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- Hypothesis
- Open Access
The microbiome mutiny hypothesis: can our microbiome turn against us when we are old or seriously ill?
© Rozsa et al.; licensee BioMed Central. 2015
- Received: 13 August 2014
- Accepted: 22 December 2014
- Published: 14 January 2015
The symbiotic organisms of the healthy microbiome tend to be harmless or even beneficial for the host; however, some symbionts are able to adjust their virulence in response to external stimuli. Evolutionary theory suggests that optimal virulence might increase if the mortality of the host (from unrelated causes) increases.
Presentation of the hypothesis
We hypothesize that microorganisms of the human microbiome may be capable of a coordinated phenotypic switch to higher virulence ("microbiome mutiny") in old or seriously ill people, to optimize their transmission under the conditions of increased background mortality. This proposed virulence shift might contribute to the death of old or seriously ill people even in the absence of apparent disease.
Testing the hypothesis
Testable predictions of the hypothesis include increased expression of virulence factors in isolates of the same species of the microbiome obtained from ailing/old versus healthy/young individuals, and the existence of microbial mechanisms to assess the general condition (background mortality) of the host. Such tests are going to be important to distinguish the cases of "microbiome mutiny" from the situation where opportunistic infections or increased effective virulence arise from relaxed immune control in ailing or old individuals in the absence of changes in the symbionts/pathogens.
Implications of the hypothesis
Elucidating this potential mechanism might open up new possibilities for the clinical management of age related health issues and critical injuries or disease. Targeted prophylaxis against the microbes capable of virulence shifts could break the harmful feedback loop between deteriorating health and the "mutiny" of the microbiome.
This article was reviewed by Eugene V Koonin, Neil Greenspan and Michael Gilchrist.
- Evolutionary medicine
- Facultative virulence
- Microbiome
- Host-pathogen communication
- Pathogenesis
From an evolutionary point of view, virulence is defined as the reduction in the lifetime reproductive success of host individuals owing to infection with a symbiont/parasite. A full continuum exists from lethal pathogens to obligate mutualists, and the lines between parasitism and mutualism are often blurred [1,2]; some species are even able to adjust their virulence reacting to a changing environment [3,4]. Differences in the speed and extent of the symbionts' reproduction can directly contribute to the variability of their virulence. Slower growth and multiplication of symbionts is associated with a lighter metabolic burden and smaller costs of immunity and collateral damage. However, as expressed in the 'trade-off hypothesis of virulence' [5], slower replication is also likely to result in reduced transmissibility of the symbiont over a unit time, due to lower densities in the infected individual. General theoretical considerations suggest that symbionts evolve towards an optimal virulence that maximizes their transmission over the entire life cycle of infection [6,7]. Optimal virulence depends on the life history traits of both the host and the symbiont species, and both highly lethal, and benign or mutualistic ("negative virulence") interactions can be evolutionarily stable strategies. The symbionts adapted to long-term persistence in their hosts are characterized by low (or negative) virulence to allow the hosts to survive through longer periods [8,9].
Virulence is not only subjected to quick evolutionary changes, but some pathogens are also capable of exhibiting phenotypic plasticity in virulence traits [3]. For example, some parasites exhibit low virulence when facing "cooperative" hosts (that mount weak defense) and high virulence in "non-cooperative" hosts (that mount vigorous defense) [10].
The human microbiome is a taxonomically diverse mass of bacteria (and to a lesser extent, also archaea and fungi) living in and on both healthy and diseased humans [11]. This microbial community is widespread across all human body surfaces, namely the skin, nasal and oral cavities, genitals, lungs, and is particularly abundant within the intestines. In healthy humans, most members of the microbiome exhibit zero or negative virulence thus comprising neutral or mutualistic relationships, respectively. However, this mode of benign coexistence likely evolved under the conditions of a healthy host—representing the majority of the lifespan of humans. Human mortality exhibits a pattern of low mortality rates during most of the lifespan, but steep increase at old age [12], and episodes of serious injury or illness can substantially raise mortality also at younger age. Evolutionary theory suggests that increasing mortality might increase the optimal virulence of a symbiont [13,14]: killing the goose that lays the golden eggs might not be such a bad idea if the goose is going to die soon, anyway.
