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Since the early part of this century the manufacturing of optical components and systems has changed dramatically throughout the world, both in the types of products that are made and in the approach that is taken to making them. Once devoted entirely to passive image-forming components (such as lenses and mirrors) and to the instruments made from them, the industry now also manufactures a wide range of active elements such as lasers and optical sensors. Until recently, the industry depended heavily on a craftsman-style approach to manufacturing, with much of the work being carried out on an order-by-order basis by very small businesses. As new mass consumer markets have emerged that rely on optical technology—such as compact disk (CD) players and laptop computer displays—the implementation of high-volume mass-manufacturing techniques similar to those of the electronics industry has revolutionized this segment of the optics industry.
To take just one example of this new manufacturing technology, more than 100 million diode lasers are now produced each year, on highly automated production lines. The availability of these inexpensive diode lasers has revolutionized entertainment (in CD players), made high-quality printing affordable for small businesses and home users (in laser printers), and made possible numerous other new products that together account for hundreds of billions of dollars in global business revenue each year.
These changes in manufacturing are exciting, but they are reflected most prominently in the globalization of the optics industry, rather than in the domestic development of U.S. industry. Indeed, almost all mass
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Manufacturing Optical Components and Systems
Since the early part of this century the manufacturing of optical components and systems has changed dramatically throughout the world, both in the types of products that are made and in the approach that is taken to making them. Once devoted entirely to passive image-forming components (such as lenses and mirrors) and to the instruments made from them, the industry now also manufactures a wide range of active elements such as lasers and optical sensors. Until recently, the industry depended heavily on a craftsman-style approach to manufacturing, with much of the work being carried out on an order-by-order basis by very small businesses. As new mass consumer markets have emerged that rely on optical technology—such as compact disk (CD) players and laptop computer displays—the implementation of high-volume mass-manufacturing techniques similar to those of the electronics industry has revolutionized this segment of the optics industry.
To take just one example of this new manufacturing technology, more than 100 million diode lasers are now produced each year, on highly automated production lines. The availability of these inexpensive diode lasers has revolutionized entertainment (in CD players), made high-quality printing affordable for small businesses and home users (in laser printers), and made possible numerous other new products that together account for hundreds of billions of dollars in global business revenue each year.
These changes in manufacturing are exciting, but they are reflected most prominently in the globalization of the optics industry, rather than in the domestic development of U.S. industry. Indeed, almost all mass
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production of optical components and systems now takes place outside the United States. There are only a handful of large U.S. optics companies engaged in the volume production of optical components, most of them in the plastic lens component business. This U.S. trend toward specialty products and small companies has been due in large part to the special technical needs of the Department of Defense, which has long been a vital customer for the industry. Government programs such as Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) have also encouraged the formation of small, innovative optics companies. The main strength of the U.S. optics industry is now in high-precision manufacturing of low-volume specialty optical components and devices with high added value. This strategy has produced a strong industry based on the diverse activities of many small companies but lacking the manufacturing base required for expansion into mass consumer markets.
There are several thousand small optics and optics-related companies in the United States, with an average of 50 or 60 employees each. Together they account for more than 200,000 jobs and annual net revenues of about $30 billion for optical components and systems (excluding ophthalmics).1 Yet even these impressive statistics do not adequately indicate the strength that small businesses provide to the U.S. optics industry as a whole, by making available a broad range of technical skills. A key finding of this report is that despite the optics industry's significant contribution to the U.S. economy, this contribution comes in so many small pieces that it is not usually fully recognized and understood.
The enabling character of optics, a repeated theme of this report, is an especially important consideration for the manufacture of optical components. The value of a component such as a laser diode or an aspheric lens is usually small compared with the value of the optical system that it enables. It is even smaller compared with the value of the resulting high-level application. Advances in the manufacturing of optical components are greatly magnified into improved capabilities and economic advantages at the systems and applications level. Advanced optical components cannot be considered commodity items.
This chapter addresses two distinct challenges. First, how can we maintain and strengthen the U.S. optics industry's leadership in high-precision manufacturing of low-volume specialty products? Second, how can we ensure the U.S. optics industry's ability to compete internationally in the increasingly important mass markets, especially the new mass markets that continue to emerge? Following a brief history of optics manufacturing in the United States and a short overview of the current state of the industry, the chapter divides into two main parts: (1) low-volume manufacturing of high-performance specialty products
These numbers are based on a sample of the companies listed in the annual Photonics Directory.
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and (2) high-volume manufacturing for the mass markets. The chapter ends with a discussion of some crosscutting issues, such as metrology and design, and the industry's composition, size, and growth.
A Brief History
Before about 1910, the U.S. optics industry consisted of just a few manufacturers of optical instruments such as binoculars and inspection equipment. Virtually all such products were imported from Europe. World War I stimulated demands for a domestic capability, and the need to provide components for these instruments was the basis for the U.S. optics industry's growth throughout the early part of the century.
The 1920s and 1930s supported several medium-to-large optical companies, such as Bausch and Lomb, American Optical, and Eastman Kodak—high-volume producers of both traditional and new optical instruments. A well-organized photographic industry provided almost all the cameras demanded by U.S. consumers. Most microscopes, binoculars, telescopes, and optical inspection equipment were also manufactured domestically.
The needs of the military during World War II placed significant demands on the industry's capabilities, and when military contracts ceased abruptly at the end of the war, most optics companies fell on hard times. Demand for cameras and other optical instruments for consumer and civilian uses grew, but Japanese and European competitors could satisfy this demand more cheaply than most U.S. companies, many of which succumbed to the competition. The remaining domestic camera and instrument manufacturers cut costs by turning to component suppliers in the Pacific Rim, first in Japan and more recently in China and Malaysia.
From the 1950s through the 1970s, the industry became increasingly divided, with overseas suppliers dominant in the high-volume markets and U.S. industry focused on assembly, systems building, and low-volume specialty components. Small companies came to dominate the U.S. optics industry.
In 1960, the invention of the laser spawned an entirely new segment of optics manufacturing, a segment that has grown astonishingly. Technologies developed to take advantage of the laser's capabilities have led to additional major markets for optical fibers, optical communications systems, optical sensors, and a broad range of other new applications. Mass U.S. markets for these applications have been based on aggressive growth in overseas manufacturing of the basic components.
An Overview of the Industry Today
The nature of the optics industry continues to change. Mass production techniques are used to manufacture components for an increasing
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number of high-volume optics applications. Among the products manufactured in this way are optical fiber for telecommunications and flat-panel displays for computers. Most of this type of manufacturing currently takes place overseas, not in the United States.
At the same time, demand remains strong for high-performance specialty products that are manufactured in small numbers. There are three main markets for these items: (1) the military, (2) other high-technology scientific and government programs, and (3) specialized industrial applications. Many high-performance military optical systems have very specialized capabilities but low production volumes. Some federal facilities for civilian research and development have similarly specialized needs. A key private-sector market for high-precision optical systems is the electronics industry, in which a relatively small market for photolithography systems enables the huge semiconductor business. The United States excels in this high-value, low-volume portion of the optics industry.
Most of the industry that serves the low-volume, high-accuracy component market remains dependent on very traditional fabrication methods, although it is increasingly facilitated by high-quality interferometric test equipment. This sector of the industry, made up mostly of small companies, faces increasing competition and must adapt to the new global marketplace. To maintain market share as overseas competitors improve their accuracy, domestic manufacturers will have to develop and use more deterministic fabrication methods that achieve the same results at lower cost with fewer high-skill workers.
For each of these types of manufacturer, an important element in the future growth of the industry is the growing integration of passive image-forming components with active sensors and light processors. The acceleration of this trend will mean a corresponding integration of the traditional optical component industry with the developers and suppliers of electrooptical materials and devices.
The challenges of the future will require new, faster, more flexible approaches to optical component fabrication, with less reliance on skill-intensive, iterative production methods. Some programs have already been established to promote this goal. For example, the Center for Optical Manufacturing has developed a series of computer-controlled generating machines that use diamond tools to produce accurate surfaces on glass elements. The Manufacturing Operations Development and Integration Laboratory (MODIL) has developed techniques for fabricating certain specialized laser components. Similar approaches are being implemented overseas. It is not clear, however, that such methods will be enough to revitalize U.S. production of high-volume general-purpose optical components, because most of the small shops that currently dominate the U.S. optics industry lack access to the investment capital necessary to upgrade their equipment.
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Collaborative programs in optics manufacturing should include universities so that students are trained in the latest technical solutions to production problems.
The Department of Defense (DOD), the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), and the Department of Energy (DOE) national laboratories should establish together a cooperative program that provides incentives and opportunities to develop new ideas into functioning methods for optics fabrication.
