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Saguaro cacti, Saguaro National Park, Arizona. @ C.Michael Hogan
Cactus is a family of plants that are specially adapted to survive arid conditions, most often having leaves reduced to spines, and succulent characteristics. The scientific family name Cactaceae is applied to this group comprising 121 different genera. This plant family is concentrated in the Americas and has a surprisingly broad latitude range in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
A considerable number of cacti species are threatened, chiefly due to habitat loss to agriculture, trampling by illegal human immigration into the southwestern USA, large-scale desert solar power projects, as well as overcollecting.
The cactus family is generally considered native to the Americas. A notable exception is Mistletoe cactus, Rhipsalis baccifera, which is thought to have spread, fairly recently, from the American tropics to the subtropics and the deserts of the southwestern USA. Several species have been naturalized to the Mediterranean Basin, Australia and Hawaii.
There are three distinct centers of cactus biodiversity. The northern center is in Mexico and the arid southwestern USA, including the Sonoran and Mojave Deserts. Prominent tribes in this region are the Cacteae and Pachycereeae. Another center of diversity is located in the eastern portion of Brazil, embracing the campo rupestre region of steep rocky slopes and the dry caatinga (Tribe Cereae is a prominent taxon here.). The third center is defined by the arid and semi-arid parts of the southwest Andes Mountains, including portions of Chile, Argentina, Peru and Bolivia. Principal tribes in this region include Trichocereae, Notocacteae and Browningieae.
For cactus species that are tropical epiphytes there are two smaller centers of diversity. One is in Bolivia, where there is a high diversity of the Rhipsalideae tribe as well as the Hylocereeae.. A second center is within the Atlantic rainforest of southeastern Brazil.
The northernmost occurrence of the cactus family is Opuntia fragilis, found as far north as the Peace River in British Columbia and Alberta; the southernmost occurrence is Maihueniopsis darwinii, found in Argentine and Chilean Patagonia; other Southern Hemisphere extreme latitude species are Pterocactus australis and Maihuenia poeppigii. South American cacti occur as far west as Bartholomew Island in the Galapagos Islands, where Opuntia galapageia is found. Members of the family growing at high altitude include Austrocylindropuntia floccosa, which has been found at 4500 meters in the Andes.
The subfamily Opuntioideae is the widest ranging group of cacti, with many species commonly found in both North and South America. Genera that occur in tropical areas of both continents are Rhipsalis, Pilosocereus, Pereskia, Melocactus, Mammillaria, Hylocereus and Harrisia.
The fundamentals of cactus morphology resemble those of most flowering plants. The great majority of cacti have leaves that are reduced to spines, which minimizes moisture loss and provides defense against herbivory. These spines emerge from a node-like structure called an areole. This cushion-like organ also supports either a flower or branching stem. Two exceptions are the genera Pereskia and Pereskiopsis, that have non-succulent leaves rather than spines. The first of these is closely related to the earliest cacti.
Evolution has caused the stems of many cacti to become thickened, resulting in an optimal spherical or cylindrical shape which minimizes water loss by providing a high ratio of volume to surface area. This also protects the plant against excessive sunlight. The stem surface manifests a waxy coating that aids in water retention; however, stems and spines can absorb moisture, which process is vital for species that receive most of their water intake via fog.
Stems engage in photosynthesis, using the mechanism of Crassulacean acid metabolism, a process whereby waste oxygen is not expelled until after dark, thus minimizing transpiration of water vapor.
Root structures are typically shallow, but highly branched in a lateral formation. In columnar cacti, there is also a taproot, an adaptation for seeking deep water. Roots have a high saline content, a feature that maximizes uptake rate from fresh rain.
Relation to Abiotic factors
Cacti are influenced by soil nutrient content, soil porosity, rainfall, pH and other factors. Due to the relatively high content of woody tissue in their stems, most cacti are quite resistant to forces of gravity and wind. In the columnar Carnegiea gigantea, these tissues stiffen with age, permitting it to reach heights of up to 15 meters. Similarly, the Saguaro cactus grows as tall as 18 meters, supported by stiff woody ribs.
Cacti inhabit a suprising variety of habitats ranging from arid desert to rainforest. Specific habitat types include:
Dry Limestone Shrubwoods
This dense plant community is found on bare rocky limestone terraces, characteristically inboard of limestone pavement, as well as lowland karstic topography. The prevailing plant association is that of spiny, sclerophyllous small-leaved shrubs and trees. One example of this habitat type is found on some eastern Caribbean coastal plain locations, involving semi-arid scrub forest on a karst limestone terrace. There are instances of dry limestone shrubwoods in northeasterrn Arizona on the Kaibab formations; in many cases this limestone substrate engenders a habitat for highly specialized cacti. For example on the Kaibab Plateau, the rare cactus, Pediocactus bradyi, is found, a species dependent on these limestone soil and rock terraces, which is not found elsewhere outside of Marble Canyon and Coconino County in Arizona.
Sonoran Desert
Sonoran Desert, Anza Borrego. @ C. Michael Hogan The desert floor and bajadas (convergences of alluvial fans into a single apron of deposits below a slope) of the Sonoran Desert are the mildest of North American deserts. They are also the wettest, experiencing the only bi-annual rainfalls of any North American arid land. Consequently these habitats are also the ecologically richest and most biodiverse. Soils are coarse sands riddled with dry streambeds and washes. Dominant megaflora vary from Saguaro cactus to Organ pipe cactus and various Fouquiera species in the Mexican reaches. Besides hundreds of other Cactaceae species, there are a wide variety of trees and shrubs such as Creosote bush, Ironwood and Palo Verde tree. Riparian zones support such species as Velvet ash, Arizona sycamore and hopbush. Wildflower species include Paper flower, Desert marigold and Mexican poppy.
Mojave Desert
The Mojave Desert is cooler and drier than the Sonoran and also spans a wider elevational range, from below sea level in Death Valley to above 1600 meters. The chief megaflora is the cactus species Joshua Tree (Yucca brevifolia). The Mojave's cacti include species such as Silver cholla, Opuntia echinocarpa, Mojave prickly pear, O. erinacea, Beavertail cactus, O. basilaris, and Many-headed Barrel Cactus, Echinocactus polycephalus. Other associate species include Spiny menodora, Menodora spinescens, Desert senna, Cassia armata, Mojave dalea, Psorothamnus arborescens, and Goldenhead, Acamptopappus shockleyi. Soils are coarse sands and gravels with many outcrops that offer habitat niches. There are also several important oak species such as Quercus turbinella and Q. gambeli, which are found in moister lowlands and rocky outcrop areas.
Great Basin
Great Basin scene, southwest Utah. @ C. Michael Hogan The Great Basin is a true cold desert and one of the poorest with respect to cactus species. Soils are derived from a gamut of rocks, including colluvial wash on mountain slopes and thick lacustrine and shore deposits associated with ancient Lake Bonneville. Joshua Trees are only patchily present as far north as southwestern Utah. Prominent woody plants of the Great Basin include Rabbitbrush, Chrysothamnus nauseosus, Utah juniper, Juniperus osteosperma, One-needle pinyon pine, Pinus monophylla and Two-needle pinyon pine, P.edulis.
Atacama Desert
Topography and soil substrate combine to influence the patterns of moisture availability, producing one of the most arid coastal deserts in the world, similar to the Namib Desert of Africa. Where isolated mountains or steep coastal slopes intercept the clouds, a fog zone develops with a stratus layer concentrated against the hillsides, allowing the development of fog-zone plant communities near the coast and in lower portions of numerous gorges at elevations below 1100 meters. These plant formations also have been called the fertile belt, fog oases or meadows on the desert. Plant communities here consist of mixtures of annual and short-lived perennial and woody scrub vegetation.
Ecuadorian Dry Forests
The Ecuadorian dry forests are an example of dry forests in the Central and South American region. These Ecuadorian dry forests recieve scant rainfall much of which is actually sea mist. This dry forest has trees that reach 20 meters high, and hosts abundant bromeliads, mosses and epiphytes, while the undercanopy has many species of thorny shrubs and cactus. The understory is dominated by small herbs mainly from the Acanthaceae and Polypodiopsidae families. The southwestern part of this ecoregion is influenced by the Humboldt Current.
Cuban Cactus Scrub
Lying in the rainshadow of upwind mountains, this semi-arid region supports a thorny cactus scrub. The most characteristic and abundant correspond to the xeromorphous coastal and subcoastal scrubland with abundant cacti succulents, also called coastal manigua. Cactus species here include Opuntia dillenii, O. triacantha, Harrisia eriophora, H. taetra, Pilosocereus robinii and Dendrocereus nudiflorus. Evergreen shrubs and small trees include: Bourreria virgata, Capparis cynophallophora, Eugenia foetida, Bursera glauca and B. cubana.
Aruba-Curaçao-Bonaire cactus scrub
Being only about twelve degrees from the equator, this habitat is quite dry to to high evapotranspiration. Underlying soils are derived from limestone and quartz formations. Most of the natural areas on Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire are sparsely vegetated with cactus scrub. Columnar cacti are common, and can grow up to six meters in height. The dominant cacti species are: Stenocereus griseus, Subpilocereus repandus, and Pilosocereus lanuginosus. These species flower and fruit profusely during the dry season, and provide critical resources for a variety of bats, birds and other animals. Also characteristic of the area is the wind-swept divi divi tree (Caesalpinia coriaria, a non-cactus scrub species in the fabaceae family).
Cacti have important relationships with the fauna and other flora that share their habitats.Hundreds of species of ants use cacti for food. They also serve, along with other insects, as key cactus pollinators. Where other predators would find the spines daunting, ants forage along cactus stems, capturing small fauna and feeding from extrafloral nectaries. These nectaries provide a sugar mixture that is often high in amino acid content. Furthermore, ants and other insects feed on cactus seeds and play a role in seed dispersal.
The Bee assassin, Apiomerus crassipes, lies in wait in cacti flowers and preys upon its bee or ant victims by injecting a paralyzing enzyme with its hypodermic-like beak. The Cochineal insect, Dactylopius coccus, is a cryptic species (a taxon that uses anatomy or behavior to elude predators), the females of which spend their entire lives in colonies upon the stems of Prickly pear; this insect species is notable for the secretion of carminic acid, used by the ancient Aztecs to produce a crimson dye. Hundreds of butterfly, moth and skipper species are known pollinators of the Cactaceae family.
Larger cactus species, such as the Saguaro, are significant nest sites for birds, rodents and other animals. The Gila woodpecker is a particularly important architect, creating deep cavities in the Saguaro, which not only host the Gila, but also numerous other species in successive years.
