text:
Population-environment theory and contemporary applications
Mar del Plata, Argentina (Source: Leandro Kibisz, via Wikimedia Commons)
Humans have sought to understand the relationship between population dynamics and the environment since the earliest times (1-3), but it was Thomas Malthus' Essay on the Principle of Population in 1798 that is credited with launching the study of population and resources as a scientific topic of inquiry. Malthus' famous hypothesis was that population numbers tend to grow exponentially while food production grows linearly, never quite keeping pace with population and thus resulting in natural "checks" (such as famine) to further growth. Although the subject was periodically taken up again in the ensuring decades, it wasn't until the 1960s that significant research interest was rekindled. In 1963 the U.S. National Academy of Sciences published The Growth of World Population, a report that reflected scientific concern about the consequences of global population growth, which was then reaching its peak annual rate of two percent. In 1968, Paul Ehrlich published The Population Bomb, which focused public attention on the issue of population growth, food production and the environment. By 1972 the Club of Rome had released its World Model, which represented the first computer-based population-environment modeling effort, predicting an "overshoot" of global carrying capacity within 100 years (4).
Efforts to understand the relationship between demographic and environmental change are part of an ongoing tradition, yet it is a tradition that has often sought to reduce environmental change to a mere function of population size or growth. While we start from the premise that population dynamics do indeed have an impact on the environment, we also believe that explanations of environmental change that give a pre-eminent place to population size and over-simplify a complex reality often raise more questions than they answer, and may in some instances even provide the wrong answers.
As the field of population-environment studies has matured, researchers increasingly want to understand the nuances of the relationship. In the past two decades demographers, geographers, anthropologists, economists, and environmental scientists have sought to answer a more complex set of questions, which include among others:
- How do specific population changes (in density, composition, or numbers) relate to specific changes in the environment (such as deforestation, climate change, or ambient concentrations of air and water pollutants)?
- How do environmental conditions and changes, in turn, affect population dynamics?
- How do intervening variables, like institutions or markets, mediate the relationship?
- And how do these relationships vary in time and space?
They have sought to answer these questions armed with a host of new tools (geographic information systems, remote sensing, computer-based models, and statistical packages) and evolving theories on human-environment interactions.
This article explores the ways in which demographers and other social scientists have sought to understand the relationships among a full range of population dynamics (e.g. population size, growth, density, age and sex composition, migration, urbanization, vital rates) and environmental changes. While per capita environmental impacts are far greater in the developed world, the emphasis of this article is largely on the developing world because this is where much of the micro- and meso-level research has focused (5).
The article begins with a short review of the theories for understanding population and the environment. It then proceeds to provide a review of studies that have examined population dynamics and their relationship to the following environmental issue areas:
- land-cover change and deforestation
- agricultural land degradation and improvement
- abstraction and pollution of water resources
- coastal and marine environments
- and energy, air pollution, and climate change
In the concluding section we relate population-environment research to the emerging understanding of complex human-environment environment systems.
Population-Environment Theories
A wide array of theories have emerged to describe the population environment relationship, each theory leading to different conclusions and policy recommendations. Here we review the most prominent theories in the field of population and environment.
The introduction briefly touched on the work of Malthus, whose theory still generates strong reactions 200 years after it was first published. Adherents of Malthus have generally been termed neo-Malthusians. In its simplest form, neo-Malthusianism holds that human populations, because of their tendency to increase exponentially if fertility is unchecked, will ultimately outstrip the earth's resources, leading to ecological catastrophe. This has been one of the dominant paradigms in the field of population and the environment, but many social scientists reject it because of its underlying biological/ecological underpinnings, treating humans in an undifferentiated way from other species that grow beyond the local "carrying capacity." Malthusianism has been criticized for overlooking cultural adaptation, technological developments, trade, and institutional arrangements that have allowed human populations to grow beyond their local subsistence base.
|For Malthus, as population increases exponentially and food production only linearly, a point where food supply is inadequate will at some point be reached. (via Wikimedia Commons)
The so-called Boserupian hypothesis, named after agricultural economist Esther Boserup, holds that agricultural production increases with population growth due to the intensification of production (greater labor and capital inputs). Although often depicted as being in opposition to Malthusianism, Malthus himself acknowledged that agricultural output increases with increasing population density (just not fast enough), and Boserup acknowledged that there are situations under which intensification might not take place (6-7). As Turner and Ali (8) point out, the main difference between the theories of Malthus and Boserup is that Malthus saw technology as being exogenous to the population-resource condition, and Boserup sees it as endogenous. Cornucopian theories espoused by some neoclassical economists stand in sharper contrast to neo-Malthunisianism because they posit that human ingenuity (through the increased the supply of more creative people) and market substitution (as certain resources become scarce) will avert future resource crises (9-10).
Political ecology also informs the population-environment literature (11-12). Many political ecologists see population and environment as linked only insofar as they have a common root cause, poverty, and that poverty itself stems from economic imbalances between the developed and developing world and within developing countries themselves (e.g., 13-14). A number of theories such as the intermediate variable theory (11-12) or the holistic approach theory (15), which are often subscribed to by demographers, state that population is one of a number of variables that affect the environment, and that rapid population growth simply exacerbates other conditions such as bad governance, civil conflict, wars, polluting technologies, or distortionary policies.
Some theories relating to population and environment are built on theoretical contributions from a number of fields. A case in point is the vicious circle model (VCM), which attempts to explain sustained high fertility in the face of declining environmental resources (16-18). In this model, it is hypothesized that there are a number of positive feedback loops that contribute to a "downward spiral" of population growth, resource depletion, and rising poverty (see land degradation section) (19-22).
It is important to note that these theories may simultaneously operate at different scales, and thus all could conceivably be correct. Theoretical frameworks can be important guides to action: a good theory helps to develop well-targeted policies, however, bad theory can become the "orthodoxies" underlying government and development agency policies and programs that are very difficult to overcome (23-24). Each of the above theories identifies one or more ultimate causes for environmental degradation, which if remedied, would "solve" the problem. Unfortunately, many theories in the realm of population and the environment have not been subjected to rigorous empirical testing to allow them to be categorized as robust. This is partly because the linkages are complex and difficult to disentangle. Fortunately for the field as a whole, the picture is beginning to change and a number of studies at the micro-level have used robust statistical methods and multi-level modeling in order to test theories such as the vicious circle model (25-26).
Reviews by Environmental Issue Area
Land-cover change and deforestation
The conversion of natural lands to croplands, pastures, urban areas, reservoirs and other anthropogenic landscapes represents the most visible and pervasive form of human impact on the environment (27). Today, roughly 40% of the Earth's land surface is under agriculture, and 85% has some level of anthropogenic influence (28). While the world's population is now 50% urban, urban areas occupy less than three percent of the Earth's surface (29). We can conclude from this that large-scale land cover change is largely a rural phenomenon, though many of its drivers can be traced to the consumption demands of the swelling urban middle classes (30-31).
|Deforestation in Amazonia. The roads in the forest follow a typical "fishbone" pattern. (Image by NASA, via Wikimedia Commons)
Most developed countries largely deforested their lands in past centuries, so today most land conversion from natural states to human uses is occurring in the developing world, particularly in the tropics through forest conversion to agriculture (32).[i] Given the scale of these transformations and their intimate but complex linkages with population dynamics, research on land use/cover change (LUCC) and particularly deforestation constitutes a large portion of the population-environment literature. Demographic variables are linked at different scales to this phenomenon (33). In this section we briefly outline how population dynamics affect LUCC through changes in fertility, population structure, and migration, and how these interactions are largely mediated by scale. We also reference case studies illustrating the sometimes counter-intuitive relationship between population variables and LUCC.
In much of the developing world fertility rates are plummeting, especially in urban areas. Conversely, the regions of highest fertility are often in the most remotely settled lands where the agricultural frontier continues to advance. These areas tend to be both biodiverse and ecologically sensitive, and high fertility and associated rapid population growth directly contribute to land conversion in these forest frontier areas (34-40).
Despite the high fertility of remote rural populations, migration remains the primary source of population growth in forest frontiers and is a necessary precedent to frontier deforestation in the forest transitions causal chain (41-42). Migration will remain a major driver of frontier forest conversion, often in a leap-frog manner as more established farm households send younger family members as migrants to the new frontier (43-44).
Population dynamics are central to LUCC, but population exerts its influence synergistically with other factors. Demand for agricultural land among small holders directly impacts forest conversion while, through market forces, urban and international demand for forest and agricultural products further contribute to LUCC through logging and large-scale agriculture (45). Political and institutional factors also play an important role in shaping LUCC. For example, government investments in roads, subsidies to the agricultural sector, or policy with regards to land tenure can directly influence deforestation rates. Such effects are well researched in the Brazilian Amazon (46-49). Cultural preferences can also affect LUCC, such as the desire for cattle as a status symbol among Central American frontier farmers (50-51). Such intervening variables help explain inconsistencies in population-LUCC dynamics (52).
Changing the scale of analysis reveals examples in which population growth declined yet deforestation accelerated, population growth was accompanied by reforestation, or population growth attended a number of different human-environment responses (52). Examples of this are evident in the literature for Latin America where many nations have experienced declining rural populations but continued deforestation (37). A dramatic example is Ecuador whose Amazon region's forest canopy is facing rapid attrition to growing settlements of frontier farmers while overall rural population is declining due to falling fertility and rapid urbanization (53-54). This apparent anomaly is explained by the fact that the small populations moving to forest frontiers, while accounting for a minority of a nation's rural population, contribute a disproportionate amount to the nation's total deforestation. In parts of the Brazilian Amazon, forest conversion has been driven increasingly by exogenous factors, such as global demand for soybeans, and owing to increasingly mechanized farming the region has also experienced rural population decline (55).
Land cover dynamics are the most evident mark of human occupation of the Earth. Links to population are both obvious (without human population presence there is no human impact on forests apart from acid rain) and exceedingly complex (e.g., at what spatial and temporal scales does population interact with political, economic, and social processes to produce LUCC?). A challenge for future research will be to disentangle the contributions of population and other dynamics across spatial and temporal scales through a diversity of research methods and better data at the meso-scale.
Agricultural land degradation or improvement
Land-cover change research also considers changes in land cover types, and quality of those land resources as a result of human uses, which is the focus of this section. Perhaps the most contentious debate in the population-environment literature concerns the relationship between land degradation or improvement and increasing population density in subsistence agricultural areas (56). This is in part due to widely differing estimates regarding the extent of land degradation, with global estimates ranging from 20 to 51 million sq. km (57). This section considers arguments and evidence marshaled by two major schools of thought: "vicious circle" proponents who believe that increasing population density in the context of high poverty almost inevitably leads to land degradation, and the so-called "Boserupians" who suggest that increasing density leads to intensification of agricultural systems such that yields per unit area (and per capita) are increased.
|Yuma Arizona (NASA/terraprints.com, via Wikimedia Commons)
Economists have been among the major proponents of the VCM. For example, Panayotou (58) and Dasgupta (16, 59) have suggested that children are valued by rural households in part because they transform open access resources (forests, fisheries, and rangeland) into household wealth, resulting in the "externalization" of the costs of high fertility. One manifestation is the process of "extensification," whereby farm households in frontier areas use additional labor to open up new lands for cultivation (60). Thus, household-level responses to resource scarcity can lead to problems at the societal level as each household copes with increased risk and uncertainty by maximizing its number of surviving children.
Testing of the VCM is difficult, however, since one is searching for a relatively small "resources effect" on fertility when there are at least a score of potentially confounding variables, and testing the direction of causality requires time series data on social and environmental variables, which is quite rare. Economists Filmer and Pritchett (61) found qualified support for the vicious circle hypothesis using detailed data from Pakistan on child time use, firewood collection activities, and recent fertility. However, they could not establish a "fertility effect" on resource or land degradation. Pascual and Barbier's (62) modeling of shifting cultivation in the Yucatan found that among poor households, as population density increased the response was to further extensify or reduce fallow periods, whereas among better off households labor was shifted to off-farm employment. Thus, though anecdotal evidence is abundant and development policymaking has been heavily influenced by VCM assumptions, there is only qualified support for the hypothesis in the few existing quantitative studies.
The Boserupian or intensification hypothesis has been tested in a number of studies spanning Africa, Asia and Latin America. A frequently cited study by Tiffen et al. (63) examined changes in population density and agricultural productivity in Machakos District, Kenya. This study confirms the basic Boserupian hypothesis: increased food demand, a denser network of social and market interactions, labor intensive agriculture and economies of scale helped to avert a "Malthusian crisis." Yet even in this "text book" study, other researchers working in the district found important social differentiation in livelihood improvements, land alienation, and government limitations on mobility – elements that tend to mar the otherwise rosy picture (64).
Mortimore (65) found similar "success stories" in three dryland areas of West Africa where some common ingredients were found that resulted in improved or stable soil fertility and yields despite rapid population growth and high densities. The author concludes that productivity enhancements respond to economic incentives, and that the capacity of resource poor farmers to invest in on-farm improvements should not be underestimated.
In Asia, there have also been successes, thanks largely to success of the "green revolution", a package of improved seeds and agricultural inputs that resulted in higher yields (66). Turner & Shajaat Ali (8) studied time series data (1950-1986) for 265 households in six villages in Bangladesh. They found support for the induced intensification hypothesis, with yields largely keeping pace with or exceeding population growth despite high population densities (783 persons per km2). They conclude that Bangladesh passed several "threshold steps" at points along its path towards intensification in which Malthusian outcomes of involution and stagnation might have occurred but were fortunately averted.
As these case studies make clear, population is but one among many factors that influence degradation or intensification. Other variables that are of crucial significance include institutional factors (land tenure regimes, local governance, resource access), market linkages (road networks, crop prices), social conditions (education, inequality of land holdings), and the biophysical environment itself (original soil quality, slopes, climatic conditions). Thus it would appear that population growth is neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for either declines or improvements in agricultural productivity to occur, as evidenced by this recent study in China (67).