A critically important asset of the U.S. optics industry remains its strength in optical design. U.S. software companies set the world standard for optical design programs, although their products are of course widely used overseas. The development of sophisticated lens design programs, with good interaction with the designer, is remarkable. Programs that will run on a high-level personal computer now give any optical engineer access to modern design tools, and this easy availability has stimulated a widespread interest in optical design. There is as yet little integration of active components into the design process, however, and comprehensive software for physical optical design is still at a relatively rudimentary stage. U.S. accomplishments in optomechanical computer-assisted design (CAD) and thermal analysis software would be even more effective if fully integrated into optical design software.
Manufacturing of optical components and systems requires a large skilled and semiskilled workforce, and emerging new mass markets will increase the optics industry's need for trained workers. The quality and availability of optics training at the technician level is a widespread concern.
A key challenge for the future is the establishment of standards for the interchangeability of optical components, which is an important driver for cost-effective manufacturing. U.S. participation in international standards-setting activities lags far behind the activities of foreign organizations.
Low-Volume Manufacturing of Specialty Optics
There continues to be strong demand for high-performance specialty products that are manufactured in small numbers. For many of these products, the customer is the government, especially DOD, but certain high-value items are also vitally important in the commercial sector. Specialized high-value applications, such as lenses for photolithography, continue to be an area in which the U.S. optics industry can excel.
As described in Chapter 4, military optical systems tend to have high-performance and specialized requirements but low production volumes (Joint Precision Optics Technical Group, 1987). For example,
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forward-looking infrared (FLIR) systems require expensive infrared-transmitting materials as well as environmentally resistant surfaces, coatings, and mountings. Ring laser gyroscopes require low-scatter surfaces and very high-precision optical components. High-performance aircraft and missiles require unusual aspheric components, conformal to the shape of the airflow. Affordability is becoming increasingly important to the Department of Defense, but despite its wish to use commercial products off the shelf where possible, DOD supports design and manufacturing development for a number of specialized optical technologies. The volume of demand for such items, even including the commercial applications, is often too small to ensure the necessary development of fabrication techniques by industry alone. DOD should continue to maintain technology assets and critical skills in optics manufacturing in order to meet future needs.
Some government projects require so many specialized optical components that they have a significant impact on the entire optics industry, despite the low volume for each of their individual components. Among these are the National Ignition Facility and the Atomic Vapor Laser Isotope Separation (AVLIS) program. These two DOE programs will consume thousands of medium-to-large optical components with high-precision surfaces and coatings resistant to high-power lasers. The overall size of these programs allows the private sector to plan some investments in improved machinery and processes.
Photolithography for manufacturing electronics is a key private-sector use of high-precision optical systems. The production of short-wavelength photolithography systems of ever-higher quality is essential for continued growth of the semiconductor industry. The Moore's law trend of increasing semiconductor miniaturization will drive photolithography through deep ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths and into the soft x-ray region by the turn of the century. At present, most imaging tools are produced overseas, but there are opportunities for U.S. industry to take the lead as systems move into the far UV, if economical methods can be found for producing moderate-sized aspheric surfaces with an accuracy better than 1 nm.
Specialized applications such as these incorporate a wide variety of traditional and modern optical technologies, each with its own manufacturing issues.
Spherical Lenses
The curved surfaces of a lens cause rays of light from a point on a distant object to come to a focus. A single lens with spherical surfaces, although quite economical to manufacture, forms an image that is not a perfect point (see Figure 6.1). Optical design has traditionally been a search for combinations of spherical-surfaced components, made of
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FIGURE 6.1 A single spherical-surfaced lens (left) forms an image that suffers from spherical aberration. To reduce this effect, a typical photographic or video lens (right) consists of many elements.
different types of optical glass, that result in nearly aberration-free images. In general, the wider the field of view or the more extended the spectral range required, the more elements will be needed.
The traditional approach to making spherical surfaces has been surface lapping, which can produce high-quality polished surfaces that deviate from the designer's specifications by as little as a few hundredths of a wavelength. This lapping or averaging method has been very successful in fabricating spherical and flat components, but it is by nature a time-consuming and craftsman-intensive activity. Improvements currently being investigated are directed toward deterministic fabrication, in which the accuracy of surface production is inherent in the machine carrying out the process rather than in the time-varying lapping of surfaces. Processes that are successful in finishing unusual materials, including optically active materials, have become more important.
There have been several attempts to improve and modernize the methods used for serial production. These approaches, however, such as high-speed surfacing, molding, and automated test and assembly machines, are usually directed at reducing the cost of a specific product. The improved production capability rarely extends to other products. A major improvement has been the very inexpensive production of plastic components. The use of plastic components is currently limited to systems of moderate and low quality, however, and to a limited range of environmental conditions. At least in the near term, most optical systems will continue to require glass components.
Currently, only one major domestic research and development program is directed toward the versatile production of economic spherical components. This is the Center for Optical Manufacturing (COM) at the University of Rochester, which has made significant progress in the development of high-speed machines to generate surfaces that require
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minimal polishing. COM has also developed a promising experimental polishing process called magnetorheological finishing. In magnetorheological finishing, the conventional rigid polishing lap is replaced by a suspension of magnetic particles and polishing abrasives. A magnetic field locally stiffens the fluid, creating a polishing spot that can be scanned over the part to polish it and correct its surface figure.
Although most spherical optical components are produced for use in imaging systems, other applications are also important for a healthy U.S. optics industry. Many specialized components are needed for laser systems, data storage systems, telecommunications equipment, a variety of analytical instruments, and endoscopes or other optical devices for minimally invasive surgery. The U.S. catalog houses that distribute stock produced overseas meet only part of this need.
If the surfaces of an image-forming component are allowed to be nonspherical, a major advance occurs. The addition of definable high-order curvature to the usual second-order spherical surface permits independent correction or balancing of spherical aberration. This leads to a reduction in the number of lens surfaces needed for aberration-corrected imagery and permits simpler, better optical systems (see Figure 6.2). Asymmetrical aspheres are also becoming important, especially in conformal applications, in which the outer surface of an optical component must conform to the aerodynamic shape of an aircraft or missile.
Among the diverse applications of high-precision aspheres are military aerospace systems, optical data storage, photolithography, and astronomy. Lower-precision aspheres have an even wider range of application, including photography and video imaging (especially zoom lenses), projection television, medical instruments such as endoscopes, telecommunications, and document scanners and printers. At the low-end of the market, aspheres find use in such applications as condenser elements for illumination.
Some of these areas of application present valuable economic opportunities for the U.S. optics industry. The trend toward more compact optical systems with active or movable components—zoom lenses, for example—is increasingly driving designers toward aspheres. The future goals of the semiconductor industry (which will require asymmetrical reflective components for deep-UV photolithography), as well as other industrial and defense applications, cannot be achieved without the ability to produce high-quality aspheres cost-effectively.
FIGURE 6.2 A single element with an aspheric surface can have significantly reduced aberration (compare with Figure 6.1).
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Aspherical surfaces cannot be produced by the traditional methods used for manufacturing spherical-surfaced components. Three technologies are required to manufacture precision aspheres: machining, polishing, and metrology. Successfully generating, polishing, and testing aspheres all require considerable skill, and investment in all three is mandatory for successful production.
The two current options for machining defined aspheric surfaces are single-point diamond turning and computer-controlled (CNC) generation. Diamond turning is used to make aspheres in ductile materials such as metals, but it leaves an intrinsic surface roughness that must be removed by polishing if the component is to be used at visible or near-infrared wavelengths. CNC generators are used to grind brittle materials such as glass. Several countries have programs directed toward defined-shape generation of aspheric surfaces. These programs are beginning to produce numerically controlled machinery that makes the use of multiple aspheric surfaces feasible. In the United States, a major new program funded by the Defense Advanced Research Programs Agency (DARPA) is investigating the fabrication of conformal optical components.
Except in some infrared applications, machined aspheric surfaces usually require a computer-controlled polishing or finishing step. This step has two purposes: to correct the surface figure to the proper shape and to smooth its microroughness to reduce light scattering. The achievable accuracy of aspheric surface figuring has improved a hundredfold in less than a decade, from 0.5 μm [root mean square (rms)] in 1988 to about 5 nm (rms) in 1996. A variety of approaches have been developed based on loose abrasive polishing. These include passive and active flexible laps, deformable rigid laps, and small tool polishers. All of these approaches aim to solve the problem that a rigid lap, as is used in the conventional polishing of spherical elements, will not maintain good contact with an aspheric surface as it moves over the part. Magnetorheological finishing is also under development, as mentioned above. Ion figuring has proved to be a predictable method for final shape correction, but it does not reduce surface roughness.
The third requirement is metrology of the surface figure. Comparing surface measurements to the design of the component produces the data needed to drive computer-controlled polishers. Thus, the metrology system not only qualifies the finished part but also is essential during the polishing process. Contact and noncontact profilometers are used, but these systems are slow, and more importantly, they measure the surface only along widely separated one-dimensional traces. An interferometer coupled with a null optic (refractive, reflective, or diffractive) is preferable because it provides an accurate full-area test of the surface profile. The null lens must be calibrated before
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use. Asphere manufacturers find the use of null optics essential, but it is common for them to lament the high cost and long lead times.
