Vyakarana (See Ind. Ant. X, 75). About 850 was published the Kavirajaviarga, a work on ornate composition and rhetoric, fully illustrated by examples, and evidencing a popular interest in the subject, and a high state of development in its study (see page 25). It is to a large extent dependent on the Kavyadarsa, "Mirror of Poesy," of Dapdin (sixth century). About 990 Nagavarma I wrote the Chhandovibudhi , or "Ocean of Prosody," which, with additions by later scholars, is still the standard book on the subject of Kanarese prosody. It is based on the similar Sanskrit work by Pihgala. In the account of the vritta metres, each verse is so composed as to be an example of the metre described in it. It has been edited by Dr. Kittel KANARESE GRAMMARIANS 111 (Mangalore, 1875), who has added illustrations from various poets. Kittel's edition includes an account of shatpadi and other metres which were not invented till after Nagavarma's time, but a description of which had been added in later manuscripts. In the twelfth century (c. 1145), another grammarian of the same name, and hence known as Ndgavaj-vta II, wrote two notable grammars of the language, one in Kanarese verse, the other in Sanskrit sutras, which are the earliest known systematic treatises on the subject. The first is called §abda Smriti, and forms the first part of a larger work, entitled Knvyavalokana, or " Treatise on the Art of Poetry." This is the fuUest work in the language on the subject of poetical composition. Suc- cessive chapters treat of the Grammar of the language, Faults and Elegances in composition. Style, and Poetic Conventions. It is copiously illustrated with quotations from earlier writers, as well as with original stanzas. He followed it by a Sanskrit work, the Karnataka- bhasha-bhilshana, in which the grammatical rules are reduced to 269 sutras, or mnemonic formulae, each sutra being accompanied by a vritti, or explanatory gloss, also in Sanskrit. The edition by Mr. R. Narasimhacharya in \heBibliotIieca Carnatica includes a Kanarese commentary probably belonging to the seventeenth century. Naga- varma II also compiled a Sanskrit-Kanarese glossary, entitled Vasiu Kosa, which is the earliest work of its kind in Kanarese. It is composed in a variety of metres. Among other authorities, it quotes the Amara Ko§a. In the next century (c. 1260) Kesiraja wrote the Sabdamanidarpana, or "Jewel-mirror of Grammar," which remains till now the standard early authority on the Kanarese language. The rules are written in kanda metre, and are accompanied by a prose vritti, or illustrative commentary, provided by the author himself. It was edited by Dr. Kittel (Mangalore, 1872), along with a commentary of probably the seventeenth century. Of this grammar Dr. Burnell says {Ai7idra School of Grammariajis, pp. 8, 55): "The great and real merit 112 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE of the Sabdamanidarpana is that it bases its rules on independent research and the usage of writers of repute. In this way it is far ahead of the Tamil and Telugu treatises, which are much occupied with vain scholastic disputation." As Mr. Lewis Rice justly says: "This encomium is equally applicable to other Kanarese grammars, which had not been made public in 1875, when BurneU wrote. Nothing is more striking than the wealth of quotation and illustration from previous authors which these grammatical writings contain, and this gives them a high scientific as well as historical value." In 1604 was published Bhattakalahka Deva's Kariia- taka Sabddnuidsana, a fuller and more exhaustive grammar in 592 Sanskrit siitras, accompanied with a gloss and commentary in the same language. See further, p. 83. Like his predecessors, he quotes numer- ous previous authors and Kanarese writers. Other works useful to the student of the language, and illustrating the continuous interest in this subject, may be tabulated in chronological order. The letter J after a name denotes that the writer was a Jaina, and L a Lihgayat. c. 1150. Udayadityalattkaram, by Udayaditya, a Chola prince, 72 stanzas on the art of poetry, largely based on Dandin's Kavyddarsa. c. 1235. Kabbigara-kava, by Andayya (J), a work written entirely without tatsamas. See p. 44. c. 1300. Amara-kosa-vydkhyana , a valuable Kanarese com- mentary on the Amara-kosa, by Nachiraja (J). c. 1350. Karndtaka-sabda-sdra , a prose dictionary of 1,416 words. 