Although population can perhaps be discounted as the only relevant variable, there is little doubt that rapid population growth in poor rural areas can be a complicating factor in the pursuit of sustainable land use, especially since policies and markets are rarely aligned in such a way as to produce the most favorable results. One important advance for studies in this area will be the development of better maps of soil quality and land degradation with the aid of remote sensing and local soil samples, since at least part of the debate over population's impact can be explained by differing interpretations of what constitutes "degradation" and a paucity of empirical evidence for the relationship.
Abstraction and pollution of water resources
Population-environment researchers have not dedicated the same level of attention to population dynamics and water resources as they have to research on land-cover change, agricultural systems, or climate change. Yet there are clear relationships between population dynamics and freshwater abstraction for agricultural, domestic and industrial uses, as well as emission of pollutants into water bodies.
Human settlement is heavily predicated upon the availability of water. At the global level irrigation water for agriculture is the biggest single user (about 70% of water use), followed by industry (23%) and domestic uses (8%) (68). If "green water" is added to the mix (water that feeds rainfed crops), then crop production far and away outstrips other water uses. As demand for food increases with growing populations and changing tastes (including growing demand for animal vs. vegetable protein with its far greater demands for water), it is expected that water diversions for agriculture will only increase. Northern and southern Africa and the Middle East already suffer absolute scarcity with many other African countries expected to follow (69).
Studies at the local level, as with other population-environment dynamics, reveal a varied picture. A number of local studies found that community involvement in water management institutions, appropriate technologies, and the respect for the human right for water could all help to meet human needs (70). Top-down management and large hydro-electric projects were often associated with negative impacts on communities dependent on aquatic ecosystems. Research in the Mwanza region of western Tanzania finds that accessible runoff varies significantly across a relatively small area, and that population density closely tracks available water (71). The researchers conclude that high fertility – a traditional adaptation to peak labor demands during the short cropping season – increases the problems of water access and supply maintenance in agricultural and domestic spheres. But they also note that gloomy prognoses about future water shortages often fail to acknowledge that large portions of developing country populations never have had the kind of access to water, or levels of consumption, deemed necessary by international bodies.
In the Pangani Basin of northeastern Tanzania a complex set of factors is leading to water conflicts (72). Population is one factor: owing to high fertility and migration rural population is doubling every 20 years and the population of towns is doubling every 10 years. But other factors include water extraction and land alienation for export flower production and protected areas; growth and mobility of livestock herds; declining summer runoff from glaciers on Mount Kilimanjaro owing to global warming; and hydroelectricity generation.
Researchers in densely populated Sao Paulo State in Brazil examined water resources in the Piracicaba and Capivari River Basins (PCB) within the Campinas Administrative Region (AR) (73). Campinas is Brazil's 14th largest city, as well as its third largest industrial center, and an important agricultural region as well. The authors find that problems in the form of urban growth and the patterns of population distribution during these three decades have accentuated water quality problems, since the rapidity and low density of growth meant that water supply and sanitation infrastructure could not keep up. In response, state water basin agencies are applying some institutional solutions such as fees for water withdrawals and restrictions on residential development, as well as some technical ones, particularly the treatment of wastewaters.
In summary, as in other areas the relationship between population dynamics and water resources is complex. At the aggregate level, and other things being equal, population growth most assuredly does reduce per capita water availability. It is in this light that the Global International Waters Assessment listed population growth first in a series of root causes of the "global water crisis" (74). Yet there is more to population change than growth alone, and rarely are other factors equal, so the specific impacts of population dynamics on water often come down to a complex array of place-specific factors that relate to economic and climatic changes, agricultural and industrial technologies, sewage treatment, and institutional mechanisms, to name but a few.
Coastal and marine environments
From the earliest times the preponderance of global economic activity has been concentrated in the coastal zone (75), with settlements often growing on the continental margins to take advantage of overseas trade and easy access to the resources of the rural hinterlands. As a result, the coastal zone has attracted large and growing populations, with much of their growth attributable to migration rather than natural increase (76). Today, 10% of the world's population lives at less than ten meters above sea level (even though this area only accounts for 2.2% of the world's land area) and coastal zones have higher population densities than any other ecologically defined zone in the world (29, 77). Coastal and marine environments are very important for human health and well-being, and they are also quite vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts. Yet, until recently most population-environment research has focused on terrestrial ecosystems, possibly because the human "footprint" on coastal and marine ecosystems is harder to discern.
Not surprisingly, over half of the world's coastlines are at significant risk from development-related activities (78), and the potential (and realized) environmental damage is substantial. Population growth is often named as the driver of coastal and marine environmental problems, while proximate causes can be traced to specific practices (79). A recent study highlights how the Kuna population (an indigenous population in Caribbean Panama) has practiced coral mining and land-filling for decades in response to population growth (80). Besides direct loss of coral reef, consequences include coastal erosion and a local increase in sea level. This example provides a clear and direct link between population growth and coastal degradation.
Population growth can lead to many other coastal and marine environmental disturbances. Although listed as a driver, the impact of population size and growth depends on many other factors such as the sensitivity of coastal systems to stress, local institutions, and global markets. For example, demand for shrimp is the ultimate driver of mangrove loss, and sewage treatment systems and no-till agriculture could significantly reduce nutrient loading in coastal areas.
A significant recurring theme in this research is that the social and economic context in which the population is changing as well as when, how, and with whom people interact is more important in determining the impact on the environment than simply demographic change (81-82). Studies in developing countries on migration and the marine environment have focused on a mediating variables approach, such as how technology, local knowledge, social institutions of kinship or marriage, and markets mediate the role of population in resource extraction and consequent environmental degradation or enhancement. For example, some work in Brazil (83) and the Galapagos (84) respectively has hypothesized that migrants misuse resource extraction technologies which leads to environmental degradation (85). In both cases the results seem to be a function of the migrants' limited local knowledge as well as expansionist attitudes and short-term time horizons for profiting from the extraction of coastal and marine resources.
Thus, population-environment researchers have begun to incorporate other social theories such as social capital and migrant incorporation to understand when population pressures do not necessarily degrade the environment (86). Most studies have found that in systems with strong land tenure or social capital, migrants do not disrupt the environment and are able to develop local knowledge that mitigates environmental impacts (87-89).
Human impacts on coastal and marine environments are not a simple function of population size or density. Nonetheless, coastal and marine environments continue to be among the most threatened ecosystems in the world, due in part to the sheer scale of detrimental human activities associated with urbanization along the coasts, high population density, and a growing tourist market.
An unresolved issue in this area of research—as in the case of LUCC research—is how to spatially and temporally link populations and human activity to a specific environmental outcome. This is especially difficult in marine and coastal ecosystems since environmental boundaries are fluid. Also important is the impact of local and global consumption on marine and coastal environments. Further research is needed to assess how population-environment linkages in marine and coastal areas are influenced by global food trade connecting consumers and producers from opposite sides of the world.
Energy, air pollution and climate change
More than 80% of global energy consumption is derived from fossil fuels (90), and it is this dependence on fossil energy that is responsible for the release of the greenhouse gases and airborne pollutants that are altering atmospheric composition and processes on a global scale. As concern mounts over the health impacts of urban air quality (particularly in developing countries) and the potential adverse effects of climate change across multiple systems and sectors, population-environment researchers have paid particular attention to understanding the demographic drivers of energy consumption. Although it is clear that there are vast differences in consumption levels (per capita energy consumption in the U.S. is 48 times what it is in Bangladesh and 4.7 times the world average), it would be wrong to suggest that population variables are irrelevant. Hence we review a number of empirical studies that examine population-energy linkages in a systematic and quantitative manner.[ii]
In studies of energy consumption researchers have found that it is more appropriate to use the household rather than individuals as the unit of analysis, since a large portion of energy consumption related to space conditioning (heating and air conditioning), transportation, and appliance use is shared by household members. This sharing results in significant economies of scale, with large households generally showing lower per capita energy use than small ones (17, 91). In a pioneering study, MacKellar et al. (92) found that because growth in the number of households outpaces population growth due to trends in fertility, divorce and ageing; using household numbers as the demographic unit of analysis, changes in demographic factors accounted for 41% of the total increase in energy consumption of the industrialized countries during 1970-1990, whereas using population growth as the demographic unit of analysis, changes in demographic factors accounted for only 18%. However, this study did not take into account the lower energy requirements of smaller households, so it likely exaggerated the contribution of the growth in household numbers to energy use.
In studying demographic impacts (via energy consumption) on air pollution, scientists have identified a number of important factors that jointly determine pollutant emissions, including population, affluence, and technology (93-94). Selden et al. (95) analyzed the reduction of U.S. major air pollution emissions from 1970 to 1990 and found that changes in economic scale, economic composition, energy mix, energy intensity and emissions intensity all played important roles. In quantifying the impacts of population on air pollution, researchers have reached different conclusions depending on which pollutants are under study, in which locations, at what scale, and for which time periods. The different patterns of impacts may reflect the nature of complicated interactions between different pollutants and regional geographic/climatic conditions (96-98), income, and technological levels (99-100).
Due to the complexity of population interactions as well as political issues, population issues were not considered in formulation of the Kyoto Protocol (101) and have also been largely excluded from the IPCC's assessment reports (102), though population projections are an important part of the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) (103). However, along with downshifting population growth rate, assumptions on economic growth and technological changes in the new scenario are accordingly adjusted, reflecting a moderate demographic impact on GHGs emission (104). Making progress in this area requires a better understanding of the scope for future demographic change, as well as methods for including demographic heterogeneity within energy-economic growth models used for emissions scenario development. In the new run of socioeconomic scenarios for climate change research communities the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs, 105), it considers demographic factors much beyond population size, including key elements such as changes in age structure, urbanization and education attainment (106).
Simultaneous and consistent projections of population, urbanization, and households is a challenging demographic task (107-108). Dalton et al. (109) introduced heterogeneous households into a general equilibrium PET (population- environment-technology) model of the U.S. economy by incorporating them into cohorts by age groups (or "dynasties"). These dynamics and other relationships implied by household projections create non-linear interacting effects that influence each dynasty's future saving and consumption decisions. Their research shows that including age heterogeneity among U.S. households reduces emissions by almost 40% in the low population scenarios by year 2050, and effects of aging on emission can be as large as, or larger than, effects of technical change in some cases. Those effects are believed to be much larger for the developing world, such as was recently shown for India and China by O'Neil et al. (110), where more significant demographic changes such as population growth, aging, household nuclearization, and urbanization are occurring.
One of the reasons natural scientists have found "population" to be so appealing as a human dimension of environmental change is that data are readily available (in contrast to other human variables such as values, culture, and institutions), projections are reasonably reliable (111), and population can be treated in models in a manner that is analogous to all the other quantitative variables. This has promoted something of a reductionist view of population-environment interactions. Fortunately, a growing number of natural scientists are beginning to appreciate that humans interact with the environment in more ways than their raw numbers often imply. Populations are composed of people who collectively form societies, and people and societies cannot easily be reduced to food and material demands that result in some aggregate impact on the environment.[iii] This makes human societies at once messy for modeling and fascinating to study. The new understanding builds on the concept of coupled human-environment systems which are more than the sum of their parts (112-113).
In the human-environment system, the impacts are not uni-directional but reciprocal. For example, the environmental change impacts on morbidity and mortality are a growing area of interest, and some have sought to close the circle by looking at how environmentally induced mortality may affect population projections (2). There is also growing research on the health impacts of landscape or climatic changes on humans, in the one instance through the creation of mosquito breeding habitats that contribute to malaria (114), and in the other through heat stress or famine (115). Research on the human-environment system also takes advantage of new data sources (remote sensing, biophysical data, as well as georeferenced household surveys), new technologies (high powered computers, GIS, spatial statistics), and new models (agent-based, multi-level, and spatially explicit modeling). Much of the research reviewed in this article has sought to deconstruct "population" into its component parts, and to understand how human social institutions in all their complexity (e.g. markets, policies, communities) mediate the impact of population variables on the use of resources, waste generation, and environmental impacts. Thus, they could be said to fit into this growing understanding of the human-environment system.
Much population-environment research, whether at the local or global scales, is motivated by a broader concern for sustainability. Underlying some of the research, and contributing to some of the controversy, has been a concern for distributional justice in two senses: that the 6 billion citizens of developing countries might be able to raise their living standards and hence their consumption levels from their previously low levels, and that the costs of biodiversity conservation and environmental protection not be unfairly borne by the poorest (116). Whether research proves that population dynamics have a dominant or negligible effect on environmental outcomes in each of the domains we surveyed, it is still left to human societies to address these inequities in consumption and costs, and to seek long-term solutions. Here, research on culture, consumption, values, institutions, and alternative industrial and food systems will add to what is known about the demographic dimension as societies seek to transition to sustainable systems (117-118).
- Petersen, W. (1972). Readings in population. New York: Macmillan.
- Cohen, J. E. (1995). How many people can the earth support?. The Sciences,35(6), 18-23.
- Livi-Bacci, M. (2012). A concise history of world population. John Wiley & Sons.
- Meadows, D. H., Meadows, D., Randers, J., & Behrens III, W. W. (1972). The Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind (New York: Universe).
- An, L., D. López-Carr (2012). Modeling Coupled Human-Natural Systems: Research Directions. Ecological Modeling. (229)1-4.
- Boserup, E. (1965). The conditions of agricultural growth. Earthscan, London.