All three of the above technologies need improvement, but the technology deficit is most severe in metrology, followed by polishing, and least severe in machining or generating. Also important for the future fabrication of precision aspheres will be the trend away from rotationally symmetric aspheres or their off-axis sections and toward generalized aspheres with little or no symmetry.
It is vital to the future of the U.S. optics industry that domestic production of aspherical optical components be made more cost-effective. Moderate-quality aspheres typically cost four to five times more than comparable spherical elements, so simply eliminating a spherical component from a design is rarely enough to make the economic case for using an asphere. Performance, size, or weight must be an additional driver. Thus, asphere fabrication technology has until now been driven by the needs of specific applications. More widespread application will require continued moves toward technology-based and computer-controlled manufacturing processes. These capabilities tend to lie in larger companies, and as a result, only a few U.S. manufacturers are currently able to produce aspheres economically. The ability to produce aspheres at a cost less than twice that of a spherical surface would open wider markets for such components. Without an incentive to develop a domestic capability, there is a real risk that precision asphere manufacturing will move offshore. Government agencies should continue to support the activities necessary to introduce cost-effective precision aspheric components into both military and commercial products.
Computer-Controlled Deterministic Grinding and Polishing
The primary reason high-volume manufacturing of image-forming components has left the United States is that current manufacturing techniques for these products are still operator resident, art driven, and based on labor-intensive machinery that often dates from the 1940s. As a result, the quality of the output depends on the skill and experience of the operator, rather than on computer controls and a scientific understanding of the manufacturing processes.
Revitalizing the industry will require a move toward transferable manufacturing processes that are based on smart operators and computer controls. This technology will be more capital intensive and less operator dependent than the current approach. Computer-controlled, deterministic processes will also lead to better consistency—all parts of identical quality and the first part as easy to produce as the last—and to significantly faster cycle times. A model to emulate is the metalworking
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industry, in which computer-controlled machinery is now the norm and handbooks are widely available that list feeds and speeds for various materials and configurations.
To begin addressing these needs, three universities and the American Precision Optics Manufacturers Association, with Department of Defense sponsorship, have jointly established the Center for Optics Manufacturing. COM's major thrusts are the integration of computers into optical component manufacturing, the development of computer-controlled optical component manufacturing equipment, the development of deterministic processes using this equipment, and the transfer of the resulting technology to industry. Some of the key challenges being addressed include improved inspection techniques for in-line process control, new machine geometries for making aspherical parts, and improved tools for optomechanical design.
This new deterministic approach creates some educational challenges. Advanced-degree programs must integrate mechanics and materials science into the traditional optics manufacturing curriculum. At the technician level, mechanical and computer training are required as well as training in optics, to ensure that machine operators' skills are appropriate for computer-controlled fabrication equipment.
Diffractive Elements
The use of diffractive optical elements, in which light is manipulated by a microscopic pattern on a surface rather than by its macroscopic curvature, is a fundamentally new approach with tremendous potential. Diffractive components exploit the wave nature of light to form images by the effect of a series of zones generated on a base surface. Some of the features of such components are their low weight even at large apertures, their ability to correct spherical and other aberrations, and their reduced need for exotic materials. Applications generally use diffractive elements in combination with refractive and reflective elements. The fundamental building blocks for diffractive technology are in place, and as a result, interest in this approach has surged recently.
Designs that combine aspheric lenses and mirrors with surface-relief diffractive lenses offer significant potential to improve performance and reduce size, weight, and cost. Among their applications are head-mounted displays, advanced sensor systems, laser and broadband imaging, optical interconnections for high-speed data transfer, optical data storage, optical correlators for target acquisition systems, consumer digital imaging applications, and precision testing of complicated optical systems.
Diffractive optical elements have significant market potential. Estimated at between $15 million and $20 million in 1995, the market is expected to grow to between $150 million and $200 million by the turn of the century. Almost one-quarter of the market will be in
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evaluated for tolerances, so they do not work when assembled or are impossible to build. There are less than a thousand expert optical design engineers in the United States, but many more people have access to design software. Experience plays a significant role in this field; it takes about 3 to 5 years of full-time effort for a competent designer to become comfortable with a wide range of applications.
Third, optical systems can now be fully analyzed for very little cost. The number of rays a designer can afford to trace no longer limits his or her abilities. The total design process begins with a meeting of the designer and the customer to define the goals of the system, including such factors as performance, cost, package, and delivery. About 25% of the design effort is usually spent in communication with the customer to ensure that the product is feasible, that the estimated cost is compatible with the budget, and that the design is indeed what the customer wants. Examination of manufacturability should start in midproject. This includes tolerancing limits of the design and checking compatibility with mechanical constraints, mounting, and environmental issues such as temperature range. The design is then fine-tuned by taking into account all known issues. The total design time can range from a few weeks to 6 months depending on a number of factors including the complexity of the system and the cost sensitivity of the manufactured product. Surprisingly, despite the availability of tolerancing and manufacturability tools in design packages, many designers fail to examine these issues, concentrating only on analyzing and optimizing the design's image and aberration. In most cases, design software can model, specify, and predict the performance of complex surfaces that are beyond what can be accurately fabricated, tested, or aligned. Designers must be aware of these limitations. Better tolerancing is a challenge for the optical design community. Areas that need improvement include communication of the fabrication and testing limitations of the optics shop, communication of the tolerancing set and compensators, better understanding of the manufacturing cost breakpoints, and more enthusiasm for the tolerancing process. New tools for computer simulation of multiple-step assemblies will result in better correlation between computer-predicted and as-built performance.
The fourth major ramification of the revolution in design software is the possibility of global optimization, a major breakthrough that allows multiple local aberration minima to be traversed in a single computer run. Historically, local minima have been a common problem facing optical designers. The system they have designed may be the best of all similar systems for the given application, but there is no guarantee that other classes of design (using more or fewer elements, other types of glass, and so on) would not produce superior results. Real problems with many variables and many constraints-such as designing a lens
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that fits within a volume or length constraint—can now be analyzed overnight on a desktop computer that generates a family of alternate solutions of different types. Global optimization is one of the most significant innovations in optical design in the last decade.
Despite these changes, no foreseeable advances in design software will eliminate the need for human intervention. Incremental designs, minor improvements, or small configurational changes in existing systems can result from optimization techniques built into a software package. Nonincremental designs represent entirely new configurations of optical elements and cannot be obtained automatically. Truly innovative nonincremental designs represent new technology and require invention by an expert optical designer. By one estimate, only about 3% of design jobs result in nonincremental improvements.
New optical technologies continue to pose new challenges for the optical design community. Optical systems now range from surgical endoscopes a few millimeters in diameter to space-based telescopes 25 m wide. Systems containing adaptive elements force new optimization guidelines on the designer. Improvements in software are necessary for the design and optimization of nonimaging components. Optical design tools must advance to handle integrated optical and mechanical design; for example, standards for representing precision surfaces are needed that are compatible with mechanical design programs. In the future, as computation becomes ever cheaper, end-use image simulation will be employed instead of ray fans for system analysis and optimization. Resources must be found to incorporate all of these changes into optical design software packages. The optical design community is small, and optical design is taught formally at only a few universities, which has limited the number of people dedicated to developing design software. Rarely are students given more than introductory training in optomechanical design. The backlog of potential productivity enhancements from improved designs is measured in years.
Role of Metrology
Advances in optical metrology over the past decade have opened up vast new areas in optical fabrication. There is an old saying that "you can't make it if you can't measure it." A corollary to this has now been well established: "If you can measure it, you can indeed make it." Advances in fabrication technology have sometimes outstripped our measurement capabilities. A lack of routine, cost-effective, timely metrology solutions is often the bottleneck in the manufacturing process.
Much of the advance in metrology is due to advanced light sources, improved sensors, and the tremendous increase in computing power and reduction in computing cost. The availability of a variety of light sources at useful wavelengths, the development of two-dimensional
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high-density detector arrays, and the computational and storage capability of today's machines have made practical advances that previously were possible only in theory. Continued progress will lead the way in the development of new metrology systems. Its strength in computing puts the United States in a very strong position internationally for optical metrology.
Previously unprecedented surface finishes have been made routine by commercially available noncontact surface profilers and scanning-probe microscopes that measure to the angstrom (Å) level. Even for large-scale optical components, such as mirrors for the Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), x-ray test data have established that the fabrication metrology has an accuracy of better than 250 Å over a 1-m scan.
