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With a stay at Betmanowska Main Square Residence in Krakow (Old Town), you'll be minutes from Amber Museum and Main Market Square. This 4-star aparthotel is within close proximity of St. Mary's Basilica and Lost Souls Alley.
Make yourself at home in one of the 30 air-conditioned rooms featuring free minibar items and flat-screen televisions. Complimentary wireless Internet access is available to keep you connected. Bathrooms have showers and designer toiletries. Conveniences include safes and desks, and housekeeping is provided daily.
Make use of convenient amenities, which include complimentary wireless Internet access and tour/ticket assistance.
Grab a bite at one of the aparthotel's 2 restaurants, or stay in and take advantage of room service (during limited hours). Quench your thirst with your favorite drink at a bar/lounge.
Business, Other Amenities
Featured amenities include a 24-hour front desk and laundry facilities.


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No matter where my books are set—or when—they have plenty of romance, spice, and that touch of paranormal magic you love. So pull up a chair, sit back…and enjoy.
PREORDER TODAY! Enchanting the Highlander Releases 1 November
Enchanting the Highlander includes five brand new novellas from five bestselling authors—Eliza Knight, Terry Spear, Vonda Sinclair, Victoria Roberts, and my new novella, His Highland Rose, the prequel to my new His Highland Heart Scottish historical romance series. (You'll see more about that later this year.)
Don't delay! Preorder Enchanting the Highlander—it's only 99 cents and available only until the end of November. Preorder your copy today!
PROTECTED BY THE LAIRD by Eliza Knight — When she needed a champion, he raised his sword…
While besieging an enemy castle, Laird Douglas Hay comes across the half frozen body of a lass. She's obviously one of the enemy, but he cannot allow her to die. Besides, as his captive, she could bring a hefty ransom. He revives her, a task easier managed than her fiery temper, and the intense desire heating his veins.
Taken as a prisoner by the brutish warrior, Lady Annora Comyn is determined to make her escape. Secretly, she believes that the war between the Comyns and the Bruce is ridiculous, that the vying for the crown should have died the day her royal brother was murdered. Annora struggles internally with the notion of letting men fight their battles, or putting herself forward as collateral in a treaty to unite the warring Scots. After all, there are far worse things than having to kiss Laird Hay everyday for the rest of her life.
VEXING THE HIGHLANDER by Terry Spear — Saving the king's life has unforeseen consequences for one Highlander and a lady, the king's ward…
Lady Aila MacIntosh hopes she doesn't regret the king's marital choices for her and her sister, but because of her cursed red hair, she hasn't had any interest. Until one braw Highlander bumps into her at the king's gathering. He seems just as taken with her as she is with him, until she learns he is but a commoner, brother to a lord when she is a lady. The king would never make a match between them.
Alban of the Clan Daziel meets the most beautiful woman at the king's court, only he soon learns she is a lady and quite out of his reach. But when the lady and he meet under rather awkward circumstances, they chance to overhear a plot to assassinate the king. From then on, their lives spiral out of control, and losing his heart to Aila is only one of his pressing concerns. Protecting her from those who wish the king dead—his greatest.
DEFENDED BY A HIGHLAND RENEGADE by Vonda Sinclair — A bride on the run doesn't expect a kilted outlaw to come to her rescue…
When Lady Mairiana MacKerrick witnesses her fiancé, Alec Lindsay, committing a murder three days before their wedding, she decides she must run away. Darack Grant, secretly an outlaw MacGregor, is on a clandestine mission at the Lindsays' castle, but when he finds Lady Mairiana hiding in the stables, he knows he must help her escape.
Darack remembers the beautiful Mairiana from their one meeting a few years before. Though he was drawn to her, he always saw her as far beyond his reach. Mairiana, finding an inner strength she never knew she had, throws caution to the wind and trusts the Highland renegade to protect her on their journey through the Scottish Highlands. On the way, they discover a shared, astonishing passion. But Alec will stop at nothing to reclaim his betrothed and destroy Darack in the process, even pin a murder on him.
TARTANS AND TRYSTS by Victoria Roberts — This Highland warrior is about to lose the battle to a lass who's already won his heart…
Sorcha Gunn has realized the error of her ways and wants to make amends for everything she's done. But when her cousin mysteriously disappears and Sorcha suspects her father is responsible, she needs to make a choice: betray the man who has given her everything or seek help from his enemy. Her decision is not an easy one, especially when the only person who believes in her is a brawny Highlander from the neighboring clan.
As captain of the MacKay guard, Doughall Forbes will do anything to protect his clan from the ruthless Gunn laird. The last thing he needs is a wily female luring him into a nefarious trap. But he believes Sorcha, even though he can tell she's holding something back. He's determined to help her but soon discovers he's the one who needs protection…from losing his heart.
HIS HIGHLAND ROSE by Willa Blair — He is the one man who can see her soul and show her who she truly is—his only love…
Iain Brodie is a fierce warrior and passionate lover, but to prove he's responsible enough to follow his ailing father as the clan's chief, he must give up the lasses and find a bride—quickly. He doesn't expect to fall for any of the Rose chief's three daughters, but he can't get one out of his mind—or heart—even when he discovers she is not who she claims to be.
Skilled rider and archer Annie Rose values her freedom. She doesn't want to be anyone's bride, not even deliciously and annoyingly sexy Iain Brodie's. But her father wants an alliance with Iain's clan and he's chosen her to forge it. Unaware she could be sealing the fate she desperately wants to avoid, Annie falls under Iain's seductive spell at the spring known in old tales as the fairy pool.
But when her father suddenly decides against their match, Annie discovers the love she never expected to find—with Iain. To win her, Iain must risk losing everything he values—the clan he was born to lead and even Annie, the woman he sees for who she truly is—his only love.
Don't wait to preorder Enchanting the Highlander—it's only 99 cents through the end of November, then it's gone forever! Preorder your copy today!

subset: commoncrawl


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Dioskouroi - Malevizi
The aparthotel, although small, is the perfect place for comfort and relaxation. Guests can spend their downtime on the roof garden where you can gaze out at the scenery, read a book in the sunshine, or have a glass of wine. You may care to refresh yourself by going for a dip in the outdoor swimming pool, or by having a treat in the café. At the end of the day, you can unwind in the spa tub or stay connected with free WiFi access.
This aparthotel is a lovely choice during your Greece holiday, and guests are sure to be happy here.
Dioskouroi - Malevizi
Hotel Info: 1-877-214-4288from $23
- Apartment (for 4)
- Apartment
- Apartment (for 3)
- Studio (for 1)
- Studio (for 2)
Also popular with travelers from the USA
At a glance
Key facts
Hotel size
- This hotel has 10 rooms
- This hotel is arranged over 2 floors
- Check-in time noon-2:00 AM
- Check-out time is noon
Required at check in
- Credit card or cash deposit required
- Government-issued photo ID required
Travelling with others
- Babysitting/childcare
- Pets allowed (dogs only)
Extra people
- Roll-away beds available, charges may apply*
- Free WiFi and wired Internet access in public areas
- Free WiFi in rooms
- Airport shuttle (available 24 hours) *
- Ferry terminal shuttle *
- Free self parking
Other information
- Smoke-free property
In the hotel
- In-room childcare (surcharge)
- Supervised childcare/activities (surcharge)
- Free continental breakfast daily
- Bar/lounge
- Coffee shop/café
- Poolside bar
- Room service (during limited hours)
- Barbecue grills
- Outdoor seasonal pool
- Children's pool
- Spa tub
- Pool sun loungers
- Pool umbrellas
- Tours/ticket assistance
- Dry cleaning/laundry service
- Laundry facilities
- Luggage storage
- Wedding services
- Multilingual staff
- Number of buildings/towers - 2
- Rooftop terrace
- Garden
- Picnic area
- Library
- Fireplace in lobby
- Television in common areas
In the room
- In-room climate control (air conditioning)
- Air conditioning
- Coffee/tea maker
- Iron/ironing board (on request)
- Blackout drapes/curtains
- Sofa bed
- Sofa bed size single
- In-room massage available
- Fireplace
- Balcony
- Shower only
- Hair dryer (on request)
- DVD player
- Free WiFi
- Phone
- Refrigerator
- Kitchen
- In-room safe
Special features
On Site
- Spa tub
- Bicycle rentals nearby
- Ecotours nearby
- Hiking/biking trails nearby
- Mountain biking nearby
- Scooter/moped rentals nearby
- Scuba diving nearby
- Snorkeling nearby
- Water skiing nearby
- Windsurfing nearby
Dioskouroi - Malevizi's small print
Also known as
- Dioskouroi Aparthotel
- Dioskouroi Aparthotel Malevizi
- Dioskouroi Malevizi
Cash transactions at this property cannot exceed EUR 1500, due to national regulations. For further details, please contact the property using information in the booking confirmation.
For transfers, guests must contact the property 24 hours prior to arrival at the number on the booking confirmation.
Reservations are required for massage services and can be made by contacting the property before arrival at the number on the booking confirmation.
Optional extras
Airport shuttle service is offered for an extra charge of EUR 20 per vehicle
Ferry terminal shuttle service is offered for an extra charge
We have included all charges provided to us by this hotel. However, charges can vary, for example, based on length of stay or the room you book.
Hotel registry number: 1039K124K2645001


text:
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This two-day hands-on workshop is designed for individuals and teams that want to gain a better understanding of the components and underlying philosophy of lean, based on the Toyota Production...
Business, Industrial
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realmagick.com The shrine of knowledge.
Kanpur Climate
A selection of articles related to kanpur climate.
Original articles from our library related to the Kanpur Climate. See Table of Contents for further available material (downloadable resources) on Kanpur Climate.
- Bringing it Down to Earth: A Fractal Approach
- 'Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.' B. Mandelbrot W e want to think about the future - it's our nature. Unlike other creatures, humans possess an...