1398. Abhinava-nighantu, or "New Le.xicon," by Abhi- nava Mangaraja, based on the Vastu-kosa of Nagavarma II. It gives the Kanarese meanings of Sanskrit words. c. 1450. C/iaiurdsya-nighantu, hy Bommavasa (L); syno- nyms in 130 stanzas. c. 1500. Alddhavdlankdra, a translation of Dandin's Kdvyd- darsa, by Madhava, a chief of Hiriyur in Kuntala. ,, Kavi-jihvd-bandhana , by Isvara Kavi; on prosody, rhetoric and other subjects. c. 1530. Kabbigara-kaipidi, or "Poets' Vade-mecum," by Lihga (L); a dictionary of synonyms in 99 verses, intended to aid the understanding of the KANARESE GRAMMARIANS 113 Saiva poets. He was minister to the Raya of Nuggehalli. 1533. Kavya-sdra, a valuable anthology, by Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda (J). c. 1550. Rasa-ratnakara, by Salva (J); a complete treatise on dramatic composition. c. 1560. Karnataka-sabda-nianjari , a vocabulary of tad- bhava and Kanarese words ; by Totadarya (L). c. 1600. Karnatdka-sanjivana ( J) , a glossary of words spelt with ra and [a. ,, Ndnd7'tha-ratndkara , a glossary of Sanskrit words having several meanings, by Devottama (J). ,, Navarasdlankdrafhy T'lmma.; on rasa and rhetoric ornaments. c. 1640. Kavi-ka?itha-hd7-a, " Poet's Necklace," a metrical repertory of synonym's, by Surya. 1700. Apratima-vlra-charitra , by Tirumalayengar, min- ister of Chikkadeva Raya. It is needless to refer to the many good modern grammars prepared for use in schools. XI SANSKRIT WRITERS IN THE KANARESE COUNTRY An account of English Literature would scarcely be complete without some mention of Newton's Principia and Bacon's Nomwi Orgaruim, although these were written in Latin. In like manner, many notable works have been written in the Kanarese country by Kanarese men, but in the Sanskrit language. It has already been stated that some of the early Jaina poets wrote in Sanskrit, e.g. Samantabhadra and Pujyapada Devanandi. Reference has also been made to various poets, such as Ponna (c. 950), Nagavarma II (1120), Palkurike Soma (c. 1195), and Sha^akshara Deva (1657), who were equally facile in Sanskrit and Kanarese, and some of whom bore the honorific title, ubiiaya-kavi, "Poets, both in Sanskrit and the vernacular." Mention has also been made of Bhattakalahka's Kanarese Grammar, written in Sanskrit (1604). A long list could doubtless be given of Sanskrit writers within the Kanarese area. The following are only a few of the more famous : In the ninth century ^ankarOchnrya, the great Advaiti philosopher, established his principal monastery at Sringeri, where some think he died. Some of his commentaries may have been written there. In 1085 BiUiana, a Kashmiri Brahman, who had settled at Kalyana, wrote the Vikramarkadeva-charitra, a Sanskrit poem recounting the adventures and prowess of his patron, the Chalukya king, Vikrama (1076-1127). At the same court lived Vijhaneivara, who there com- piled the Mitakshara, which remains to this day a standard work on Hindu Jurisprudence. It concludes SANSKRIT WRITERS 115 with the words: "On the face of the earth there has not been, there is not, and there never will be, a city like Kalyana ; never was a monarch seen or heard of equal to the prosperous Vikramarka." In the thirteenth century Madhvachdrya^ called also Anandatirtha (1199-1278), founded the Dvaita school of the Vedanta. He lived and established his principal viatha at U^upi in the Kanarese country, where he wrote his commentaries. He exerted a powerful