Future developments in optical metrology must embrace conflicting requirements. There is an ever-increasing desire for higher spatial resolution at the same time as larger and more complete area coverage. The ability to manufacture diffractive optical components with high throughput requires the ability to sculpt profiles on submicron structures to accuracies on the order of tens of angstroms. The advancement of microlithography requires concomitant advances in metrology. Even on large scales, optical components such as those required for space-based observatories are affected by angstrom-level height variations over spatial scales in the hundreds of microns.
The need to maintain special environmental conditions for high-precision measurements is a huge driver of system costs, and the final measurement accuracy is often limited by how well these environmental conditions are maintained. Consequently, the development of a metrology system insensitive to environmental conditions would be of tremendous benefit.
Some other areas for future technology development include these:
Rapid and inexpensive measurement of aspheres and anamorphic elements;
Nondestructive evaluation of subsurface damage;
Measurements of material homogeneity on large blanks in an unfinished or raw state;
In-process metrology for material removal rates, dimensional changes of the blank, surface figure, subsurface damage, and surface finish;
Metrology for surface feature generation in microlithography;
In-process metrology for the deposition of well-defined multilayer coatings over large areas;
Figure measurement for meter-sized parts with absolute accuracy on a scale of tens of angstroms;
Metrology for diffractive optics;
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Rapid remote and direct measurement and quantification of both particulate and molecular contamination; and
Development of sophisticated computer-generated null lenses.
The current level of R&D support in the United States in these areas, whether by industry or government, is a strong ground for concern about continued U.S. technological leadership.
There are no recognized calibration standards for surface roughness, scattering, or cosmetic defects. In addition there are no standard techniques for certification or calibration of holograms or binary optics to be used for optical testing. The quantification of surface defects and imperfections that affect system performance (scratches and digs) should be redefined along with other areas in an international standard. It is necessary to adopt such international standards in order to remain competitive globally.
The increasing sophistication of metrology has made it difficult for many engineers and technicians to understand the meaning of data provided by current instruments. Results are often misinterpreted, and this problem will be compounded in the future as even more complex instruments are developed and the amount of data processing required makes the results still more remote from most users' intuition. Therefore, it is necessary to develop and incorporate practice-oriented instruction aimed at creating an in-depth understanding of state-of-the-art metrology as it relates to what is being measured and to the limitations of its use. Also, because software algorithms, which are not accessible to the user, are so important in advanced measurement instrumentation, instrumentation manufacturers must continue to provide instrument-specific training and user-friendly software. Metrology training should be done at the undergraduate and the graduate levels. Similarly, technician-oriented courses should be developed for technical schools and two-year degree programs.
The issue of standards has been mentioned several times in this chapter as a key challenge for the future. For example, standards for physical design (e.g., support, stress, and ease of assembly) are an issue in the packaging of photonic components. Photonic integration will require well-defined standards for form, fit, and function. Integrating optical design with mechanical design will require standards for the representation of precision surfaces. In the area of metrology, there are no recognized calibration standards for surface roughness, scattering, or cosmetic defects. There are no standard techniques for certification or calibration of holograms or binary optics to be used for optical testing. There is a need for redefined standards for the quantification of scratches and digs. Standards for
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the interchangeability of optical components are an important driver of cost-effective manufacturing.
Successful competition in international markets depends on establishing workable international standards in areas such as these. Unfortunately, U.S. participation in international standards-setting activities lags far behind the activities of foreign organizations. Virtually all new optics standards have hitherto been developed overseas, with no support from U.S. industry or the U.S. government. As a result, the U.S. optics industry has been a follower, not a leader, in adapting to new international opportunities. Active government and industrial participation in the setting of strong international standards for optical components is especially important because of the diversity of the U.S. optics industry.
Government agencies and the optics community should recognize the importance of optics standards, especially their significance in international trade. The U.S. government should participate actively in the setting of such standards. NIST should be given the funding necessary to take the lead in this area.
Size and Composition of the Optics Industry
There is no satisfactory comprehensive source of data on the optics industry. No single professional or trade organization represents the industry as a whole, and the industrial data collected by government agencies are of limited use because their classification scheme does not clearly identify optical products. Nevertheless, certain facts are clear.
As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, large companies do not dominate the U.S. optics industry. Some large companies, such as AT&T, focus on integrating optics at the systems level, whereas others, such as Kodak, focus on systems and components. Small entrepreneurial companies play a critical role in developing the component technology (Council on Competitiveness, 1996).
Optoelectronics appears to be the most rapidly growing segment of the optics industry. The most comprehensive source of recent data on optoelectronics manufacturers is a survey of 106 U.S. companies conducted between July 1992 and February 1993 by the Bureau of Export Administration (BEA, an agency of the Department of Commerce). Of the 106 companies in the BEA survey, 77 were primarily manufacturers and 17 performed both R&D and manufacturing. (To protect proprietary information, BEA did not identify individual companies.) For the purposes of the survey, BEA defined optoelectronics as all systems, equipment, and components that emit, modulate, transmit, and/or sense light or are dependent on the combination of optical and electronic devices (see Table 6.1) (U.S. BEA, 1994).
According to the survey, in 1989 these 106 companies had net sales of $4.4 billion. Respondents projected that by 1995 this figure would
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TABLE 6.1 Composition of the Optoelectronics Industry
Fiber-optic communications
Transmission, amplifiers, cable television distribution, optical modulators, switches, fibers, multiplexers, connectors, transmit and receive modules
Fiber-optic information equipment
Optical processing units, memory or storage devices, bar-code readers, printers, image processing, interconnects, faxes, displays
Industrial/medical equipment
Machine vision, optical test and measurement, night vision and surveillance, laser processing equipment, nonlaser medical equipment, lasers
Nonmilitary transportation equipment
Automotive interior displays, traffic control systems, fly-by-light, cockpit displays, lidar for sensing turbulence, optical gyroscopes
Military equipment
Fiber-optic ground and satellite communications, lidar, optical gyroscopes, FLIR, night vision, munitions guidance, laser weapons
Consumer equipment
Televisions, video cameras, CD players, home faxes, appliance displays
Photo detectors, semiconductor light sources, hybrid optical devices
TABLE 6.2 Sales of 106 Surveyed Companies in Optoelectronics Sector of Optics Industry
Net sales ($ million)
Change from previous year (%)
NOTE: E = estimated. Source: U.S. Bureau of Export Administration (1994), Table IV-4.
approach $8 billion, which represents an average annual increase of 10% (see Table 6.2). This growth rate is probably representative of the optoelectronics industry as a whole, but the survey was not all-inclusive, and so the exact size and composition of the industry are not known (U.S. BEA, 1994, p. iii-2).
Another source of data is the annual survey of manufacturers (ASM) conducted by the Bureau of the Census. This survey is one of the primary sources of information regarding the performance of the U.S. manufacturing industry. The most recent ASM, based on a sampling of approximately 58,000 manufacturing establishments, estimates the value of 1995 shipments for approximately 1,750 classes of manufactured products (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1997). Two of these product classes are fiber optic cable and laser systems and equipment; each shows an average annual growth rate of about 15% in recent years (see Figure 6.4).
Recent information in the trade press indicates that worldwide 1996 sales of industrial laser systems were $1.5 billion, a 29% increase from
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FIGURE 6.4 Shipments of fiber-optic cable and laser systems and equipment by U.S. manufacturers. (Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1997.)
1995. A further 23% increase is expected in 1997. U.S manufacturers have a 35% share of this market by revenue—about $400 million in 1995 (Belforte, 1997). These growth rates are about twice those derived from the 1995 ASM, whereas the U.S. market size estimate is substantially smaller than the Census Bureau's estimate.
The Optoelectronics Industry Development Association (OIDA) estimates that in 1995, world production of optoelectronics was $64 billion, of which U.S. production was $12.5 billion (see Table 6.3). OIDA predicts that the optoelectronics market will continue to grow by about 10% per year, resulting in a world market in 2013 that approaches $500 billion.
TABLE 6.3 Optoelectronics Market Segments and Their 1995 Production ($ billion)
Cathode-ray tube displays
Data storage (media only)
Flat-panel displays
Sensors (including imaging)
Lightwave transmission, interconnects, etc.
Fiber, passive
Solar cells
Source: A. Bergh, Optoelectronics Industry Development Association.
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The basis for collecting industrial statistics such as those described in this section is a system of product classes or groupings of the individual products of an industry. Since 1939, product classes have been designated by a system known as the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC), which was established by the Department of Commerce in concert with industry representatives. Each SIC code has four digits. Special surveys often add a fifth digit or letter to better identify specific groups of products.
A new six-digit North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) is being introduced beginning in 1998. Its primary goal is improved relevance to current economic activity, in response to the rapid creation of new industries and the need to better characterize existing industries. Additional goals are to include Canada and Mexico in a unified system and to facilitate comparison of economic activity in North America with activity in the rest of the world. Classification under NAICS is based primarily on production methods; that is, products that use identical or similar production processes will be grouped together (Manufacturing News, 1997).