Mystic Sciences >> Astrology
- Elhaz
- Elhaz is the seventh Rune of the second aett (group of eight). Its name means "elk," in the European sense of the word. The European elk is essentially the same animal as the North American "moose." The North American elk (wapiti) is a...
Divination >> Rune Stones
- Egyptian Temples, part IV: The Temple Building
- Model of the Universe From at least the New Kingdom on the Egyptian cult temple building was a symbolic model of the universe. It was built along an east-west axis, following the sun´s course through the day and surrounded by a brick wall built in alternating...
Religions >> Egyptian
- Persephone
- Persephone had no real title or position in the world of Olympian gods and goddesses.
Deities & Heros >> Greek
- What is Subliminal Influence?
- The term subliminal is technically archaic , though it is still in common use. The problem is that it is hopelessly bound to the concept of a well-defined sensory threshold, a concept made obsolete by the introduction of signal detection theory into...
Parapsychology >> Subliminal Persuasion
- Lycopodium clavatum (Wolf's Foot)
- Wolf's Foot, is a mosslike plant. It exists already for ages on this planet in an almost unaltered form; Lycopodium clavatum has proven to survive many changes in climate and environment. The homoeopathic Lycopodium-personality shows a great tenacity and a...
Remedies >> Remedies L
Kanpur Climate is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Kanpur Climate books and related discussion.
Suggested News Resources
- Electricity, heating most climate-friendly uses for natural gas Rice University
- Rice University researchers have determined a more effective way to use natural gas to reduce climate-warming emissions would be in the replacement of existing coal-fired power plants and fuel-oil furnaces rather than burning it in cars and buses.
- Sustainable Development is our priority: Prime Minister
- Addressing the gathering, Minister of State (Independent Charge) of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Shri Javadekar said that the Prime Minister convinced the world at Paris about Climate Justice and sustainable lifestyle.
- Sustainable Development is our priority: PM Modi
- Addressing the gathering, Minister of State (Independent Charge) of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Shri Javadekar said that the Prime Minister convinced the world at Paris about Climate Justice and sustainable lifestyle.
- How blind faith is choking the Ganga
- A Kanpur-based uncle of mine, who I will call Mahen, said that when he was young, crocodiles and tortoises were teeming in the Ganga, eating up corpses. "Within Modi's term, the Ganga will get salvation," he says.
Great care has been taken to prepare the information on this page. Elements of the content come from factual and lexical knowledge databases, realmagick.com library and third-party sources. We appreciate your suggestions and comments on further improvements of the site.
Kanpur Climate Topics
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© 2000 - 2016 Realmagick.com, All Rights Reserved.


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7 May 8, 2013
Synchronizes wordpress users with MailChimp. Select MailChimp list, group and subgroup (subscribers organized in a subgroup or according to your role), and automatically new users are added to this mailchimp group. Add, update and delete synchronized users.
NOW: Synchronize existing users
- Since 1.2.0 version.
- New users
- Update user info
- Delete user
- In a existing subgroup
- or by roles
May 9
Thanks. love this plugin
May 9
hi, I'm glad you like it
December 29
Fantastic plugin! Do you have a similar plugin for ReachMail? That would be REALLY helpful. ReachMail provides API access, but nothing like this for WordPress.
February 5
Thanks, probably too late, I have not a plugin to ReachMail. cheers
August 28
Hi, I'm testing the plugin. When I add a new user account, it is automatically added to the Mailchimp list. But when I remove that account, it is not deleted from the Mailchimp list. I want deleted user accounts to be deleted from Mailchimp, or at least removed from the subgroup they are added to. Is this possible? I see in the features that 'Delete user' should be synchronised. Note: I'm using it on a site that is part of a multisite network.
August 28
OK I've tested it on another site and there it works perfectly. So it is not fully Multisite compatible.
September 1
Hi Wim, thanks for the feedback, We'll check out for the next update. Thanks, Antonio B.


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Today marks the final matchup of the Elite 8 of the Madness tournament. Both plays were executed on the defensive end and both were impressive on different levels. First we have Kevin Garnett's steal to secure the playoff victory against the New York Knicks, which was huge at the time. Going up against it is a play that would have been ranked a lot lower if it were just a routine steal and dunk. But the fact that it was Rajon Rondo's "Mini-Larry-Bird" moment by returning to the same game after a gruesome elbow injury, made it ranked so high in my opinion. The winner takes on the top-seeded play in the Final Four.
Seed #4: KG Steals and Dives for the Ball (Game 2 vs NYK) – The Celtics are already holding a 1-0 series lead and are clinging to another one-point lead in Game 2, thanks to KG's jump hook in the lane. Now, a team that prides itself on defense, has a chance to take a 2-0 lead on defense. And who better than Kevin Garnett to execute the play. As Carmelo Anthony drives to the basket, he "went to Jared" as in Jeffries, attempting to feed him for a lay-up. A puzzling move indeed, as Melo had been on fire all night. KG steals the ball, dives to save it, calls timeout and wins the game.
Seed #5: Rondo Steals and Dunks After Elbow Injury – After getting taken down by Dwyane Wade and having his arm removed from normal musculoskeletal structure, Rajon Rondo returned and led the Celtics to their only victory against the Heat. This play he steals the ball with his injured arm, then sort of slams it home. Again, given the circumstances it was an inspiring and amazing play. Unfortunately it was also a huge factor in the C's downfall.


text:
Bachelor degrees from accredited colleges and universities can be important stepping-stones toward a successful career.The most common type of undergraduate program is a bachelor's degree, usually awarded after four years of successful study
With university education being upper most level in the education system of the Belgium, the government has put more emphasis to make sure that the students' lives is made as simple as possible through the loan and grants programs. They offer sponsors for international students with poor and vulnerable backgrounds who would like to study in this country.
Contact Schools Directly Best Part time Bachelor Degrees in Photography in Belgium 2016/2017
Le BACHELOR PROFESSIONNEL SDS® PHOTOGRAPHIE est un diplôme européen délivré par l'INSHED. La formation permet d'être professionnellement opérationnel dès le début de votre carrière et de bénéficier d'une bonne employabilité, au-delà même de votre pays d'origine. [+]


text:
Online Fiddle Lessons
We believe that everyone can learn to fiddle. Even if you live in hard-to-reach places. Even if you haven't found a teacher.
Looking for Online Fiddle Lessons?
Hi, I'm Lora. If you're looking for online fiddle lessons, you have found the right place! I am excited to bring you Fabulous Fiddle Fundamentals, my video-based lessons course that will teach you how to fiddle. At the end of this course, you will have 24 songs in your fiddle repertoire and the skills you need to play with a band, wow your family and friends, compete in fiddle contests, and most importantly, to enjoy making music for the rest of your life!
Hi, I'm Lora. If you're looking for online fiddle lessons, you have found the right place!
I am excited to bring you Fabulous Fiddle Fundamentals, my video-based lessons course that will teach you how to fiddle.
At the end of this course, you will have 24 songs in your fiddle repertoire and the skills you need to play with a band, wow your family and friends, compete in fiddle contests, and most importantly, to enjoy making music for the rest of your life!
During the course, you will:
- Learn how to play 24 American and Irish fiddle tunes (7 hoe-downs, 7 Irish reels, 5 jigs, 5 waltzes)
- Learn the skills you need to turn any fiddle tune into a competition-ready performance
- Learn how to take a bare-bones melody (like the thousands you can download for free online) and turn it into an exciting and beautiful audience-pleaser!
- Get a virtual toolbox FULL of "formulas" and "patterns", ideas, tools, and techniques which you can use and re-use for any fiddle tune to dress it up.
Learn these great songs
These tunes are as fun to play as their names make them sound! Here is a video of me playing one of the tunes I'll teach you, "Cooley's Reel."
FREE audio files!Download MP3's of me and Larry Unger playing all 24 tunes in the course. You will get each tune in 3 different formats: with fiddle and guitar, fiddle alone, and with guitar alone. This will support you through the entire learning process!
Play-along Videos!Every unit has play-along videos in 3 different speeds: slow, medium, and fast. This helps you learn the tune and gives you something to play along with as you learn to play "back-up", or as you experiment with bowings and ornaments. No extra cost!
Get help whenever you need it!Every lesson features a "comments" section where you can post your thoughts, comments, or questions. I personally read all the comments and answer your questions, so you get plenty of help from the teacher. You'll also get encouragement and practical tips from your fellow students. And if you have technical difficulty, a friendly and prompt support staff is standing by.
Approximately every week, your membership will automatically upgrade to the next song. But if you want to take two weeks or four or whatever to learn a tune, go ahead! You go at your own pace and your own pace is okay. The next lessons will be there for you when you are ready.
You will only be billed for 7 months but you'll have access to all of the videos for as long as you need it. That is the beauty of this system. If you have to take a couple weeks off for whatever life throws at you, no problem. Pick up where you left off!
By the time you have practiced the eight videos and understand the concepts, you will not simply play the song. You will understand it and be ready to interpret it and make it your own! That's what mastery is all about! If you want to bake a cake you see in a magazine, imagine how helpful it would be to have the list of ingredients! Imagine how much MORE helpful it would be to have the instructions AND the ingredients!
My 8-video formula is exactly like having the recipe for each tune. By the time you complete all 24 tunes, you will be able to duplicate these steps on ANY tune you want to learn! Here are the eight videos in my formula for each tune that give you the "ingredients and instructions" you need:
- The tune
- Bow patterns
- Left hand technique (or ornaments)
- Scales and arpeggios
- Chords
- Playing backup
- Beginning and ending
- Change-ups and improv
There is no such thing as "behind". Go at your own pace, and your pace is okay. All I ask is that you continue to move forward in your progress. I am here to help you!
Am I ready for this course? Is there a prerequisite?