Presentation of the hypothesis
Extending earlier work [13,15], we propose that symbionts of the human microbiome might shift to higher virulence (or from mutualism/commensalism to parasitism/pathogenesis) as background mortality increases steeply at the end of human lifespan or due to serious injury or illness. As the option for long-term persistence becomes increasingly limited, the symbionts are likely to benefit from increasing host exploitation rates so as to maximize chances of immediate transmission. A recent survey of the human microbiome found that a large number (>50 species) of opportunistic pathogens are widely prevalent in the microbiota of healthy individuals [11], suggesting that many species of the microbiome (sometimes referred to as 'pathobionts' [16]) are indeed able to switch facultatively to higher virulence. Switches to higher virulence might also occur if mortality increases due to other reasons, e.g., severe injury or infection, provided the symbionts are able to detect such changes in the host's condition (which is not unreasonable to assume: see below).
Observations consistent with our hypothesis include the increased incidence of diarrhea in old age [17]; the reactivation of herpesviruses in aging [18] or after helminthic co-infection [19]; and the increased risk of common infections (including those with opportunistic pathogens) in aging individuals [20] or in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus [21]. Of note, aging has the strongest impact on the incidence of pneumonia and urinary infections [20], which are often caused by opportunistic pathogens and which both provide a simple mechanism of increased shedding of the infectious microorganisms (coughing and bacteriuria) when the replication of the pathogens accelerates. Admittedly, many of these observations could also be explained by compromised immune control over the (potential/opportunistic) pathogens in aging or diseased individuals, rather than a change in the behavior of the symbionts/commensals.
We further argue that virulence shifts across the microbiome might occur in a synchronized fashion. Whenever certain members of the microbiome switch to higher levels of virulence, the expected lifespan of the host decreases further. Sensing either the further decline in the health of the host, or directly the increased replication or virulence of the other symbionts co-inhabiting the same person might trigger further microorganisms to switch to increased virulence. As a consequence, the switching of some major components of the microbiome to higher host exploitation rates likely provokes a chain reaction of virulence shift across the whole community, somewhat analogous to a 'regime shift' (sudden switch between alternative states) in ecosystems [22].
The proposed hypothesis of "microbiome mutiny" depends on the assumption that symbionts are able to obtain reliable information on the health and life expectancy of the host that they inhabit. This might occur, e.g., by sensing increasing oxidative stress [23] or other molecular or physiological markers of senescence [24]. Impaired health due to injury or disease might be sensed based on systemic markers of inflammation [25], while an increased level of heat shock proteins can indicate stress and reduced health in both aging and disease [26]. Remarkably, stress-induced host signaling molecules have been shown to induce a high-virulence phenotype in experimental Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection of mice [27]. In addition, symbionts might detect direct or indirect clues of the presence and activity of other (potentially) disease-causing organisms, sensing secreted diffusible molecules in the frame of a microbial community-wide quorum-sensing system [28,29], or host immune status manipulated by co-infections [19]; these and other mechanisms of sensing signals from both the host and other members of the microbiota are reviewed in [30]. The ability to adjust virulence in response to external stimuli does not seem to be particularly difficult to evolve: even a simple bacteriophage could quickly be adapted to conditional virulence under experimental conditions [31].
A list of conditions required for the evolution of mechanisms of "microbiome mutiny"
Trade-off between rate of transmissibility (infectiousness) and host life span
Required to make "optimal virulence" dependent on the background rate of host mortality
Symptoms (morbidity) can aid transmission: diarrhea, coughs, bacteriuria
Detection of host health (mortality)
Required to sense changes in the selection regime (due to changing host mortality)
Bacterial sensing of host stress molecules turns on virulence phenotype [27]
Alternating selection regimes (mortality pattern) in the host population
Required to impose selection pressure from both regimes (favoring low and high virulence)
Extended aging in humans
Variability of microbiome composition among connected host individuals
Required to make between-host spread (strongly) dependent on instantaneous transmissibility
Large compositional variability in the human population [11], even within families [32]
In turn, humans (and other affected host species) might have evolved counter-adaptations to reduce the risk of "microbiome mutiny", either by interfering with the microbial sensing of declining host health, or by creating conditions that favor symbionts that are not prone to virulence shifts but might suppress potentially pathogenic species [33]. Remarkably, systemic exposure to bacterial products triggers in mice the production of fucosylated proteins that can be metabolized by the gut microbiome and that have been shown to down-regulate virulence genes in gut bacteria [34].