- Curran, S. R., & de Sherbinin, A. (2004). Completing the picture: the challenges of bringing "consumption" into the population–environment equation. Population and Environment, 26(2), 107-131.
- Turner, B. L., & Ali, A. S. (1996). Induced intensification: agricultural change in Bangladesh with implications for Malthus and Boserup. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(25), 14984-14991.
- Simon, J. L. (Ed.). (1990). Population matters: People, resources, environment, and immigration. Transaction publishers.
- Aligica, P. D. (2009). Julian Simon and the "Limits to Growth" Neo-Malthusianism. The Electronic Journal of Sustainable Development, 1(3), 49.
- Jolly, M. C. L. (1994). Four theories of population change and the environment.Population and Environment, 16(1), 61-90.
- Hummel, D., Adamo, S., de Sherbinin, A., Murphy, L., Aggarwal, R., Zulu, L., ... & Knight, K. (2013). Inter-and transdisciplinary approaches to population–environment research for sustainability aims: a review and appraisal.Population and Environment, 34(4), 481-509.
- Gray, L. C., & Moseley, W. G. (2005). A geographical perspective on poverty–environment interactions. The Geographical Journal, 171(1), 9-23.
- Swyngedouw, E. (2009). The Political Economy and Political Ecology of the Hydro‐Social Cycle. Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education,142(1), 56-60.
- Chi, G. 2005. "Debates on population and the environment." Contribution to the Population-Environment Research Network (PERN) cyberseminar on Population and MDG-7, 5-16 September 2005.
- Dasgupta, P. S. (1995). Population, poverty and the local environment. Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics.
- O'Neill, B. C., MacKellar, F. L., & Lutz, W. (2005). Population and climate change. Cambridge University Press.
- Bremner, J., Lopez-Carr, D., Suter, L., & Davis, J. (2010). Population, poverty, environment, and climate dynamics in the developing world. Interdisciplinary Environmental Review, 11(2), 112-126.
- Caldwell, J. C., & Caldwell, P. (1987). The cultural context of high fertility in sub-Saharan Africa. Population and development review, 409-437.
- Cain, M. (1983). Fertility as an adjustment to risk. Population and Development Review, 688-702.
- Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. science, 162(3859), 1243-1248.
- Atiqul Haq, S. M., Vanwing, T., & Hens, L. (2010). Perception, Environmental Degradation and Family Size Preference: a Context of Developing Countries.Journal of Sustainable Development, 3(4).
- Batterbury, S., Forsyth, T., & Thomson, K. (1997). Environmental transformations in developing countries: hybrid research and democratic policy.Geographical Journal, 163(2), 126-132.
- Leach, M., & Mearns, R. (1996). The Lie of the Land: challenging received wisdom on the African environment. James Currey Ltd.
- De Sherbinin, A. (2006). Rural household micro-demographics, livelihoods and the environment. Background paper, Population-Environment Research Network Cyberseminar, 10-24.
- An, L., & Liu, J. (2010). Long-term effects of family planning and other determinants of fertility on population and environment: agent-based modeling evidence from Wolong Nature Reserve, China. Population and Environment,31(6), 427-459.
Land Cover Change and Deforestation
- Turner, B. L. (Ed.). (1990). The earth as transformed by human action: global and regional changes in the biosphere over the past 300 years. CUP Archive.
- Sanderson, E. W., Jaiteh, M., Levy, M. A., Redford, K. H., Wannebo, A. V., & Woolmer, G. (2002). The Human Footprint and the Last of the Wild. BioScience, 52(10), 891-904.
- McGranahan G, Marcotullio PJ, Bai X, et al. 2005. Urban Systems. In Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Current Status and Trends, ed. R Hassan, R Scholes, N Ash. Washington D.C.: Island Press.
- Carr, D. L. (2004). Tropical deforestation. In WorldMinds: Geographical Perspectives on 100 Problems (pp. 293-298). Springer Netherlands.
- DeFries, R. S., Rudel, T., Uriarte, M., & Hansen, M. (2010). Deforestation driven by urban population growth and agricultural trade in the twenty-first century. Nature Geoscience, 3(3), 178-181.
- López-Carr, D., & Burgdorfer, J. (2013). Deforestation drivers: population, migration, and tropical land use. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 55(1), 3-11.
- Carr, D. L., & Bilsborrow, R. E. (2001). Population and land use/cover change: A regional comparison between Central America and South America. Journal of Geography Education, 43(8), 7-16.
- Knodel, J. E. (1987). Thailand's reproductive revolution: Rapid fertility decline in a third-world setting. Univ of Wisconsin Press.
- Stokes, C. S., & Schutjer, W. A. (1984). Access to land and fertility in developing countries.
- Singh, S., Casterline, J. B., & Cleland, J. G. (1985). The proximate determinants of fertility: Sub-national variations. Population Studies, 39(1), 113-135.
- Carr, D. L. (2005). Population, land use, and deforestation in the Sierra de Lacandón National Park, Petén, Guatemala. The Professional Geographer,57(2), 157-168.
- Rosero-Bixby, L., & Palloni, A. (1998). Population and deforestation in Costa Rica. Population and Environment, 20(2), 149-185.
- Rudel, T. K., & Horowitz, B. (2013). Tropical Deforestation: Small Farmers and Land Clearing in Ecuadorian Amazon. Columbia University Press.
- Pichón, F. J. (1997). Colonist Land‐Allocation Decisions, Land Use, and Deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon Frontier. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 45(4), 707-744.
- Geist, H. J., & Lambin, E. F. (2001). What drives tropical deforestation. LUCC Report series, 4, 116.
- Carr, D. (2009). Population and deforestation: why rural migration matters.Progress in Human Geography, 33(3), 355-378.
- Barbieri, A. F., & Carr, D. L. (2005). Gender-specific out-migration, deforestation and urbanization in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Global and Planetary Change, 47(2), 99-110.
- Barbieri, A. F., Carr, D. L., & Bilsborrow, R. E. (2009). Migration within the frontier: the second generation colonization in the Ecuadorian Amazon.Population research and policy review, 28(3), 291-320.
- Richards, P. D., Myers, R. J., Swinton, S. M., & Walker, R. T. (2012). Exchange rates, soybean supply response, and deforestation in South America. Global Environmental Change, 22(2), 454-462.
- Alves, D. S. (2002). Space-time dynamics of deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 23(14), 2903-2908.
- McCracken, S. D., Brondizio, E. S., Nelson, D., Moran, E. F., Siqueira, A. D., & Rodriguez-Pedraza, C. (1999). Remote sensing and GIS at farm property level: Demography and deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 65, 1311-1320.
- Pfaff, A. S. (1999). What drives deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon?: evidence from satellite and socioeconomic data. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 37(1), 26-43.
- Arima, E. Y., Richards, P., Walker, R., & Caldas, M. M. (2011). Statistical confirmation of indirect land use change in the Brazilian Amazon.Environmental Research Letters, 6(2), 024010.
- Carr, D. (2006). A tale of two roads: Land tenure, poverty, and politics on the Guatemalan frontier. Geoforum, 37(1), 94-103.
- Hoelle, J. (2011). Convergence on cattle: political ecology, social group perceptions, and socioeconomic relationships in Acre, Brazil. Culture, Agriculture, Food and Environment, 33(2), 95-106.
- Carr, D. L. (2002). The role of population change in land use and land cover change in rural Latin America: Uncovering local processes concealed by macro-level data. Land use changes in comparative perspective, 133-48.
- Pan, W. K., Walsh, S. J., Bilsborrow, R. E., Frizzelle, B. G., Erlien, C. M., & Baquero, F. (2004). Farm-level models of spatial patterns of land use and land cover dynamics in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 101(2), 117-134.
- Rudel, T. K., & Horowitz, B. (2013). Tropical Deforestation: Small Farmers and Land Clearing in Ecuadorian Amazon. Columbia University Press.
- Hecht, S. B. (2005). Soybeans, development and conservation on the Amazon frontier. Development and Change, 36(2), 375-404.
Agricultural Land Degradation or Improvement
- Carr, D. L., Lopez, A. C., & Bilsborrow, R. E. (2009). The population, agriculture, and environment nexus in Latin America: country-level evidence from the latter half of the twentieth century. Population and Environment, 30(6), 222-246.
- Eswaran, H., Lal, R., & Reich, P. F. (2001). Land degradation: an overview.Responses to Land degradation, 20-35.
- Panayotou, T. (1994). The population environment and development nexus.
- Dasgupta, P. (2000). Population and resources: an exploration of reproductive and environmental externalities. Population and development Review, 26(4), 643-689.
- Bilsborrow, R. E., Ogendo, H. W., Pimentel, D., Mwaura, F., Moore, T. R., Rosenfield, A., ... & Davis, W. H. (1992). Population-driven changes in land use in developing countries. Ambio, 21(1), 37-45.
- Filmer, D., & Pritchett, L. H. (2002). Environmental degradation and the demand for children: searching for the vicious circle in Pakistan. Environment and Development Economics, 7(1), 123-146.
- Pascual, U., & Barbier, E. B. (2006). Deprived land‐use intensification in shifting cultivation: the population pressure hypothesis revisited. Agricultural Economics, 34(2), 155-165.
- Tiffen, M., Mortimore, M., Gichuki, F., Ahmad, A., Twumasi-Ankrah, K., Gianotten, V., ... & Ranis, G. (1995). More people less erosion: environmental recovery in Kenya. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA, 10(2), 366-78.
- Rocheleau D. 1995. More on Machakos. Environment 37(7): 3-5.
- Mortimore, M. (2005). Dryland development: success stories from West Africa.Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 47(1), 8-21.
- Mishra, V. (2002). Population growth and intensification of land use in India.International Journal of Population Geography, 8(5), 365-383.
- Bai, Z., & Dent, D. (2009). Recent land degradation and improvement in China.AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 38(3), 150-156.
Abstraction and Pollution of Water Resources
- De Sherbinin, A. (1997). Water and population dynamics: local approaches to a global challenge. Population Reference Bureau.
- Engelman, R., & LeRoy, P. (1993). Sustaining water. Population and the future of renewable water supplies.
- De Sherbinin, A., Dompka, V., & Bromley, L. (1998). Water and population dynamics: case studies and policy implications.
- Zaba, B., & Madulu, N. (1998). A drop to drink? Population and water resources: illustrations from northern Tanzania.
- Mbonile, M. J. (2005). Migration and intensification of water conflicts in the Pangani Basin, Tanzania. Habitat International, 29(1), 41-67.
- Hogan, D. J., RODRIGUES, I., & CARMO, R. L. D. (1997). O Novo Padrão Migratório e os Impactos Sobre os Recursos Hídricos–As Bacias dos Rios Piracicaba e Capivari. Travessia, São Paulo, 10(28), 27-33.
- Global International Waters Assessment. (2006). Challenges to International Waters: Regional Assessments in a Global Perspective. UNEP/Earthprint.
Coastal and Marine Environments
- Sachs, J. D., Mellinger, A. D., & Gallup, J. L. (2001). The geography of poverty and wealth. Scientific American, 284(3), 70-75.
- Hinrichsen, D. (1997). Coastal waters of the world: trends, threats, and strategies. Island Press.
- McGranahan, G., Balk, D., & Anderson, B. (2007). The rising tide: assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones. Environment and Urbanization, 19(1), 17-37.
- Faye, M. L., McArthur, J. W., Sachs, J. D., & Snow, T. (2004). The challenges facing landlocked developing countries. Journal of Human Development, 5(1), 31-68.
- Bryant, D., Burke, L., McManus, J., & Spalding, M. (1998). Reefs at risk: a map-based indicator of threats to the worlds coral reefs.
- Guzman, H. M., Guevara, C., & Castillo, A. (2003). Natural disturbances and mining of Panamanian coral reefs by indigenous people. Conservation Biology,17(5), 1396-1401.
- Marquette, C. M., Koranteng, K. A., Overå, R., & Aryeetey, E. B. D. (2002). Small-scale fisheries, population dynamics, and resource use in Africa: the case of Moree, Ghana. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 31(4), 324-336.
- Naylor, R. L., Bonine, K. M., Ewel, K. C., & Waguk, E. (2002). Migration, markets, and mangrove resource use on Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 31(4), 340-350.
- Begossi, A. (1998). Resilience and neo-traditional populations: the caiçaras (Atlantic Forest) and caboclos (Amazon, Brazil). Linking social and ecological systems: management practices and social mechanisms for building resilience, 129-157.
- Bremner, J., & Perez, J. (2002). A case study of human migration and the sea cucumber crisis in the Galapagos Islands. Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment, 31(4), 306-310.
- Perz, S. G. (2003). Social determinants and land use correlates of agricultural technology adoption in a forest frontier: A case study in the Brazilian Amazon.Human Ecology, 31(1), 133-165.
- Cassels, S., Curran, S. R., & Kramer, R. (2005). Do migrants degrade coastal environments? Migration, natural resource extraction and poverty in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Human Ecology, 33(3), 329-363.
- Hanna, S.S. (2000). Managing for human and ecological context in the Maine soft shell clam fishery. Linking Social and Ecological Systems: Management Practices and Social Mechanisms for Building Resilience, 190.
- Hoffmann, T. C. (2002). Coral reef health and effects of socio-economic factors in Fiji and Cook Islands. Marine pollution bulletin, 44(11), 1281-1293.
- Palsson, G. (1998). Learning by fishing: practical engagement and environmental concerns (pp. 48-66). Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Energy, Air Pollution and Climate Change
- International Energy Agency (2006). World energy outlook. OECD/IEA.
- Ironmonger, D. S., Aitken, C. K., & Erbas, B. (1995). Economies of scale in energy use in adult-only households. Energy Economics, 17(4), 301-310.
- MacKellar, F. L., Lutz, W., Prinz, C., & Goujon, A. (1995). Population households and carbon dioxide emissions. Population and Development Review, 21(4), 849-65.
- Bongaarts, J. (1992). Population growth and global warming. population and Development Review, 299-319.
- O'Neill, B. C., Liddle, B., Jiang, L., Smith, K. R., Pachauri, S., Dalton, M., & Fuchs, R. (2012). Demographic change and carbon dioxide emissions. The Lancet, 380(9837), 157-164.
- Selden, T. M., Forrest, A. S., & Lockhart, J. E. (1999). Analyzing the reductions in US air pollution emissions: 1970 to 1990. Land Economics, 1-21.
- Neumayer, E. (2002). Can natural factors explain any cross-country differences in carbon dioxide emissions?. Energy Policy, 30(1), 7-12.
- Friedrichs, J., & Inderwildi, O. R. (2013). The carbon curse: Are fuel rich countries doomed to high CO2 intensities?. Energy Policy, 62, 1356-1365.
- Neumayer, E. (2004). National carbon dioxide emissions: geography matters. Area, 36(1), 33-40.
- Lantz, V., & Feng, Q. (2006). Assessing income, population, and technology impacts on CO2 emissions in Canada: Where's the EKC?.Ecological Economics, 57(2), 229-238.
- Huesemann, M. H. (2006). Can advances in science and technology prevent global warming?. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 11(3), 539-577
- Meyerson, F. A. (1998). Population, Carbon Emmissions, and Global Warming: The Forgotten Relationship at Kyoto. Population and Development Review, 115-130.
- Bongaarts, J., O'Neill, B. C., & Gaffin, S. R. (1997). Global warming policy: population left out in the cold. Environment, 39(9), 40-41.
- Nakicenovic, N., & Swart, R. (2000). Special report on emissions scenarios.Special Report on Emissions Scenarios, Edited by Nebojsa Nakicenovic and Robert Swart, pp. 612. ISBN 0521804930. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, July 2000., 1.
- O'Neill, B. C., Dalton, M., Fuchs, R., Jiang, L., Pachauri, S., & Zigova, K. (2010). Global demographic trends and future carbon emissions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(41), 17521-17526.
- O'Neill, Brian C., Elmar Kriegler, Keywan Riahi, Kristie L. Ebi, Stephane Hallegatte, Timothy R. Carter, Ritu Mathur, and Detlef P. van Vuuren. "A new scenario framework for climate change research: the concept of shared socioeconomic pathways." Climatic Change (2013): 1-14.
- Jiang, Leiwen. 2014: Internal consistency of demographic assumptions in the shared socioeconomic pathways. Population and Environment. 35(3): 261-285.107 Jiang, Leiwen and Brian O'Neill, 2004: Towards a new model for probabilistic household forecasts, International Statistical Review, 72(1): 51-64.
- Jiang, Leiwen and Brian O'Neill, 2007: Impact of demographic trend on US household size and structure, Population and Development Review, 33 (3): 429-656.
- Jiang, L., & Hardee, K. (2011). How do recent population trends matter to climate change?. Population Research and Policy Review, 30(2), 287-312.
- Dalton, M., O'Neill, B., Prskawetz, A., Jiang, L., & Pitkin, J. (2008). Population aging and future carbon emissions in the United States. Energy economics,30(2), 642-675.
- O'Neill, B. C., Ren, X., Jiang, L., & Dalton, M. (2012). The effect of urbanization on energy use in India and China in the iPETS model. Energy Economics, 34, S339-S345.
- O'Neill, B. C., Balk, D., Brickman, M., & Ezra, M. (2001). A guide to global population projections. Demographic Research, 4(8), 203-288.
- An, L., He, G., Liang, Z., & Liu, J. (2006). Impacts of demographic and socioeconomic factors on spatio-temporal dynamics of panda habitat. InHuman Exploitation and Biodiversity Conservation (pp. 3-23). Springer Netherlands.
- Turner, B. L., Matson, P. A., McCarthy, J. J., Corell, R. W., Christensen, L., Eckley, N., ... & Tyler, N. (2003). Illustrating the coupled human–environment system for vulnerability analysis: three case studies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(14), 8080-8085.
- Barbieri, A. F., & Soares-Filho, B. S. (2005). Population and land use effects on malaria prevalence in the southern Brazilian Amazon. Human Ecology,33(6), 847-874.
- Campbell-Lendrum, D., & Woodruff, R. (2006). Comparative risk assessment of the burden of disease from climate change. Environmental health perspectives,114(12), 1935.
- Walker, G. (2012). Environmental justice: concepts, evidence and politics. London: Routledge.
- Keyfitz, N. (1989). The growing human population. Scientific American, 261(3), 119-126.
- Curran, S. R., & de Sherbinin, A. (2004). Completing the picture: the challenges of bringing "consumption" into the population–environment equation. Population and Environment, 26(2), 107-131.
[1] This entry summarizes and updates work published in: de Sherbinin, A, D.L. Carr, S. Cassels, L. Jiang. (2007). Population and environment. Annual Review of Environmental Economics. 32(5):1-29.
[i] The Russian Far East is one of the few developed world regions with similarly high rates of conversion of primary forests, mostly due to logging and not to demand for agricultural lands.
[ii] Although there is extensive research on the reciprocal impact of air pollution and projected climate change on demographic variables such as morbidity, mortality, and migration this is beyond the scope of this review.