Fabulous Fiddle Fundamentals assumes Suzuki Book 1 proficiency. If you do not have the following basic skills, then you might consider taking my beginners Suzuki Violin class, Fabulous Fundamentals. The skills you will need to be successful in this fiddle class are:
- Good posture and form
- Good bow hold and bow control
- Beautiful tone
- Good intonation
- And basic ear training skills. (Can you pick out a tune by ear?)
If you don't have these, or you don't know what they mean, then you probably need to take my Beginning Suzuki class first.
I'd really like to take this class, but I don't think I have time.
Yes, it is a time commitment, but chances are, you would spend time wishing you could play fiddle, or watching YouTube fiddlers, dreaming that you could someday be able to do that! If you can find about 30 minutes per day, you can finish this course. And trust me, after you play your first complete fiddle tune…you will find the time. It will be so fun, you might decide to sell your television!
What if I decide to quit?
No problem! You are free to cancel at any time if you choose to.
Do you guarantee these lessons?
Absolutely! I do not want unsatisfied students! If you are not satisfied with these lessons, you will know it in about a month. That's why I offer a 60 day money-back guarantee, to give you plenty of time to try it out and think about it. If you decide it's not worth the money you have paid, simply cancel your membership and request a refund. NO PROBLEM. I fully stand behind my lessons!
Have more questions? Just contact me.
Download and Print Unit Summaries and Practice Assignments: Print these documents to save your valuable time and make the most of your practicing. They give the highlights of each lesson, and have a special "practice assignment" section to help you get right down to business and get results! FREE to members.
Practice with play-along videos in slow, medium, and fast: These videos help you gain continuity and speed, and they feature a close-up of my left hand so you can clearly see the notes being played. FREE to members.
Downloadable audio tracks of fiddle only, fiddle with guitar, and guitar only: Play these invaluable tools in your car or in the background while you work to help you absorb the tunes. Work with them in your practice room to help you gain independence and polish. FREE to members.
Get started today for $1!Take a look inside for two weeks for just $1! After two weeks, your credit card will be billed $47. Then again every 30 days until you have made a total of 7 $47 payments.
Yes You CanStart fiddling today
- $1 today gets you two weeks of access, then $47/month for 7 months
- 24 great American and Irish fiddle songs
- Watch videos whenever you want, as often as you like
- FREE downloadable audio files
- FREE playalong videos
- 60-day money-back guarantee
- Cancel anytime


text:
Need an Electrician Pty Ltd
Need an Electrician Pty LtdNeed An Electrician? We'll Keep You Safe!
Like you no doubt, I often find it frustrating dealing with tradies. They don't answer the phone or get back to you promptly, they don't turn up on time and leave you hanging around, they seem to suddenly find extra things to add to the price, and they often leave you with all the mess to clean up. And once you've handed ...read more
Great service, had our switchboard upgraded, they left the place neat and spotless. great work.
Contact details
- Fault Finding
- Networking
- Residential
- Power Points
- Fuse Boxes
- Industrial
- View more (14)
Payment options
- Cheque
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- Cash
- Direct Deposit
- MasterCard
Suburb Services
- Indoor Lighting
- TV and Data Cabling
- Outdoor Lighting
- Surge Protectors
- Switchboards
- Rewiring
- View more (3)
I wish to thank Andrew and his team once again for their very prompt, friendly and professional work. I have used Andrew's services in the past and have been very pleased and I have no hesitation in using Andrew's services into the future and recommending Andrew to family and friends. Thank you Andrew!
Andrew is one of those rare tradespeople you find that is so honest, friendly and does a fantastic job - and an all round nice guy! We dealt with Andrew over a year of an extensive renovation and was a breath of fresh air given some of the trades we were dealing with. I highly recommend Andrew for any job big or small. Would use Andrew again in a flash.
Have used Andrew a number of times over the years and always found him fantastic to deal with, returns calls, turns up on time and his work is great and he is reasonably priced. Nothing is ever too hard and he has been more than accommodating with changing schedules when we have needed him at short notice. I can't recommend him enough, if only other tradies were ...read more
I was looking forward to using this sparky based on the good feedback below. Sent an online enquiry through this website for a quote and received no reply after 4 days. Called up to follow up to be told they didn't receive my enquiry and that they charge a "$45 diagnostic fee" for visiting before they can give a quote. If you go ahead with the work, this fee is waived, ...read more
Thank you for your comments, Yes your email did slip through our systems, we have been over whelmed with work and I have been sick. So I do sincerely apologise for not responding promptly. You were advised on the phone, upfront about our diagnostic fee and declined ...read more
I can not recommend Andrew enough! After all my experiences of dealing with tradesmen it's hard to believe one like this really is out there, it was like a breath of fresh air! He did everything he said he would and more, did a great job, was very professional, friendly, reliable and honest. Don't hesitate to call him, you will no regret it! I would recommend him to ...read more


text:
Hotel Restaurants in the Lake District and Cumbria
Priory Hotel, Cartmel
A family-run hotel, restaurant and bar that combines traditional features and modern facilities.
More info
Laura Ashley The Belsfield Windermere
A boutique hotel set in six acres of gardens overlooking Windermere, and is a great Lake District wedding venue with superb conference facilities.
More info
Castle Green Hotel
An excellent four star hotel with a two AA Rosettes restaurant and a great venue for weddings and conferences.
More info
Lamplighter Dining Rooms Windermere
One of the top Windermere restaurants serving home cooked produce sourced from Lake District suppliers.
More info
Beech Hill Hotel
A 4 star hotel with stunning views, superb food and homely & comfortable accommodation
More info


text:
Emma Stone Exposes Her Bra For W Magazine
Plus some other sultry looks from her spread.
Check out more articles on BuzzFeed.com!
More News About Emma Stone
Preview Your Response
In The News Today
- One week into the fight to take back Mosul, expectations for quick success have clashed with the reality of a bloody struggle ahead.
- An adult film actress says Donald Trump, or someone on his behalf, offered her $10,000 and the use of his private jet to come to his suite.
- The Chicago Cubs are heading to their first World Series since 1945 after beating the Los Angeles Dodgers 🐻
- Round of applause: This teen got a standing ovation for her high school presentation on white privilege.


text:
|Publication number
|Publication type
|Application number
|Publication date
|Aug 9, 2011
|Filing date
|Sep 22, 2010
|Priority date
|May 21, 2007
|Fee status
|Also published as
|Publication number
|Richard K. Williams
|Original Assignee
|Advanced Analogic Technologies, Inc.
|Export Citation
|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Patent Citations (35), Referenced by (12), Classifications (11), Legal Events (1)
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
This application is a divisional of application Ser. No. 11/890,942, filed Aug. 8, 2007, which claims the priority of Provisional Application No. 60/931,097, filed May 21, 2007.
Each of the foregoing applications is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
This invention relates to the driving of discrete or integrated power MOSFETs in switching applications such as DC/DC conversion, and especially switching at high frequencies.
Switching regulators are used to regulate DC voltages and to convert one DC voltage to another, by stepping the voltage either up or down, or with the ability to step the voltage up or down depending on changing conditions. The quality of a DC/DC switching converter and regulator is measured by its ability to regulate over a range of input voltages, output voltages, load currents and temperatures. It should react sufficiently fast to guarantee good regulation during voltage and current transients as well as during steady state operation. In some applications it should also provide electrical isolation to prevent high input voltages from coupling to the output terminal, eliminating the risk of electrical shock and fire.
Most switching regulators utilize an inductor or coil as an energy storage device, since an inductor easily generates a range of output voltages different from the input voltage that drives, i.e. magnetizes, the inductor. Along with diode rectifiers, one or more power switches, typically power MOSFETs, whose switching and conduction are controlled by a pulse-width modulation (PWM) controller, are used to control the current in the inductor and, by using negative feedback, the output voltage of the regulator. Some examples of well-known prior-art DC/DC converting regulators are illustrated in
Common DC/DC Converter Topologies: In
While synchronous Buck converter 10 employs a complementary half-bridge, with MOSFET 11 a P-channel and MOSFET 12 an N-channel, asynchronous Buck converter 20 of
Boost converter 30, shown in
Typical for switching regulators employing a single inductor rather than a transformer or coupled inductor, the Buck and synchronous Buck converters shown in
To obtain a single regulator with the ability to step an input voltage either up or down requires a more complex solution, using either double the number of power MOSFETs to combine a Buck and boost converter into a single circuit, or by employing multi-winding inductors and transformers. For example, in the converter 40 shown
While converter 40 utilizes a P-channel power MOSFET connected to positive input voltage Vcc, converter 50 shown in
In all of the regulators shown in
But switching a power MOSFET at frequencies over one megahertz involves switching and gate drive power losses, not just power lost due to conduction.
Conduction and Switching Losses in Power MOSFETs: Even though power MOSFETs offer superior electrical performance to other semiconductor devices, especially for operation below 100 volts, they are not ideal power switches—they do in fact dissipate power and reduce the efficiency of the circuit in which they are employed. In a conducting or on-state, the power dissipated is determined by the voltage across the drain-to-source terminals times the current, or P=ID�VDS. Since the device is not conducting all of the time, the average power is determined by the percentage of the clock period T that the device is on and conducting, i.e. ton/T.
In the main switch of as DC/DC switching regulator this fraction is also referred to as the duty factor D of the converter. It is well known to those skilled in the art that if the circuit is not operating at a fixed frequency f≡1/T, then its cycle-by-cycle average power changes, and a more careful time-integration must be performed to calculate the device's average power dissipation over longer durations, e.g. during the discharge of a LiIon battery.
The power dissipation in a conducting, "on" state power MOSFET depends on its terminal voltages. The terms "on" and "switch" should not be construed to mean or imply exclusively digital operation. Power MOSFETs may operate as either a programmable current source or as a variable resistance. The term "switch," as used herein, follows the IEEE and Webster dictionary definition as referring to a device that completes or interrupts an electrical circuit, i.e. allowing or preventing current flow, without regard to the magnitude of that current.