Larger mammals such as Javalina and White-tailed deer actually consume the pads of prickly pears, in spite of the formidable spiny armor.
Evolution and Phylogeny
The sub-families of cactus differentiated about 70 million years ago. Approximately 50 million years before the present, Cenozoic cooling produced regionally arid conditions which further stimulated their evolution. A particular jungle thorn bush was among these early cacti, which bore all seven characteristics with which Cactaceae are endowed. This ancestral cactus led to descendants with regional adaptations. Pereskia aculeata, a robust woody shrub with succulent leaves which produces the Barbados Gooseberry, is believed to resemble the ancestor. Adaptation has produced highly succulent stem morphologies, with secondary xylem tissue of highly patchy cells lacking lignin, thus allowing water retention and more ready paths for diffusion from vessels into succulent tissues of the cortex and pith.
This ancestor was the first to evolve an areole structure as well as the specialized axilllary bud, distinctive to the Cactaceae family. Each axillary bud carries the spines and a bud which sometimes differentiates to produce either a flower or side shoot.
Cactaceae variation and biogeography poorly known due to the paucity of the fossil record. No fossil cacti are extant; however, DNA analysis of extant species provide considerable cladistic detail illuminating the evolutionary history of the Cactaceae. More than 2000 species of cacti have developed to the present time.
Leuctnebergia principis, Cacteae tribe, whose species either have no leaves at all, or have stems that resemble leaves. The following taxonomy includes the recognized subfamilies and tribes ot the family Cactaceae, but does not list any hybrid genera or synonyms.
Subfamily Cactoideae has the largest number of species of any subfamily and is broadly geographically distributed. Tribe Cacteae alone possesses three fourths of all the cactus species.
Subfamily Maihuenioideae is the smallest subfamily, having only two species, both of which are endemic to the high Andes of Chile and Argentina.
Subfamily Opuntoideae is a very diverse group, comprising the most cold tolerant of all cacti. They have an extremely broad geographic distribution as far south as the Galapagos Islands and north through Mexico and the western USA, as far north as british Columbia and as far northeast as the Great Lakes states.
Subfamily Pereskioideae typically occurs in tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests or xeric shrublands; these species are found from southern Mexico to Venezuela, as well as the entire Caribbean Basin and eastern Brazil southward to northern Argentina.
Subfamily Cactoideae
Stetonia coryne, only species in its genus. Source: Dave Pape
Tribe Browningieae
- Armatocereus Backeb.
- Browningia Cárdenas
- Gymnocereus Rauh & Backeb.
- Jasminocereus Britton & Rose
- Neoraimondia Britton & Rose
- Stetsonia Britton & Rose
Tribe Cacteae
- Acharagma N.P.Taylor & Glass
- Ariocarpus Scheidw.
- Astrophytum Lem.
- Aztekium Boed
- Coryphantha Engelm Lem.
- Echinocactus Link & Otto
- Echinomastus Britton & Rose
- Epithelantha F.A.C.Weber ex Britton & Rose
- Escobaria Britton & Rose
- Ferocactus Britton & Rose
- Geohintonia Glass & W.A.Fitz Maur
- Leuchtenbergia Hook.
- Lophophora J.M.Coult
- Mammillaria Haw
- Mammilloydia Buxb.
- Neolloydia Britton & Rose
- Obregonia Fric
- Ortegocactus Alexander
- Pediocactus Britton & Rose
- Pelecyphora C.Ehrenb
- Sclerocactus Britton & Rose
- Stenocactus (K.Schum.) A.W.Hill
- Strombocactus Britton & Rose
- Thelocactus (K.Schum.) Britton & Rose
- Turbinicarpus (Backeb.) Buxb. & Backeb.
Tribe Calymmantheae
- Calymmanthium F.Ritter
Tribe Cereae
Cereus repandus, occurs in the Dutch Caribbean, Bolivia and Venezuela.
- Arrojadoa Britton & Rose
- Brasilicereus Backeb.
- Cereus Mill.
- Subpilocereus Backeb.
- Cipocereus F.Ritter
- Coleocephalocereus Backeb.
- Discocactus Pfeiff.
- Melocactus Link & Otto
- Micranthocereus Backeb.
- Pierrebraunia Esteves
- Pilosocereus Byles & G.D.Rowley
- Pseudopilocereus Buxb.
- Praecereus Buxb.
- Stephanocereus A.Berger
- Uebelmannia Buining
Tribe Hylocereeae
- Disocactus Lindl
- Epiphyllum Haw.
- Hylocereus (A.Berger) Britton & Rose
- Selenicereus (A.Berger) Britton & Rose
- Pseudorhipsalis Britton & Rose
- Weberocereus Britton & Rose
Tribe Notocacteae
Yavia cryptocarpo, only member of its genus, endemic to Argentinian rocky slopes.
- Austrocactus Britton & Rose
- Blossfeldia Werderm
- Cintia Knize & Ríha
- Copiapoa Britton & Rose
- Eriosyce Phil
- Eulychnia Phil. :
- Frailea Britton & Rose
- Neowerdermannia Fric
- Parodia Speg.
- Yavia R.Kiesling & Piltz
Tribe Pachycereeae
- Acanthocereus (Engelm. ex A.Berger) Britton & Rose
- Bergerocactus Britton & Rose
- Carnegiea Britton & Rose
- Cephalocereus Pfeiff.
- Corryocactus Britton & Rose
- Echinocereus Engelm.
- Escontria Rose
- Leptocereus (A.Berger) Britton & Rose
- Myrtillocactus Console
- Neobuxbaumia Backeb
- Pachycereus (A.Berger) Britton & Rose
- Peniocereus (A.Berger) Britton & Rose
- Polaskia Backeb.
- Pseudoacanthocereus F.Ritte
- Stenocereus (A.Berger) Riccob.
Tribe Rhipsalideae
Rhipsalis oblonga, endemic to Brazil lowland forests.
- Lepismium Pfeiff.
- Rhipsalis Gaertn.
- Hatiora Britton & Rose
- Schlumbergera Lem.
Tribe Trichocereeae
- Acanthocalycium Backeb.
- Arthrocereus A.Berger
- Brachycereus Britton & Rose
- Cleistocactus Lem.
- Denmoza Britton & Rose
- Echinopsis Zucc
- Espostoa Britton & Rose
- Espostoopsis Buxb.
- Facheiroa Britton & Rose
- Gymnocalycium Pfeiff. ex Mittler
- Haageocereus Backeb.
- Harrisia Britton
- Leocereus Britton & Rose
- Matucana Britton & Rose
- Mila Britton & Rose
- Oreocereus (A.Berger) Riccob
- Pygmaeocereus H.Johnson & Backeb.
- Rauhocereus Backeb.
- Rebutia K.Schum
- Samaipaticereus Cárdenas
- Weberbauerocereus Backeb.
- Yungasocereus F.Ritter
Subfamily Maihuenioideae
Maihuenia poeppigii, one of two species of its subfamily.
- Maihuenia (Phil. ex F.A.C.Weber) K.Schum.
Subfamily Opuntioideae
Tribe Austrocylindropuntieae
- Austrocylindropuntia Backeb.
- Cumulopuntia F.Ritter
Tribe Cylindropuntieae
- Corynopuntia F.M.Knuth
- Cylindropuntia (Engelm.) F.M.Knuth
- Grusonia F.Rchb ex Britton & Rose
- Micropuntia Dasto
- Pereskiopsis Britton & Rose
- Quiabentia Britton & Rose
Tribe Opuntieae
- Brasiliopuntia (K.Schum.) A.Berger
- Consolea Lem
- Miqueliopuntia Fric ex F.Ritter
- Opuntia Mill.
- Tacinga Britton & Rose
- Tunilla D.R.Hunt]] & [Iliff]
Tribe Pterocacteae
Pereskia grandifolia, endemic to eastern Brazil. Source: Stan Shebs
- Pterocactus K.Schum.
Tribe Tephrocacteae
- Maihueniopsis Speg
- Tephrocactus Lem.
Subfamily Pereskioideae
- Pereskia Mill.
A considerable number of cactus species are threatened. The driving forces of human population expansion are causing widespread habitat destruction as land is converted to agricultural uses and solar power projects. Commercial overcollection is also a threat for some species.
Threatened area examples
For example, Echinocereus knippelianus has had its populations greatly decimated by agricultural conversion of lands in Mexico. Its numbers are limited to areas of the State of Nuevo Leon and similar habitats. E. pulchellus and Stenocereus eruca are similar species also threatened by land use conversion in Mexico, especially in coastal areas, where extensive grading has taken place over the last two decades to support tourism and preferred residential development sites for a population of increasing per capita wealth; other pressures in northern Mexico and the southwestern border area of the USA have been created by drug trafficking and illegal immigration routes through the remote desert areas. Within Chile's Elqui Valley, aggressive expansion of fruit tree and vineyard planting have decimated previously rich populations of Copiapoa and Eulychnia cacti.
In the Mojave Desert of Southern California, a number of well-intentioned solar array projects have been proposed that would effectively destroy considerable pristine desert habitat, reducing native populations of numerous cacti species. Arizona's Organ Pipe National Park used to function as an important preserve, but now lacks substantive protection from trampling and trash deposition by illegal immigrants and drug traffickers.
In the United States, areas of nominal protection include: Big Bend National Park, Texas; Saguaro National Park, Arizona; Pacheco Peak State Park, Arizona; Joshua Tree National Park, California; and Anza Borrego Desert State Park, California.
Chile's Pan de Azucar National Park protects cacti of the Atacama Desert. In Mexico the following protected areas provide conservation of cacti: Mapimi Nature Reserve, Coahuila; Parque International del Rio Bravo, Tamaulipas; Isla Cedros Sanctuary, Baja California; Parque National de Pinacate, Sonora; and the Parque Nacional Cumbres de Monterrey, Nuevo Leon.
In the southwest USA there are a number of private organizations carrying out important cactus conservation work. For example, ranchers in West Texas have formed the Trans Pecos Heritage Association. Their West Texas lands include such rare cacti as Echinocereus viridiflorus and Coryphantha ramillosa. While the objectives of this group include keeping government interference from private lands, their efforts have resulted in considerable benefits in desert habitat and cacti protection.
Areas of high conservation value which are poorly protected
The Chihuahuan Desert is one of the richest locales for cacti diversity and includes many endangered species. Northern San Luis Potosi is a particularly important area, where 14 different endangered cacti occur in the single locale of Huizache. Other Mexican loci of high density of threatened cacti species include Aramberri, Cuatro Cienegas, Doctor Arroyo, Galeana, Jaumave and Matehuala. The Rio Extorax Basin in Mexico's State of Queretaro is a further locale, which, although disjunct from the Chihuahuan Desert continuum, is circumscribed by the cactus rich locales of Guanajuato, Hidalgo and Queretaro.
The Sonoran Desert is a locale of high conservation value, including the Baja Cape, western Baja coast and the Sea of Cortez islands. The Catavina area is known for its richness in Fouquieria columnaris, Pachycormus discolor, Pachycereus pringlei, Washingtonia robusta and Ferocactus gracilis.
Further south in Mexico, important centers of diversity include: (a) the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; (b) Balsas Basin (including Puebla, Guerrero, Michoacan); (c) La Mixteca Alta; and (d) the Tehuacan Cuicatlan Valley. The last region manifests densely wooded expanses of arborescent cactus species including Ferocactus flavovirens, F. robustus, F. haematacanthus, Escontria chiotilla, Cephalocereus hoppenstedtii, Neobuxbaumia tetetzo, N. macrocephala, N. mezcalaensis, Pachycereus weberi, P hollianus and Fouquieria purpusii, Other notable cacti also occur in the Tehuacan Cuicatlan area such as Mammillaria pectinifera, M. napina and Beaucarnea gracilis.
Other portions of Mexico that merit protection for their cacti richness or endemism are: Barranca de Tolantongo, El Canon del Zopilote, Desierto de Altar, Cumbres de Monterrey, Mesa del Nayar, Piedras Negras-Sabinas, Viesca-Saltillo, Huayacocotla and Llanura del Rio Verde.
- Edward F.Anderson. 2001. The cactus family, Timber Press. 776 pages
- Arthur C.Gibson. 1996. Structure-function relations of warm desert plants. Springer. 215 pages
- Arthur C.Gibson, Park S.Nobel. 1990. The cactus primer. Harvard University Press
- Park S. Nobel. 2002. Cacti: biology and uses. University of California Press. 280 pages
- Sara Oldfield. 1997. Cactus and succulent plants: status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN/SSC Cactus and Succulent Specialist Group. 214 pages
- K.G.Ramawat. 2010. Desert Plants: Biology and Biotechnology. Springer. 503 pages
- Neil G.Sugihara. 2006. Fire in California's ecosystems. University of California Press. 596 pages