Selection to oppose a microbiome mutiny in old age is likely to act in humans in particular, where living a long and healthy life even after the reproductive phase of life is adaptive because elder individuals provide valuable altruistic help to their relatives. In prehistoric ages, elderly people probably played an outstanding role in gathering, storing and distributing knowledge through the community. Moreover, grandparents can provide care specifically for their grandchildren—a social system unique to humankind [34].
Testing the hypothesis
Our hypothesis predicts a secondary increase in host mortality due to "microbiome mutiny" when an independent cause (old age or illness) has generated a primary increase from the healthy baseline. Because we are typically unable to predict the primary increase quantitatively, it is not possible to assess the existence of a secondary increase solely on the basis of observed mortality rates. Even "per pathogen pathogenicity" (introduced as "per parasite pathogenicity" in [35]) is not a reliable marker, because the sensitivity (tolerance) of an immune compromised host to the same level of symbiont /pathogen load may also change independent of a virulence change in the symbiont/pathogen. The validation of the hypothesis will therefore have to rely on the discovery (and possible targeted manipulation) of the microbial mechanisms of "microbiome mutiny". Direct tests of the hypothesis should include comparisons of the expression of virulence factors and in vitro measures of virulence between isolates of the same species of the microbiome obtained from healthy/young and ailing/old individuals. Our hypothesis predicts that increased virulence is not merely a consequence of increased replication due to relaxed immune control, but is also associated with the upregulation of virulence factors. We note, however, that the two mechanisms are not mutually exclusive and might, in fact, act in synergy: relaxed immune control might allow the replication of the microorganisms to higher levels, which might then turn on virulence mechanisms by quorum sensing [29,36]. Once putative mechanisms of microbiome mutiny have been identified, strong validation for the hypothesis can be derived from targeted inhibition of these mechanisms, which should then result in the maintenance of the low-virulence phenotype and reduced mortality, without directly interfering with the primary cause of increased background mortality or the growth of the targeted facultative pathogen. The feasibility of this approach has already been demonstrated in an animal model of P. aeruginosa infection displaying facultative virulence [37].
From the host side, our hypothesis likely applies to long-lived species that have a steep increase in mortality at the end of their life span. Large mammals and some birds fall in this category, while long-lived reptiles and plants tend to have flat or even decreasing mortality rates at higher ages [12]. From the symbionts' side, the hypothesis applies to species that are able to establish long-term persistence in the host, and that have the capacity to increase their replication rate and transmissibility from the level attained in a healthy host. This might include normally harmless or beneficial members of the microbiome, with a probable dominant role of the gut microbiome that harbors the greatest microbial mass and taxonomic diversity, and that has an "easy route" to higher immediate transmissibility and virulence in the form of diarrhea. In addition, the hypothesis might also apply to persistent and/or latent infections with herpesviruses, hepatotropic viruses, spirochaetes (Lyme disease, syphilis), parasitic protozoa (malaria, toxoplasmosis), and even parasitic worms.
Finally, we note that increasing virulence in aged or chronically ill individuals might also occur by genetic changes (adaptive evolution) in infections with fast replicating organisms [38,39]. However, within-host evolution will play a role only if increased virulence confers a selective advantage to the symbiont/pathogen within the host, while our argument is based on changes in the degree of virulence that maximizes transmission, i.e. on selection at the between-host level. The two levels of selection may nonetheless be connected in some cases: in addition to conditional phenotypic plasticity, the capacity for microbial mutiny can also emerge by the evolution of "enabling constraints" that create a high-probability trajectory of evolution towards increasing virulence within the host when the appropriate conditions occur. The direct causes of the virulence shifts (phenotypic plasticity/facultative virulence vs. adaptive evolution/genetic changes) can be distinguished by screening for causative mutations.
Implications of the hypothesis
Our hypothesis posits that at the moments when our health is most fragile due to old age or severe illness, our condition can be further exacerbated by the "treachery" of our previously benign microbiome. In terms of failing health, "whosoever hath not, from him shall be taken away even that he hath" (New Testament, Matthew 13:12). However, even if this phenomenon is widespread, the effect of shifting virulence might easily have gone unnoticed, because the declining health of the individuals could be attributed to the original condition that triggered the change in the microbiome.