In its saturation region of operation, an "on" power MOSFET behaves like a constant current source Isat, depending on the gate voltage and relatively independent of the value of its drain voltage VDS. The average power dissipation is then given by
Operating as a controlled current source, the magnitude of a power MOSFET's current must be held to a low value, or the device will overheat. Care must be taken in circuit design to minimize input voltage variations from affecting the device's gate bias. With gate control, the power MOSFET may be operated as a switched current source, alternating between a fixed drain current and an off condition where no current except for device leakage flows.
When a power MOSFET is used as low-resistance switch, the device operates in its "linear" region, which is characterized by a linear relationship between its drain voltage and its drain current, the slope of which defines a variable resistance RDS(on) whose magnitude varies with the MOSFET's gate bias. Since from Ohm's law V=I�R, the power dissipation in a MOSFET in its linear region follows the relationship
The term RDS(on) assumes that the device is operating in its linear region, acting as a variable resistance depending on the gate voltage.
Power is also lost switching the power MOSFET on and off at high frequencies.
In addition to being voltage-variable, gate-to-drain capacitance 69 forms a feedback path from the MOSFET's drain "output" to its gate input. Any time the circuit shows voltage gain, this capacitance is also amplified, loading the input terminal with a capacitance many times larger than the magnitude of small-signal capacitance CDG. This phenomenon, known as the Miller effect, greatly complicates calculating power loss with capacitance since during a switching transient, MOSFET 66 passes from cutoff, into saturation, and into its linear region, with the voltage gain and capacitance all varying in tandem.
Starting with an "off" device having no current at point 78, the switching transient shown traverses path 71 at a relatively constant drain voltage. The drain-to-source voltage cannot change instantly because diode 3 must be depleted of any stored charge before the drain voltage can rise. With a large VDS drain voltage, VDS>VGS and the MOSFET is operating in its saturation region. The current in a saturated MOSFET ramps as controlled by the gate voltage 74 in proportion to the VGS value. In such a condition and circuit, the saturated MOSFET exhibits voltage gain, amplifying the gate-to-drain feedback capacitance by constantly changing and increasing amounts, making it increasingly harder for a gate buffer to smoothly drive the MOSFET's gate during the transition.
At a gate bias VGS5, the device enters operating condition 72 where both current and drain voltage are changing rapidly. Point 75 corresponds to a bias condition in the transition region between linear and saturation, sometimes called edge-of-saturation or quasi-saturation. Instantaneous power losses in the device have peaked and begin to decline as VDS drops. From gate bias VGS6 and higher, the MOSFET is operating in its linear region 76.
Further increases in gate voltage 73 lower the MOSFET's resistance RDS further to point 79 but with diminishing improvements in conduction loss. In the example shown, the current becomes semi-constant during this short interval because the load is inductive and will not allow current to charge instantly. Since ID, VDS and VGS vary simultaneously, it is difficult to account for all the intra-device currents.
While in an actual application, the gate buffer used to drive a MOSFET's gate behaves like a fixed voltage source, greater clarity in device operation can be gained with current-source gate drive. As shown in
Since charge is always conserved, the amount of charge needed to reach point 84 is independent of the gate drive circuit. In other words, the gate charge QG needed to reach a given gate and drain bias condition is path-independent and does change with drive circuitry. The graph of QG and VGS can be re-plotted with VGS on the x-axis as shown in graph 100 of
The power loss to reach gate charge 107 and drain voltage 108 can then be expressed
P drive =Q G �V GS �f
This equation takes into account the Miller effect and all voltage dependent capacitances but varies with the drain bias VDS, with gate drive VGS, and with technology. The total loss of a power MOSFET used in a switching regulator can then be calculated by the equation
P loss =P cond(lin) +P cond(sat) +P drive +P other
In conventional switching regulators, the MOSFET is never intentionally operated in saturation but only experiences saturation during the switching transients and diode recovery. In such cases, provided that the converter's frequency is not too high, Pcond(sat) can be neglected and only conduction losses in the linear region Pcond(lin) need be considered. At low voltages, miscellaneous losses Pother can be neglected and the power loss equation simplifies to
Given the QG and RDS curves in graph 100, the overall power loss calculated using the above equation is shown in graph 120 of
The power loss curve has a U-shape with a minimum value at some specific gate voltage and increases losses for any gate drive above or below that value. The gradual increase in Ploss at higher gate drive voltages is due to increased gate drive losses Pdrive consistent with curve 106 in graph 100. For low gate voltages, the steep dependence of Ploss with gate voltage is a consequence of MOSFET operation at the edge of saturation corresponding to curve 101 in graph 100. As frequency increases from curve 121 to 123, the minimum power loss increases, i.e. the converter exhibits decreased efficiency, and exhibits a greater concavity, i.e. its minimum occurs over a narrower range of gate voltage. In other words gate drive losses become increasingly critical at higher frequency operation.
In normal applications, where a constant voltage rather than a constant current drive is employed, the gate drive losses are not evident from inspection of the VGS switching waveforms because they occur too quickly to be visible. For example, in
A clearer mechanistic picture of the actual drive loss is shown in graph 170, also in
Such rail-to-rail drive is lossy because it doesn't recycle or preserve any gate charge from cycle-to-cycle and because it drives the gate to a voltage Vcc which may not correspond to the minimum power loss condition shown in
What is needed in any MOSFET switched at frequencies, and especially in DC/DC switching regulators, is a means to charge and discharge the power MOSFET's gate so that some portion of the gate charge is preserved and reused on a cycle-by-cycle basis in order to improve the overall efficiency of the converter or other circuit.
These needs are satisfied in a MOSFET that is operated in accordance with this invention, wherein a switching MOSFET is not turned fully off but instead alternates between a fully turned-on condition and a low-current condition. The low-current condition of the MOSFET replaces the fully-off condition that is used in conventional switching sequences. Switching the MOSFET between a fully-on condition and a low-current condition reduces the amount of charge that must be moved to and from the gate of the MOSFET during each switching cycle and thereby reduces the power lost in charging and discharging the gate. In many situations, this power savings more than compensates for the additional power lost from the drain current that continues to flow in the MOSFET in its low-current condition. Therefore the overall efficiency of the MOSFET is improved.
The above method of driving the gate of a MOSFET may be achieved using a variety of gate drive circuits, all of which are included within the scope of this invention.
In one group of embodiments, the gate is driven with a bi-state gate driver, which is constructed functionally as a single-pole double-throw switch and which has a first input terminal connected to a first voltage that is sufficient to turn the MOSFET fully on and a second input terminal connected to a second voltage typically near the threshold voltage of the MOSFET. The output terminal of the gate driver, which is connected to the gate of the MOSFET, is switched between the first and second input terminals to drive the MOSFET between the fully-on and low-current conditions. The gate driver may be constructed using a pair of complementary MOSFETs and a pass transistor that is connected to a reference voltage that is suitable for driving the MOSFET into the low-current condition. The voltage delivered to the gate of the MOSFET may be generated using plurality of pass transistors connected to form a multiplexer, or a voltage-divider circuit that includes resistors and/or diodes. The gate driver may be capable of delivering more than two voltages to assure that a voltage suitable for the low-current condition of the MOSFET is available.
Feedback may be employed to assure that the proper drain current flows through the MOSFET in its low-current condition. The feedback circuit measures the current through the MOSFET and then compares the measurement against a reference that represents the desired current value. If there is a difference, an error signal is generated and the error signal causes the gate driver to increase or decrease the gate voltage of the MOSFET, as necessary, during its low-current condition until the correct value of drain current in the MOSFET is reached. The feedback circuit may include an amplifier, a sense resistor, and/or a current mirror.
Alternatively, since the threshold voltage of the MOSFET is the dominant process parameter affecting its saturation current, the correct value of the low-current in the MOSFET may be obtained by trimming to correct for manufacturing variations in its threshold voltage. The trimming circuit may measure the drain current in the MOSFET when its gate is biased for the low-current condition and adjust the reference voltage that the gate driver delivers to the gate of the MOSFET until the correct value of drain current is achieved. For example, the trim circuitry may include one-time-programmable (OTP) MOSFETs connected in parallel with resistors serially-connected in a voltage-divider network. Individual MOSFETs are programmed, i.e., permanently turned on, to short out a sufficient number of the resistors until a gate voltage is obtained that provides a correct value of drain current in the MOSFET.
Alternatively, the MOSFET may be fabricated monolithically with a second threshold-connected current mirror MOSFET. Since any variations in the threshold voltage will affect both MOSFETs, supplying a fixed current to the current mirror MOSFET will cause the current to be mirrored in main MOSFET by a ratio (n) of the respective gate widths of the MOSFETs. Thus, if a current equal to the target current in the main MOSFET divided by n is supplied to the current mirror MOSFET, the correct magnitude of current will flow through the main MOSFET. The current supplied to the current mirror MOSFET may be adjusted by a D/A converter under control of a digital logic, digital signal processor, or microprocessor and may be adjusted dynamically and in real time as desired. Alternatively, the gate of the current mirror MOSFET may be switched between a first position, wherein it is connected to the drain of the current mirror MOSFET and a current source, and a second position, wherein it is connected to ground, turning off the current mirror MOSFET and connecting the gate of the main MOSFET to a high voltage that drives the main MOSFET into its high-current state.
In another group of embodiments the gate driver is constructed functionally as a three-pole switch with a third input terminal connected to the source of the MOSFET. By connecting the output terminal of the gate driver to the third input terminal, the MOSFET is turned off or put into a sleep or shutdown mode where no power is lost either in driving the gate of the MOSFET or allowing a current to flow through the drain of the MOSFET. In some embodiments the gate driver may have an enable input terminal which in its ON condition causes the gate driver to switch the MOSFET between its high and low-current states, and in its OFF condition causes the gate driver to connect the gate to the source of the MOSFET, turning the MOSFET off or putting it into its sleep mode.