text:
News of the Weird is brought to you by AAA Heating and Cooling.
The rectangular structure — measuring over 20 feet across — was photographed by a super high resolution camera on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.
The giant monolith juts out of the planet's surface casting a huge shadow below.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Babble nonsense incessantly this Halloween and people will laugh it off as you being in character. When you're in this Adult Despicable Me Minion Dave Costume, you can act as goofy and dumb as you want. Achieve Gru's plan of stealing the moon, but first you have to put on the foam suit that displays Minion Dave's body and face. The yellow body, silly smile, overalls, and crossed eyes in goggles will make for a humorous outfit that everyone will enjoy. You might just be a henchman, but you will be one of the funniest henchmen out there. In Despicable me, the minions are the ones who steal the show. The Minion Dave costume for adults makes a great outfit because of their light-hearted, Three Stooges type nature.
Our Price: $3.97


text:
|ユカタ Yukata
|Naruto Shippūden Episode #261
|Appears in
|Voice Actors
|Ninja Rank
Yukata (ユカタ, Yukata) is a young kunoichi from Sunagakure.
Yukata, like Matsuri and many other Suna kunoichi has great admiration for their current Kazekage: Gaara. This is seen during the Fourth Shinobi World War when she and a few others were seen gushing over his speech to the masses.
Yukata is a fair-skinned girl with long, black hair and large, brown eyes as well. She wears the standard attire of the Sunagakure shinobi complete with flak jacket and the forehead protector of the Allied Shinobi Forces.
Yukata seems to have some skill in Wind Release techniques, having joined other Wind Release users to battle the reincarnated Third Raikage. However, Temari states she isn't a long-distance user.[1]
Part II
Shinobi World War Arc
Yukata was placed in the Fourth Division of the Allied Shinobi Forces and was seen gushing over Gaara after he addressed the alliance and was able to rally the shinobi into uniting as one army to defeat Akatsuki. Later, she is seen with Temari, Shikamaru, Chōji, and Matsuri. Shikamaru discusses about the topic of kekkei tōta. Soon, she is seen with Matsuri, lending towels to Gaara, telling him that he must conserve his strength. However, to their dismay, he tells them to give them to Ōnoki instead. While they didn't know him, Ōnoki declares that he is the Tsuchikage, much to their surprise.[2]
The next day, the Fourth Division makes their move on the reincarnated Kage and Yukata and Matsuri join other Wind Release users in subduing the Third Raikage. Matsuri asks Temari their next move after Naruto could not damage the Raikage. Yukata asks who Naruto is and Matsuri explains he is the hero of Konoha who defeated the Akatsuki leader Pain. Annoyed with their discussions, Temari tells the two kunoichi to keep their distance. She is later seen escorting the Tsuchikage to a medical tent.
- Yukata (浴衣) literally means "bathing clothes", and is the name of a casual kimono worn in the summer.
- When she made her début, Yukata wasn't seen wearing shoulder guards with her flak jacket, but she has been wearing them afterwards.