A critical issue for all these data sources is that the standard system of industrial classification (see Box 6.3) does not align well with the various segments of the optics industry. This makes it extremely difficult to compare data from different sources, draw inferences about trends, or assess the effects of policies. Even though it produces billions of dollars in revenues each year, there is no statistically well-defined "optics industry." Many important and growing components of the optics industry described in this report cannot be found in the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) database. For example, the category laser systems and equipment, except communications (SIC code 36992) is included only as part of electrical machinery, equipment, and supplies not elsewhere classified (SIC code 3699), which also includes Christmas tree lights, electric insect lamps, automatic garage door openers, and outboard electric motors. There is no way, except through a special survey, to sort out the data for laser systems, and the special survey that identifies laser systems and equipment, except communications is performed only every 5 years.
Despite recent efforts by the Department of Commerce to provide some much-needed increased visibility to the rapidly growing high-technology segments of the U.S. industrial base, much of the optics industry appears to have been overlooked. For example, the new North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) appears to have dropped the category laser systems altogether! The Bureau of the Census should involve representatives of the optics industry in the next revision of the NAICS codes.
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TABLE 6.4Some NAICS and SIC Codes for Optics-related Products
Optical instruments and lens manufacturing
Optical instruments and lenses
Photography and photocopy equipment manufacturing
Photography and photocopy equipment
Semiconductor and related device manufacturing
Semiconductor and related devices
Magnetic and optical recording media manufacturing
Magnetic and optical recording media
Electric lamp bulb and part manufacturing
Electric lamp bulbs and parts
Fiber-optic cable manufacturing
Nonferrous wire drawing and insulated wire and cable
Vehicular lighting equipment manufacturing
Vehicular lighting equipment
Surgical and medical instrument manufacturing
Surgical and medical instruments
Eyeglasses and contact lens manufacturing
Eyeglasses and contact lenses
Some optics-related NAICS and SIC codes can be found in Table 6.4. In 1997 the major optics-related professional and trade organizations have come together to form the Coalition for Photonics and Optics (CPO). The goal of the CPO is to better represent the character of the optical industry as a unified whole. As the CPO develops, it is to be hoped that more (and more consistent) details about the character of the industry will become available.
Summary and Recommendations
Small companies, generally quite specialized, make up much of the U.S. optics industry. Thus, although the industry makes a significant contribution to the economy, this contribution comes in so many small pieces that it is hard to fully recognize and understand. Annual revenues are in the tens of billions of dollars, but precise characterization is difficult because the optics industry does not align well with the government's standard statistical categories. Furthermore, no single professional or trade organization represents the entire industry, although in recent months several major organizations have come together to form the Coalition for Photonics and Optics.
New technologies are presenting new manufacturing challenges. Aspheric and diffractive elements offer new options for design and packaging, but design capabilities in this area currently far exceed capabilities for economical manufacturing. Driven by the growth of broadband telecommunications and other applications, fiber devices
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are developing rapidly and demanding lower-cost manufacturing techniques. New opportunities are emerging for semiconductor devices as their cost per watt falls. The photonic materials InP, GaAs, and LiNbO3 are maturing, but for future devices, CdTe, SiC, GaN, and AlN are still in need of improvements in crystal growth and material quality.
Optical design is a key strength of the U.S. optics industry. Design and analysis capabilities have become dramatically more powerful as a result of advances in computing power. For photonic components, however, CAD tools like those used in the silicon industry are not available. Such tools are becoming essential for shortening design cycles and increasing functionality.
The Department of Defense has historically been a key customer of the U.S. optics industry, and its special needs have strongly influenced the industry's development. Despite the trend toward increased reliance on commercial, off-the-shelf technology, continued DOD support of optics manufacturing technology is vital. There are many specialized optical technologies with important military applications whose commercial markets are insufficient to motivate development by the private sector alone.
Photolithography equipment is a key comercial application of high-value specialty optics. Achieving the ever-smaller feature sizes demanded by the semiconductor industry will require industry support for improved fabrication of deep-UV aspheric elements. Metrology may be the single most difficult challenge in manufacturing the next generation of photolithography equipment.
Photonics applications in information technology are a major driver of the optics industry's low-cost mass markets. Today, most photonic devices consist of discrete components. Advances will depend on lower cost and increased functionality, and these requirements will drive integration. Also required will be high-volume automated manufacturing lines; improvements in assembly and process control; and well-defined standards for form, fit, and function. Packaging, testing, and fiber connection account for the majority of the cost of photonic components; skills in these areas are underemphasized in the U.S. optics community. The shrinking pool of U.S. talent in bulk crystal growth is also an area of concern.
Successful competition in international markets depends on establishing workable international standards. Virtually all new optics standards have hitherto been developed overseas, with no support from U.S. industry or the U.S. government. As a result, the U.S. optics industry has been a follower, not a leader, in adapting to new international opportunities. Active government and industrial participation in setting strong international standards for optical components is especially important because of the diversity of the U.S. optics industry.
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As discussed earlier in this chapter, the committee recommends the following actions:
Government agencies and the optics community should recognize the importance of optics standards, especially their significance in international trade. The U.S. government should participate actively in the setting of such standards. NIST should be given the funding necessary to take the lead in this area.
Government agencies should continue to support the activities necessary to introduce cost-effective precision aspheric components into both military and commercial products.
DOD should continue to maintain technology assets and critical skills in optics manufacturing in order to meet future needs.
The Bureau of the Census should involve representatives of the optics industry in the next revision of the NAICS codes.
Collaborative programs in optics manufacturing should include universities so that students are trained in the latest technical solutions to production problems.
DOD, NIST, and the DOE national laboratories should establish together a cooperative program that provides incentives and opportunities to develop new ideas into functioning methods for optics fabrication.
Belforte, D. 1997. Annual market review. Industrial Laser Review (January):17-21.
Business Communications Company. 1996. The Future for Optical Coatings, RGB-187. Norwalk, Conn.: Business Communications.
Council on Competitiveness. 1996. Endless Frontier, Limited Resources. Washington, D.C.
Joint Precision Optics Technical Group. 1987. Precision Optics Study. Washington, D.C.: Pentagon Joint Group on the Industrial Base.
Manufacturing News. 1997. Goodbye SIC, Hello NAICS. January, p. 1.
The Photonics Directory. 1997. Pittsfield, Mass.: Laurin Publishing Company.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1997. 1995 Annual Survey of Manufactures, M95(AS)-2. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Bureau of Export Administration (BEA). 1994. Critical Technology Assessment of the U.S. Optoelectronics Industry, NTIS PB93-192425. Washington, D.C.


text: We eat here at least once a week, they have fantastic pho, Vietnamese sandwiches and the salad/grilled pork/egg roll on rice noodle dish that I crave. Their shaken beef salad comes with rice and garlic soup, to die for! Whether it's my family or a large group from work, the service is fantastic and... read more

subset: commoncrawl


text:
anyone's baby fall from bed
My baby fell from my bed (about 3 feet high) the other day, my older daughter was watching her and turned around, just them my 7 month old rolled off bed. She cried immediately for about 2 minutes, then stopped. No other symptoms but I feel just horrible. Did this happen to anyone else? My friends tell me their babys fell too and she is okay.