The invention also includes a method of driving a MOSFET by switching the gate between a first voltage at which the MOSFET is fully turned on and second voltage, typically near the threshold voltage, at which the MOSFET is in a low-current or partially-on condition.
The above-described methods and circuits for driving a power MOSFET with low gate drive losses can be applied to low-side, high-side or push-pull configured power MOSFETs, of either N-channel or P-channel conductivity types.
While power MOSFET design and manufacturing can be used to optimize or minimize the on-resistance gate-charge product of a device used in a power switching application, power losses can also be minimized by limiting the amount of gate charge moved during each switching transition. This task may be achieved in two ways—by limiting the maximum gate drive to an optimum point or by conserving some of the gate charge during switching transitions. This application discloses a means of preserving some gate charge during subsequent switching cycles.
One embodiment of this invention is illustrated in
Gate driver 202 drives the gate-to-source terminals of MOSFET 203, repeatedly charging and discharging the gate with a voltage range smaller than the voltage range at the output terminal of buffer 201. In the high or fully-on condition of MOSFET 203, represented by the gate voltage VGSH, the gate of MOSFET 203 is biased at a potential
whereby the MOSFET is driven into its linear region, i.e. operating as a variable resistor, so that the drain current ID is given by
I D =V DS /R DS(on)
In this condition, VD=VDS<<VGS and VGS>>Vt, where Vt is the threshold voltage of MOSFET 203.
In contrast to the situation in conventional gate drive circuits, where in a second state a power MOSFET is biased fully "off" with its gate shorted to its source, in the technique of this invention MOSFET 203 is not shut-off but rather is biased in a low or partially-on condition VGSL with a gate potential
Assuming that the value of VBIAS is small, typically near the threshold voltage, then in this state VDS>(VGS−Vt) and the device is in its saturated state where drain current is relatively independent of the drain voltage VDS, so that the drain current ID is given by
The gate potential VBIAS>0 is established by a bias supply 205, which may comprise a fixed value reference voltage or a multiple thereof. Alternatively, VBIAS may vary as a multiple of Vcc. As shown, gate driver 202 performs the function of a single-pole double-throw switch selecting one of two possible gate potentials VBIAS and Vcc. The gate of MOSFET 203 is not driven to ground, contrary to the conventional method of biasing the gate of a MOSFET.
Typically, IDBIAS is at least one or two orders of magnitude (i.e., from 10 to 100 times) greater than the size of the leakage current through the MOSFET when its gate-to-source voltage Vgs is equal to zero and no greater than one or two orders of magnitude less than (i.e., from 1% to 10% of) the magnitude of the current in the MOSFET when it is in its fully-on condition. The gate-to-source voltage VBIAS of the MOSFET in its saturated low-current state is typically in a range of 10% to 125% of its extrapolated threshold voltage, preferably in a range of 25% to 100% of its extrapolated threshold voltage. The extrapolated threshold voltage is defined in Dieter K. Schroder, Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization (1990), which is incorporated herein by reference.
For gate biases several hundred millivolts above and below threshold, e.g. gate biases of VAS=Vt�400 mV, saturated drain currents change dramatically. Picking a gate bias that produces a specific desired drain current is difficult, especially when considering manufacturing variability. Setting voltage source 306 at a fixed value can result in wide lot-to-lot variations in the saturated drain current in MOSFET 203. Using a fixed gate bias method, products therefore must likely be screened to fit the specific range of drain current. For example, the screening limits for drain current for a 1 W switching regulator with a fixed bias used in portable applications may comprise the specified ranges shown in Table 1:
Sat Drain Current
Portable Apps
1 μA-30 uA
30 uA-300 uA
300 uA-1 mA
I > 1 mA, I < 1 uA
High Power Apps
100 μA-1 mA
1 mA-30 mA
30 mA-300 mA
I > 300 mA,
I < 100 uA
In low-power applications (typically where the drain current is in the range of 0.5 A to 5 A when the MOSFET is fully on), too much saturation current wastes power which, if not offset by reduced diode recovery losses, can lead to lower overall converter efficiencies. In high-power converters (typically where the drain current is in the range of 5 A to 50 A when the MOSFET is fully on), such small losses are negligible and the noise benefit may offset the penalty for any impact in efficiency even at higher bias currents. Note that a lower limit also exists; if the drain current in low-current saturation mode drops below some specified value, the benefit of the disclosed technique in shunting diode current and reducing stored charge in the diode is reduced or lost altogether.
The switching waveforms for circuit 200 are shown in the graphs of
The output of gate driver 202, driving the gate voltage VGS of MOSFET 203, shown in graph 230, alternates between the voltages VBIAS and Vcc, never reaching zero. As shown, the transitions 232 and 234 in VGS are synchronized and in phase with the transitions 222 and 224 in VIN, but may be inverted in polarity. Corresponding to the VGS pulses shown, the drain current ID in semilog graph 240 alternates between a minimum current 241 of magnitude IDBIAS and a maximum current 243 of magnitude (VDS/RDS(on)) with transitions 242 and 244.
The drain voltage VDS across MOSFET 203 alternates between a maximum voltage 251 of magnitude (VDD−δV)≈VDD and a minimum voltage 253 of magnitude (ID�RDS(on)). The voltage δV is the voltage drop across load 204 carrying the small current IDBIAS. If IDBIAS is under 1 mA and preferably in the range of 1 μA to 100 μA, then the power dissipation in MOSFET 203, namely
P BIAS =I DBIAS�(V DD −δV)≈I DBIAS �V DD
is negligible. The power saved in gate drive losses is achieved by limiting the gate drive voltage range and therefore limiting the swing in gate charge.
Minimizing Gate-Charge Swing: The above-mentioned power-saving concept is illustrated in graph 280 of
Specifically, in a conventional gate drive, the gate charge starts at zero and then increases along curves 281, 282, 283, and 284 to point 287. If the input Vcc increases, the maximum gate charge QGH will increase beyond point 287 further along line 285. With increasing gate charge, the corresponding drain voltage moves from VDD in the off-state of MOSFET 203 and then via curves 290, 291, and 292 to the on-state of MOSFET 203 at point 294. If the input voltage Vcc increases, the voltage VGS will decline only slightly below point 294 along curve 293, even though QG increases linearly in this region.
In conventional switching applications, the entire charge placed on the gate of the MOSFET during turn-on is dumped to ground during turn-off. The total gate charge corresponds to charging the gate up to Vcc and then discharging to ground resulting in a large "swing" in gate voltage and gate charge. Gate charge swing is herein defined as
For conventional gate drive methods, this total gate charge swing is then
ΔQ G =Q G(V cc)−0=Q GH
Referring again to graph 280 in
ΔQ′ G ≡Q GH −Q GL =Q G(V GH)−QG(V G(on))
where QGL>0. Because (QGH−QGL)<QGH, less gate charge is required to switch at a given frequency, and the power needed for driving the gate is reduced proportionately, by the charge along the path from zero to point 286 or (QGL−QG0)=QGL.
To better illustrate the reduced gate charge swing, the method of this invention can be represented as a plot of QG versus time as illustrated in graph 320 of
Minimizing Average Power Loss: As stated previously the power loss associated with driving the gate in accordance with this method, is given by
P drive=(Q G �V G)/T=Q GH �V GH �f
The corresponding power savings PGsaved associated with the reduced charge during high frequency MOSFET gate drive is then given by
P Gsaved=(Q GL �V G(on))/T=Q GL �V G(on) �f
Referring again to graph 280 in
The relationship between current ID and drain voltage VDS is further illustrated in
The average power loss for the fully-on condition lasting an on-time ton in every cycle of period T is given by
where D≡ton/T.
Referring again to
The total conduction loss in the power MOSFET is then the sum of conduction loss Pcond when the MOSFET is biased fully on in its linear region and power loss PBIAS due to the bias current IDBIAS during the interval tsat when the MOSFET is in its saturated region of operation, or
where T=(tsat+ton) and may vary cycle-to-cycle in variable frequency operation, or in fixed frequency operation with duty factor D where
P′ cond =I D 2 �R DS(on) �D+I DBIAS �V DD�(1−D)
Using the disclosed techniques, the total conduction and gate drive loss in the device is then given by
where the square bracketed terms represent the gate drive and conduction loss Ploss using conventional gate drive techniques. Substituting this term yields the relation
where T may vary cycle-to-cycle in variable frequency operation or for fixed frequency operation
P′ loss =[P loss]+(I DBIAS �V DD�(1−D))−(Q GL �V GL �f)
For the disclosed method to save power P′loss<Ploss and therefore
meaning the power saved by reducing the gate drive must offset any additional power consumed by the added conduction loss resulting from the bias current IDBIAS. Operating at a fixed frequency f and duty factor D≡ton/T, the equation can be expressed as
(I DBIAS �V DD�(1−D))<(Q GL �V GL �f)
This condition is more easily satisfied at higher frequencies f and for lower VDD input conditions when the power saving in reduced gate drive is more beneficial than the added power dissipation PBIAS resulting from the bias current.
It is difficult to make any general conclusion regarding the relationship between IDBIAS versus QGL�VGL since they are related and depend on a specific power MOSFET's manufacturing process and design. For a given device, increasing QGL�VGL in the drive circuit, i.e. increasing VBIAS, reduces the gate drive losses but at the same time increases IDBIAS and increases the conduction loss. The optimum power saving bias condition is therefore technology specific.
The duty factor D is specific to each switching application. In the step-down Buck converters shown in
(I DBIAS�(V DD −V out))<(Q GL �V GL �f)
This equation means that as the difference between the output and input voltages of a Buck converter increases, the disclosed low gate-drive-loss technique is less beneficial.