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Canebrakes: Missouri's Bamboo Forests
Imagine a tall and expansive stand of bamboo, 20 feet tall with shoots an inch thick. It's about 4 miles long and about 1/4-mile wide. This bamboo thicket has no trees and is a forest unto itself. It sounds like something from China, where you might find a panda bear, doesn't it? Surprisingly, lush bamboo forests this large once were common in Missouri, and remnants still exist.
These huge stands of bamboo were called canebrakes and could be found close to our streams and creeks. Canebrakes varied in size and grew in the southern half of Missouri.
Giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea) is unusual in that it is our largest grass, and it is woody. When fresh shoots pop through the ground, they are tender and very nutritious. Researchers say cane, which is rich in phosphorus, calcium and crude protein, is the most nutritious native grass forage available in the southern United States. Cattle grazing on cane show significant weight gains and are said to produce superior milk and butter.
Four hundred years ago, aboriginal tribes cultivated large agricultural fields not only in Missouri, but across the South. Cane bordered many of those fields.
During the 1500s and 1600s, Europeans began to cross the Atlantic and settle North America. They brought smallpox, the plague and other diseases to which native people had no immunity. Epidemics spread rapidly and wiped out villages within a few years. Cane overtook untended fields, creating enormous canebrakes. Animals that used cane flourished like never before. Settlers that arrived later, in the early 1800s, encountered these giant canebrakes.
Canebrakes were not only good places for limited livestock grazing, but were tall enough to protect animals from wind, rain, snow and ice. Many settlers used canebrakes to pasture horses, cows, and sheep.
Settlers also noticed that cane grew in excellent soil. Cane was easier to clear than trees, and the brakes were great locations for farm fields. Thus, many farm fields, established by natives 200 to 400 years earlier, were once again cleared for crops.
Clearing, combined with overgrazing, spelled the decline of canebrakes. Where it was left to stand, it was grazed down faster than it could grow back. After a canebrake was no longer useful for grazing, it was cleared for farm land.
Cane still grows in bottomland field edges and in scattered locations along streams and creeks. Small patches of cane still remain, but they are