Posted: 01/02/2008 by Aashley
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My 7 month old daughter fell off the bed on the carpeted floor 2 hours ago. She cried for a couple of minutes, drank some formula and went to sleep. She just woke up and is behaving as usual. There's no injury & she's just as she always is. My husband keeps blaming me for her fall. He said she looks fine and we don't need to take her to a doctor or to the ER. I don't know what to do... i keep beating myself up... I feel like a terrible mom.... My husband wont even let me hold her anymore!! ;( ;(posted 03/04/2013 by a BabyCenter Member
It's damn near 6 in the morning and I can't fall back asleep because I had fell asleep holding my 2 month old after feeding him and te next thing I know I feel him fall from my arms and I look and he's laying face down on he carpet.. Luckily I have one of those low to the ground ikea beds and he seems to be fine. Has a small scratch on his forehead but he acted barely cried. He was more scared than anything. Me on the other hand freaked out checked him out and called my mother cryin my eyes out and she told me its ok that it's happened to her and that as long as he's acting normal and reacting fine to sound and light he should be fine.. I feel like a terrible mother and now I can't sleep and I have to be up in 2 hours for work. Ugh what a terrible feeling.posted 02/25/2013 by krodriguez88
my 7 month old fell off my bed about an hour ago . he cried for maybe a min , ive been crying for the last hour. He is smiling laughing and playing with his toys. drank a bottle. seems to be doing alright. Should i take him to drs or just watch him?fposted 02/15/2013 by MonicaJuLy15
Same thing happen to me today , my little 7 month girl fell of my bed about 3 feet tall started to cry immediately now I'm scared I fell so horrible as I was putting her to bed I started to rub her head and felt it swollen I don't know what to do first thing tomorrow I'm taking her to her pediatrician and is vice or ideas ?posted 02/13/2013 by castro_kimberly50
Same thing happen to me today , my little 7 month girl fell of my bed about 3 feet tall started to cry immediately now I'm scared I fell so horrible as I was putting her to bed I started to rub her head and felt it swollen I don't know what to do first thing tomorrow I'm taking her to her pediatrician and is vice or ideas ?posted 02/13/2013 by castro_kimberly50
So, my 6 week old daughter dove out of her daddy's arms and compleatly off our 3 foot high bed and hit our hardwood floor. He rushed and grabbed her and handed her to me. He was saying he was about to be sick so I quickly took her. I sit back down on our bed and go to comfort the baby, then all of a sudden I hear another thud, and he was in the floor too! Apparently he stood up to fast and fainted. Luckily, they are both compleatly fine lolposted 02/11/2013 by lindsey_medora
Thank you ladies for all the support going out in response to this question. Last night my 7-month-old daughter rolled off the bed and landed on all fours. She was more scared than anything and has no bumps or bruises to speak of. She cried for a few minutes. My husband ran into the room and immediately started berrating me for allowing it to happen, as though I did it intentionally. This morning he was still treating me like a criminal. She was laughing and playing within 20 minutes of the incident, but I can't seem to make my husband understand the guilt and misery I feel over it. I don't need him telling me what an awful mother I am to have let something like this happen. I love my daughter so much and it helps to know that accidents happen to everyone, and that I am not alone.posted 01/21/2013 by ADub84
7 months does seem to be the trend for our LO's leaping off beds. My daughter fell off the bed just last week. She, her dad, and I were cuddling in bed and well, the two of us adults were exhausted. We dozed off and woke up to a thud followed by crying. We jumped up looked at each other and looked around frantically! She was face down on our hard wood floor at the foot of the bed. She fell between the dresser and the, what I now realize is terribly dangerous, over sized bed frame that sticks out about 3 inches. Thank god she didn't land on the metal sticking out, even though it was covered with a sock to protect unsuspecting shins! Needless to say the thing's going in the dump this weekend, just to be safe. We checked her out and she was fine. She didn't cry for more than maybe a minute and all limbs are flexing fine, and no change in mood or behaviors. WHEW! Why can't they just make full sized beds into cribs! Then we could all sleep safely and comfortably!posted 01/17/2013 by nicole_worsley
OMG!!! i am soooo happy i have found this like many others on here my daughter (8months ) fell off the bed this morning i just ran tot he bathroom for a second to get something and boom she was on the floor /.. she was asleep and in the center of the bed .. i have been beating myself up allmorning over this and we took her to the ER for them to give her a diag of "normal" ... i am glad i am not the only one this has happened to and i too feel like the worst mother in the world from onow on anytime i have to get somthing or turn around she is going in her crib r in someones arms... she is acting normally now ans doing normal everyday things ... i am a worry wart and way over protective and i know i hve to work on that this is my one and only i can not have anyother children she is my world and i just keep replayingit over in my head ... how do i stop this? even my husband keeps telling me it is not my fault and she is fine .. ugh .. i guess only time will tell .posted 01/09/2013 by sunnshine5366
I'm so glad i looked this up my 3 month old rolled off my bed yesterday morning and i feel absolutely horrible about it and i can't stop picturing what happen...my husband and i were sleeping and she was on me and i hear a thud and her crying i wake up still half sleep trying to register what just happened and i saw my baby girl on the floor at that moment my husband woke up and looked at me with this heartbreaking look and yelling at me "what did you" and i picked her up and just held her tight she literally cried for about 15 seconds and went back to sleep, i checked her out and she seemed ok everything moving right no swelling on her head or anything ...i handed her to my husband and just broke down crying i still can't believe i let that happened..after my husband calmed down and laid our daughter down, he held me tight and tried to comfort me...i feel like the worse mother in the world that i caused my daughter pain..the next day she was herself and fine i love her so muchposted 01/07/2013 by a BabyCenter Member
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FoCS Corporate Connection - "Scaling @ Twitter: Killing the Fail Whale" with Gary Tsang
Speaker: Gary Tsang
Synopsis: Twitter will be giving a talk that covers the technical challenges of scaling Twitter and how we have overcome those challenges in our current architecture.
Abstract: Three years ago, when the 2010 World Cup put Twitter squarely in the center of a real-time, global conversation, the influx of Tweets—from every shot on goal, penalty kick, and yellow or red card—repeatedly took its toll and made Twitter unavailable for short periods of time. Twitter engineers worked throughout the nights during this time, desperately trying to find, and implement, order-of-magnitudes of efficiency gains. Unfortunately, those gains were quickly swamped by Twitter's rapid growth, and engineering had started to run out of low-hanging fruit to fix.
After that experience, we determined we needed to step back and re-architect the site to support the continued growth of Twitter. Since then we've worked hard to make sure that the service is resilient to the world's impulses. We're now able to withstand events like Castle in the Sky viewings, the Super Bowl, and the global New Year's Eve celebration. To highlight how far we've come, the Castle in the Sky viewings produced a new tweet-per-second record of 143,199 tps. This is in stark contrast to the 2010 World Cup when we were struggling with huge, at the time, tweets-per-second spikes of 3k.
This re-architecture has not only made the service more resilient when traffic spikes to record highs, but also provides a more flexible platform on which to build more features faster. These include synchronizing direct messages across devices, Twitter cards that allow Tweets to become richer and contain more content, and a rich search experience that includes stories and users.
Speaker Bio: Gary Tsang is a UT Austin Alum and Infrastructure Engineer in Twitter's San Francisco office. His work with the Timeline Service Infrastructure team is focused on scaling the Twitter platform. Projects include, tweet migration and products such as the home timeline, @connect, and conversations.
We will be taking resumes.
FREE SWAG and food available!
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The apartment is situted in a good location, very close to Manzoni metro stop and the Colosseum. Other tourist destinations are within walking distance such as the Pantheon. The accomodation was clean and felt our belongings were safe. Items such as towels were also provided. The only downfall was that there was no air conditioning but with the windows open... More
- Official Description (provided by the hotel):
- Located in the centre of Rome, Casa Vacanze Rotundo is a stone's throw from the Coliseum and from three of the most important basilicas of the city like San Giovanni, Santa Maria Maggiore e Santa Croce in Gerusalemme. Close to the most important monuments of Rome like the Arch of Constantine, the Campidoglio, the Trajan's market, the Trevi Fountain and the Circus Maximus. Bright, comfortable and quiet rooms with two separated bathrooms. Only 50 metres from the line A subway's stop "Manzoni" and bus station. ... more less


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The Pub A friendly forum where everybody is nice, and will answer any questions you have about life. |
greatlakes4x4.com is the premier Great Lakes 4x4 Forum on the internet. Registered Users do not see the above ads.
Thread Tools | Search this Thread |
February 26th, 2008, 12:29 AM | #1 |
steveo's alt...
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February 26th, 2008, 07:06 AM | #6 |
hoo dat. wat.
I didn't see any Fs?
@clarkstoncracker |
February 26th, 2008, 10:36 PM | #14 |
I put the Ick in Dick.
There were no F's therefore the writers were retarded. However the proper terminology for what they were trying to achieve would have been as follows.
Count how many times the letter F is used in the following sentence. See kids how drugs and are bad Mmmm'Kay! |
February 27th, 2008, 07:58 AM | #15 |
hoo dat. wat.
I don't see any Fs in your sentence either.
@clarkstoncracker |
February 27th, 2008, 05:43 PM | #16 |
November 7, 1958 - July 22, 2011
I started to read the f--king thing the first f---ing time and i'll be a mother
f---er if all of a sudden the fu--ing fone didn't start f-c-ing ringing. It's as if some f--king evil spirit mother fu--er is always fuc-ing off around here and I can't ever f--king finish a single f--king thing from the moment I wake up at five O f--king clock. How many Fs there. The Fhantom lol |
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Bamboo sharks still developing in their egg cases respond to a predator presence by ceasing movement and even breathing.
Daily News Roundup
Bamboo sharks still developing in their egg cases respond to a predator presence by ceasing movement and even breathing.
Carl Woese, the discoverer of the third domain of life, has passed away at age 84.
Researchers are getting closer to detecting abnormal tumor DNA circulating in the bloodstream.
Nominated as a write-in candidate as a protest against the anti-science incumbent, famed naturalist Charles Darwin won 4,000 congressional votes in a Georgia county.
Blind mole rats resist cancer by killing cells that proliferate in a similar way to tumor cells.
A new study reveals clues to the naked mole-rat's ability to thrive in underground environments with high levels of carbon dioxide.
A questionable study claims that rats fed approved genetically modified maize developed cancer and died early.
Renowned cancer researcher Lewis Cantley is leaving Harvard to lead a new cancer center at Weill Cornell Medical College and NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital.