influence on Kanarese literature. Early in the fourteenth century, Vidyatirtha, guru of the Sringeri matha, was a great exponent of Sankara's philosophy ; and Jayatirtha, guru of the U<^upi matha, of Madhvacharya's. Mddhavachnrya, called also Vidyaranya, wrote the Sarva-dariana-sangraha, or " Compendium of all the Philosophical Systems," and many other works. He was purohita and first minister of Bukka Raya of Vijayanagar (1353-77). He succeeded Vidyatirtha as guru of the Sringeri matha. His own town was Hampe, where he died and where his tomb is still shown. His brother Sayana, who died 1387, was the most celebrated commentator on the Vedas. I believe that many of the gurus of the Sringeri, Melkote and Udupi mathas have been the authors of learned Sanskrit works. LEADING DATES Exact dates are in thick type. Other dates are approximately correct ; but, if followed by a question mark, are more or less conjectural. Rashtrakutas ruling at Manyakheta in N. Karnataka, 820-973. 850 ' Kavirdjamarga. 941 Adi Pampa's Bhdrata and Adi Picrana. 950 Ponna's ^anti-purdna. Later Gangas ruling at Talkad in S. Karnataka, 900-1000. 978 Chdvufida-rdya Purdna. 990 Nagavarmal's Chhandombiiddhi. 1000-1050 Cholas overrun S. Karnataka. Western Chalukyas ruling at Kalyana in N. Karnataka, 973-1156. 993 Ranna's Ajita-purdna, etc. 1085 Bilhana and Vijnanesvara. 1145 Durgasimha's Panchatantra . Kalachuris ruling at Kalyana in N. Karnataka, 1156-1186. 1160 Lingayat Revival under Basava and Channabasava. Hoysalas or Ballal Rajas ruling at Dorasamudra in S. Karnataka, 1040-1326. 1105 Nagachandra's Pampa Rdmdyana. ,, Kanti (poetess) and Rajaditya (mathematician). 1098 Ramanujacharya converts Hoysala Crown Prince to Vaishnavism. 1112 Nayasena 's Dharmdmrita . 1145 Nagavarma II 's Kdvydvalokanam and Bhdshd- bhushana. 1165 Harii§vara's Girijd-Kalydna. ,, Raghavanka, earliest writer of Shatpadi. 1170 Nemichandra's Lildvatl . 1180 Rudrabhatta's Jaganndtha-vijaya . 1195 Palkurike Soma. xii. cent. Transition from Ancient to Mediaeval Kanarese. 1200 Devakavi's Kusiiindvali. 1209, 1230 Janna's Yasodhara-charitre and Anantandtha- purdna. 1232 Sangatya first used by SiSumayana. 1235 Andayya's Kabhigara-Kdva. 1245 Mallikarjuna's Sukti-sudhdrnava. 1260 Kesiraja's ^abdamani-darpana. 1275 Kutmidendu Rdmdyana. 1280 Madhvacharya preaches Dvaita doctrine. ,, The temples at Halebid and Java building. LEADING DATES 117 1310-1326 Muhammadan invasions overthrow South India kingdoms. The Vijayanagar Kingdom, 1336-1610. 1350-1387 Madhavacharya and Sayana flourish. 1369 Bhima-kavi's Basava-purdna. 1385 Madhura's Dharviandtha-purana . ,, Padmananka's Padmaraja-purdna. 1419-46 Praudha Deva Raya's reign. Chamarasa's Prabhulihga-lile . Kumara-Vyasa's Gadiigina Bhdrata. 1470 Tontada Siddhesvara. 1500 Kumara-Valmiki's Torave Rdvidyana. ,, Singi-raja's Mala-basava-rdja-charitre . 1500(?) Nijaguna-yogi's Viveka-chijttdmani. 1509-30 Krishna-deva-raya's reign. 1510 Krishna-rdya Bhdrata. 1513 Mallanarya's Bhdva-chintd-ratna. 1530 Kannada Bhdgavata. " Kabbigara-kaipidi. 1533 Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda's Kdvya-sdra. 1550 Sdlva- Bhdrata. ,, Purandara-dasa and Kanaka-dasa. 1557 Ratnakara-varni's Annagala-pada. 1585 Channabasava-purdna. xvi. cent. Transition from Mediaeval to Modern Kanarese. 1600 (?) Sarva jna-murti . 1604 Bhattakalanka's Karndtaka Sabddnusdsana. Mysore Rajas become independent, and adopt Vaishnavism, 1610. 1614 Panchabana's Bhtijabali-charitre . 1646 Kdrkala-Gouiinatesvara-charitre. 1650 Bijjala-rdya-charitre. ,, Siddha-nanjesa's Guru-rdja-charitre . 1657 Shadakshara-deva's A'a/a/^/^^ara Vildsa. 1672 Santalifiga-desika's Stories from Bhairavesvara- kdvya. 1672-1704 Chikka Deva Raya's reign. Chikupadhyaya and Tirumalayengar. 1675 Anubhavdmrita. 1680 Mitravindd-Govinda. ,, Massacre of Jangamas. xvii. cent. The letter ra falls out of use. 1700 Lakshmisa's Jaimini Bhdrata. ,, Chandra§ekhara's Rdmachandra-charitre . 