subset: commoncrawl


text: These trendy Manolo Blahnik Zebra Flats are in PRISTINE condition (gentle use). They are made from a dazzling combination of bronze and brown sequins. There are minor marks on the outsoles. These shoes do not appear to have been worn outdoors. RETURN POLICY: Shoes may be returned in the condition received. They must be in the original box and/or packaging with the security tag attached.


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Celebrate Children's Book Week!Saturday, April 30th, 2011
Children's Book Week, sponsored by the Children's Book Council, is May 2-8. Celebrated since 1919, this special event reminds us of the importance of early literacy and the joy reading can bring to a child. Each year, educators, librarians, booksellers, and families have celebrated children's books and the love of reading with storytelling, parties, author and illustrator appearances, and other book-related fun! During Children's Book Week, be sure to visit the library and take part in one of our many book-related children's programs.
Kids, teens and parents should check out the Children's Book Week site for great ideas on how to celebrate books and reading this week! This is also a great time to check out KDL's Parents and Kids page for additional reading fun.
Posted by: Katie


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25 U.S. Code § 3731 - Indian and Alaska Native agriculture management education assistance programs
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(a) Agricultural resources intern program
(1) Notwithstanding the provisions of title 5 governing appointments in the competitive service, the Secretary shall establish and maintain in the Bureau or other appropriate office or bureau within the Department of the Interior at least 20 agricultural resources intern positions for Indian and Alaska Native students enrolled in an agriculture study program. Such positions shall be in addition to the forester intern positions authorized in section 3113 (a) of this title.
(2) For purposes of this subsection—
(A) the term "agricultural resources intern" means an Indian who—
(B) the term "agricultural resources intern positions" means positions established pursuant to paragraph (1) for agricultural resources interns; and
(3) The Secretary shall pay, by reimbursement or otherwise, all costs for tuition, books, fees, and living expenses incurred by an agricultural resources intern while attending an approved postsecondary or graduate school in a full-time agricultural study program.
(4) An agricultural resources intern shall be required to enter into an obligated service agreement with the Secretary to serve as an employee in a professional agriculture or natural resources position with the Department of the Interior or other Federal agency or an Indian tribe for one year for each year of education for which the Secretary pays the intern's educational costs under paragraph (3).
(5) An agricultural resources intern shall be required to report for service with the Bureau of Indian Affairs or other bureau or agency sponsoring his internship, or to a designated work site, during any break in attendance at school of more than 3 weeks duration. Time spent in such service shall be counted toward satisfaction of the intern's obligated service agreement under paragraph (4).
(b) Cooperative education program
(1) The Secretary shall maintain, through the Bureau, a cooperative education program for the purpose, among other things, of recruiting Indian and Alaska Native students who are enrolled in secondary schools, tribally controlled community colleges, and other postsecondary or graduate schools, for employment in professional agricultural or related positions with the Bureau or other Federal agency providing Indian agricultural or related services.
(2) The cooperative educational program under paragraph (1) shall be modeled after, and shall have essentially the same features as, the program in effect on December 3, 1993, pursuant to chapter 308 of the Federal Personnel Manual of the Office of Personnel Management.
(3) The cooperative educational program shall include, among others, the following:
(A) The Secretary shall continue the established specific programs in agriculture and natural resources education at Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute (SIPI) and at Haskell Indian Junior College.
(B) The Secretary shall develop and maintain a cooperative program with the tribally controlled community colleges to coordinate course requirements, texts, and provide direct technical assistance so that a significant portion of the college credits in both the Haskell and Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute programs can be met through local program work at participating tribally controlled community colleges.
(C) Working through tribally controlled community colleges and in cooperation with land grant institutions, the Secretary shall implement an informational and educational program to provide practical training and assistance in creating or maintaining a successful agricultural enterprise, assessing sources of commercial credit, developing markets, and other subjects of importance in agricultural pursuits.
(4) Under the cooperative agreement program under paragraph (1), the Secretary shall pay, by reimbursement or otherwise, all costs for tuition, books, and fees of an Indian student who—
(A) is enrolled in a course of study at an education institution with which the Secretary has entered into a cooperative agreement; and
(5) A recipient of assistance under the cooperative education program under this subsection shall be required to enter into an obligated service agreement with the Secretary to serve as a professional in an agricultural resource related activity with the Bureau, or other Federal agency providing agricultural or related services to Indians or Indian tribes, or an Indian tribe for one year for each year for which the Secretary pays the recipients educational costs pursuant to paragraph (3).
(c) Scholarship program
(1) The Secretary may grant scholarships to Indians enrolled in accredited agriculture related programs for postsecondary and graduate programs of study as full-time students.
(2) A recipient of a scholarship under paragraph (1) shall be required to enter into an obligated service agreement with the Secretary in which the recipient agrees to accept employment for one year for each year the recipient received a scholarship, following completion of the recipients course of study, with—
(A) the Bureau or other agency of the Federal Government providing agriculture or natural resource related services to Indians or Indian tribes;
(B) an agriculture or related program conducted under a contract, grant, or cooperative agreement entered into under the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act [25 U.S.C. 450 et seq.]; or
(3) The Secretary shall not deny scholarship assistance under this subsection solely on the basis of an applicant's scholastic achievement if the applicant has been admitted to and remains in good standing in an accredited post secondary [1] or graduate institution.
(d) Educational outreach
The Secretary shall conduct, through the Bureau, and in consultation with other appropriate local, State and Federal agencies, and in consultation and coordination with Indian tribes, an agricultural resource education outreach program for Indian youth to explain and stimulate interest in all aspects of management and careers in Indian agriculture and natural resources.
(e) Adequacy of programs
The Secretary shall administer the programs described in this section until a sufficient number of Indians are trained to ensure that there is an adequate number of qualified, professional Indian agricultural resource managers to manage the Bureau agricultural resource programs and programs maintained by or for Indian tribes.
[1] So in original. Probably should be "postsecondary".
Source(Pub. L. 103–177, title II, § 201,Dec. 3, 1993, 107 Stat. 2018.)
References in Text
The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, referred to in subsec. (c)(2)(B), is Pub. L. 93–638, Jan. 4, 1975, 88 Stat. 2203, as amended, which is classified principally to subchapter II (§ 450 et seq.) of chapter 14 of this title. For complete classification of this Act to the Code, see Short Title note set out under section 450 of this title and Tables.
Haskell Indian Nations University and Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute Administrative Systems
Pub. L. 105–337, Oct. 31, 1998, 112 Stat. 3171, provided that:"SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE.
"This Act may be cited as the 'Haskell Indian Nations University and Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute Administrative Systems Act of 1998'."SEC. 2. FINDINGS.
"The Congress finds that—
"(1) the provision of culturally sensitive curricula for higher education programs at Haskell Indian Nations University and the Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute is consistent with the commitment of the Federal Government to the fulfillment of treaty obligations to Indian tribes through the principle of self-determination and the use of Federal resources; and
"(2) giving a greater degree of autonomy to those institutions, while maintaining them as an integral part of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, will facilitate—
"(A) the transition of Haskell Indian Nations University to a 4-year university; and
"(B) the administration and improvement of the academic program of the Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute."SEC. 3. DEFINITIONS; APPLICABILITY.
"(a) Definitions.—For purposes of this Act:
"(1) Secretary.—The term 'Secretary' means the Secretary of the Interior.
"(2) Employee.—The term 'employee', with respect to an institution named in subsection (b), means an individual employed in or under such institution.
"(3) Eligible.—The term 'eligible' means an individual who has qualified for appointment in the institution involved and whose name has been entered on the appropriate register or list of eligibles.
"(4) Demonstration project.—The term 'demonstration project' means a project conducted by or under the supervision of an institution named in subsection (b) to determine whether specified changes in personnel management policies or procedures would result in improved personnel management.
"(b) Applicability.—This Act applies to—
"(1) Haskell Indian Nations University, located in Lawrence, Kansas; and
"(2) Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute, located in Albuquerque, New Mexico."SEC. 4. AUTHORITY.
"(a) In General.—Each institution named in section 3 (b) may conduct a demonstration project in accordance with the provisions of this Act. The conducting of any such demonstration project shall not be limited by any lack of specific authority under title 5, United States Code, to take the action contemplated, or by any provision of such title or any rule or regulation prescribed under such title which is inconsistent with the action, including any provision of law, rule, or regulation relating to—
"(1) the methods of establishing qualification requirements for, recruitment for, and appointment to positions;
"(2) the methods of classifying positions and compensating employees;
"(3) the methods of assigning, reassigning, or promoting employees;
"(4) the methods of disciplining employees;
"(5) the methods of providing incentives to employees, including the provision of group or individual incentive bonuses or pay;
"(6) the hours of work per day or per week;
"(7) the methods of involving employees, labor organizations, and employee organizations in personnel decisions; and
"(8) the methods of reducing overall staff and grade levels.
"(b) Consultation and Other Requirements.—Before commencing a demonstration project under this Act, the president of the institution involved shall—
"(1) in consultation with the board of regents of the institution and such other persons or representative bodies as the president considers appropriate, develop a plan for such project which identifies—
"(A) the purposes of the project;
"(B) the types of employees or eligibles to be included (categorized by occupational series, grade, or organizational unit);
"(C) the number of employees or eligibles to be included (in the aggregate and by category);
"(D) the methodology;
"(E) the duration;
"(F) the training to be provided;
"(G) the anticipated costs;
"(H) the methodology and criteria for evaluation, consistent with subsection (f );
"(I) a specific description of any aspect of the project for which there is a lack of specific authority; and
"(J) a specific citation to any provision of law, rule, or regulation which, if not waived, would prohibit the conducting of the project, or any part of the project as proposed;
"(2) publish the plan in the Federal Register;
"(3) submit the plan so published to public hearing;
"(4) at least 180 days before the date on which the proposed project is to commence, provide notification of such project to—
"(A) employees likely to be affected by the project; and
"(B) each House of Congress;
"(5) at least 90 days before the date on which the proposed project is to commence, provide each House of Congress with a report setting forth the final version of the plan; and
"(6) at least 60 days before the date on which the proposed project is to commence, inform all employees as to the final version of the plan, including all information relevant to the making of an election under subsection (h)(2)(A).
"(c) Limitations.—No demonstration project under this Act may—
"(1) provide for a waiver of—
"(A) any provision of law, rule, or regulation providing for—
"(i) equal employment opportunity;
"(ii) Indian preference; or
"(iii) veterans' preference;
"(B) any provision of chapter 23 of title 5, United States Code, or any other provision of such title relating to merit system principles or prohibited personnel practices, or any rule or regulation prescribed under authority of any such provision; or
"(C) any provision of subchapter II or III of chapter 73 of title 5, United States Code, or any rule or regulation prescribed under authority of any such provision;
"(2) impose any duty to engage in collective bargaining with respect to—
"(A) classification of positions; or
"(B) pay, benefits, or any other form of compensation; or
"(3) provide that any employee be required to pay dues or fees of any kind to a labor organization as a condition of employment.
"(d) Commencement and Termination Dates.—Each demonstration project under this Act—
"(1) shall commence within 2 years after the date of enactment of this Act [Oct. 31, 1998]; and
"(2) shall terminate by the end of the 5-year period beginning on the date on which such project commences, except that the project may continue beyond the end of such 5-year period—
"(A) to the extent necessary to validate the results of the project; and
"(B) to the extent provided for under subsection (h)(2)(B).
"(e) Discretionary Authority To Terminate.—A demonstration project under this Act may be terminated by the Secretary or the president of the institution involved if either determines that the project creates a substantial hardship on, or is not in the best interests of, the institution and its educational goals.
"(f) Evaluation.—
"(1) In general.—The Secretary shall provide for an evaluation of the results of each demonstration project under this Act and its impact on improving public management.
"(2) Information.—Upon request of the Secretary, an institution named in section 3 (b) shall cooperate with and assist the Secretary, to the extent practicable, in any evaluation undertaken under this subsection and provide the Secretary with requested information and reports relating to the conducting of its demonstration project.
"(g) Role of the Office of Personnel Management.—Upon request of the Secretary or the president of an institution named in section 3 (b), the Office of Personnel Management shall furnish information or technical advice on the design, operation, or evaluation, or any other aspect of a demonstration project under this Act.
"(h) Applicability.—
"(1) In general.—Except as otherwise provided in this subsection, all applicants for employment with, all eligibles and employees of, and all positions in or under an institution named in section 3 (b) shall be subject to inclusion in a demonstration project under this Act.
"(2) Provisions relating to certain benefits.—
"(A) Option for certain individuals to remain under current law governing certain benefits.—
"(i) Eligible individuals.—This subparagraph applies in the case of any individual who, as of the day before the date on which a demonstration project under this Act is to commence at an institution—"(I) is an employee of such institution; and "(II) if benefits under subchapter III of chapter 83 or chapter 84 of title 5, United States Code, are to be affected, has completed at least 1 year of Government service (whether with such institution or otherwise), but taking into account only civilian service creditable under subchapter III of chapter 83 or chapter 84 of such title.
"(ii) Option.—If a demonstration project is to include changes to any benefits under subpart G of part III of title 5, United States Code, an employee described in clause (i) shall be afforded an election not to become subject to such demonstration project, to the extent those benefits are involved (and to instead remain subject to the provisions of such subpart G as if this Act had not been enacted).
"(B) Continuation of certain alternative benefit systems after demonstration project terminates for persons becoming subject thereto under the project.—Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, the termination of a demonstration project shall not, in the case of any employee who becomes subject to a system of alternative benefits under this Act (in lieu of benefits that would otherwise be determined under subpart G of part III of title 5, United States Code), have the effect of terminating—
"(i) any rights accrued by that individual under the system of alternative benefits involved; or
"(ii) the system under which those alternative benefits are afforded, to the extent continuation of such system beyond the termination date is provided for under the terms of the demonstration project (as in effect on the termination date).
"(3) Transition provisions.—
"(A) Retention of annual and sick leave accrued before becoming subject to demonstration project.—Any individual becoming subject to a demonstration project under this Act shall, in a manner consistent with the requirements of section 6308 of title 5, United States Code, be credited with any annual leave and any sick leave standing to such individual's credit immediately before becoming subject to the project.
"(B) Provisions relating to credit for leave upon separating while the demonstration project is still ongoing.—Any demonstration project under this Act shall include provisions consistent with the following:
"(i) Lump-sum credit for annual leave.—In the case of any individual who, at the time of becoming subject to the demonstration project, has any leave for which a lump-sum payment might be paid under subchapter VI of chapter 55 of title 5, United States Code, such individual shall, if such individual separates from service (in the circumstances described in section 5551 or 5552 of such title 5, as applicable) while the demonstration project is still ongoing, be entitled to a lump-sum payment under such section 5551 or 5552 (as applicable) based on the amount of leave standing to such individual's credit at the time such individual became subject to the demonstration project or the amount of leave standing to such individual's credit at the time of separation, whichever is less.
"(ii) Retirement credit for sick leave.—In the case of any individual who, at the time of becoming subject to the demonstration project, has any sick leave which would be creditable under section 8339 (m) of title 5, United States Code (had such individual then separated from service), any sick leave standing to such individual's credit at the time of separation shall, if separation occurs while the demonstration project is still ongoing, be so creditable, but only to the extent that it does not exceed the amount of creditable sick leave that stood to such individual's credit at the time such individual became subject to the demonstration project.
"(C) Transfer of leave remaining upon transfer to another agency.—In the case of any employee who becomes subject to the demonstration project and is subsequently transferred or otherwise appointed (without a break in service of 3 days or longer) to another position in the Federal Government or the government of the District of Columbia under a different leave system (whether while the project is still ongoing or otherwise), any leave remaining to the credit of that individual which was earned or credited under the demonstration project shall be transferred to such individual's credit in the new employing agency on an adjusted basis under regulations prescribed under section 6308 of title 5, United States Code. Any such regulations shall be prescribed taking into account the provisions of subparagraph (B).
"(D) Collective-bargaining agreements.—Any collective-bargaining agreement in effect on the day before a demonstration project under this Act commences shall continue to be recognized by the institution involved until the earlier of—
"(i) the date occurring 3 years after the commencement date of the project;
"(ii) the date as of which the agreement is scheduled to expire (disregarding any option to renew); or
"(iii) such date as may be determined by mutual agreement of the parties."SEC. 5. DELEGATION OF PROCUREMENT AUTHORITY.
"The Secretary shall, to the maximum extent consistent with applicable law and subject to the availability of appropriations therefor, delegate to the presidents of the respective institutions named in section 3 (b) procurement and contracting authority with respect to the conduct of the administrative functions of such institution."SEC. 6. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS.
"There are authorized to be appropriated, for fiscal year 1999, and each fiscal year thereafter, to each of the respective institutions named in section 3 (b)—
"(1) the amount of funds made available by appropriations as operations funding for the administration of such institution for fiscal year 1998; and
"(2) such additional sums as may be necessary for the operation of such institution pursuant to this Act."SEC. 7. REGULATIONS.
"The president of each institution named in section 3 (b) may, in consultation with the appropriate entities (referred to in section 4 (b)(1)), prescribe any regulations necessary to carry out this Act."SEC. 8. LEGISLATION TO MAKE CHANGES PERMANENT.
"Not later than 6 months before the date on which a demonstration project under this Act is scheduled to expire, the institution conducting such demonstration project shall submit to each House of Congress—
"(1) recommendations as to whether or not the changes under such project should be continued or made permanent; and
"(2) proposed legislation for any changes in law necessary to carry out any such recommendations."
LII has no control over and does not endorse any external Internet site that contains links to or references LII.