For a boost converter, as shown in
In a boost converter, i.e. where Vout>Vin, the disclosed method is more beneficial when a larger output voltage is generated from a lower input voltage.
Referring again to graph 280 in
Reduced Gate Drive Loss Circuit with Shutdown Mode:
Circuit 350 illustrates a generic description of the disclosed power MOSFET with reduced gate drive loss augmented with an added feature of a shutdown mode. Similar to the circuit 200 of
As shown, the output of buffer 351 feeds the "IN" input terminal of gate driver 352 with a signal ranging from Vcc to ground, i.e. a digital signal switching from rail-to-rail. So long that enable is biased into its "on" state, gate driver 352 responds to the signal at its "IN" terminal, and the output of gate driver 352 drives the gate of MOSFET 353 at a voltage VGS1 alternating between Vcc and VBIAS. Power MOSFET 353 in turn provides load 354 with a current that alternates between high and low drain currents determined by the gate drive voltages Vcc and VBIAS. As described previously, during high frequency operation, by biasing the gate of MOSFET 353 to a voltage no lower than VBIAS, gate charge is preserved cycle-to-cycle, and gate drive losses are reduced. Efficiency is thereby improved, provided that the power saving achieved by limiting the gate charge swing is greater than the added conduction loss of IBIAS, the minimum drain current during switching.
When the enable signal is turned off, gate driver 352 switches into a third state where the gate of MOSFET 352 is grounded, i.e. tied to its source, and where VGS1=0. The drain current in power MOSFET 353 is then reduced to the device's IDSS leakage, the junction leakage from drain to source with the gate tied to its source. Even though the current IBIAS is small, preferably in the microampere to tens-of-microampere range—IDSS is even smaller, preferably below one microampere or even several orders of magnitude less than IBIAS.
The three conditions are illustrated and contrasted in
In the second-state, shown in
In the third state, shown in
The operating conditions of a tri-state gate driver and power MOSFET in accordance with this invention are summarized in the following truth table:
MOSFET Operation
Drain Current
Linear Region
ID = VDS/RDS(on)
Saturation Region
Table 2 reveals that when enable is biased into a high state, the power MOSFET's conduction depends on the logic input IN but when enable is low, the MOSFET is off and operates independent of the IN signal. The output conductance gDS≡dID/dVDS is included as a qualitative measure of drain voltage sensitivity.
In a preferred embodiment, during high-frequency switching, the output VGS of the gate driver driving MOSFET 353 alternates between Vcc and VBIAS, as shown by the square wave 411, 412, 413 and 414 in graph 410 of
At time tsleep, as MOSFET 353 enters the sleep or shutdown mode, the enable signal VEN is pulled low (curve 402) and biased at zero volts (curve 403), driving VGS down (curve 415) to zero volts (curve 416), a gate voltage lower than VBIAS. In the shutdown mode, as shown in graph 420, the drain current ID drops (curve 425) to a near zero leakage current of magnitude IDSS (curve 426). And as shown in graph 430, VDS jumps (curve 435) to a voltage VDD illustrated by curve 435, slightly higher than the maximum drain voltage (VDD−δV), shown by curve 434, during the switching of MOSFET 353.
In an alternative embodiment, gate driver 352 may alternate between two different switching waveforms as illustrated in
As described previously, while the disclosed low gate charge gate drive technique can improve efficiency under some conditions, the power lost due to conduction losses associated with the ever-present bias current IDBIAS can lower efficiency. If such a condition occurs, operation of circuit 350 can be altered dynamically to facilitate conventional rail-to-rail gate drive (region 443), where at t1 the gate voltage VGS alternates between Vcc and ground (curve 444). The benefit of reduced gate charge swing is lost during the rail-to-rail interval. At time tsleep, the MOSFET's gate is grounded 445 for some indefinite time corresponding to the sleep mode.
During rail-to-rail operation, as shown in graph 446 of
Implementing Tri-state Low Loss Gate Drive:
As shown, the body of MOSFET 452 is grounded. The grounded body is needed to prevent parasitic diode conduction in MOSFET 452, since depending on the state of MOSFETs 451 and 453 the gate voltage VGS may be either greater than or less than the value of Vref.
By grounding the body of MOSFET 452, the parasitic body diodes 457A and 457B remain permanently reverse-biased. If the body of MOSFET 452 is not grounded, but instead incorporates a source-body short, then one of these diodes would be in parallel with the channel of MOSFET 452, similar to diode 456 in parallel with MOSFET 454. A source-to-drain parallel diode would become forward biased in one of the various gate bias conditions, namely when VGS>VBIAS or when VGS<VBIAS.
Other circuit techniques, such as a body bias generator or "body snatcher" shown in
For example, if VGS>VBIAS, diode 469B is forward-biased and diode 469A is reverse biased. Since VGS is the more positive terminal, N-channel MOSFET 468B turns-on and shorts out the forward-biased diode 469B, tying the body of MOSFET 462 to its more negative VBIAS terminal, turning off MOSFET 468A, and leaving diode 469A reversed-biased and in parallel with MOSFET 462. As a symmetrical circuit, whenever the polarity reverses the devices switch state and diode 469B becomes reverse-biased and parallel to pass transistor 462. The body bias generator technique can be applied to any pass transistor, e.g. in circuit 450. A pass transistor is defined herein as a MOSFET with neither source nor drain connected to a fixed supply rail.
Aside from the cross-coupled MOSFETs 468A and 468B, circuit 460 is similar to circuit 450 except that a digital-to-analog converter 465 is substituted for fixed voltage reference 455. The output of the D/A converter 465 allows VBIAS to be adjusted using digital control of D/A converter 465. As shown, D/A converter 465 outputs a voltage up to a maximum amount Vref supplied by a voltage reference source 466. Otherwise, circuit 460 of
Alternatively, a combination of forward-biased diodes and resistors may also be used, as shown in
Reduced Gate Drive Loss Circuit with Current Feedback: While providing varying degrees of flexibility in setting the value of IDBIAS, the above-mentioned circuits and gate drive methods employ a fixed bias voltage and do not automatically compensate for variations of the power MOSFET due to manufacturing or changing operating conditions.
For example,
To remove the influence of such variations, circuit 580 in
The net effect is shown in graph 600 of
In the embodiment of this invention shown in
In another embodiment of this invention, shown in
The sense current Isense 627 is mirrored to a current source 630 and converted into a voltage Vsense across a sense resistor 631. Unlike resistor 615B in circuit 610, sense resistor 631 does not contribute to increased resistance in series with load 629. The sense voltage Vsense is then amplified differentially by amplifier 633 with respect to a reference voltage VREF provided by a voltage source 632, producing an output voltage VBIAS on the source of MOSFET 624. Whenever VGS1=VBIAS, i.e. when MOSFET 624 is on and MOSFET 623 is off, then the current sense circuit and bias network forms a closed loop with negative feedback, offering stable control of the low drain current condition IBIAS in power MOSFET 626A. Any increase in the drain current ID in MOSFET 626A causes the Isense current supplied by current source 627 to increase to balance the voltages. This in turn increases the current Imirror and increases Vsense applied to the negative input of operational amplifier 633. A larger negative input signal lowers VBIAS, decreasing VGS on power MOSFET 626A and compensating for the increased current, thus holding ID constant despite variations in temperature or manufacturing.
One advantage of current-mirror circuit 620 over circuit 610 is that it doesn't introduce any additional voltage drop in series with the electrical load 629, and therefore improves energy transfer efficiency from the power source to load 629. Unlike the sense resistor technique embodied in circuit 610, the current mirror method embodied in circuit 620 can be used only with common-source split-drain MOSFETs such as MOSFETs 626A and 626B, where the drains of the MOSFETs can be separately connected. It cannot be used with common-drain devices such as trench-gated vertical DMOS or planar vertical DMOS.
Alternatively, circuit 650 shown in
Specifically, as shown in
In a preferred embodiment, both MOSFETs 658A and 658B have their gates biased to the supply voltage Vcc and are therefore biased into their low-resistance linear-regions of operation. Even at high ID drain currents, the low-resistance of MOSFET 658A insures that voltage Vα at the drain of MOSFET 658A remains low. The drain voltage of MOSFET 658B is designated Vβ. A differential amplifier 659 controls the current Isense in a dependent current source 660 until the drain voltages of MOSFETs 658A and 656B are equal, i.e. Vβ=Vα. Under this condition, Isense=(ID/n), and accurately measures the current ID flowing in power MOSFET 656, regardless of its bias condition.
The value of Isense is mirrored using a current mirror 661 into a proportional current Imirror in series with a sense resistor 664 to produce a sense voltage Vsense proportional to Vα. Because of the voltage gain of operational amplifier 659, the signal Vsense can be made large despite the fact that the voltage Vα is small. The signal Vsense can be made large despite the fact that the voltage Vα is small. The value of Vsense is amplified differentially by an operational amplifier 663 with respect to a reference voltage VBIAS produced by a voltage source 662.
Under closed-loop operation, when MOSFET 654 is on and MOSFET 653 is off, the output of amplifier 663 has an output voltage ˜VBIAS when ID is equal to a target current IDBIAS. If ID is too low, the current in Imirror will also decrease, thereby lowering the Vsense voltage to the negative input of operational amplifier 663. A lower negative input voltage results in an increase in the output voltage of amplifier 663 which in turn drives the gate of power MOSFET 656 to a higher bias, increasing ID to its target value.
When N-channel 654 is off and P-channel 653 is on, power MOSFET 656 is biased into its high-current state and the output of operational amplifier 663, dropped across resistor 655, is ignored. The voltage Vsense may still be used to monitor the current ID in MOSFET 658A for purposes of short-circuit and over-current protection. The voltage Vsense, as shown, is compared to a reference voltage Vref, provided by a voltage source 671, by a hysteretic comparator 670. When Vsense exceeds Vref, the current ID is too high and over-current shut-down, i.e. OCSD comparator 670 generates a high logic output signal informing the system that an over-current condition has occurred and that power MOSFET 656 should be shut off.