1708 Ananda Rdvidyana 1728 Lakshnia-kavi Bhdrata. ,, Krishna-lildbhyudaya. 1 76 i -99 Haidar Ali and TTpu Sultan . 1838 Devachandra's Rdjdvali-kathe. INDEX ABERCROMBIE'S Co or g Rajas, 89 Abhinava Mangaraja, 112 Abhinava Nighantu, 112 Abhinava Pampa, 34 Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda, 45_, 47, 79, 113, 117 Abliar inscription, 55 Achanna, 43 Acharyas, The Five Li6gayat, 54, 69, 94 Achyuta Raya, ofVijayanagar, _79,80 Adi Pampa, 30, 116 Adi-purana, 30 Adrisva, 70 Advaita, 23, 34, 75, 95 Aggala, 43 Ahavamalla (Chalukya), 32 Ajitd-purana, 32 Akalavarsha (Rashtrakilta ) , 31 Akkadian language, 11 Allama-prabhu (Prabhulinga), 68 Alliteration, 29 Alwars, 91 Amara-kosa (Sans.), 13, 111 Amara-kosa-vyakhyana, 112 Amara-simha, 36 Amitagati, 37 Ananda Ramayana, 92, 117 Anandatirtha (Madhvacharya) , 115 Ananiandtha-purana, 43, 116 Anday\-a, 15, 44, 112, 116 Aneka-sesha-vyakarana, 110 Anga-sthala, 51 Anjand-charitre , 44 Annagala-padagahi , 47, 117 Anubhavdmrita , 95, 117 Aparajita-Sataka, 47 Apratima-vira-charitra , 90, 113 Arddhya-charitre , 69 Arddha Nemi, 43 ArikeSari (prince), 30, 31 Artha-panchaka (Tamil), 91 Aryabhata (Sans.), 33 Ashtavaranam, 50 Astrology, 43 Aswa-jahnini (Sans.), 85 ASvamedha-parva, 85 Augustine's Confessions, 101 Auvai (Tamil poetess) , 101 Avadhuta-glte, 70 Ayata-varma, 48 DABU Bankim Chandra Chat- ^ topadhyaya, 101 Badaga language, 14 Bagavadi, 52 f Bahubali (= Gommata), 19, 20 Bahubali of Sringeri, 26 Balipura (= Belgami), 33 Ballal rajas, 30, 34, 36, 42, 55, 60, 76, 116 Bana (Sans.), 33, 49 Banavase, 33, 43, 68 Bandhuvarma, 43, 44 Basavacharya, 24, 42, 52 flf, 57, 65, 68, 94, 116 Basava-linga, 94 Basavappa Sastri, 100 Basava-purdna, 50, 53, 55, 59, 62, 64, 65, 117 Basava-purdnada-piirdtanara- charitre, 69 Battl sa-puttale-kathe , 97 Bednur, 52 Begiir inscription, 13 Behistun inscription, 11 Bellatur inscription, 13 120 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE Bellavi Narahari Sastri, 100 Beiiar, 61 Betdla-panchavimsati-kathe , 97 Bhadrabahu, 18 Bhagavad-gita, 90, 92 Bhagavata-purana, 77, 79, 90, 92, 101, 117 Bhairavesvara-kdvya , 94, 96, 117 Bhakti-rasdyana, 82, 95 Bhakti-sdra, 101 Bhallataki-pura(Gersoppa),47, 64 Bhandarkar, Sir R. G., 23, 55, 77, 80 Bharata (emperor), 20 Bhdrata, 35 f , 70, 81 ; Pampa, 31 ; Gadagina, 78 ; Krishna- raya, 78 ; Salva, 47; Jairaini, 85 ; Lakshma-kavi, 92 Bharatesvara-charitre , 47 Bharavi (Sans.), 28 Bhaskara of Penukonda, 46 Bhaskara (Telugu poet), 45 Bhattakalanka-deva, 8, 28, 83, 93V 112, 114, 117 Bhava-chinta-ratna, 71, 84, 117 Bhilsa(=: Vaidiga), 26 Bhima river, 53 Bhima-kavi, 64, 68, 117 Bhrdnti-vilasa, 100 Bhvicharas, 34 Bhujabali-charitre , 93, 117 Bible, 102 Bibliotheca Carndtica, 84, 103, 111 Bijjala Ray a, 52, 53, 55, 60 BiJiala-Raya-charitre, 53, 93, 117 Bilhana (Sans.), 114, 116 Bitti-deva (Vishnuvardhana), 34 Bommarasa, 46, 69, 112 Brahma-Siva, 37 Brahmi lipi, 14_ Brahmottara-kdnda, 95 Brahui language, 11 Biihler, Dr., 14 Bukka Raya, 46, 76, 115 Burnell, A. C, quoted, 14, 111 r^ALD WELL'S Comparative ^^ Grammar, 11 Carnatic, 12 Chaitanya, 16, 24, 79 Chalukyas (Early), 17, 30 Chalukyas (Western), 29, 32, 33, 38,116 Chamarajendra Wodeyar, 100, 102 Chamarasa, 68, 70, 78, 117 Champu, 16, 38, 59, 105 Chamundi, 102 Chandra-chuddmani-sataka, 34, 37 Chandragupta, 18, 19 Chandrahasa, 86 ff Chandrama, 93 Chandraprabha-Purana , 43, 46 Chandra-raja, 33 Chandragekhara, 35, 93, 117 Channabasava, 52, 54, 68, 116 Channabasava-purana, 50, 51, 53, 68, 117 Channabasava-stotrada-ragale, 62 Channapatna, 93 Channarya, 89 Chaturdsya-nighantu, 112 Chaturdsya-purdna, 69 Chatu-Vitthala-natha, 79 Chauta Rajas, 64 Chavundaraya, 27, 32, 33 Chdvundardya-Purdna, 32, 35, 116 ■ _ Cheramanka (King), 69 Chhandombuddhi, 33, 102 Chidananda, 82 Chidananda Avadhuta, 96 Chikka Deva Raja Binnapam, 90 Chikka Deva Rdja Yasobhus- hana, 89 Chikka Deva Raya, 89, 91, 94, 113, 117 Chikka Deva Rdya Vamsdvali, 