text:
Wimbledon, England (Sports Network) - Marion Bartoli had been in this position
once before.
It took her six years to get back, but her second appearance in the Wimbledon
final was a much more blissful occasion.
The 15th-seeded Bartoli claimed her first Grand Slam crown with a 6-1, 6-4 win
over 23rd-seeded Sabine Lisicki on Saturday at the All England Club.
The Sports Network


text:
Wednesday, March 23, 2011
Advanced Style Film for NOWNESS
Advanced Style: Age and Beauty on Nowness.com.
Here is the complete Advanced Style short film for NOWNESS.com . I hope you enjoy these fabulous ladies as much as Lina and I do!
15 comments:
- Prêt à Porter P said...
Such a joy to watch!!!!! Thank you :)
- March 23, 2011 at 3:46 PM
- sacramento said...
I have tears of pride and joy in my soul.
Love you all.
- March 23, 2011 at 4:12 PM
- Pepi said...
♥Absolutely fabulous♥
"..young women you gonna be old woman someday.." LOVE IT!!
- March 23, 2011 at 4:55 PM
- Carol said...
What a beautiful video depicting absolutely stunning women. They are such an inspiration! Thank you.
- March 23, 2011 at 6:03 PM
- Elra's cooking and baking said...
Aaaaariiiii, I love this film, very very inspiring ! Thank you :) will share this with m FB friends.
- March 23, 2011 at 6:06 PM
- Carrie at La Rizada said...
i love everything about this. thank you.
- March 23, 2011 at 7:54 PM
Love it, such fabulous women.
- March 23, 2011 at 9:54 PM
- Ben said...
I love this blog. Found it thrugh Nowness. I'm now following!
- March 24, 2011 at 12:00 AM
- TheHappyIntrovert said...
Thank you.
- March 24, 2011 at 2:20 AM
- mhammel said...
A great display of spirit Ari! I'll post it to my FB page. Congratulations!
- March 24, 2011 at 10:03 AM
- mhammel said...
What a beautiful way to illustrate the spirit of strong, creative women. Congratulations Ari!
- March 24, 2011 at 10:04 AM
- Paradis Sauvage said...
this women are so full of grace and beauty. and cant wait to get there... :) and i really like your blog. each time i am looking at it i just simply have to smile. thank you for that.
- March 24, 2011 at 12:15 PM
- Nomadic D. said...
I love this! I found it truly inspiring. I just found you via the nowness via manrepeller, and I love your blog! I also reposted your video on my blog because it just had such an impact on me. Thanks for making such great work and sharing all this beauty with us!
- March 24, 2011 at 2:53 PM
- TheHappyIntrovert said...
Ari, your blog is a highlight of each day for me. But this video...is like a prayer!
- March 24, 2011 at 4:29 PM
- Miss Dee said...
I simply adore these stylish ladies, such an inspiration. And because of your wonderful blog, I started paying attention to stylish elderly ladies around me. They are everywhere! :-)
- March 24, 2011 at 6:32 PM


text:
The Mike Fontenot Trade
On February 2, 2005 the Cubs made a trade with Baltimore for Mike Fontenot and the pride of Naperville, Illinois, Jerry Hairston.
Fontenot was the Orioles first round draft pick in 2001 (19th overall) and Hairston a super utility player during his first seven seasons in Baltimore.
But does anyone remember who Chicago sent packing in return?
In exchange the Cubs parted ways with Sammy Sosa and his then 573 career home runs.
As early returns go, the deal appeared in Chicago's favor.
Sosa quickly fizzled out during his lone season with the O's. Presumably carrying the weight of his suspected steroid use, the aging star played in just 102 games batting a paltry .221 with 14 HR and 45 RBI. By the following spring the 37-year-old was out of baseball entirely.
Meanwhile, as Fontenot progressed through the minors, Hairston filled in as needed with the Cubs before being traded to Texas in late May 2006 for Phil Nevin, who never panned out, either.
Thus, by 2007 the trade edge for Chicago fell directly on the progression of Fontenot.
But with Fontenot's inability to establish himself as an everyday player or live up to the billing of a first round draft pick, it seems this deal was an honorable draw at best.
While the O's gamble on Sosa clearly backfired, the Cubs also misfired on Fontenot, perhaps missing its chance to land unknowns Casey Blake or closer BJ Ryan.
Five years later, it's all water under the bridge.


text:
May 2, 2016
FILE - In this Oct. 2, 2012 file photo, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton speaks at the State Department in Washington. Clinton headed to Peru Monday, where she will talk about women's empowerment. But overshadowing her trip is the lingering political drama in Washington over the Obama administration�s handling of last month's deadly attack on the U.S. consulate in Libya. (AP Photo/ Evan Vucci, File)
An independent panel charged with investigating the deadly Sept. 11 attack in Libya that killed a U.S. ambassador and three other Americans has concluded that systematic management failures at the State Department led to inadequate security that left the diplomatic mission vulnerable.
Despite those failures, the Accountability Review Board determined that no individual American officials ignored or violated their duties and found no cause for any disciplinary action. The board found that contrary to initial reports, there was no protest outside the mission and blamed the incident entirely on terrorists.
The State Department sent a classified version of the report to lawmakers Tuesday and released an unclassified version later Tuesday. The report makes 29 recommendations to improve embassy security. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton said she accepted them all.
Copyright 2016 by The Associated Press. All Rights Reserved.
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US Navy in WWII. Was the pilot on LCI's in the Atlantic and made landings at Normandy on D-Day and Anzio as well as others.
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text:
Warrior Cheater Endo
Don't let the name fool you – this dude is totally legal. Shorten the grip spot on your handle for a shorter feel when you whip the rock. It's also less of a mess without having to re-tape the bottom of your shaft over and over again throughout the season. Available in Black.