text:
The Power of Independent Thinking
Was the American Wild West a Genuine Case of Anarcho-Capitalism?
Recorded: Friday, July 10, 2015
Independent Institute Senior Fellow Randy Simmons speaks at the 2015 FreedomFest in Las Vegas, NV.
Experts: Randy T SimmonsType: Other EventIssues: Economic History and Development (U.S.), Economic Policy, Economists, Free Market Economics, History (U.S), Political Ideology and Philosophy
Randy Simmons | The True Costs of Green Energy
Recorded: Monday, April 27, 2015
Senior Fellow Randy Simmons joins WSVA radio's Mike Schikman to talk about the true costs of green energy including government funding and incentives for renewable energy.
Experts: Randy T SimmonsType: RadioIssues: Bureaucracy and Government, Energy, Environment, Free Market Economics, Property Rights, Public Choice Theory, Regulation and Deregulation
Water Fight
Recorded: Friday, March 7, 2014
Senior Fellow Randy T. Simmons, co-editor of Aquanomics, looks at the battles over water in the western United States. Thirsty citizens of growing cities, farmers, factories and environmentalists are in a fight for a natural resource that is priced arbitrarily. Its value is determined not by the free market, but by bureaucrats. Outdated government reclamation projects and water policies have put residents of the Golden State at the mercy of the weather, and of government's mandatory regulations.
Experts: Randy T SimmonsType: Independent Institute TVIssues: Business, Economic Policy, Environment, Land Use, Political Ideology and Philosophy
Beyond Politics: How to Think about Government Failure
Recorded: Sunday, February 10, 2013
Senior Fellow Randy Simmons interviewed by Richard Reinsch of Liberty Law Talk on his new Independent Institute book Beyond Politics: The Roots of Government Failure
Experts: Randy T SimmonsType: RadioIssues: Economic Policy, Free Market Economics, Political Ideology and Philosophy
Randy T. Simmons on Environmental Regulation
2012 Summer Seminar for College Students
Recorded: Tuesday, July 31, 2012
This presentation is from our 2012 Challenge of Liberty Summer Seminar for college students, which was held from July 30 to August 3, 2012, at Notre Dame de Namur University, Belmont, California.
View videos and more information about the Summer Seminars.
Experts: Randy T SimmonsType: Challenge of Liberty SeminarsIssues: Environment, Regulation and Deregulation
Clifford Thies on the American Economic Association and Richard T. Ely
Recorded: Monday, November 28, 2011
The American Economic Association (AEA) takes pride in celebrating its founder Richard T. Ely. This pride is strange, given the character of Elys thought, which is revealed in The Independent Review article The Shaping of a Future Presidents Economic Thought: Richard T. Ely and Woodrow Wilson at The Hopkins by Gary M. Pecquet and Clifford F. Thies, as well as the Econ Journal Watch article Richard T. Ely: The Confederate Flag of the AEA? by Clifford F. Thies and Ryan Daza. In this podcast, Thies is interviewed by the economist Lawrence H. White and explores Elys ideas, values, and impact. Thies is the Eldon R. Lindsay Chair of Free Enterprise and Professor of Economics and Finance at Shenandoah University.
Experts: Clifford F. Thies, Lawrence H. WhiteType: RadioIssues: Bureaucracy and Government, Civil Liberties/ Human Rights, Collectivism, Culture/ Society, Economic History and Development (U.S.), Economic Policy, Economists, Government Power, Immigration, Political Ideology and Philosophy, Public Health/ Consumer Protection, Race Issues, Regulation and Deregulation, Religion, Science, Welfare
Bureaucracy vs. The Environment: What Should Be Done?
Recorded: Wednesday, June 28, 2006
Part 1 |
Part 2
Part 3
Environmental quality has been a major public concern since the first Earth Day in 1970, yet the maze of environmental regulations enacted since has fostered huge government bureaucracies better known for waste and failure than for innovation and success.
Experts: Carl P. Close, Michael Shaw, Randy T SimmonsType: Independent Institute EventIssues: Environment