89 Chikupadhyaya, 90, 117 Chitaldrug, 52 Cholas, 18, 24, 30, 33, 112, 116 Chfiddmani, 27 INDEX 121 HANDIN (Sans.) 27, 28, 110, ^ ii2 Dasara-padagalu , 80 Dasaratha-jdtaka, 36 Davangere, 76 Desdntriya-praydna, 101 Devachandra, 24, 35, 93, 117 Devlchandhu-rdnl , 101 Devagiri, 60 Deva-kavi,63, 116 Devanandi (Pujyapada), 26, 110, 114 Devanur, 85 Deva-rdja-vijaya, 89 Devottama, 113 Dharmdmrita , 35, 37, 116 Dharmandtha-purdna^ 46, 117 Dharma-parlkshe , 37 Digambaras, 18, 21 Dlkshd-bodhe, 61 Divyasuri-charitrd, 91 Dodda Deva Raja, 89 Doddahundi inscription, 13 Doddananka, 46 Doddayya, 46 Dorasamudra, 30, 36, 60, 61, 116 Drama, 91, 100 Dravidian languages, 11 Durgasimha, 38, 96, 116 Durgesa-nandinl , 101 Durvinita, 28 Dvaita, 115, 116 'CCONOMIC JOURNAL, 101 *-^ Ekantada Ramayya, 55 Ekorama, 54, 55 Ekorami-tande, 54 Epigraphia Carndtica, 13 Epigraphia Indica, 55 Ereyappa (Ganga king), 30 pA HI AN, 26 ^ Farquhar,Dr. J. N., quoted, 41, 50, 77 Finnish Language, 11 n ADUGINA Bhdrata,l%, 117 ^^ Gadd-yuddha, 32 Ganga Kings, 13, 17, 24, 29, 32, 116 Ganjam, 77 Gautama Buddha, 20 Gazetteer of Mysore, 6, 14 Gersoppa, 47, 64, 93, 100 Ghatachakra-vachana, 54 Girijd-kalydna, 60, 116 Gitd-Gopdla, 90 Gommategvara, 19, 46, 93 Gopalswami Hill, 91 Gover, Chas., Folk Songs, 81 Govinda Vaidya, 89 Grammatical works, 110 f Gubbi, 69, 71 Gujarat, 18, 24 Gunadhya, 28, 38, 96 Gunanandi, 28 Gunavarma I, 30 Gunavarma II, 43, 44 Guru-basava, 70 Gururaja, 69 Gururdja-charitre , 94, 117 HA D I B A D E Y A - D HARM A, 91 Haidar, 81, 93 Halebid, 30, 60, 116 Hampe, 60, 61, 115 Hmhsa-vhiisati-kathe , 97 Hari-bhakti-rasdyana, 82 Hari-bhakti-sdra, 80 Harihara, of Vijayanagar, 46 Harihara, the jjoet, 60 Harihara (= Sahkara Nara- yana), 76 Harihara-inahatva, 61 Harischandra-kdvya , 60 Harisvara, 55, 60, 61, 69, 76, 116 Harivamsa, 20, 30 Harshadeva, of Kanauj, 91 Harsha-charita (Sans.), 49 Havell, Mr. E_. B^, quoted, 81 Hemachandracharya, 24 Hiuen Tsang, 17, 26 Honnamma, 91 Hoys alas, 17, 30, 44, 116 Hultzsch, Dr., 12 jKKERI, 52,73 ^ Indian Antiquary , 55 122 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE Indraraja (Rashtrakuta), 22 Isvara-kavi, 112 TACOBI, Prof. H., 23,36 J Jagadekamalla (Chalukya), 38 _ _ _ Jagad-deva-raya (paleyagar), 93 Jagaddala Somanatha, 37 Jaganndtha-vijaya, 11 , 116 Jaimini Bhdrata, 84, 85, 92, 106 f, 117 Jaina Religion and Literature, 17 ff yaz«^wrfra( Sanskrit Grammar), 27, 110 Jaina-mata-prakdsikcL, 103 Jakkanarya, 70 Jangamas, 49, 70, 94 Janna, 43, 44, 116 Java, 14, 116 Jayabandhu, 28 Jayasimha, 33 Jayatirthacharya, 115 Jinachandra-deva, 31 Jindksharamdle , 32 Jina-inuni-tanaya, 93 Jinas (= Tirthankaras), 19 ff JIvandhara-raja, 46 Jlva-saynbodhana, 44 Jndna-bhdskara-charite, 47 Jnana Sambandhar (Tamil), 71 Jhdna-sdra, 34 Jndna-sindhu, 96 Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 13, 65, 81 KABBIGARA - KAIPWI, 112, 117 Kabbigara-kdva, 15, 44, 112, 116 Kabir, 76 Kddainbari , 33 Kadambas, 17, 43 Kaggere, 71 Kalacluiris, 17, 24, 52, 60, 116 Kala-jnana, 56 Kdla-jTidna-vachana , 54 Kalidasa, 28 Kalyana, 29, 52, 56, 68, 69, 114, 115, 116 Kamalabhava, 43 Kamban (Tamil poet), 36 Kanaka-dasa, 80, 117 Kanarese Country, 12 Kanarese Language, 11-16, 102- 104 Kanarese, Idiom, 104; Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Forms, 14, 15 f, 59, 78, 116, 117; Typography and Print- ing, 101, 104 Kanarese Literature, Periods, 15, 16 ; Present position and prospects, 102-104 ; Charac- teristics, 105-109 ; Modern study of, 8,9, 102, 103 Kanchi, 18, 26, 91 Kannada Sahitya Parishad 103 Kanthlrava Narasa Raja Cha- riira, 89 Kanthlrava Na rasa Raja Vijaya, 89 Kanti (poetess), 36, 116 Karahataka, 26 Kari Basappa ^astri, 103 Karkala, 19, 47, 93 Kdrkala - Gotmnatesvara - cha- ritre,Q2,, 117 Karnaparya, 37 Karndtaka - bhdshd - bhushana, 37', 111 Karndtaka-kavi-charite , 8, 9, 28, 33 Karndtaka-Sabda-manjari , 1 13 Karndtaka-§abddnusdsana, 83, 112 Karndtaka-iabda-sdra, 112 