text:
May 6, 2016
SHERMAN, TX-Sherman has a new fire marshal.
Division chief Jamie Baggs was appointed to the job after two years in the department. Fire chief Jeff Jones said Baggs has been training for his new role as fire marshal and will start Monday.
"It takes me way out of my comfort zone but I'm willing to accept that challenge and do the best I can," Baggs said.
Chief Jones said former fire marshal, Nathan Huffman, no longer works for the city effective Monday. Huffman was arrested last month for DWI.
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text:
search the archive
search the archive
bibliography and history of the book
cultural studies and historical approaches
ecocriticism and environmental studies
ethnicity and national identity
humanities computing and the internet
journals and collections of essays
CFP: [Romantic] nstitutions: History, Practice, Method –– UCLA Conference June 5th, 2009
full name / name of organization:
James Landau
contact email:
20th Annual UCLA Southland Graduate Student Conference Call for Papers
Conference Title: Institutions: History, Practice, Method
Stalled by unfamiliar words on the plaque that names Lowood Institution,
The primary aim of the 20th Annual UCLA Southland Graduate Student
Presentations may consider any dimension of the relationship between
• How do we read or conceptualize the institutions that appear within
• What impact do institutions have upon bodies, in particular bodies of
• Can we trace connections between extratextual institutions, e.g. the
• What is the relationship between institutions and power, for example
• What institutions shape literary production, and where does authorship
• What is the relation between genre and institution? Is genre an
• What roles do media and information technologies play in the production
• "Where†are institutions? What is their "place?†What are the
• In what ways are networks social and technological institutions? And how
• What is the relationship between the disciplinary (in both its
• What impact will the interdisciplinary turn in literary studies have on
• How do academic institutions such as peer-reviewed journals, tenure
• How do discourses deploy the language of institution (e.g. the gay
Paper topics may engage with any historical period or geographical area,
Please email abstracts of 200-300 words, in .doc or .pdf files, to Glenn
Further information will appear at
cfp categories:


text: Orvis Clearwater Fly Rods 3 6 WeightThe new Orvis Clearwater 3 through 6 weight Fly Rods are beautiful, they cast great and they cost under $200. The all new Clearwater Series reaps the rewards of Orvis award-winning Helios technology with all-new profiles and tapers taken directly from the Helios line of fine fly rods.The Clearwater Fly Rods are lighter and more responsive than ever. The complete line of rods feature 20 models. Shown here are the freshwater rods in 2 weight to 6 weight. See the heavier rods on this website. The blanks are a deep olive green with a clear coat finish and brown wraps that compliment the olive Cordura rod tube that is included.The brushed aluminum and composite reel seat with the white Orvis logo are reminiscent of the Helios and Superfine rods. Team one of these rods with the new Clearwater Large Arbor Reel, a fly line and backing pre-rigged, and you have a great outfit in the $300 range. (Choose Clearwater Rod/Reel/Line Outfits in the Rod Department).All Orvis Clearwater Fly Rods feature a 25 year guarantee to repair or replace your broken fly rod no matter the reason.FREE GROUND SHIPPING IN THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATESLittle River Outfitters is a fly shop and mail order company located in Townsend, Tennessee, a gateway to Great Smoky Mountains National Park. We have been family owned since 1994.


text:
Market Tote Bag - Going to Market
Act fast! Items with prices ending in $0.99 are final sale.
No longer available
Pack with personality. Let everyone know where you're headed with our Going to Market Tote, which is exclusive to west elm Market. Its strong, 100% cotton canvas construction will make your return trip a breeze as well.
100% cotton canvas.
18"w x 6"d x 16"h.
Machine wash.
Made in the USA.


text:
Search Swinburne Research Bank
Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/1959.3/213157
- Title
- Quality of service in IP networks: foundations for a multi-service Internet
- Author(s)
- Armitage, Grenville
- Abstract
- Quality of Service is a fast growing area of technology, being driven by the growth of real-time applications such as voice over IP. This book is perfect for you, technical professionals who are looking for information building blocks of Quality of Service and who want to grasp critical concepts such as the DiffServ and IntServ models and the use of MPLS to support the next generation of VPNs. If you are a Network architect, network engineer, or network designer, you will be using the authoritative guide to understand the different emerging technologies that can be used to archive Quality of Service, and to decide how to incorporate them into your networks and meet the needs of your particular network environment. Quality of Service in IP Networks presents a great deal of technical detail, as well as provides a clear understanding of the architectural issues surrounding delivering QoS in an IP network, and its positions in the emerging technologies within a framework of solutions.
- Publication type
- Book
- Publication year
- 2000
- Keyword(s)
- Internet; IP networks; QoS; Quality of service
- Publisher
- Macmillan
- 9781578701896, 1578701899
- Publisher URL
- Copyright
- Copyright © 2000.
- Peer reviewed


text:
Coming out (of the closet) is a figure of speech for lesbian, gay bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people's disclosure of thier sexual orientation and/or gender indetity.
Framed and debaated as a privary issue, coming out of the closet is described and experienced as a psychological process of journey, descision-malking or risk-taking; a strategy or plan; a mass or publivc event; a speech act and a matter of personal identity; a rite of passae; liberation or emancipation from oppresion; an ordeal; a means toward feeling gay pride instead of shame and social stigma; or even career suicide. *
Coming out of the closet is the sources of other gay sang expressions related to volunary disclosure or lack there of. LGBT people who have alreadyor no longer conceal their sexual orientation and/or gender identityt are out, openly LGBT. Opposetely, LGBT people who have yet to come out or have opted not to do so are labelled as closeted or being in the closet. Outing is the deliberate or accidental disclosure of an LGBT person's sexual orientation or gender identity, without his or her consent. By extention, outing oneself is unintentional LGBT self-disclosure. Lastly, the glass closet means the open secret of when public figures' being LGBT is considered a widely accepted fact even through they have not "officially" come out.


text:
Damage caused by downburst; 7,500 customers lost power in storm
Published: Thursday, June 27, 2013 at 5:14 p.m.
Last Modified: Thursday, June 27, 2013 at 5:14 p.m.
The sudden burst of rain and wind that wreaked havoc in parts of Marion County late Wednesday afternoon was classified by meteorologists as a downburst.
Photo Galleries
Kate Guillett, a meteorologist with the National Weather Service in Jacksonville, said the affected area, mostly in southeast Ocala, experienced a downburst — a mixture of wind and rain — with wind gusts up to 55 mph.
The weather phenomenon was slow moving — about 5 mph — which accounted to some extent for the damage.
Guillett said they did not get any calls about tornado activity and that if it had been a tornado, there would have been a twisting pattern and things would have been more scattered.
Several homes and at least one business were damaged from the downburst, including a gas station at the corner of Northeast Seventh Avenue and Baseline Road, where the wind flipped over the metal canopy that sheltered the gas pumps and damaged two pumps.
Ocala Utility Services reported that up to 7,500 customers lost power. By late Wednesday night, power had been restored to all but 1,600 customers. By 8 a.m. Thursday, the number of customers without power was 584 and by 3:40 p.m., there were only 12.
Officials said crews were busy also taking care of downed trees on power lines and clearing roadways.
Trees also were down elsewhere in Marion County, but a Sheriff's Office supervisor said there were no reports of serious damage.
Fire rescue personnel said they responded to nearly 100 incidents in the city and county during a 1½-hour span, which began around 6 p.m.
Guillett said the area should see rain showers on Friday afternoon, but that the likelihood of another downburst was minimal.
For Friday night, the prediction is for a 40 percent chance of showers and thunderstorms with a south wind at 5 to 9 mph. On Saturday, showers and thunderstorms are likely in the afternoon and evening, with a southwest wind 8 to 15 mph reducing to a south wind of 5 to 9 mph later in the night. On Sunday, look for showers and thunderstorms after noon.
Contact Austin L. Miller at 867-4118 or firstname.lastname@example.com.
Reader comments posted to this article may be published in our print edition. All rights reserved. This copyrighted material may not be re-published without permission. Links are encouraged.


text:
|Release Date: July 14, 2000
|Running Time: 104 mins.
|MPAA Rating: PG 13
|Box Office: $157,299,717.00
|Genre: Action, Adaptation, Adventure, Sci-Fi
Hugh Jackman
Patrick Stewart
Ian McKellen
Famke Janssen
All Cast & Crew >>
Summary:Cyclops. Jean Grey. Storm... They are the children of the atom, homo superior, the next link in the chain of evolution. Each was born with a unique genetic mutation, which at puberty manifested itself in extraordinary powers: Cyclops' eyes release an energy beam that can rip holes through mountains; Jean Grey's strength is both telekinetic and telepathic; and Storm can manipulate all forms of weather. In a world increasingly filled with hatred and prejudiced, they're scientific oddities... freaks of nature... outcasts who are feared and loathed by those who cannot accept their differences. Their detractors include U.S. Senator Robert Kelly, a McCarthyesque politico whose legislation is desig... Full Summary >>
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DTM Experience
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The thrill of firing an M240H helicopter-mounted machine gun gives this soccer-playing college student another reason to consider enlisting.
See how Kristen's job in the Army Reserve gives her experience that will help he...
CATEGORY: Army Reserve
Watch how an Army ROTC scholarship took CPT Michael Pope from combat to communic...
See how the unique training, mentorship and experiences you get at 2-year Americ...
CATEGORY: Education Officership ROTC
Cadet Richard Dolan knew he wanted to become a leader. See why he chose Army ROT...
CATEGORY: Officership
TAGS: Officership ROTC
In OCS, college graduates and Soldiers with degrees, like Candidate Ricky Jones,...
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A rigorous curriculum and unparalleled training in leadership, that's why Cadet ...
CATEGORY: Officership
TAGS: Officership West Point
Bryce McNeal talks about the big game and his college selection.
Xavier Nixon talks about getting motivated for the big game and his upcoming col...
Xavier Nixon describes the big game and his college selection.
Private Robert Davison answers Alison from Eden Prairie, Minnesota who asks; "Do...
The Army teaches you strong leadership skills. Same thing with NCAA sports.
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Find out what an Army MP instructor has to say about coaching NCAA football.
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Watch a U.S. Army MP instructor go one on one with an NCAA football coach.
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Will college grad Kelly Keaton rise to the occasion, or will Army Flight School ...
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Sgt Tyree Brown talks about why he joined - stuck at a job, wanted a career. Ben...
"Soldiers talk about their experiences in the Army Reserve: leadership, educatio...
CATEGORY: Education
TAGS: Army Reserve Education
Soldiers describe the Army Reserve as a life-changing opportunity.
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TAGS: Army Reserve Careers
See how the Army Reserve helped Captain Sandra Altamirano get into USC's Annenbe...
CATEGORY: Army Reserve Career & Jobs Family Education ROTC Officership Benefits Featured
TAGS: 46A Public Affairs Officer internal tags:goarmy-video-repository/radio/TV Broadcast Journalist Education Colleges Family Benefits Opportunities internal tags:goarmy-video-repository/training
Autumn describes how her Army Reserve experience sets her apart from her peers.
CATEGORY: Army Reserve
Autumn didn't just join the Army Reserve for the money for college-she wanted a ...
CATEGORY: Army Reserve
Soldiers describe their experience as a college student while in the ROTC progra...
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Soldiers talk about their experience of joining ROTC and its educational benefit...
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Soldiers talk about their experience of being in the ROTC. Officers talks about ...
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Watch Soldiers talk about their personal experiences in the ROTC. "I wanted to h...
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Find out how Jeff jumped from high school athletics to college and Army ROTC.
TAGS: ROTC Army Reserve
Cadet Jeff David (Reserve, cadet) talks about experience/benefits - started in j...
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John Paul and his ROTC superiors discuss his leadership development and personal...
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Major Otto Padron (Reserve, Officer), talks about experience/benefits - civilian...
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Major Otto Padron (Reserve, Officer), talks about experience/benefits - talked t...
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With the help of an ROTC scholarship, RJ is able to pay for college while gainin...
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Cadet RJ Custodio (Reserve, cadet), talks about experience/benefits - why he joi...
TAGS: ROTC Army Reserve
The thrill of firing an M240H helicopter-mounted machine gun gives this soccer-playing college student another reason to consider enlisting.