Elucidating this potential mechanism might open up new possibilities for the clinical management of age related health issues and critical injuries or disease. Targeted prophylaxis against the microbes capable of virulence shifts could break the harmful feedback loop between deteriorating health and the "mutiny" of the microbiome. In this regard, the widespread emergency practice of applying preventive antibiotics even in the apparent absence of known pathogens, though criticized as a source of selection for antibiotic resistance, might not be such a bad idea [40]. A more detailed knowledge of the virulence shift mechanisms might in the future allow us to target directly the mechanisms responsible for the virulence switch.
If virulence shifts occur in a chain reaction of several species of the microbiome, then the altered regime of increased virulence might remain stable or might take a long time to revert even if the injury or disease that triggered the switch is cured. The negative effect of the symbionts already in "virulence mode" might suffice to keep each of them in this state, which might prolong convalescence. Of note, patients who survive to hospital discharge after sepsis remain at increased risk for death in the following months and years [41]. This state of 'chronic critical illness' can also be triggered by other acute episodes of illness (e.g., acute lung injury), and its maintenance seems related to persistent systemic inflammation [25], which might act by maintaining the microbiome in the altered regime of increased virulence. Targeted interventions might be able to break this state and quickly return the microbiome to the healthy regime of benign coexistence. The hypothesis also predicts that symbionts transmitted from old or seriously ill individuals might display higher initial virulence in the new host until virulence is "reset" to the baseline level optimal in healthy individuals.
One of the direct causes of mortality in cancer is wasting, and microbiome-induced inflammation has been implicated as a possible action mechanism [42]. This raises the possibility that "microbiome mutiny", triggered by the primary condition of cancer, may contribute also to cancer mortality.
Virulence shifts might also play a role in the increased mortality observed after the loss of a lifelong partner, which occurs sometimes without specific pathological reasons [43]. Abruptly increasing levels of stress and associated psychosomatic changes [44] might trigger the shift to higher virulence in the microbiome, although other pathological processes, e.g., takotsubo cardiomyopathy ("broken heart syndrome") [45], might also play an important role in the mechanism of this process. Remarkably, a recent study found that increased levels of norepinephrine (indicating emotional of physical stress) can induce the dispersion of P. aeruginosa biofilms [46], which might trigger acute cardiovascular disease: bacteria might even have to do with a broken heart.
Mortality might occur without a specific apparent cause also in the elderly: this is referred to as 'debility not otherwise specified (NOS)' or 'failure to thrive (FTT)' [47]; in colloquial Hungarian a specific expression exists, spelled as 'végelgyengülés' and loosely translated as "terminal frailty", for this generic cause of death. Virulence shifts of the microbiome might contribute also to this gradual nonspecific weakening at the end of life.
Finally, the analysis of the microbiome from old but healthy individuals might help us identify microbial species that are less prone to virulence shifts, or host factors that can prevent the shifts. In contrast, the transmission of symbionts from individuals of failing health should be prevented, as these symbionts are more likely to have switched to higher virulence.
Reviewers' comments
We thank the reviewers for their helpful comments, suggestions and insights that have helped us improve our manuscript.
Reviewer #1: Professor Eugene V. Koonin
This paper develops the "microbiome mutiny" hypothesis according to which the virulence of multiple opportunistic bacterial pathogens in the mammalian microbiome increases with a sharp increase of host mortality caused by aging and/or severe illness. The hypothesis is perfectly sensible readily testable and compatible with numerous observations.
Authors' response: We thank the reviewer for his appreciation of our hypothesis.
Indeed it is common knowledge that old and sick people are subject to all kinds of opportunistic infections (pneumonia urinary infections and more). Certainly so are immuno-compromised individuals e.g. AIDS patients. Hence the alternative hypothesis that the susceptibility to infection in old age and illness is caused by the decline of immunity. The authors acknowledge this possibility but only in passing in the middle of the article. Hopefully this review makes this alternative more apparent. The two scenarios certainly are compatible and in my opinion both most likely contribute to the frailty of aging and ailing individuals.