text:
The prospect of looming federal spending cuts has sparked concern over possible job losses at Maine's two shipyards: Bath Iron Works, which builds hi-tech destroyers for the U.S. Navy, and Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, which repairs submarines. Combined, the two employ about 9,000 people. Eighty-five billion dollars worth of across-the-board cuts - known as sequestration - are due to kick in on March 1 if no compromise is reached, and alarm bells are ringing over the effect this could have on the region's defense-related industries. For more insight on the situation, Maine Things Considered host Tom Porter spoke with Sam LaGrone, online editor at the U.S. Naval Institute's news service.
Sam LaGrone is online editor for the U.S. Naval Institute's news service in Annapolis, Maryland. He says there are too many unknowns right now to estimate with any accuracy how many ship-building jobs will be under threat if sequestration does go ahead.
Click here for the U.S. Navy's take on cuts the sequestration would impose.
Photo: A rendition of the DDG-1000, a new class of ships currently under construction at Bath Iron Works.


text:
May 2, 2016
State troopers say a truck driver told them he blacked out just before his 18-wheeler slammed into a mobile home in Lenoir County this morning.
The crash happened around 10:15 a.m. on Lynley Place, that's just off Highway 70, east of Kinston.
Authorities say fortunately no one was inside the mobile home at the time of the crash. The driver of the tractor trailer, Richard Davis of Gastonia, was taken to the hospital.
Troopers say the big rig was headed west, jumped the grass median, went across the eastbound lanes and into the trailer park. The Highway Patrol says Davis will be charged in the crash.
Curtis and Mary Lou King have lived there for 45 years. Their son tells us his dad normally sits on a couch where the tractor trailer hit, but fortunately he went to work this morning.
There was debris scattered in yards, downed power lines and several trees down as well. Some 1800 Progress Energy customers were without power, while 75 Suddenlink customers lost their cable due to the crash.
Troopers estimate some $50,000 in damage because of the accident.
This accident comes nearly two weeks after another tractor trailer in Lenoir County ran off Highway 70 outside of La Grange and killed a pregnant mother in the parking lot of a restaurant.
Click Here to access the online Public Inspection File
Viewers with disabilities can get assistance accessing this station's FCC Public Inspection File by contacting the station with the information listed below. Questions or concerns relating to the accessibility of the FCC's online public file system should be directed to the FCC at 888-225-5322, 888-835-5322 (TTY), or email@example.com.


text:
Identification Products
1 Result Found that Includes 4 Products
How can we improve the Search Experience?
Product availability based on selecting either shipping or pick up and a location. Dismiss
Ship or Pickup Enter Location
- Floor Marking Tape Floor Marking Tape
Multiple product options available
Multiple product options available
Price $765.50
How can we improve the Search Experience?
Note: Product availability is real-time basis and adjusted continuously. The product will be reserved for you when you complete your order. More


text:
Backgammon - Narde
by AAStudio
Download this app if: you enjoy backgammon games.
Developer Notes
Narde is a board game for two players in which the playing pieces are moved according to the roll of dice. It's similar to backgammon, uses the same board, but it has different initial positions and rules.
-Internet Game
-Connection restore
-Move playing pieces by tap or dragging
Gammon Steak — Nice alternative to backgammon, with a similar board but slightly different rules.


text:
Chaparral Firebirds 2013 Lacrosse Helmets
Lacrosse helmets continue to get the custom Wing decal treatment. The decals are going to be worn by Chaparral High School Firebirds in Arizona. The Red Pro 7 displays a White chin with tantalizing wings displayed on both sides. The helmet decals were ordered through CuztomSportz.com.