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Vol State Holds Robertson County Information Night
Submitted on January 27, 2011 at 9:34 AM
Volunteer State Community College will be offering a wide range of courses at the new Highland Crest higher education facility in Springfield starting in the fall. An information night is coming up for people interested in those offerings, and Vol State courses at the main campus in Gallatin. The Robertson County Information Night will be held on Thursday, February 10 from 5 p.m. to 7 p.m. at the Hampton Inn, 620 22nd Avenue in Springfield. Admissions and advising representatives from the college will be on hand to answer questions and provide assistance.
The Highland Crest building is under construction and due to be completed this summer. Vol State will be offering general education and continuing education courses at the new facility. For more information about Vol State at Highland Crest visit the web page: www.volstate.edu/HighlandCrest and for information about the evening event call 615-230-3460.
A service provided by the Office of Public Relations.


text: Developed through a unique collaboration between Calphalon and Williams-Sonoma, the Elite cookware collection sets a new standard for nonstick performance. Metal utensils won't damage the release performance of the durable, triple-layer nonstick interior, and the specially textured surface excels for searing foods—two key features that set this collection apart from other nonstick cookware. Made in the USA and exclusively ours, Elite cookware is also PFOA-free and dishwasher safe. This double griddle spans two burners, providing plenty of space for cooking pancakes, eggs and other foods for a crowd.


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June 11, 2012
Brian Neubert
Marcus Davis played alongside incoming Purdue freshman Cameron Posey at American Heritage High School in Delray Beach, Fla. Monday afternoon, Coach Danny Hope offered Davis the chance to continue doing so at Purdue, extending him a scholarship offer during a phone conversation. ...More... To continue reading this article you must be a member. Sign Up Now!
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Weight Loss
The Rapid Start PlanUse the Rapid Start Plan to start losing weight and learn to eat and enjoy healthier foods.
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October 1, 2007
Chase Goodbread
Quarterback C-John Parker Wilson's completion percentage, yardage and touchdowns all were up from his Georgia performance, and without an interception, yet the criticism seems louder than ever. That can be explained by the zero on the scoreboard for more than three quarters, as well as a fumble inside the Alabama 10 that set up an easy FSU touchdown. Wilson finished 28 of 53 for 240 yards and two touchdowns, but too much of that came with the game already FSU's to lose. Wilson simply looks uncomfortable right now, but the first-time disappearance of the running game Saturday didn't help.Running back CTerry Grant learned what it feels like to be shut down on the college level for the first time Saturday, although with only nine carries he wasn't exactly asked to do much, either. Grant ended up with 36 yards while the team as a whole finished with under 100. There were very few broken tackles, if any, and the longest rush of the day for the team was an 18-yarder by the quarterback. Glen Coffee performed his usual role, but got only five carries himself. Offensive line D+The absence of a push in the running game requires the line to take its worst grade of the season to date. The struggles of the passing game are making it clear that the running game can not afford to take a Saturday off, and that's exactly what happened against Florida State. While the play-calling may have lost its balance a little too soon, the line might have prevented that with a few more holes for Grant in the first half. FSU's Everette Brown also became the first player this year to get more than one sack against the Crimson Tide front.Wide receiver BDJ Hall made seven catches for 83 yards and a touchdown to lead the receiving corps. Keith Brown made a tough catch for Alabama's final touchdown, but had a crucial drop earlier in the quarter on a fourth-down play. Mike McCoy notched three more grabs, but none downfield. The receivers had trouble getting separation from FSU's defensive backs, but running short routes on tight defenses, as Alabama did most of the day, lends itself to a lot of traffic.Defensive line B+Despite the loss of Bobby Greenwood, who missed almost the entire game, the defensive line did an excellent job against the run. Alabama wasted no time in forcing Florida State to go to its passing game and held Antone Smith to a 1.2-yard rushing average. Wallace Gilberry had his arms around Xavier Lee for his first sack of the season, but Lee slipped away and got rid of an incompletion. Drew Weatherford was sacked once on a linebacker blitz, but once the elusive Lee entered the game, the pass rush had its hands full.Linebackers BEzekial Knight is beginning to spend more time in the opponents' backfield than the rest of the linebacking corps, which is to be expected from one of the outside positions. Knight notched a sack in the first quarter, added a TFL for minus-3, and finished with a game-high nine stops. Prince Hall made an outstanding interception on a hard-thrown ball over the middle that would have bounced off most linebackers' hands, especially a Mike run-stuffer like Hall. Keith Saunders had a quiet day with one assisted tackle.Secondary B-The opening drive of the second half, which resulted in a touchdown for the Seminoles, was just about the only FSU drive of the day that sustained any real success in the passing game. Were it not for a missed tackle that turned a hitch pass into a back-breaking touchdown, the secondary would grade out even better. That was a bitter pill for Marquis Johnson in his first defensive action of the season, but like all DBs, Johnson's memory will have to be short with pass-happy Houston coming to Tuscaloosa. Kareem Jackson made eight tackles, including one for loss, to lead this unit.Special teams D+Punter P.J. Fitzgerald hit a 56-yarder, but was otherwise inconsistent. The punt return game yielded nothing for Javier Arenas, although the Seminoles kept him in fair-catch mode for most of the day. Arenas' muff of a kickoff forced Alabama to drive 91 yards and use 3:53 for its first touchdown, too much time given a 14-0 deficit. Leigh Tiffin had no chance to make a difference from a field-goal perspective. By the time Alabama got into field-goal range for the first time all day, it already needed a touchdown to have a chance.The plan CDefensively, Alabama's plan couldn't have played out better. UA forced FSU to abandon its running game quickly, which has been the book on defending the Seminoles for years. Credit Xavier Lee for the most impressive pinch-hit of his career. For the first time this year, the approach on offense called itself into question. Most of Alabama's receivers need to get behind the secondary before the catch to make big plays. With a distinct height advantage on FSU's corners and a stifled running game, the deep ball was needed early and often, but was tried neither. Instead, UA was content to throw short and wait on missed tackles that never came. ...More... To continue reading this article you must be a member. Sign Up Now!
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Search Swinburne Research Bank
Home List of Titles The globular cluster system of NGC 5846 revisited: colours, sizes and X-ray counterparts
Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/1959.3/5277
|Download PDF (Published version) (Adobe Acrobat PDF, 1008 KB)
- Title
- The globular cluster system of NGC 5846 revisited: colours, sizes and X-ray counterparts
- Author(s)
- Chies-Santos, A. L.; Pastoriza, Miriani G.; Santiago, Basilio X.; Forbes, Duncan A.
- Abstract
- NGC 5846 is a giant elliptical galaxy with a previously well studied globular cluster system (GCS), known to have a bimodal colour distribution with a remarkably high red fraction. Here we revisit the central galaxy regions searching for new globular cluster (GC) candidates, and measure magnitudes, colours and sizes for them. We also search for their X-ray counterparts. We use archival Hubble Space Telescope WFPC2 images, from which we modelled and subtracted the host light distribution to increase the available sample of GCs. We performed photometry on the central objects, and measured sizes and coordinates for the entire GC system known in this galaxy. We detect two dozen previously unknown GC candidates in the central regions. Reliable sizes are obtained for about 60 GCs; their typical effective radii are in the range 3-5 pc. The largest clusters are located in the central regions. We find 7 X-ray counterparts to GCs, most of them in the central region. They are among the most luminous X-ray sources in NGC 5846. They are also optically luminous, compact and belong to the red subpopulation. We conclude that the GCS of NGC 5846 is composed of relatively luminous X-ray sources.
- Publication type
- Journal article
- Research centre
- Swinburne University of Technology. Faculty of Information and Communication Technologies. Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing
- Source
- Astronomy and Astrophysics, Vol. 455, no. 2 (Aug 2006), pp. 453-459
- Publication year
- 2006
- Keyword(s)
- Elliptical galaxies; Galaxy star clusters; NGC 5846; X-rays
- Publisher
- EDP Sciences
- 0004-6361
- Publisher URL
- Copyright
- Copyright © ESO 2006. Paper reproduced here in accordance with the copyright policy of the publisher.
- Full text
- Peer reviewed


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The Hunters Rest was originally built around 1750 as a hunting lodge for the Earl of Warwick. Set in delightful countryside, it is ideally located for Bath, Bristol and Wells. Bedrooms and bathrooms a...More about The Hunters Rest
A welcoming country inn, offering warm hospitality, locally sourced food and a wide selection of fine ales from local microbreweries. The comfortable bedrooms include luxuries such as Egyptian cotton ...More about The Oakhill Inn
Centurion Hotel is located just nine miles from Bath in a peaceful area with surrounding grounds and a nine-hole golf course. Bedrooms and bathrooms have been recently completely refurbished and offer...More about Best Western Plus Centurion Hotel
Located a short drive from the centre of Bath, Poplar House is a very well-maintained property that offers comfortable accommodation in a peaceful setting. Bedrooms offer a range of shapes and sizes, ...More about Poplar House
This traditional style inn has been recently refurbished to provide plenty of quality and comfort in both bedrooms and bathrooms, and throughout the public areas. The inn is open during the day when l...More about The Hollies Inn
Set in an elevated position above Bath with views over the city, Wentworth House is a comfortable establishment that includes a relaxing guest lounge, bar and garden with pool and hot tub in the summe...More about Wentworth House
A warm welcome is extended at this delightful Georgian property, located in the heart of the city just a few hundred yards from Royal Crescent. All rooms reflect the comfortable elegance of the Georgi...More about Brocks Guest House
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Created with cooks in mind, this collection includes tomatoes that are excellent for sauces and soups as well as for eating fresh with just a sprinkle of salt. All three are indeterminate vines, which means their fruit will ripen in batches, for multiple harvests throughout the growing season.
San Marzano: Ancestor of the Roma, the San Marzano is among the best paste tomatoes in the world, a classic for canning and sauces and delicious slow-roasted or sun-dried.
Costoluto Genovese: Deeply ribbed, intensely flavorful red tomatoes that have been a favorite of Italian cooks for centuries. Wonderful fresh, canned or in sauces. Fruit is approx. 3" diam.
Black Krim: Large (6" diam.) fruit with color that ranges from red to purple to nearly black. Firm and juicy, with a slightly salty flavor that makes them a great choice for eating fresh, alone or in salads or sandwiches.