Thus, by utilizing current sensing techniques, including sense resistors, current mirrors, cascode current-sensing, or any other method, by and combining the current sensing technique with negative feedback to modulate a gate bias VBIAS, the value of drain current IDBIAS can be accurately controlled. By controlling the value of IDBIAS the minimum gate charge QGL remaining on a power MOSFET's gate in the low state of each switching cycle can also be controlled consistent with the graph of
Reduced Gate Drive Loss Circuit with Current Trimming: While the above techniques use current feedback to set the value of the IDBIAS low-current condition, the current accuracy and circuit complexity may be more than is required for many applications. Since a saturated MOSFET has a drain current given by the equation
I D =k(V GS −V t)2
which is linearly proportional to the transconductance factor and proportional to the square of (VGS−Vt), the threshold voltage is the dominant process parameter affecting saturation current. As such, reasonably accurate current control can be achieved by electrical trimming of the circuit to compensate for threshold variability as part of the fabrication process.
As shown in
Since the saturation current also varies with temperature, primarily due to threshold voltage, an optional temperature compensation circuit 709 can be used to adjust VBIAS 706 to maintain a semi-constant value of ID over temperature.
A trimmed gate drive circuit 720, shown in
After fabrication, OTP MOSFETs 730 a-730 e exhibit normal threshold voltages well below Vcc. During operation, multiplexers 731 a-731 e bias the gate of each of OTP MOSFETs 730 a-730 e to Vcc, turning each of OTP MOSFETs 730 a-730 e on and shorting out the one of resistors 729 a-729 e with which it is connected in parallel. For example, in an un-programmed state, OTP MOSFET 730 c has a threshold of 0.7V. When multiplexer 731 c connects the gate of OTP MOSFET 730 c to Vcc, then it conducts and shorts out corresponding resistor 729 c.
In an un-programmed state, all resistors 729 a-729 e are shorted, so that VBIAS is set by the 728 resistor divider to be
Programming involves connecting the gate of any given one of OTP MOSFETs 730 a-730 e to programmer 727, and biasing the device into saturation at high voltages. The process creates hot carriers and charges the gate oxide permanently increasing the threshold voltage of the device to a higher value so that under normal operation the OTP MOSFET will not conduct. The parallel one of resistors 729 a-729 e is thereby inserted into voltage divider 728, adjusting the resistor divider ratio and the value of VBIAS. The values of resistors 729 a-729 e may be equal or different, so that trimming may be linear or non-linear. Depending on the values of resistors 729 a-729 e, the trimmed output can range from as high as Vref to some fraction Vref/m. The codes may be arranged in any number of combinations, such as those shown in
While many specific programming sequences are possible, a general programming algorithm 780 for trimming VBIAS is shown in
An example of IDBIAS programming is shown in
Alternatively, programming may be performed at two temperatures—one to correct for errors in the initial current and the second trimming to compensate the effect of threshold variations with temperature. Temperature compensation circuit 709 in
Reduced Gate Drive Loss Circuit with Current Mirror Drive: In the techniques described above, the magnitude of IDBIAS depends on the power MOSFET's threshold. In one case, active trimming was employed to adjust the value of VBIAS to produce a targeted value of IDBIAS. In the other case, current feedback was employed to force ID to a target value IDBIAS under closed loop operation.
In another embodiment of this invention, a reduced gate drive loss circuit utilizes a gate drive technique insensitive to threshold fluctuations in the power MOSFET. One such method to eliminate sensitivity to threshold utilizes the current-mirror gate drive circuit 820 shown in
Specifically MOSFETs 824A and 824B are fabricated monolithically as a current mirror 830. Power MOSFET 824A is a low-resistance device with a large gate width n�W, while current mirror MOSFET 824B has a gate width of W—a factor of "n" smaller than the gate width of MOSFET 824A. The gate of MOSFET 824A is driven by gate driver 821 with options of selecting among three inputs—Vcc, VBIAS and ground. When Vcc is selected, power MOSFET 824A is biased into a low-resistance state, operating in its linear region. When ground is selected, power MOSFET 824A is cut off and no current flows.
When VBIAS is selected, the gate drive of power MOSFET 824A is determined by a bias network comprising a current source 822 and mirror MOSFET 824B. The equivalent circuit in this mode is shown in
This VBIAS voltage, the gate voltage of MOSFET 824B, is also the gate voltage on large power MOSFET 824A. Provided that VDS on MOSFET 824A is large, meaning IDBIAS is not too great, then it is also in saturation and the currents in MOSFETs 824A and 824B should scale by the ratio "n". If current source 822 is preset to a current IDBIAS/n, then the current in MOSFET 824A and load 823 should be
I D =n�(I DBIAS /n)=I DBIAS
Since the threshold voltages of MOSFETs 824A and 824B are closely matched, any shift in Vt due to process variations or temperature occurs in both devices and is rejected as common-mode noise. For example if Vt drops to (Vt−ΔVt) for any reason, then VBIAS drops by a commensurate amount to (VBIAS−ΔVt). The gate drive on MOSFET 824A changes from (VBIAS−Vt) to a value
(V BIAS −ΔV t)−(V t −ΔV t)=(V BIAS −V t)
which is the same as the original condition. The effect of threshold variation is therefore cancelled using the current-mirror gate drive.
Any error in setting IDBIAS is therefore due to secondary factors such as short-channel effects, series resistance, quasi-saturation, etc. If needed, a trim circuit 831 can be employed to adjust the value of current source 822 as part of the manufacturing process.
A current mirror gate drive circuit 860 without trimming is shown in
MOSFET pair 861 comprises power MOSFET 862A with gate width n�W and smaller current mirror MOSFET 862B with gate width W. With voltage VBIAS on the gate and drain of MOSFET 862B, the device conducts a drain current IDBIAS/n. This current is established by current mirror 871 comprising P-channel MOSFETs 867 and 868. Threshold-connected MOSFET 868 conducts a current Iref set by resistor 869, having a magnitude of
The current Iref is mirrored by MOSFET 867 to drive MOSFET 862B. Given P-channel threshold voltage Vtp, the value R of resistor 869 is adjusted to set this current to a target value IDBIAS/n.
where the value of R is chosen so that Iref=IDBIAS/n.
Circuit 880 also illustrates another implementation of a tri-state gate driver. The gate driver comprises a Vcc-connected P-channel MOSFET 884, a VBIAS-connected N-channel MOSFET 885 and ground-connected N-channel MOSFET 891 being driven by logical "AND" gates 892 and 893 and by inverters 894, 895, and 896. Whenever enable signal EN is a logic low state the output of AND gates 892 and 893 are low turning MOSFET 885 off, and inverted by inverter 894, the output of AND gate 892 biases the gate of P-channel MOSFET 884 high, turning it off. The low enable signal inverted by inverter 896 drives ground MOSFET 891 with a high gate bias, turning it on and shorting the gate of power MOSFET 882A to ground. In such a state, MOSFET 891 is on and MOSFETs 884 and 885 are off.
When enable EN is high, the output of inverter 896 is low and MOSFET 891 is off. With EN as a high input to AND gates 892 and 893, their outputs depend solely on the state of the input pin IN. When IN is high, inverter 895 drives the input and output of AND gate 893 low and turns off N-channel MOSFET 885. A high input, however, drives the input and output of AND gate 892 high and inverted by inverter 894, the gate of P-channel MOSFET 884 low, turning on P-channel 884. In such a state, MOSFET 884 is on and MOSFETs 885 and 896 are off.
Conversely when EN is high and IN is low, inverter 895 drives the input and output of AND gate 893 high and turns on N-channel MOSFET 885. A low input, however, drives the input and output of AND gate 892 low and inverted by 894, the gate of P-channel MOSFET 884 high, turning off P-channel 884. In such a state, MOSFET 885 is on and MOSFETs 884 and 896 are off.
Using combinational logic, only one of the three MOSFETs, 884, 885 or 891 driving the gate of power MOSFET 882A, is on at any one time. Circuit 880 therefore operates as a tri-state gate driver to control the conduction and gate charge swing of power MOSFET 882A in accordance with this invention. Table 3 is a truth table for the tri-state gate driver's logic.
Power MOSFET 882A
cut off
Another variant of current-mirror gate driver in accordance with this invention is illustrated in
The current Iref is adjusted by a D/A converter 906 under control of a digital logic, digital signal processor, or microprocessor 907 and may be adjusted dynamically and in real time as desired. D/A converter 906 and dependent current source 904 together may comprise a current-output D/A converter.
An example of a current-type D/A converter 947 directly driving a mirror MOSFET 942B is illustrated in
By facilitating system control of VBIAS, the value of drain current IDsat during saturation, i.e. IDBIAS, can be adjusted in response to changing conditions. For example IDBIAS can be adjusted as a percentage of IDlin conducted during the linear low-resistance state, i.e.
I Dsat =I DBIAS ∝I Dlin =V cc /R DS(on)
Such an example is shown in
Reduced Gate Drive Loss Circuit with Switched-Bias Current-Mirror Drive: In the previous current-mirror drive circuits, power MOSFET gate bias was determined by a multiplexing gate driver that selects among Vcc, VBIAS and optionally ground. In such implementations VBIAS is established by a current source feeding a current mirror MOSFET hardwired as a threshold-connected device, i.e. with VGS=VDS.
An alternative approach, illustrated in
In the saturated low-current mode, MOSFET 1004 is turned off and with the enable signal high, gate driver 1005 shorts the gate of mirror MOSFET 1002B to its drain. Simultaneously MOSFET 1006 is turned on, and a reference voltage source 1008 supplies a current Iref through a resistor 1007 to threshold-connected MOSFET 1002B. Mirror MOSFET 1002B is threshold-connected only during the time when VGS1=VBIAS. As a result, power MOSFET 1002A is biased into saturation with a drain current of IDBIAS.