text:
Hispanic American Subject Guide
Use this guide to quickly find reputable sources and save time on your research! Contact your subject librarian or the reference librarians if you need more help. For an overview of how to research efficiently, see Steps of the Research Process.
Searching the Library Catalog for Books & Other Materials
To locate books and other materials in CCSF Libraries, select the "More Search Options" from CityCat available from the Library's Homepage. You will notice many ways to search, such as Title, Author, Subject, Subject Keyword, etc. Books in the library are organized by call number according to the Library of Congress classification system which groups items by subject. Examples of Library of Congress call numbers are appended to the reference books in the Using Reference Sources section below.
Please note that the Library of Congress uses "Mexican Americans" and "Mexican American Women" as the authorized subject headings and NOT "Chicanos" and "Chicanas" and, likewise, "Hispanic Americans" and "Hispanic American Women" NOT "Latinos" and "Latinas".
To begin research in this area, do a subject search on "Mexican Americans" or "Hispanic Americans" and browse through its various subdivisions such as:
Mexican Americans - Civil rights
Mexican Americans - Ethnic identity
Hispanic Americans - Economic conditions
Hispanic Americans - History
You may also use related subject heading beginning with the adjectives "Mexican American" or "Hispanic American" such as:
Mexican American art
Mexican American women
Hispanic American musicians
If you have a particular Hispanic American ethnic group that you're trying to research, you may start by doing a subject search on that particular group. Examples are:
Cuban Americans
Cuban American women
Puerto Ricans
Puerto Rican families
In addition to traditional print books, CityCat, the Library's Online Public Access Catalog, also provides access to electronic books (eBooks). To access an eBook while on campus, click on the brief bibliographic record to access the full bibliographic record. From here, click on the hyperlink below "Link to an Electronic Resource". You will be redirected to another page where you may read the eBook by clicking on "View this eBook". To access this resource from off-campus, you will need the 14-digit barcode found on your CCSF photo ID.
Using Reference Sources
Reference books provide background information and overviews on a given topic. Some reference books pertaining to Hispanic Americans, arranged by the Library of Congress call number, include:
Tardiff, Joseph C., and L. Mpho Mabunda (eds). Dictionary of Hispanic Biography.
New York, NY : Gale Research, 1996.
CT1343 .D53 1996 Rosenberg Reference
Fernandez-Shaw, Carlos M. and Gerardo Piña-González.
The Hispanic Presence in North America from 1492 to Today.
New York, NY : Facts On File, 1999.
E169.1 .F375 1999 Rosenberg Reference
Novas, Himilce.
The Hispanic 100 : a Ranking of the Latino Men and Women Who Have Most Influenced American Thought and Culture. .
New York, NY : Carol Pub. Group, 1995.
E169.1 .N77 1995 Rosenberg Reference
Schultz, Jeffrey D. (ed). Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics..
Phoenix, AZ : Oryx Press, 2000.
E184.A1 E574 2000 Rosenberg Reference
Campbell, Richard C. Two Eagles in the Sun : Your Questions Answered About Mexican Hispanics in the Border Southwest & Other Hispanics in the United States. .
Las Cruces, NM : EDITTS Pub., 1995
E184.S75 C35 1995 Rosenberg Reference
Kanellos, Nicolas and Critelia Pérez. Chronology of Hispanic-American History.
New York , NY: Gale Research, 1995.
E184.S75 C49 1995 Rosenberg Reference
Stavans, Ilan and Harold Augenbraum (eds). Encyclopedia Latina : History, Culture, and Society in the United States.
Danbury, CT : Grolier Academic Reference, 2005.
E184.S75 E587 2005 Rosenberg Reference
Chávez Candelaria, Cordelia (ed). Encyclopedia of Latino Popular Culture.
Westport, CT : Greenwood Press, 2004.
E184.S75 E59 2004 Rosenberg Reference
Weaver, Thomas et al., (eds) Handbook of Hispanic Cultures in the United States : Anthropology.
Houston, TX : Arte Público Press, 1994.
E184.S75 H3653 1994 Rosenberg Reference
Jiménez Nuñez, Alfredo et al. (eds). Handbook of Hispanic Cultures in the United States : History.
Houston, TX : Arte Público Press, 1994.
E184.S75 H3655 1994 Rosenberg Reference
Padilla, Felix M. et al. (eds). Handbook of Hispanic Cultures in the United States : Sociology.
Houston, TX : Arte Público Press, 1994.
E184.S75 H3657 1994 Rosenberg Reference
Kanellos, Nicolas (ed). The Hispanic American Almanac : a Reference Work on Hispanics in the United States.
2nd ed. Detroit, MI : Gale Research, 1997.
E184.S75 H557 1997 Rosenberg Reference
Nagel, Rob and Sharon Rose (eds). Hispanic American Biography.
New York, NY : U X L, 1995.
E184.S75 H558 1995 Rosenberg Reference
Kanellos, Nicolas and Bryan Ryan (eds). Hispanic American Chronology.
New York, NY : U X L, 1996.
E184.S75 H559 1996 Rosenberg Reference
Kanellos, Nicolas. Hispanic Firsts : 500 years of Extraordinary Achievement.
Detroit, MI : Gale, 1997.
E184.S75 K36 1997b Rosenberg Reference
Telgen, Diane and Jim Kamp (eds). Latinas! : Women of Achievement.
Detroit, MI : Visible Ink Press, 1996.
E184.S75 L354 1996 Rosenberg Reference
Chabrán, Richard and Rafael Chabrán (eds). The Latino Encyclopedia.
New York, NY : Marshall Cavendish, 1996.
E184.S75 L357 1996 Rosenberg Reference
Guereña, Salvador and Vivian M. Pisano. Latino Periodicals : a Selection Guide.
Jefferson, NC : McFarland & Co., 1998.
E184.S75 L36 1998 Rosenberg Reference
Meier, Matt S. at al. Notable Latino Americans : a Biographical Dictionary.
Westport, CT. : Greenwood Press, 1997.
E184.S75 M435 1997 Rosenberg Reference
Telgen, Diane and Jim Kamp (eds). Notable Hispanic American Women.
Detroit, MI : Gale Research, 1993.
E184.S75 N68 1993 Rosenberg Reference
Benson, Sonia G. (ed.) Reference Library of Hispanic America.
Farmington Hills, MI : Gale Group, 2003.
E184.S75 R44 2003 Rosenberg Reference
Castro, Rafaela. Dictionary of Chicano Folklore.
New York, NY : Oxford University Press, 2001.
GR111.M49 C37 2001 Rosenberg Reference
Kenig, Graciela. Best Careers for Bilingual Latinos : Market your Fluency in Spanish to Get Ahead on the Job.
Lincolnwood, IL : VGM Career Horizons, 1999.
HF5382.5.U5 K455 1999 Rosenberg Reference
Financial Aid for Hispanic Americans.
El Dorado Hills, CA : Reference Service Press, 2003.
LB2338 .F5645 2001-03 Rosenberg Reference
Burr, Ramiro. The Billboard Guide to Tejano and Regional Mexican Music.
New York, NY : Billboard Books, 1999.
ML102.T45 B87 1999 Rosenberg Reference
Beardsley, John and Jane Livingston. Hispanic Art in the United States : Thirty Contemporary Painters and Sculptors.
Houston, TX : Museum of Fine Arts ; New York : Abbeville Press, 1987.
N6538.H58 B43 1987 Rosenberg Reference
Riggs, Thomas (ed). St. James Guide to Hispanic Artists : Profiles of Latino and Latin American Artists.
Detroit, MI : St. James Press, 2002.
N6538.H58 S7 2002 Rosenberg Reference
Keller, Gary D. A Biographical Handbook of Hispanics and United States Film.
Tempe, AZ: Bilingual Press/Editorial Bilingüe, 1997.
PN1995.9.H47 K46 1997 Rosenberg Reference
Reyes, Luis and Peter Rubie. Hispanics in Hollywood : an Encyclopedia of Film and Television.
New York, NY : Garland Pub., 1994.
PN1995.9.H47 R49 1994 Rosenberg Reference
Keller, Gary D. Hispanics and United States Film : an Overview and Handbook.
Tempe, AZ : Bilingual Press/Editorial Bilingüe, 1994.
PN1995.9.L37 K46 1994 Rosenberg Reference
Krstovic, Jelena O. (ed). Hispanic Literature Criticism.
Detroit, MI : Gale Research, 1994.
PQ7081.A1 H573 1994 Rosenberg Reference
Magill, Frank Northen (ed). Masterpieces of Latino Literature.
New York, NY : HarperCollins, 1994.
PQ7081.A1 M29 1994 Rosenberg Reference
Lomelí, Francisco A. and Carl R. Shirley (eds). Chicano Writers : First Series.
Detroit, MI : Gale Research, 1989.
PS21 .D5 v.82 Rosenberg Reference
Lomelí, Francisco A. and Carl R. Shirley (eds). Chicano Writers : Second Series.
Detroit, MI : Gale Research, 1992.
PS21 .D5 v.122 Rosenberg Reference
Lomelí, Francisco A. and Carl R. Shirley (eds). Chicano Writers : Third Series.
Detroit, MI : Gale Group, 1999.
PS21 .D5 v.209 Rosenberg Reference
Barretto, João C., Roberto Trujillo and Andrés Rodríguez. Literatura Chicana : a Bibliography of Creative and Critical Mexican American Writings Through 1996.
San Francisco, CA : City College of San Francisco, Rosenberg Library, 1998. (also available on the web at: http://www.ccsf.edu/Library/litchic.htm)
PS153.M4 B377 1998 Rosenberg Reference
Zimmerman, Marc. U.S. Latino Literature : an Essay and Annotated Bibliography.
Chicago, IL : MARCH/Abrazo Press, 1992.
PS153.H56 Z55 1992 Rosenberg Reference
Lomelí, Francisco A. et al. (eds). Handbook of Hispanic Cultures in the United States : Literature and Art.
Houston, TX : Arte Público Press, 1993.
PS508.H57 H355 1993 Rosenberg Reference
Kanellos, Nicolas (ed). The Hispanic Literary Companion.
Detroit, MI : Visible Ink, 1997.
PS508.H57 H566 1997 Rosenberg Reference
García-Ayvens, Francisco. Chicano Anthology Index : a Comprehensive Author, Title, and Subject Index to Chicano Anthologies, 1965-1987.
Berkeley, CA : Chicano Studies Library Publications Unit, University of California at Berkeley, 1990.
Z1361.M4 G37 1990 Rosenberg Reference
Use databases for specialized and the most up-to-date information, especially academic (scholarly) sources that are not available for free on the Web. See the Articles & Databases page for a full list of databases available.
Note: Most periodical databases are part of the private, passworded Web, so you will need to have a current CCSF Photo ID card with a barcode to access those to which CCSF subscribes.
Gale Powersearch
There are currently 14 databases within Powersearch available to the CCSF community. A listing of the databases may be accessed here.
For this group of databases, you will find articles with
a) a citation only
b) a citation with an abstract of the article
c) a citation with the full text of the article.
By default, the limit to full-text articles is selected. If you wish to maximize your search results to include articles for which there is only a citation or a citation with an accompanying abstract, you may uncheck this limit.
Advanced search mode. This keyword search option allows you to specify words or terms in your search. You may combine keywords and phrases with "AND".
Examples: Hispanics and discrimination and workplace
(As an alternate to the above search, you could substitute "workplace" with "employment" or "Hispanics" with "Latinos" or other synonyms to maximize your results.)
Hispanics and affirmative action
Latinas and health care
Cuban Americans and community
Browse subjects mode
You may browse a major subject by entering "Mexican Americans" in the Find Subject box provided and then either clicking on the "Search" button or hitting the "Enter" key on the keyboard. At the next screen, select the "+" sign next to View subdivisions. At the next screen, you may select the appropriate subdivision containing the cluster of citations you would like to look at.
Examples of other subject headings include:
Mexican American art
Hispanic American women
Chávez, César
Huerta, Dolores
EBSCOhost is an online reference system consisting of 22 databases which offer a variety of proprietary full-text periodical articles from leading publishers and information providers. A listing of the databases may be accessed by selecting "Choose databases" near the top of the screen.
By default, the limit to full-text articles is selected. If you wish to maximize your search results to include articles for which there is only a citation or a citation with an accompanying abstract, you may uncheck this limit.
Advanced search mode. This keyword search option allows you to specify words or terms in your search. Enter the words or phrases in the boxes provided.
Latinos AND education
Hispanic Americans AND diabetes
Literature Resource Center
provides full-text articles on literary authors, their works and literary movements.
Rodríguez, Richard
Alvarez, Julia
Ethnic Newswatch
is an interdisciplinary, bilingual (English and Spanish) and comprehensive full text database of the newspapers, magazines and journals of the ethnic, minority and native press.
Example: Hispanics and healthcare
Below are some examples of academic/scholarly web sites pertaining to Latin America. If you use a search engine, such as Google, remember to evaluate the quality of the results.
NCLR (National Council of La Raza)
NCLR (National Council of La Raza) is a private, nonprofit, and nonpartisan organization whose mission is to reduce poverty and discrimination, and improve life opportunities for Hispanic Americans.
IUPLR (Inter-University Program for Latino Research)
IUPLR (Inter-University Program for Latino Research) is a nationwide university-based research organization consortium of 18 Latino research centers based at major universities across the United States that brings together scholars from a wide variety of disciplines to conduct policy-relevant research on Latinos.
U.S. Census Bureau for statistics on Hispanics
The Center for Comparative Studies in Race and Ethnicity
The Center for Comparative Studies in Race and Ethnicity at Stanford University provides Bay Area and California demographic and statistic reports based on the 2000 U.S. Census.
In order to create your "Works Cited" list or Bibliography, you may access guides for the MLA (Modern Language Association) and the APA (American Psychological Association) formats here.


text:
May 6, 2016
Wednesday, April 24, 2013
GREENVILLE, S.C. (AP) -- Greenville will be getting a trampoline park attraction this summer.
The Greenville News reported that Gravitopia will offer more than 10,000 square feet of trampolines.
The company says it also is offering an aerial obstacle courses, trampoline dodge ball, foam pits, trampoline aerobics and will host birthday parties.
Gravitopia will also host dodge ball tournaments, trampoline aerobics classes, and weekend club nights with laser lighting and a live DJ.
Customers will play between $8 and $12 per hour for jumping time.
Owner Lawrence Case says the company has similar parks in Alabama, California, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Virginia.
(Copyright 2013, The Associated Press)
Click Here to access the online Public Inspection File
Viewers with disabilities can get assistance accessing this station's FCC Public Inspection File by contacting the station with the information listed below. Questions or concerns relating to the accessibility of the FCC's online public file system should be directed to the FCC at 888-225-5322, 888-835-5322 (TTY), or email@example.com.


text:
Carry this color and show your support for breast cancer research. Learn more about the Vera Bradley Foundation for Breast Cancer.
This style can be Personalized!
Learn more about Personalization
Protect your tech with this gadget-friendly wristlet. Crafted in protective neoprene, it provides on-the-go protection for cell phones, mp3 players, cameras and more.
2 ¾" W x 5 ½" H x 1" D with 6" removable wrist strap
Machine wash cold, gentle cycle, only non-chlorine bleach as needed, line dry


text:
* Complete warranty details available from your local dealer or by clicking on the Product Warranty link above. To receive the 10-year Parts Limited Warranty, online registration must be completed within 60 days of installation. Online registration is not required in California or Quebec.
Outstanding Warranty Protection
The GPH13H packaged heat pumps are covered by a 10-Year Parts Limited Warranty on all functional parts.
These Packaged Heat Pumps provide energy-efficient heating and cooling performance in one self-contained unit and are suitable for ground-level or rooftop installations.
Additional Information
Before purchasing this appliance, read important information about its estimated annual energy consumption, yearly operating cost, or energy efficiency rating that is available from your retailer.


text:
Battlefield 4 (Credit: EA)
EA took the wraps off the next iteration of its military shooter franchise Tuesday night at the Game Developer's Conference in San Francisco, demonstrating an action-packed, cinematic game boasting some of the industry's most advanced graphics. Players will get their hands on it this fall.
Warning: Video contains profanity
EA was careful not to note which systems the game will ship on, but Frank Gibeau, president of EA Labels, said the game (which showed live gameplay to GDC attendees) was indicative of what the company expected for next generation titles.
One system that won't be seeing the game, however, is Nintendo's Wii U. Developers decided to bypass it to avoid stretching themselves thin -- and, perhaps, because of the system's generally disappointing sales.
"We're not holding anything back with this game," added Patrick Soderlund, executive vice president of the EA Games Label. "Next gen is not about polygons and shaders, it's about the emotional connection players will have with these characters. Battlefield 4 is about gripping experiences that are human and dramatic and believable. In this demo, you feel the stress of the moment, you feel like you're in imminent danger, you feel for these characters."
EA says the single-player campaign is meant to establish more of an emotional bond with players than shooters like Battlefield have done in the past. The game also incorporates social aspects, tracking players' progress with the aim of boosting competition in the campaign.
Players will take on the role of a new character, Recker. After a series of calamitous and nearly catastrophic battles, he finds himself and his squad mates trapped in a rapidly sinking car. Shooting the window is the only way out, but to do so requires you to sacrifice an important team member.
For game news, free codes and more, Like us on Facebook and follow @yahoogames on Twitter!
- Video Games
- Sports & Recreation


text:
May 2, 2016
Legislation has been introduced in both the NC House & Senate to eliminate tolls and authorize the Ferry Division to raise revenue in other ways.
"Ferry Tolling Alternatives," House Bill #475 and Senate Bill #524, were filed by a coalition of Republicans and Democrats.
Lawmakers from Eastern Carolina involved in the legislation are Democrat State Representative Paul Tine, and Republican Senators Norman Sanderson and Bill Cook.
The bills suggest money could be raised by selling numerous concessions, including wireless internet service, selling naming rights to ferries boats, routes, and buildings, and numerous individual advertising opportunities.
Click Here to access the online Public Inspection File
Viewers with disabilities can get assistance accessing this station's FCC Public Inspection File by contacting the station with the information listed below. Questions or concerns relating to the accessibility of the FCC's online public file system should be directed to the FCC at 888-225-5322, 888-835-5322 (TTY), or firstname.lastname@example.com.