Authors' response: We fully agree that this alternative (and parsimonious) explanation needs to be acknowledged, and have added this hypothesis, and the need of empirical tests to distinguish it from cases of "microbiome mutiny", to the abstract to call attention to the alternative at the earliest opportunity. We have also added new text on the difficulties of distinguishing between the two alternatives to the Testing the hypothesis section.
The best thing about this hypothesis is that it is likely to stimulate focused comparisons of the microbial populations and microbial transcriptomes from individuals of different ages (best of all longitudinal studies). All in all I find this a very interesting and useful article.
Authors' response: We share the hope that our hypothesis is going to stimulate empirical studies to validate the importance of the concept.
Reviewer #2: Professor Neil Greenspan
I found this Hypothesis article well-written interesting and reasonably persuasive. My enthusiasm for publication is high.
Comments to Authors:
Rozsa et al. propose an interesting thought-provoking and evolutionarily informed hypothesis pertaining to the relationship between host health as influenced by aging or other factors such as injury or infection and the magnitude of expression of virulence-related genes in bacteria normally present in host microbiomes. I found it both easy and pleasurable to read.
The authors clearly and logically present their argument that residents of the microbiome might detect chemical indicators of host health and appropriately modulate virulence-associated gene expression to optimize transmissibility provide limited preliminary supporting evidence from prior studies and offer experimentally testable propositions. Also to their credit the authors have considered explanations other than their preferred one for some of the previously published supportive observations that they cite.
I would not be surprised if this article stimulates useful new experimental investigations of host health-related variations in virulence gene expression among residents of the microbiomes in humans and experimental animals. In any case this article should be of interest to microbiologists infectious disease specialists gerontologists and a broad range of clinicians in a variety of disciplines given the broad impact of the microbiome on human health and disease pathogenesis.
Authors' response: We thank the reviewer for his very positive assessment of our hypothesis and supporting evidence.
Reviewer #3: Professor Michael Gilchrist
General Criticisms & Remarks
This is a readable paper that briefly explores an interesting and potentially very important aspect of the host-microbiome interaction. Most of my criticisms reflect suggestions for improving the paper rather than any fatal flaws.
Authors' response: We thank the reviewer for his appreciation of our hypothesis and his constructive criticism that has helped us refine the manuscript.
I will, however, note that the authors are bit 'adaptationist' in their perspective. In order to effectively test this idea, we'd need to be able to predict how the mortality risks under the microbial mutiny hypothesis would differ from the null hypothesis.
Authors' response: Testing mortality risks may not be directly possible, because the hypothesis posits a secondary increase in virulence in situations where some background condition (aging, injury or infection) has generated a primary increase in virulence: the secondary effect therefore cannot be compared to healthy baseline mortality. We do not have sufficiently accurate prediction frameworks that could quantitatively estimate the primary increase in mortality (due to age or primary illness) to provide a comparison baseline for the detection or estimation of the secondary effect. We therefore believe that the testing of the hypothesis will have to rely on the discovery (and possible targeted manipulation) of the microbial mechanisms of "microbiome mutiny", and now we discuss this more explicitly in the Testing the hypothesis section.
Further, a better understanding of the nature of transmission and the population of 'susceptibles' could also be useful for understanding whether or not there is sufficient selection for such an adaptive response to evolve.
I think the authors' paper would be more effective if they laid out some of the assumptions and ideas they introduce towards the end (e.g. in the Implications of the Hypothesis section)
Authors' response: We thank the reviewer for this excellent suggestion, and have now extended the list of assumptions/conditions that we believe are required to impose selection pressure for the evolution and maintenance of mechanisms of "microbiome mutiny". We have added new text towards the end of the Presentation of the hypothesis section (last but one paragraph), and have summarized the list of criteria in a new Table 1 , to highlight these conditions.
and further clarified the difficulty in disentangling the causal effects of an increase in mortality rate of the host due to expected declines in immune system function or other aspect of senescence and a shift in symbiont strategies.
Authors' response: We have added further clarification to the Testing the hypothesis section.