Karndtaka-sarijivana, 113 Kathd-rnanjari, 97 Kathd-sahgraha, 97 Kathiawar, 18 Kdvana-gella, 44 Kavi-jihvd-bandhana, 112 Kavi-kantha-hdra, 113 Kavi-Madanna, 94 Kavi-parameshthi, 26, 27 Kavi-rdjamdrga, 12, 25, 29, 110, 116 Kdvyddaria, 28, 110, 112 Kdvya-kaldnidhi, 103 INDEX 123 Kdvya-manjari, 103 Kavya-sara, 45, 47, 113, 117 Kavyavalokana,'i7, 107, 111, 116 Keladi Nayaks, 52 Kereya Padmarasa, 55, 61, 68 KeSiraja, 44, 45, 111, 116 Khagendra-tnani-darpana , 45 Khecharas, 34 Kigga inscription, 13 Kirdtdrjuniya (Sans.), 28 Kittel, Rev. F., 7, 14, 78, 102, 110, 111 Kolhapur, 12, 43,49 KoUipaka, 54 KoteSvara, 46 Krishna-dasa, 81 Krishna-llldbhyudaya, 92, 117 Krishna-raja (Rashtrakuta), 31 Krishna-raj a-vdni-vildsa, 101 Krishna Raja Wodeyar III , 101 Krishna Raya ( of Vi jayanag ar ) , 71, 79, 97, 117 Krishna-rdya Bhdrata, 47, 79 Kumara Bankanatha, 70 Kumara Channabasava, 69 Kumara Padmarasa, 61 Kumarapala of Gujarat, 24 Kumara Valmiki, 79, 92, 117 Kumara Vyasa, 68, 70, 78, 79, 117 Kumudendu Rdnidyana, 35, 45, 59, 116 Kunigal, 71 Kuntala, 60, 86, 112 Kurral (Tamil), 101 Kusumdvali, 63, 116 J A, 13 f, 59, 113 V Lakkanna, 70 Lakshma-kavi, 85 Lakshma-kavi- Bhdrata, 92, 117 Lakshmana-Raja (Silahara), 43 LakshmeSvara (Puligere), 30, 62 Lakshmlpati ( Chikupadhyaya) , 90 LakshmiSa, 85, 117 Lildvatl,^Z, 63, 116 Linga(Bhava,Prana andlshta), 51 Linga-sthala, 51 Lingayat Religion, 49 ff, 94 1V/TACD0NELL, Dr. A. A., ^*^ quoted, 28 Machikabbe, 22 Machi-raja (Chalukya general ) , 33 Madana-tilaka, 33, 37 Madana-vijaya, 44 Madhava of Hiriyur, 112 Madhavacharya (Vidyaranya) , 46, 76, 115, 117 Mddhavdlahkdra , 112 Madhura, 46, 117_ Madhvacharya(Anandatlrtha) , 16, 24, 76, 77, 79, 115, 116 Madhva-dasa, 81, 100 Madiraja, 52 Madivala Machayya, 54 Madivdlayya-sdhgatya, 54 Madura, 18 Mahabalakavi, 43 Mahdbhdrata, 35, 36, 37, 77, 78, 79_,85, 90, 106 Mahadevi-akka, 58 Mahalinga-deva, 70 Mahatmyas, 77, 91 Mahendrantaka (Ganga king), 30 Maisuru-arasugala-piirvabhyu- daya, 89 Malabasava-rdja-charitre , 67 . 117 _ Malayalam, 14 Maleyur, 24 Malla, poet, 13 Mallanarya, 69, 71, 79, 117 Mallanna, 69 Mallikarjuna, compiler of Sukti-sudhdrnava , 44, 47, 116 Mallikarjuna (Panditaradhya), 54, 69 Mallikarjuna-kavi, 69 Mallindtha-purdna , 34 Manargoli inscription, 53 Manchanna, 52 Mangalore, 89, 100, 110, 111 Mangaraja I, 45 Mangarasa, 46, 79 124 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE Manikka Vachaka (Tamil mystic), 51 Mantra-gopya, 54 Manyakheta, 17, 25, 29, 31, 116 Marathi, 15, 60, 72 Mdrkandeya Rdniayana, 92 Marula-siddha (poet)', 67, 94 Marula-siddha (acharya),54 Mathematics, 36, 99 Maya-vadis, 75 Mitakshara (Sans.), 114 Mitravinda Govinda, 91, 117 Moegling, Dr., 80, 102 Mohana-tarahgini , 80 Alrichchakatikd (Sans.), 30 Mudabidire, 47 Mridarai (Tamil) Muni-suvrata(Tirthankara), 20 Muni-vanis dbhyudaya , 93 Mysore Rajas, 83, 89 Mysore Royal Anthem, 102 MABH0GAMANA-VIDYA,35 ^^ Nachiraja, 112 Nagachandra, 34, 36, 116 Nagalambike, 52 Nagdnanda (Sans.), 34 Naga-kumara, 46 Nagaraja, 35, 45 Nagarasa, 92 Nagarjuna, 28 Nagavarma I, 7, 33, 43, 110, 116 Nagavarma II, 37, 111, 112, 114, 116 _ Nagavarmacharya, 33 Nagideva (of Karasthala), 70 Nagini river, 71 Nala-charitre, 80 Ndladiydr (Tamil), 101 Nalvale (Tamil), 101 Nambiyanna, 60, 69 Nam-dev (Marathi), 72 Nammalvar (Tamil), 91 Ndndrtha-rattidkara, 113 Nanja-kavi, 89 Nanjunda (of Kikkeri), 94 Nannayya, 94 Narahari-tirtha, 77 Naranappa (Kumara Valmiki), 78 ■ Narasimha (Ballal) I, 55, 60, 61 Narasimhacharya, R., 6, 30, 32, 55, 73, 79, 8_4, 111 Narasimhacharya, S. G., 6 Naredalega (= ragi), 80, 81 Navarasdlankdra , 113 Nayaks of Keladi (Bedniir), 52 Nayasena, 35, 37, 116 Nemanna, 47 Nemichandra, 27, 43, 63, 116 Neiiii-jinesa-purdna, 46 Neminatha (Tirtliankara), 20, 43 Nemindtha-purdna, 30, 37, 43, 117 Nijaguna-Sivayogi, 69, 71 Nilakanthacharya, 69 Niti-nianjari, 101 Nripatuhga (Rashtrakiata), 25 Nuggehaili, 113 Nurondu-sthala, 70 Niitana-puratanas, 51 DADMANABHA, 35 *■ Padma-charitrd, 36, 44 Padmanahka, 68, 117 Padmaraja Pandita, 103 Padniardja-purdna, 59, 61, 68, 117 Paleyagars, 89, 93 Palkurike Soma, 53, 61, 62, 64, 69, 114 Pdlkurike-Soinesvara-purdna, 62 Pampa (Adi), 30 Pampa (Abhinava), 34 PcDiipa Bhdrata, 31 Pampa Rdmdyana, 34, 45, 116 Pampd-satakam, 60 Panchabana, 93, 117 Panchakshara, 51, 61, 71 Panchatantra, 38, 96, 116 Pdiidava-Rdghavlya, 106 Pandharpur, 80, 92 Panditaradhya (Mallikarjuna), 54; 69 Pandyan Kings, 18 Panini, 27, 36 Pdnini-sabddvatdra, 27 INDEX 125 ParSvanatha, 20 Pdrsvandtha-pnrdna, 43 Par§va-pandita, 43, 44 Pataliputra, 26 Patanjali, 37 Pattadakal, 33 Paumachariya, 36 Pavadas of Basava, 53, 65, 67, 94 Penukonda, 68, 92 Periya-purana (Tamil), 51 Persian words, 104 Pillai Lokacharya (Tamil), 91 Piiiai Naynar (Tamil), 71 Pingala (Sans.), 110 Ponna, 31, 114, 116 Prabhudeva, 54 Prabhulinga, 68 Prab/mlinga-llle, 68, 78, 117 Praudha Deva Raya II, 68, 70, 78, 117 Praudha-rdya-charitre , 70 POjyapada, 26, 41, 45, 110, 114 Puligere (LakshmeSvar), 24, 29, 30, 60, 62, 69 Puligere Soma, 62 Punctuation, 104 Punydsrava, 35, 45 Puranas (Jaina), 42, 43, 46 Puranas (Vaishnava), 79, 91 Purandara-dasa,'80, 81, 117 Purandara Vitthala, 80 Puratanas, 51, '60, 69 Purdtanara-tripadi , 69 Pushpadatita-purdna , 43 Pushpadatta, 72 Puttaiya, 89 DA, 13, 14, 78, 113, 117 ,. Rachamalla IV (Ganga king), 32, 33 Ragale, 16, 59 Raghava, 81 Raghavanka, 55, 59, 61, 94, 116 Rdghavdnka-charitre , 61 Raghunatha Rau, R., quoted, 15 Ragi, 80,81 Rajaditya, 36, 116 Rdjasekhara-vildsa, 72, 84, 90, 100 Rdjdvali-kathe, 25, 93, 117 Rdja-yoga-vachana, 54 Rajendra-chola, 24 Rdjendra-tidnie , 89 Rakkasa Ganga, 33 Rdniachandra-charitra , 35, 93, 117 Rdniachandra-charitrd-purdna, 34 Rama-dhdnya-charitre , 80 Rdrna-kathdvatdra, 35, 94 Ramananda, 76 Ramanujacharya, 42, 75, 76, 77, _116_ Ramayana, 35 f, 92; Pampa, 34; Kumudendu, 45; Torave, 79; Markandeya, 92; Ananda, 92 ; Ramachandra-charitre, 94 Rdyn-charit-indnas (Hindi), 36 Ranganatha (Avadhilta), 95 Ranna, 30, 32, 116 Rasa-ratndkara , 113 Rashtrakutas (Rattas), 17, 29, 30,69,116 Ratna-Karandaka, 48 Ratnakara-varni, 47, 117 Ratndvali (Sans.), 91 Ratta-kavi, 45 Ratta-mata, Ratta-sutra, 45 Ravishena (Sans.), 44 Reeve, W., Dictionaries, 102 Renuka (Revana), 54 Revana-siddha (Acharya), 54 Revana-siddhesvara-kdvya , 69 Revana-siddhesvara-purdna, 69 Rice, Lewis, 5, 6, 84, 102, 'll2 Rishabha (1st Tirthankara), 20 Rudrabhatta, 77, 116 Q.ABARA-^AI^KARA- ^ VI LAS A, 84 Sabda-manidarpana, 44, 45, 84, 102, 111' 116 Sabda-sniriti , 111 Sabddvatdra, 28 Sddali, 92 Sadguru-ragale , 62 Sahajananda, 82 126 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE Sahasa-Bhivia-vijaya, 32 Saivas (four classes), 49 ^aivaganias, 49 ^aivism, 26, 49 fif, 76 ^akuntald, 100 Saligram, 81 ^alivahana, 38 Sallekhana, 21 f, 26 Salva, 47, 113 Sdlva Bharata, 47 Samantabhadra, 26, 41, 114 SamaRan, D., 100 Samaya-partkshe, 37 ^ambhulinga hill, 71 Sampadaneya Siddhavira- charya, 73 Sananda-charitre, 61 Sanderson, Rev. Geo., quoted, 106 SangameSvara, 52 f, 65 Sangatya, 44, 59, 80, 90, 116 ^ankaracharya, 24, 75, 76, 114 Sankara-Narayana, 76 Sanskrit, language, 13, 15, 26 ; authors referred to, 27, 28, 33, 34, 36,49,50, 110, 112, 114 f Sanskrit works reproduced in Kanarese, 33, 38, 43, 69, 70, 71, 85, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 100, 101, 112 Sanskrit works by Kanarese writers, 26, 27, 28, 38, 71, 83, ^ 84, 111, 112, 114, 115 Santala-devi, 22 ^anta-linga-de§ika, 94, 117 Santayya, 100 Santhars, 21 gantikirti, 46 ^antinatha (SantiSvara), 20, 39 f Santindtha-purdna, 46 ^dnti-purdna, 31 $dnti svara-purdna , 43 Sapta-kdvya, 70 ^arami-Basava-ragale , 62 Sarva - darsana ■ sahgraha, 76, 115 Sarvaina-murti, 72 f, 117 Sarvajtiana-padagabi, 72 f Sasanas, 38, 43 Sataka (a cento or poem of 100-108 stanzas), 34, 47, 60, 62 ^atavahana, 38 Satyendra Chola, 84 Satyendra-Chola-kathe , 71 Saundatti Rajas, 44 Sayana,"76, 115, 117 Seringapatam, 73, 