Myriad Genetics can hold patents on the BRAC1 and BRAC2 oncogenes, but not on tests comparing DNA sequences.
A former manager at Genentech claims the company bypassed ethical and clinical guidelines in order to rush a promising drug through clinical trials.


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Computer Sciences Management Discusses Q4 2012 Results - Earnings Call Transcript
Let me make a couple remarks before I turn this over to Mike. I've really got 4 key messages this morning. One is that our results are very poor, and they are unacceptable to us at CSC, and they're certainly unacceptable to our investors. The second message is that we are taking immediate actions to begin to move in a different direction. I will cover some of those actions today, and there'll be some more actions in the coming weeks and months. The third message is that although the negatives overwhelmed our results, there are some bright spots, and I do want to highlight some of those bright spots, particularly around some of our new offerings that I think represents the future of the company. And then the final message is that I've now completed a sort of tour of the world and visited many of our sites and many of our clients, many of our investors and many of the analysts that follow CSC, and have a pretty good handle on what the issues are, what the root causes of those issues are. And we are developing a plan to address these, as well as the underlying financial model. And we intend to share that in greater detail when we get together in early September for the Analyst/Investor Day.
So those are the 4 key messages. Now let me just quickly provide a little more detail around each of those messages. And as I said several weeks ago and again today, the results are very poor. The primary reasons for that are the NHS write-offs. The second principal driver was troubled contracts within our MSS business that resulted in impairment and restructuring charges. I don't think we managed our cost structure to adjust for some of these developments as they unrolled themselves throughout the second half of the fiscal year. I think we've got some organizational, what I call operating model alignment issues, which has made execution that much more problematic. And obviously, we continue to see some uncertainty, particularly in the federal sector and in EMEA. So those are the primary causes of the poor results, not substantially different than what we talked about before.
Read the rest of this transcript for free on seekingalpha.com
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NCAAF Football - Preview
BYU Cougars vs. Virginia Cavaliers | |
The BYU Cougars and the Virginia Cavaliers will both be gunning for a victory on Saturday when they meet at Scott Stadium. Last time out for BYU, they were a 23-6 winner as they battled San Diego State on the road. BYU covered in the match as a 3-point favorite, while 29 combined points moved the game UNDER for totals bettors. Virginia lost its last outing, a 17-14 result against Virginia Tech on November 24. Virginia covered in that game as a 10-point underdog, while the 31 combined points took the game UNDER the total. Team records: BYU: 8-5 SU, 7-6 ATS Virginia: 4-8 SU, 2-9-1 ATS BYU most recently: When playing in August are 7-1 When playing on grass are 8-2 After outgaining opponent are 6-4 When playing outside the conference are 6-4 Virginia most recently: When playing in August are 1-4 When playing on grass are 2-8 After being outgained are 2-8 When playing outside the conference are 6-4 A few trends to consider: BYU home to Texas, Saturday, September 7 Virginia home to Oregon, Saturday, September 7 |


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Football Weekly + Chelsea
Podcast: AC Jimbo and co on a busy week in the Champions League, plus a full preview of the weekend's action around Europe
Podcast: West Ham's comeback at the Lane, Sunderland knocking out Chelsea and a full weekend preview, all on the agenda for James Richardson and co
Champions League round-up from James Richardson and team, who discuss impressive wins for Man Utd, Man City and Arsenal, and another Chelsea defeat to Basel
Podcast: The podders look back on all the action in the Champions League and look forward to the Manchester derby
Podcast: James Richardson wraps up the final weekend's action in the Premier League with Barry Glendenning, Amy Lawrence and Paul MacInnes.
James Richardson is this week joined by Barry Glendenning, Paul MacInnes and James Horncastle to look back on all the drama from the Europa League semi-final first legs
James Richardson rounds up an eventful weekend in the FA Cup and Premier League - plus previews of the week's big games in the European cups.
Podcast: AC Jimbo and co on Villa sinking Liverpool, Chelsea's final defeat, Marouane Fellaini, the 2022 World Cup and more
Podcast: It's all change at Chelsea – again. Plus Manchester City's exit from the Champions League is confirmed.
James Richardson and a bleary-eyed panel analyse Chelsea's win in Bavaria, West Ham's chances in the Premier League and apologise unreservedly to Huddersfield
Podcast: AC Jimbo and co round up all the Champions League action. Plus previews of Man Utd v Chelsea, sympathy for Plymouth fans and smouldering man-love for Edinson Cavani
Podcast: Chelsea hit form again but United struggle. Plus, a Carling Cup final preview, the Championship promotion race and footballers who love Boyzone
Podcast: The podders analyse Kenny Dalglish's return to Liverpool. Plus, goals, punches and dives in the FA Cup, and a less-than-enthusiastic look ahead to the Carling Cup semi-finals
In a bumper pod, we discuss why Carlos Tevez stayed, the Boxing Day games and how Leo Messi would fare at Stoke
Podcast: Jimbo and co wonder whether Arsenal can go the distance in the Premier League. Plus, round-ups from around Europe and more on the World Cup fallout
Podcast: Sunderland put three past Chelsea at Stamford Bridge, while Liverpool lose at Stoke. Plus, Bolton move up to fifth and Jay Bothroyd is called up to the England squad
Podcast: The pod hails the Welsh wonder, debates the merits of the Champions League group stages, and previews the weekend
Podcast: West Brom stun Arsenal and Manchester City tame Chelsea. Plus, Gazza returns to management; Darren Bent: English goal machine; and round-ups from Italy, Germany and Spain
Podcast: The Premier League goes goal crazy. Plus, Cardiff get their Bellamy bounce; Bundesliga round-up; and the Europa League
Podcast: James and the pod discuss the FA Cup final, the Lord Triesman scandal and Barcelona and Inter retaining their titles
Podcast: Chelsea put seven past Stoke while Manchester United see off Spurs. Plus: the fight for fourth gets even tighter, and Champions League and Europa League previews


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Two NY apartments raided in terror probe
(Read article summary)Officials were seeking information on an alleged Al Qaeda associate in their 'preventative' operation early Monday.
An antiterror squad swept down on two New York City apartments in the early hours Monday, looking for information on a man with alleged links to Al Qaeda.
No arrests were made, and officials played down the raids later Monday, saying there was no immediate terror threat. But a resident of one of the apartments described a dramatic, middle-of-the-night operation, and local media quoted jittery neighbors.
ABC News reported that officials had been tracking an individual for several days, and moved swiftly to "disrupt the plans of a terror suspect."
"He was being watched and concern grew as he met with a group of individuals in Queens over the weekend," said Congressman Pete King (R-NY). "The FBI went to court late last night for an emergency warrant to conduct the raids this morning." A resident in the neighborhood said there was police activity around 2 a.m. Monday.
Officials said the execution of search warrants came after days of surveillance, and NYPD Commissioner Ray Kelly characterized it as part of an "ongoing investigation."
The New York Times quoted New York Senator Charles Schumer, who was briefed on the operation, describing the raids as "preventative." Schumer denied rumors that there were concerns of an "imminent" attack or that the raid related to President Obama's visit to New York City on Monday.


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Crimson Peak Trailer Has Tom Hiddleston Among The Gothic And Supernatural
The trailer for the upcoming horror thriller from director, Guillermo del Toro,
Crimson Peak
has made its haunting, mind-blowing debut. From what we see, it's riddled with fantastic, horrifically creepy imagery put through the lens of a Victorian, steampunkish aesthetic style. This film certainly appears to have Del Toro back at his visually vicious best.
Guillermo Del Toro
Joseph Baxter
Justice League Dark May Feature These 4 Superheroes
The folks at Warner Bros. have become extremely focused on developing their very own cinematic universe based on DC Comics properties - but while
Justice League
characters like Batman, Superman, Wonder Woman and Flash have been the key focus, they're also not forgetting about the more monstrous side of the comic book world.
Guillermo Del Toro
Eric Eisenberg
Justice League Dark Will Have A Big Effect On The Larger DC Universe
Justice League Dark is apparently going to tie into the DC Universe in a big way. Read on to find out why this is such a great idea.
Guillermo Del Toro
Mike Reyes
Guillermo Del Toro's Justice League Dark Has A Screenplay, Get The Details
Guillermo Del Toro is still steaming ahead with his Justice League Dark film, and we've got some word on the screenplay's status after the jump.
Guillermo Del Toro
Mike Reyes
Where Pacific Rim 2 Will Pick Up
Guillermo Del Toro is on a one-man mission to make sure that
Pacific Rim 2
actually makes it to the big-screen. The Mexican director has already figured out where he wants to take the franchise, and hes now explained where the sequel will pick up after the first.