The reader would also benefit from some more information on how the authors think this increase in virulence would lead to an increase in transmission between hosts
Authors' response: Virulence and transmissibility can have a generic link through the rate of replication or titer of the pathogen in the host. If the pathogen grows to a higher titer, its concentration increases in the droplets or body fluids that mediate transmission, increasing the instantaneous rate of transmissibility. However, growing to higher titer requires more resources from the host (and all concentration-dependent symptoms also increase), which is likely to harm the host (i.e., increase virulence). We provide some specific examples (diarrhea, cough, bacteriuria), where increasing symptoms and/or pathogen titer can increase transmissibility.
and why this wouldn't be negated by the fact that transmission would likely be largely restricted to within a local social group which, as I understand, also generally share microbial symbionts. Otherwise, it's hard to understand how this would be an 'adaptive' response on the part of the microbial community members.
Authors' response: We agree that the strategy of "microbiome mutiny" benefits the symbionts/pathogens only if they can be transmitted to host individuals that had not harbored them previously. We have added this criterion to the list of prerequisites for the evolution of microbiome mutiny, and have added citations to recent studies that assessed the current diversity of the microbiome in human populations.
- 1
How might one disentangle the shift in the host's allocation strategy (e.g. smaller allocation to immune response) and general aspects of senescence contributions to the increase in virulence vs. a change in symbiont's behavior?
Authors' response: We believe this can only be done by identifying the mechanisms of microbiome mutiny, and have added detailed discussions of this issue to the manuscript.
- 2.
I think it would be helpful to explain why you think there would be a positive relationship between virulence and transmission for the gut microbiome? What about the fact that in small clans, which likely represented the situation experienced historically by most human, the gut microbiome is strongly shared between members of the group? It seems like research looking at the effect of social network structure on the evolution of virulence is worth mentioning.
Authors' response: We agree that these are important conditions for the validity of the hypothesis, and have modified the manuscript to acknowledge and evaluate these issues (see above and in the revised manuscript).
- 3.
Regarding whether the "Observations consistent" with your hypothesis listed at the bottom of page 4 causes of the increase in background mortality or responding to it; one way to differentiate b/w the two is that opportunistic pathogens would have a within-host net reproductive ratio (R0) that is less than one in a healthy host, but greater than 1 in aged hosts. A symbiont would have a within-host R0 > 1 in both healthy and aged hosts.
Authors' response: We believe that the conditions for the conditional "microbiome mutiny" strategy are that (i) the symbiont (low-virulence) strategy should have an R0 greater than that of the pathogenic (high-virulence) strategy in a healthy host; (ii) the pathogenic strategy should have an R0 greater than that of the symbiont strategy in an aged or diseased host; and (iii) the overall R0 of this conditional strategy should be greater than one, given the density of healthy and aged/ill hosts in the population.
- 4.
The fact that there are many different symbionts and that there may be a positive feedback loop between them in terms of their shift from a beneficial or neutral relationship to a pathogenic relationship is a very important and interesting one.
Authors' response: We thank the reviewer for his appreciation of the idea.
- 5.
The hypothesis put forth, the importance of 'microbial mutiny' seems like it would apply anytime the host has some increase in its mortality rate that is reflected by the physiological state within the host rather than just aging hosts. The authors mention this on page 5, but they may want to emphasize it more and do so earlier. Aging hosts would be an important category, but given how quickly the members of the microbiome can change with something as simple as a shift in diet, it seems like we might expect to see this behavior more often.
Authors' response: We have added some new text to make sure that all possible causes of increasing background mortality (illness and injury, in addition to senescence) are mentioned at the appropriate points in the text.
- 6.
The authors seem to lump together 'pre-programmed' responses of resident microbiome community members and evolutionary change of the community within the host. Do they think these categories are equivalent or just difficult to distinguish between? Do they have any reasons why they might expect one type of change over the other under a particular set of circumstances?
Authors' response: This is an important distinction and we thank the reviewer for calling our attention to it. We have extended the paragraph describing the two alternatives (at the end of the Testing the hypothesis section) to show that the two mechanisms call for selection at different levels (between and within hosts) that might in some cases be connected.
- 7.
If the microbes are responding to their local environment, it is not clear to me why in vitro, rather than in vivo measures of virulence or gene expression would be that informative.
Authors' response: In vivo virulence arises from the complex interplay of microbial and host factors, and, as discussed above, teasing out the microbial virulence components of increased mortality in individuals with compromised health status is likely to be very difficult (if at all possible).
- 8.
It would seem like modeling, not just experimental work, would help researcher understand the possible importance and interaction between other aspects related to aging besides an increase in mortality rate and changes in the microbial community.