91 Shadakshara, 51 Shadakshara-deva, 67, 72, 84, 114, 117 Shakespeare, 100 Shatpadi, 16, 59, 61, 111, 116 Shatsthala, 50, 70 Shatsthala-jndndmrita , 7 1 Shatsthala-vachana , 53, 57 Siddhalihga-yati (Ton t a da SiddheSvara), 71 Siddha-nanjeSa, 61, 94, 117 Siddharama, 54, 55, 61, 68 Siddhardmn-purana , 54, 60 Siddhesvara-purdna, 71 Silaharas (of Kolhapur), 43 ^ila-sanipddana, 62 Singararya, 91 Singi-raja, 67, 117 Sihgi-rdja-purdna, 67 Siragunda inscription, 13 ^igumayana, 44, 116 ^ivddhikya-purdna, 94 ^iva-ganada-ragale, 60 ^iva-gltd, 50 ^ivakoti (of Kanchi), 26 Siva-tattva-chintdniani , 70 ^iva-yoga-pradlpike, 71 ^lesha, 106 Sohagina-suggi, 44 Soma (plant), 81 Sotnandtha-charitre , 60 Somanatha (Jagaddala), 37 Somaraja, 64 Somayya (of Puligere) , 60 ; cf. 62 Somesvara-iataka , 62 Sonnalige, 54 61, 68 INDEX 127 Sravana Belgola, 9, 13, 18, 22, 46, 93 Sringara-rasa, 64 Sridharacharya, 33 ^ringeri, 114, 115 Srirangam, 76, 91 Sri Vaishnavas, 76 ^rivarddhadeva, 27 ^rivijaya, 25, 28 ^ruta-kevalin Stevenson, Mrs., quoted, 19, 24 Sthala, 49 Subandhu, 43 ^udraka, 30 Suka-saptati, 97 Sukti-sudhdrnava, 45, 47, 116 Sumanobana, 45 Suranga-kavi, 69 Surya, 113 Swatantra SiddhalingeSvara, 58 Swetambaras, 21 Syadvada, 9, 17, 22, 26 T^ADBHAVA, 15, 44 ^ Tailapa, 31, 32 Talikota, 69 Taikad, 9, 13, 17, 24, 29, 116 Tamil, 14, 15, 91, 101, 112 Tanjore, 18 Tapatl-parinaya, 100 Tatsama, 15, 44 Telugu, 14, 15, 64, 72, 79, 93, 112 Tengalae, 91 Tennala Ramakrishna, 97 Terakanambi, 46 "Three Gems," 30 Tikas, 100 Timma, 113 Timmanna, 78 Timmarasa, 92 Timmarva, 92 Tipu Sultan, 89, 90, 93 Tirthankaras, 19, 20 Tirumalarya (Tirumalayen- gar), 90,91, 113, 117 Tirumala-rava, 69 Tirumala Vaidya, 92 Tirupati, 81, 91 Tiruvalluvar, 101 Tiruvayi-mol e , 91 Tontada Siddhegvara, 71, 117 Torave Rdmayana, 79, 117 Totadarya, 113 ' Tribhuvana-tilaka , 69 Triloka-saiaka, 47 Tripadi, 16, 59 Tripura-dahana, 44 Trisashti-lakshana-tnaha- purdna, 32 Trisashti-purdtanara-charitre, 69 Tuka Ram, 72 Tulasi Das, 36, 77 Tuluva country, 19, 46, 47 Tuiuva language, 93 Tumbuluracharya, 27 T TBHAYA-KAVI-CHAKRA- ^ VARTI, 31,114 Udaya, 28 Udayaditya, 112 Udaydditydla hkdram ,112 Udbhata-kdvya , 64 Udupi, 76, 77, 81, 100, 115 Ujjayini, 43, 97 Ulavi, 53 Ummatur, 51, 69 Uraiyur, 18 Urilinga-peddi, 57 Uttara-kdnda, 92 Uttara Rdmayana, 92 WACHANAS, 56-58, 70, 71 ^ Vaishnava Revival, 75 ff Vaishnava classics, 78, 79, 91, 92 Vaishnava Dasas, 79 Vajranandi, 27 Valmiki, 34 Vanara-dhvaja, 35 Varaha Timmappa Dasa, 81 Vardhamana Mahavira, 19, 20 Vasavadatta, 43 Vastu-kosa. 37, 111, 112 Vemana (Telugu), 72 Vengi, 30, 33, 54 Venkatacharya, B., 101 Venkata Dasa, 81 Venkatapati Raya, 69 128 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE Venkatavaradacharya, 100 Venkayarya, 92 Vidyadharas, 34 Vidyaranya (Madhavacharya), 115 Vijaya Dasa , 81 Vijayanagar, 42, 46, 64, 68, 79, 80,83, 97, 115, 117 Vijnanesvara, 114, 116 Vikranidrka-deva-charitra, 114 Vimala, 2_8 Vimala Suri, 36 Vincent Smith, quoted, 19 Viraktas, 70 Virakta Tontadarya, 62, 71 Vira Ballala,_43, 77 Virabhadra-raja, 72 VIra-rajendra, 89 Vlrasaivdinrita-purdna, 69, 72 ViraSaiva Religion, 49 ff Vira SomeSvara, 44 Vira Vasanta Raya, 56, 68 Viriapaksha, 85 Virupa-raja, 69, 72 Vishalaksha-pandita, 89 Vishnu-pur ana, 17 , 91 Vishnuvardhiana, 34 Visishtadvaita, 90 VisveSvaracharya, 54, 69 Vitthala (Vithoba), 80 Vitthala Dasa, 81 Viveka-chintamani , 71, 117 Vokkaligara Patrike, 101 Vopadeva, 110 Vrishabhendra-vijaya, 53, 84 Vrittdnta Patrike, 101 Vritta-vilasa, 37 Vyasa-raya of Sosile, 80 WARANGAL, 60 Weigle, Rev. G. H., 102 Wilks' History of Mysore, 89 Wodeyars of Mysore and Ummatiir, 51 Wiirth, Rev., 7, 102 YADAVAS, 45, 60 * Yakshagana, 16, 100 Yasodhara-charitre, 43, 116 Yatis, 20, 34 Ydtrika-sanchara, 101 Yediyur, 71 Yelandiir, 71, 84, 89 Yenur, 19, 47, 93 ^6/ FresemLvmts ofSimarese UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 000 106 098 7 ■tA llBRAIRIE FRANgAlSE * PEKIN (CHINE)