Guillermo Del Toro
Gregory Wakeman
Pacific Rim 3 Is Coming, Here Are The Details
You cant fault Guillermo del Toros forward planning. Weve not even had
Pacific Rim 2
, yet but the beloved Mexican director is already gushing over details for
Pacific Rim 3
. And from his recent comments, its quite clear that he has big plans for the franchise.
Guillermo Del Toro
Gregory Wakeman
Pacific Rim 2 Just Got A Terrifying, A+ Teaser Poster
When last we heard, Guillermo del Toro was planning on directing, and was working on a screenplay with Zak Penn. There were no holes in the ocean in the first movie. I cant wait to see how they explain what were looking at in that amazing poster.
Guillermo Del Toro
Sean O'Connell
How James Cameron Saved Guillermo del Toro's Father From Mexican Kidnappers
James Camerons reputation as one of the fiercest directors in movie history has been widely publicized, but Guillermo del Toro will always revere the infamous filmmaker after it was revealed that, like one of the heroes that are usually central figures in his films, the
filmmaker saved his father from a perilous situation.
Guillermo Del Toro
Gregory Wakeman
Two Different Films Probably Want Emma Watson To Play The Exact Same Role
It looks as though Emma Watson has got some serious thinking to do. While the
Harry Potter
actress is currently attached to star in Warner Bros. troubled
Beauty and the Beast
adaptation, the fact that Steven Chbosky has signed up to scribe Disneys own planned reworking of the classic fairy-tale now creates the interesting possibility that she could wind up moving to the competing project.
Guillermo Del Toro
Gregory Wakeman
No One Wants Hellboy 3 More Than Ron Perlman, Here's Why
You think you're the only fan who wants
Hellboy III
to happen? Tell that to its biggest champion at the moment: Ron Perlman himself.
Guillermo Del Toro
Mike Reyes
Guillermo Del Toro Is Willing To Use NBC's Constantine In Justice League Dark
By the by, if you're only a hardcore Marvel head, Constantine and The Spectre are actually cool characters that would translate really well to film.
has already had his shot, both with the Keanu Reeves movie of the same name (which actually bore little resemblance to the source material) and now an NBC show.
Guillermo Del Toro
Gabe Toro
Peter Jackson Wants Guillermo del Toro For New King Kong Movie, Skull Island
The question that remains is whether or not this is even possible. Del Toro made
Pacific Rim
for Legendary, a relationship so pleasurable that they opted to move forward with
Pacific Rim 2
. The director also worked with the company yet again on next year's
Crimson Peak
. With
Skull Island
gearing up for a November 2016 release date, is it feasible del Toro could shoot that film before jumping onto
Pacific Rim 2
(currently scheduled for 2017)?
Guillermo Del Toro
Gabe Toro
Could Guillermo Del Toro Use Oculus Rift For Pacific Rim 2?
As for
Pacific Rim 2
, I asked Legendary experts if the Oculus Rift technology could factor in to Guillermo Del Toros sequel, as in, theater seats could be equipped with headsets that plunge audiences into the world of
Guillermo Del Toro
Sean O'Connell
Hellboy III Would Happen, Except Hollywood Won't Give Guillermo Del Toro Any Money
If you've ever been curious about why Hellboy 3 hasn't happened just yet, or if you just enjoy dreaming of the awesome sounding finale to the Hellboy trilogy, you're going to want to read this.
Guillermo Del Toro
Mike Reyes
Guillermo del Toro Just Added Another Movie To His Schedule
Strange little movie, eh? That could mean anything coming from del Toro, who has brought us monsters and robots, ghosts and goblins, and very nearly Hobbits as well.
Guillermo Del Toro
Gabe Toro
The Fear Monger: A PG-13 At The Mountains Of Madness And A South Korean Family Castration
Good day, deviliers of all things eggy. Has everybody run out to watch
Deliver Us From Evil
yet? Not that reviews have been overwhelmingly positive, even from horror fans - but any horror given the chance to go big on Fourth of July weekend deserves some attention. I guess you could go and watch
with a
Scary Sounds of Halloween
tape playing through your headphones, but that doesnt seem as effective.
Guillermo Del Toro
Nick Venable
Pacific Rim 2 Is Officially Happening
In addition to the development of
Pacific Rim 2
, Del Toro and Legendary are also working on developing a new animated series based on the growing franchise and have plans to continue the comics that began with the graphic novel
Pacific Rim: Year Zero
Guillermo Del Toro
Eric Eisenberg
Guillermo Del Toro Will Not Be Directing Beauty And The Beast Starring Emma Watson
Guillermo del Toro is a busy man. In fact, just the other day we heard that he was hard at work writing
Pacific Rim 2
. Probably not all that coincidentally, news broke today that the writer/director/producer is dropping out of the planned live-action
Beauty and the Beast
Guillermo Del Toro
Kelly West
Pacific Rim 2 Is Being Written Right Now
You know how
Pacific Rim
went from zero chance of being a hit to becoming an actually decent grossing film? Remember when we thought there was no chance of there being a sequel? Once more, Guillermo del Toro is looking to prove the world wrong, and make it happy that it was in the first place.
Guillermo Del Toro
Mike Reyes
Pacific Rim 2 Still Far Off According To Legendary Pictures Head
The fact is, you'd be an idiot to turn down a Pacific Rim 2 outright, because who in Hollywood doesn't want to be in bed (figuratively!) with Guillermo Del Toro? But the first one just didn't produce a Return On Investment that the studio would have liked. It's numbers, people.
Guillermo Del Toro
Gabe Toro
Gorgeous Book Of Life Art Colorfully Takes Us Into The Day Of The Dead
Director Jorge Gutierrez, who takes film art very seriously, recently showed off two stills from his upcoming otherwordly animated adventure
Book of Life
, from Fox Animation and Reel FX Creative Studios, and if we can expect the entire movie to look this gorgeous, Id like to buy my ticket already.
Guillermo Del Toro
Nick Venable
Guillermo Del Toro Confirms DC Is Busy Building An Entire Cinematic Universe
Its a snippet of a conversation, but if Del Toro knows what hes talking about (and theres no reason to believe that he doesnt), the Warner Bros. and DC really are making moves behind the scenes to mirror the expanding strategies of Marvel Studios.
Guillermo Del Toro
Sean O'Connell
Channing Tatum, Zoe Saldana And Many More Join Guillermo Del Toro Produced Cartoon
Channing Tatum, Zoe Saldana, Diego Luna and Christina Applegate have signed on to topline the film, while Ice Cube, Ron Perlman, Cheech Marin, and Danny Trejo will co-star...
Guillermo Del Toro
Kristy Puchko
Pacific Rim Now Ranks As 2013's Highest-Grossing, Live-Action Original Film
Pacific Rim
earned $407.3 million worldwide. Currently, it is the 10th-highest-grossing film worldwide in 2013. But as ComicBook.com points out, Of the nine films ranked ahead of
Pacific Rim
worldwide, eight of them were either sequels or based on pre-existing books or comic book characters."
Guillermo Del Toro
Sean O'Connell
Benedict Cumberbatch Drops Out Of Guillermo del Toro's Crimson Peak
There are few details available about the plot of the film, but it's been described as a gothic haunted house story about a young author (Wasikowska) who discovers that her husband is not who he seems to be. Cumberbatch and Chastain were going to play a pair of aristocratic siblings, though now it seems as though the Academy Award-nominated actress will have to find a new brother.
Guillermo Del Toro
Eric Eisenberg
Guillermo Del Toro Stories 1 to 25 of 170
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Hong Kong Baptist University
Hong Kong
This institutional profile has been created for use by University of Wisconsin-Madison graduate programs.
Other name: Hong Kong Baptist College
First degree/qualification: 3 year bachelor's degree since 1986.
Minimum quality for UW-Madison Graduate School admission: Upper ranges of class II lower.
Minimum level for UW-Madison Graduate School admission: 3 year honours bachelor's degree since 1986; before 1986 4-5 year diploma after senior middle school; 3 year honours diploma after advanced levels.
Documents required: Official transcript; official certification of degree, degree classification and date awarded.
Description: Instituted in 1956. A private postsecondary institution. Until 1986 offered diploma programs. Since then converted to 3 year degree programs. Usual admission requirements are the Hong Kong Certificate of Education and the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examinations (13 years of education).
Grading systems:
General degrees | Honours degrees | ||
3.40-4.00 | Distinction | 3.40-4.00 | Class I |
2.70-3.39 | Merit | 3.00-3.39 | Class II-1 |
2.00-2.69 | General | 2.50-2.99 | Class II-2 |
2.20-2.49 | Class III | ||
2.00-2.19 | General |
On semester system. Letter grades reported in units: A, B, C, D, E (conditional grade), F (failure). Degree class dependent on final examinations. If performance not sufficient for honours, degrees awarded as pass.
Languages of instruction: English and Chinese.
Advanced degrees:
Master's: 2 years after appropriate (minimum of class II) bachelor's; by thesis and examination.
Last updated: May 09, 2005