If the enable signal is low, gate driver 1005 connects the gate of MOSFET 1002B to Vcc turning it on and grounding the gate of power MOSFET 1002A. In this condition, MOSFETs 1004 and 1006 remain off.
An advantage of switched bias circuit 1000 is that it requires only two large area MOSFETs as buffers to drive the gate of power MOSFET 1002A, namely high-side MOSFET 1004 to drive power MOSFET 1002A into a low resistance state, and multifunction mirror MOSFET 1002B to provide VBIAS gate drive for operation of power MOSFET 1002A in saturation and to turn off power MOSFET 1002A.
Applications and Topologies of Reduced Gate Drive Loss Circuit: The above-described methods and circuits for driving a power MOSFET with low gate drive losses can be applied to low-side, high-side or push-pull configured power MOSFETs, of either N-channel or P-channel conductivity types.
As noted above, the gate driver may comprise a two-state driver switching between a low-resistance fully-on condition, and a limited-current saturated-MOSFET condition. Alternatively, the gate driver may comprise a tri-state buffer switching between a low resistance fully-on condition, a limited current saturated-MOSFET condition, and a fully-off condition for sleep mode operation. Each power MOSFET in a power circuit may employ one of the low gate drive loss techniques or alternatively only one of the power devices may utilize the low-drive-loss method.
Supplied by a voltage source 1124 generating VDD, the current in power MOSFET 1121 and load 1123 may be equal to VDD/R when MOSFET 1121 is in a low-resistance state, a constant current IDBIAS when MOSFET 1121 is in saturation, or zero when MOSFET 1121 is not switching. The switching of MOSFET 1121 is inhibited when the enable signal EN is low and the gate of power MOSFET 1121 is connected to its source voltage Vx. The enable and input signals are level-shifted by a level-shift circuit 1129 feeding gate driver 1122. The voltage supplies 1124 (VDD) and 1125 (Vcc) may be a single voltage supply. By switching the gate of MOSFET 1121 between Vcc and VBIAS, the gate charge swing is reduced and the efficiency of MOSFET 1121 during switching is improved.
Boost converter 1160 also illustrates a P-N rectifier diode 1169 which conducts whenever low-side MOSFET 1161 is off and Vx flies above Vout. To reduce power losses, a floating N-channel synchronous rectifier MOSFET 1166 conducts some portion of the time when low-side MOSFET 1161 is off. As shown, synchronous rectifier MOSFET 1166 is driven by a two-state gate driver 1167, and powered by a bootstrap capacitor 1172. Bootstrap capacitor 1172 is charged from Vbatt through a bootstrap diode 1171 whenever Vx is near ground. The voltage Vboot floats on top of Vx so that the supply to gate driver 1167 is Vboot≈(Vbatt−Vf) regardless of the magnitude of the voltage Vx. Vf is the forward-bias voltage across bootstrap diode 1171 while charging bootstrap capacitor 1172.
The floating two-state gate driver 1167 drives the gate of floating MOSFET 1166 with a potential VGSF=Vboot for operating at a low on-state voltage drop and at a potential VGSF=VBIASF for operating as a saturated current source at a current IDBIAS. The synchronous rectifier MOSFET 1166 is preferably driven out of phase with low-side MOSFET 1161 by inverting break-before-make buffer 1173 so that only one MOSFET at a time is operating in a low-resistance high-current state. During such intervals, the other MOSFET may be off or conducting a low bias current IDBIAS to reduce gate charge swing in accordance with this invention. Since N-channel MOSFET 1161 exhibits a larger drain voltage transition during conduction than synchronous rectifier MOSFET 1166, the benefit of the invention limiting the gate charge swing is greatest for gate driver 1162 driving low-side MOSFET 1161. Nonetheless, driver 1167 driving synchronous rectifier MOSFET 1166 provides some reduction in gate drive losses and more importantly reduces the efficiency loss and noise generated from diode recovery in rectifier diode 1169. The subject of controlling diode recovery by biasing a synchronous rectifier MOSFET as a current source is addressed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,746,042, titled "Low-Noise DC/DC Converter With Controlled Diode Conduction," incorporated herein by reference. Table 4 is a truth table describing the various combinations described above.
Power MOSFET 1161
Sync Rect MOSFET 1166
cut off
does not matter
low RDS
low RDS
(Vx − Vout)/RDS(on)
Note also that in the embodiment of
In another embodiment of this invention, an N-channel synchronous Buck converter 1180 with reduced gate drive losses in accordance with this invention is illustrated in
MOSFET 1181 has its on-time controlled by a PWM controller 1193. The width of the pulses supplied to MOSFET 1181 is modulated to control the current flowing through inductor 1190 and charging capacitor 1191. Using closed-loop control, the output voltage Vout is fed back to PWM controller 1193, using a feedback signal VFB, to regulate the output voltage against variations in the input voltage Vbatt and load current. Whenever MOSFET 1181 is saturated and conducting a low current IDBIAS, inductor 1190 forces Vx below ground, and as a result diode 1189 becomes forward-biased. A low-side N-channel MOSFET 1186 is included to reduce diode conduction losses by shunting current through a lower voltage drop path whenever gate driver 1187 biases the gate of MOSFET 1186 to Vbatt.
Conversely, whenever high-side MOSFET 1181 is conducting current in a low resistance state with VGSH=Vboot then synchronous rectifier MOSFET 1186 is biased by gate buffer with VGSL=VBIAS and synchronous rectifier MOSFET conducts a low current IDBIAS. BBM circuit 1192 prevents both high-side and low-side MOSFETs 1181 and 1182 from simultaneously conducting high currents.
Since high-side MOSFET 1181 exhibits a larger drain voltage transition during conduction than synchronous rectifier MOSFET 1186, the benefit of the invention in limiting the gate charge swing is greatest for gate driver 1182 driving high-side MOSFET 1181. Nonetheless, gate driver 1187 driving synchronous rectifier MOSFET 1186 provides some reduction in gate drive losses and more importantly reduces the efficiency loss and noise generated from diode recovery in rectifier diode 1189.
The subject of controlling diode recovery by biasing a synchronous rectifier MOSFET as a current source is addressed in the above-referenced U.S. Pat. No. 7,746,042. Table 5 is truth table describing the various combinations described above.
Power MOSFET 1181
Sync Rect MOSFET 1186
cut off
does not matter
low RDS
(Vbatt − Vx)/
low RDS
Note also that only gate driver 1182 need be tri-state since turning off either MOSFET 1181 or 1186 breaks the current path from Vbatt to ground.
In another embodiment of this invention,
The enable (EN) and input (IN) signals may be delivered to logic switching between VDD and ground, as indicated by inverters 1206 and 1209, which are biased between Vcc and ground. If the supply voltage VDD is greater than Vcc the EN and IN signals must be level-shifted to VDD. In the embodiment of
A complementary synchronous Buck converter 1220 with reduced gate drive losses in accordance with this invention is illustrated in
The on-time of MOSFET 1221 is controlled by a PWM controller 1231. The width of the pulses delivered to the gate of MOSFET 1221 is modulated to control the current flowing through an inductor 1228, charging a capacitor 1229. Using closed-loop control, the output voltage Vout is fed back to PWM controller 1231 using a feedback signal VFB to regulate the output voltage against variations in the input voltage and load current. Whenever MOSFET 1221 is saturated and conducting a low current IDBIAS, inductor 1228 forces Vx below ground, and as a result diode 1227 becomes forward-biased. A low-side N-channel MOSFET 1224 is included to reduce diode conduction losses by shunting current through a lower voltage drop path whenever gate driver 1225 biases the gate of MOSFET 1224 to Vbatt.
Conversely, whenever high-side P-channel MOSFET 1221 is conducting current in a low resistance state with VGSH=−Vbatt then synchronous rectifier MOSFET 1224 is biased by gate driver with VGSL=VBIAS and synchronous rectifier MOSFET 1224 conducts a low current IDBIAS. A BBM circuit 1230 prevents MOSFETs 1221 and 1224 from simultaneously conducting high currents.
Since P-channel MOSFET 1221 exhibits a larger drain voltage transition during conduction than synchronous rectifier MOSFET 1224, the benefit of the invention in limiting the gate charge swing is greatest for gate driver 1222 driving high-side P-channel MOSFET 1221. Nonetheless gate driver 1225 driving synchronous rectifier MOSFET 1224 provides some reduction in gate drive losses and more importantly reduces the efficiency loss and noise generated from diode recovery in rectifier diode 1227.
The subject of controlling diode recovery by biasing a synchronous rectifier MOSFET as a current source is addressed in the above-referenced U.S. Pat. No. 7,746,042. Table 6 is a truth table describing the various combinations is described above
P-ch Power MOSFET 1221
N-ch Sync Rect MOSFET 1224
cut off
does not matter
low RDS
−(Vbatt − Vx)/
low RDS
Note also that only gate driver 1222 need be tri-state since turning off either MOSFET 1221 or 1224 breaks the current path from Vbatt to ground.
While specific embodiments of this invention have been described herein, it will be understood by those of skill in the art that the embodiments described are illustrative only, and not limiting. The broad principles of this invention are defined in the following claims.
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Awesome skiing all day!
Get caught up on all the action from the second day of the backcountry freeski event.
Last day of ISPO: Scott, Mons Royale, Black Crows, Look, Tyrolia Majesty
"There's a lot of pressure on the OOTD series, no one wants to watch Candide have a shit day," A GoPro spokesperson said. "We had to seriously think about cancelling the whole thing, it was that bad of a day."
Unfortunately I missed Opening day at Revelstoke this year so I thought I would write about previous years. Enjoy!
J x Jerry of the Day together at last!