text:
May 6, 2016
U.N. officials say more than 130 nations have adopted the first legally binding international treaty aimed at reducing mercury emissions.
The U.N. Environment Program says the treaty was adopted Saturday morning, after all-night negotiations that capped a week of talks.
The treaty will for the first time set enforceable limits on emissions of mercury, a highly-toxic metal that is widely used in chemical production and small-scale mining.
Joe DiGangi, a science adviser with advocacy group IPEN, says that while the treaty is "a first step," it is not tough enough to achieve its aim of reducing overall emissions.
Copyright 2016 by The Associated Press. All Rights Reserved.
Click Here to access the online Public Inspection File
Viewers with disabilities can get assistance accessing this station's FCC Public Inspection File by contacting the station with the information listed below. Questions or concerns relating to the accessibility of the FCC's online public file system should be directed to the FCC at 888-225-5322, 888-835-5322 (TTY), or firstname.lastname@example.com.


text:
Holiday Closing — Memorial Day
- All Kent District Library branches will be closed on Monday, May 28, in observance of Memorial Day. We will resume normal operating hours on Tuesday, May 29.
- All KDL branches will be closed on Sundays from Memorial Day weekend through Labor Day weekend. Sunday hours will resume on Sunday, September 9.
- For additional 2012 holiday closing information, please view our holiday closings page.
We appreciate your patronage and wish you a Happy Memorial Day!
Posted by: Sheri


text:
this wiki
The military is featured in GTA 2, GTA III, GTA Vice City, GTA San Andreas, GTA Chinatown Wars and Grand Theft Auto V. In GTA games are the armed forces of the USA, comprising mostly of the Army, but also with air and naval bases. The army themselves don't appear in Grand Theft Auto IV, because it enhances realism - the army would not be sent to arrest one person, and because the Posse Comitatus Act prohibits the use of federal military personnel and units of the National Guard under federal authority from acting in a law enforcement capacity within the United States, except where expressly authorized by the Constitution or Congress[1]. The army is replaced somewhat by NOOSE. The military is also important in many missions throughout the series, such as Sir, Yes Sir!, Black Project, Green Goo, Up, Up and Away!, Vertical Bird, Robbing Uncle Sam, Over the Top, and Cargobob (mission).
Grand Theft Auto 2
After getting a six star wanted level the military replace the police. Pedestrians disappear and normal cars become a rare sight. The soldiers in GTA 2 are armed with machine guns and shots can kill the player and destroy cars. The military use different vehicles much as the Barracks OL and the Rhino. The military has its base in residential district but the base is totally inaccessible, but there is a small base in the industrial district to which the mission can be accessed at Army Base Alert!.
3D Universe
After the player gains six stars in a 3D Universe game, the army will begin to chase the player. On the ground, two military vehicles are used to kill the player; the Barracks OL, which is used for troop transport, and the Rhino tank. The soldiers themselves are always well armed with weapons that will often make short work of the player and most vehicles.
Members of the military behave as a gang in Vice City despite not really being one and will attack the player if spotted on military territory, unless in a Cop uniform. They will also set up roadblocks comprised of the Barracks OL with soldiers armed with M16's in GTA III, M4's (in Fort Baxter Air Base) and MP5's (during a 6-star wanted level), and M4 Carbines in every other 3D Universe game. These aren't as lethal as those of the FBI since there could be two FBI vehicles taking up one road with at least eight agents. But seeing as how the Barracks takes up the space of one road they can be broken through although the MP5s still pose an extreme threat.
A strange thing is that soldiers in the Fort Baxter Air Base never participate in law enforcement activity; if the player is wearing a police uniform or army fatigues and enters the base with a wanted level; only the law enforcement officers that enter from outside will try killing the player.
HD Universe
In GTA Chinatown Wars, after gaining six stars, the Rhino and occasional on-foot military soldier will appear. Soldiers are armed with AK-47s at all times. While encountering an occupied Rhino, the player cannot hijack the occupied Rhino. However, there are two ways the Rhino will react depending if the player is on foot or in a vehicle. If the player is in a vehicle, the Rhino will immediately fire at the player's vehicle setting it aflame (but not blow it up giving the chance for the player to bail out and save his or her life). However, if the player is on foot, the Rhino will reluctantly fire giving the player ample time to escape. The very slow speed of the Rhino makes it easy for the player to outrun it on foot. The Rhino will eventually fire at the player if the player stays in range on foot for too long. A direct hit usually kills the player unless the player has full health and full armour, but will reduce the health to roughly 25% and armour to 0%. The same goes for the Destroyer when the player enters the water.
In GTA V, the military will be present in Fort Zancudo outside of missions. If the player loiters around one of the gates entering the base, a guard will approach the protagonist and demand he leaves the area. If the player stays still, the guard will raise his assault rifle and demand once more that the player leaves. If the player still doesn't comply, the guard will open fire. If the player enters the base, the alarm will sound and soldiers will fire at the player on foot. In cars or trucks, they will continually ram the player if he/she is in a vehicle, or get out and shoot. If a Rhino Tank arrives, the driver will use the main cannon to shoot the player, regardless of whether or not they're on foot or in a vehicle. Their behaviour makes them more dangerous than previous military personnel in earlier games.
Military bases
- Fort Baxter Air Base in Vice City Mainland, Vice City.
- United States National Guard Depot in Ocean Docks, Los Santos, San Andreas.
- Easter Basin Naval Station in San Fierro, San Andreas.
- Area 69 in Bone County, San Andreas.
- K.A.C.C. Military Aviation Fuel Depot in Las Venturas, San Andreas.
- Fort Zancudo near Mount Josiah, San Andreas
Military vehicles
- Barracks OL
- Buzzard
- Cargobob
- Cargo Plane
- Destroyer
- Flatbed
- Hunter
- Hydra
- Jetpack (prototype experiment, stolen by Carl Johnson in 1992)
- Land Roamer, (Armed)
- Mesa Grande
- Pacifier
- Patriot
- Rhino
- Tank
- Tiger Tank, (possibly an ex-German tank from World War 2)
Not Controllable
- USS Numnutz Submarine
- LHD-069 Amphibious Aircraft Carrier
Throughout the series, the military has been dressed in traditional woodland camouflage pattern. In GTA III, they are shown as wearing simply a green outfit with a hat. Troops stationed at Fort Baxter Air Base wear M81 Woodland uniforms that was standard-issue during the 1980s. The same seems to carry over into GTA San Andreas, although an urban camouflage pair of trousers can be purchased in Binco, soldiers are never seen wearing them. In Vice City Stories, the outfit seems to resemble an M81 Woodland Pattern, aside from that wirn by Corproal Victor Vance, who instead wears a beige shirt with the camo trousers. In GTA V, they wear a uniform that closely resembles the Universal Camouflage Pattern, modern U.S. Army standard issue uniform. So far, the outfits are not purchasable in any available store, although trousers of such can be bought in GTA San Andreas, which come in Woodland and Urban patterns. While the Army Fatigues can be re-unlocked in Vice City Stories, they do not resemble what the other soldiers wear, making Vic Vance stand-out looking unusual.
- In Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, the soldiers at the Fort Baxter Air Base are considered to be part of the Streetwannabe's gang.
- Victor Vance is the only protagonist that served in the U.S. military.
- In the GTA III Era the Rhino tank (which chases the player at six stars) does not fire it's main gun. However, in Grand Theft Auto: Chinatown Wars and Grand Theft Auto V the Rhino is programmed to use its turret to full effect, blasting the player into oblivion.
- The Army soldiers are very dangerous. An example of this can be easily told when the player does the mini gun Rampage to kill all the nearby gang members. If a group of army men see one of the gang members they will instead open fire on sight leaving no time for the specific gang to retaliate back.
- The Military are not in Grand Theft Auto IV . This is believed to be because Rockstar planned on making GTA IV realistic unlike San Andreas and GTA V's over the top style.
- The Military return in Grand Theft Auto V as the game returns the intense and over the top theme that was present in the 3D era.
- The main Military Bases are as follows: Fort Baxter Air Base (GTA Vice City), Area 69 (GTA San Andreas), and Fort Zancudo (GTA V).


text:
May 5, 2016
Photos and mementos that were snatched up and blown hundreds of miles by a cluster of Southern tornadoes are giving researchers new insight on how debris is carried by the storms and how it could threaten the public.
A new study has documented one picture's flight of almost 220 miles over Alabama and Tennessee in 2011. That is among the longest-documented trajectories of tornado debris, the researchers found.
The photo was among 934 objects in a database built by University of Georgia associate professor John Knox and his students. They say the research could aid public safety by predicting where tornado-borne toxic or radioactive debris might fall.
The research relied heavily on a Facebook page created by an Alabama woman, who posted pictures of the debris.
Copyright 2016 by The Associated Press. All Rights Reserved.
Click Here to access the online Public Inspection File
Viewers with disabilities can get assistance accessing this station's FCC Public Inspection File by contacting the station with the information listed below. Questions or concerns relating to the accessibility of the FCC's online public file system should be directed to the FCC at 888-225-5322, 888-835-5322 (TTY), or email@example.com.


text:
Tattoo Medical Supplies
Please choose a body region on the right for you to pin point the problem area of your body.
Shop by Condition
Shop by Brand
Homecare > Incontinence > Skincare > Barrier Cream Wipes >
Research shows that by applying a barrier after each incontinence episode, skin breakdown can be reduced. Shield Barrier…