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437 Harvard Street, Brookline, MA 02446
Product SKU: CB2WH
Author / Artist: Sopp, Janine
6.5" Charoset bowl with floral design. part of the Terra Cotta Collection, is crafted with red clay and hand painted with deep, rich hues of color. Gloss glazed and food safe but hand washing is recommended.


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KENNEBUNK, Maine (AP) - Police say they have arrested a woman who is nine months pregnant for allegedly acting as the getaway driver in a Kennebunk burglary that was interrupted by the homeowner.
A department spokesman says the victim came home Tuesday afternoon to find an SUV with Florida plates in her driveway, the pregnant woman inside. When she opened her garage door, she saw a pile of electronics and guitars and saw a man run out the back door and jump in the SUV, which then took off.
The woman followed the SUV, got the license plate number, and called police.
Officers tracked down the vehicle and arrested Michael Gonyer and Ryana Garcia on burglary charges. Both are 21.
Police say Garcia was taken to a hospital because she is nine months pregnant.
(Copyright 2013 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.)


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38 U.S. Code § 3018 - Opportunity for certain active-duty personnel to withdraw election not to enroll
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(a) Notwithstanding any other provision of this chapter, during the period beginning December 1, 1988, and ending June 30, 1989 (hereinafter in this section referred to as the "open period"), an individual who—
(1) first became a member of the Armed Forces or first entered on active duty as a member of the Armed Forces during the period beginning July 1, 1985, and ending June 30, 1988;
(2) has continuously served on active duty without a break in service since the date the individual first became such a member or first entered on active duty as such a member; and
(b) An individual described in clauses (1) through (3) of subsection (a) of this section who made an election under section 3011 (c)(1) or 3012 (d)(1) of this title and who—
(2) continues to serve the period of service which, at the beginning of the open period, such individual was obligated to serve;
(B) before completing such obligated period of service, is discharged or released from active duty for
(ii) a medical condition which preexisted such service and which the Secretary determines is not service connected,
(iv) a physical or mental condition that was not characterized as a disability and did not result from the individual's own willful misconduct but did interfere with the individual's performance of duty, as determined by the Secretary of each military department in accordance with regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Defense (or by the Secretary of Homeland Security with respect to the Coast Guard when it is not operating as a service of the Navy); or
(C) before completing such obligated period of service, is
(i) discharged or released from active duty for the convenience of the Government after completing not less than 20 months of such period of service, if such period was less than three years, or 30 months, if such period was at least three years, or
(ii) involuntarily discharged or released from active duty for the convenience of the Government as a result of a reduction in force, as determined by the Secretary concerned in accordance with regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Defense;
(4) before applying for benefits under this section—
(5) upon completion of such obligated period of service—
(A) is discharged from service with an honorable discharge, is placed on the retired list, is transferred to the Fleet Reserve or Fleet Marine Corps Reserve, or is placed on the temporary disability retired list;
(C) is released from active duty for further service in a reserve component of the Armed Forces after service on active duty characterized by the Secretary concerned as honorable service,
is entitled to basic educational assistance under this chapter.
(c) The basic pay of an individual withdrawing, under subsection (b)(1) of this section, an election under section 3011 (c)(1) or 3012 (d)(1) of this title shall be reduced by—
Source(Added Pub. L. 100–689, title I, § 103(a),Nov. 18, 1988, 102 Stat. 4164, § 1418; amended Pub. L. 101–237, title IV, § 423(b)(1)(A), (4)(A),Dec. 18, 1989, 103 Stat. 2092; Pub. L. 102–16, § 10(a)(2),Mar. 22, 1991, 105 Stat. 55; renumbered § 3018 and amended Pub. L. 102–83, § 5(a), (c)(1),Aug. 6, 1991, 105 Stat. 406; Pub. L. 102–86, title V, § 506(b)(2),Aug. 14, 1991, 105 Stat. 426; Pub. L. 102–568, title III, § 309(a),Oct. 29, 1992, 106 Stat. 4329; Pub. L. 105–368, title II, § 203(a),Nov. 11, 1998, 112 Stat. 3326; Pub. L. 106–419, title I, § 102(c),Nov. 1, 2000, 114 Stat. 1825; Pub. L. 107–296, title XVII, § 1704(d),Nov. 25, 2002, 116 Stat. 2315.)
2002—Subsec. (b)(3)(B)(iv). Pub. L. 107–296substituted "of Homeland Security" for "of Transportation".
2000—Subsec. (b)(4). Pub. L. 106–419amended par. (4) generally. Prior to amendment, par. (4) read as follows: "before completing such obligated period of service (i) has completed the requirements of a secondary school diploma (or an equivalency certificate), or (ii) has successfully completed (or otherwise received academic credit for) the equivalent of 12 semester hours in a program of education leading to a standard college degree; and".
1998—Subsec. (b)(4)(ii). Pub. L. 105–368substituted "successfully completed (or otherwise received academic credit for)" for "successfully completed".
1992—Subsec. (b)(3)(B)(iv). Pub. L. 102–568added cl. (iv).
1991—Pub. L. 102–83, § 5(a), renumbered section 1418 of this title as this section.
Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 102–86made technical amendment to directory language of Pub. L. 101–237, § 423(b)(4)(A). See 1989 Amendment note below.
Pub. L. 102–83, § 5(c)(1), substituted "3011(c)(1) or 3012(d)(1)" for "1411(c)(1) or 1412(d)(1)" in concluding provisions.
Subsec. (b). Pub. L. 102–83, § 5(c)(1), substituted "3011(c)(1) or 3012(d)(1)" for "1411(c)(1) or 1412(d)(1)" in introductory provisions.
Subsec. (b)(4). Pub. L. 102–16substituted "service (i)" for "service," and added cl. (ii).
Subsec. (c). Pub. L. 102–83, § 5(c)(1), substituted "3011(c)(1) or 3012(d)(1)" for "1411(c)(1) or 1412(d)(1)" in introductory provisions.
1989—Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 101–237, § 423(b)(4)(A), as amended by Pub. L. 102–86, inserted "of Defense" after "Secretary" in concluding provisions.
Subsec. (b)(3)(B). Pub. L. 101–237, § 423(b)(1)(A), substituted "Secretary" for "Administrator".
Effective Date of 2002 Amendment
Amendment by Pub. L. 107–296effective on the date of transfer of the Coast Guard to the Department of Homeland Security, see section 1704(g) ofPub. L. 107–296, set out as a note under section 101 of Title 10, Armed Forces.
Effective Date of 1998 Amendment
Amendment by Pub. L. 105–368effective Oct. 1, 1998, see section 203(b) ofPub. L. 105–368, set out as a note under section 3011 of this title.
Effective Date of 1992 Amendment
Pub. L. 102–568, title III, § 309(b),Oct. 29, 1992, 106 Stat. 4329, provided that: "The amendment made by subsection (a) [amending this section] shall take effect as if enacted on December 1, 1988."
Effective Date of 1991 Amendment
Pub. L. 102–86, title V, § 506(b),Aug. 14, 1991, 105 Stat. 426, provided that the amendment made by section 506(b)(2) is effective as of Dec. 18, 1989.
LII has no control over and does not endorse any external Internet site that contains links to or references LII.


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This is the last weekend to see one of the best exhibitions in New York this month, Gerard Byrne's video installation, Why it's Time for Imperial, Again. The show opened just before the election and though the work was made more than a decade earlier, it offered a most topical commentary about the auto industry, swing states and the state of the US economy.
Basically, Byrne was inspired by an advertisement for the Chrysler Imperial, which appeared in National Geographic in 1980. An early example of an infomercial, the copy was a fictional dialogue between two chairmen, Frank Sinatra and Chrysler head Lee Iacocca in which Iacocca goes on and on about the wonders of this new automobile, perfect for a member of the Rat Pack and for your average consumer. Byrne photographed the ad for posterity—it's hanging on the gallery wall—but he also reconstructed the dialogue as a script for his deadpan (and very funny) video. Set in the bleak streets of Long Island City, ca.1998, the video follows these two guys as they pal around, reviewing the technical advances of this new sedan where all the luxuries—except a sunroof—come standard.
What makes this fairly straightforward word play so wicked is the gap between our knowledge of these two American icons from the 1980s and the way they are portrayed as clumsy, slightly overweight and over the hill, business types in the video. Just as it would be entirely unlikely that the rich and famous would ever wind up in a wood-paneled diner in Queens, it is just as unlikely these days to find such a unbridled anthem to the US auto industry as the words spoken on screen. The dialogue is repeated several times, each with mistakes and missteps intentionally retained to underscore that this, as was the original text, is a fictional conceit. But, that doesn't mean that it doesn't get to the truth of the matter—that automakers are no longer revered and American luxury cars no longer considered the epitome of design.
It is fitting that this work is installed not in a sleek Chelsea gallery, but in an empty storefront in Chinatown, bringing in a touch of the global economy into this discussion of the quintessential American product. Obama may have bailed out the auto industry, but Byrne reminds us that it may never recover its once unsullied reputation.
Gerard Byrne, Why it's Time for Imperial, Again is at Itinerant Protocinema (31 Ludlow St, New York) through November 25, Thursday through Sunday, 12 to 6pm