Authors' response: We agree that disentangling complex effects can benefit from modeling, although at the moment it is yet unclear to us how alternative mechanisms could be modeled and distinguished in the aging/disease associated increase of mortality.
- 9.
I am skeptical that antibiotics could be used to exclude a particular set of members of the microbiome given that recolonization appears to happen at a relatively high rate. A better understanding of the direct cues might instead be a more fruitful road to intervention.
Authors' response: We agree that targeting the direct cues will eventually offer a better approach. Until then, however, antibiotics may still be useful during transient episodes of increased background mortality, as they need to control facultative pathogens only until the causes of the primary health condition are eliminated. Recolonization is not going to be a problem once the host condition stabilizes in the low-mortality selection regime that favors the low-virulence strategy of the symbiont.
- 10.
Theory would also be useful for understanding what conditions are conducive to a virulence positive feedback loop between microbial species.
Authors' response: We fully agree that this aspect of the hypothesis is particularly amenable to modeling.
- 1.
Consider defining lifetime reproductive fitness of the symbiont as its between host net reproductive ratio, the commonly used measure of pathogen fitness.
Authors' response: We would like to keep our wording of "transmission over the entire life cycle of infection": a slightly less precise but more intuitive formulation of the same concept, for the benefit of a broader audience.
- 2.
The authors state, "General theoretical considerations suggest that symbionts evolve to an optimal virulence. . . " I would weaken this statement slightly. Theory indicates that selection will favor pathogens that have higher net reproductive Ratio. Whether it is maximize depends on factors such as effective population size, heterogeneity of environment over time and space, etc.
Authors' response: We have replaced "to" with "towards" to acknowledge that symbionts will not always attain "optimal" virulence.
Similarly the authors state that "theory suggests that increasing mortality might increase the optimal virulence of a symbiont." While that may be true, a more general statement could be mat that "increasing mortality might select for higher virulence of the host's symbions".
Authors' response: We believe that the two statements are equivalent. "Optimal virulence" sets the direction of selection, but it does not guarantee the outcome of evolution (which is indeed influenced by other factors, as well).
- 3.
Is there any evidence that the pathogens causing UTIs are from the original host or transmitted from another host?
Authors' response: The main causative organism is E. coli, and it is believed to be acquired typically from the gut microbiome of the original host. However, community-wide outbreaks of uropathogenic clonal groups have been reported (see, e.g., [48]).
- 4.
I like the term "microbiome mutiny" and would suggest introducing it earlier in the paper.
Authors' response: We thank the reviewer for his kind comment and suggestion, and have included the expression in the title of the paper.
- 5.
Another sentence explaining 'regime shifts' in ecosystems would help readers unfamiliar with this idea.
Authors' response: We have added an explanatory cause to introduce the concept.
- 6.
Regarding selection for counter-adaptations in the host. Life history theory would suggest that this selection would be strong for young hosts but decline with age, especially post-reproductive age. The authors mention reasons why this may not be the case in humans, but I would suggest the do so earlier.
Authors' response: We agree with the importance of this issue, and mention the importance of post-reproductive survival in humans immediately after introducing the notion of possible counter-adaptations.
- 7.
References from the primary literature would also be preferable over Caspari's article in Scientific American.
Authors' response: We have replaced the reference.
- 8.
What is the source of "whosoever hath not, . . . "?
Authors' response: This excerpt is from the New Testament (Matthew 13:12). We have added the source in-line; however, it can also be moved into the formal list of References if that fits the format of the publication better.
We are indeed thankful to the reviewer for the thorough constructive criticism of our manuscript. While not all issues could be included in the main text due to space constraints, we are very glad that the format of Biology Direct allows access for all readers to the important issues raised and discussed in the reviewer comments and our responses.
We would like to thank Profs. Steven Frank and Stephen Stearns for their helpful suggestions to the hypothesis and comments on the manuscript.
This research was supported by the EU and Hungary, co-financed by the European Social Fund in the framework of the TÁMOP 4.2.4. A/2-11-1-2012-0001 'National Excellence' Program. VM is a Fellow of the Parmenides Center for the Conceptual Foundations of Science (http://www.parmenides-foundation.org/); PA was supported by a Young Researcher Fellowship of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (http://mta.hu/). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
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This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

subset: commoncrawl


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Cooking without heat may seem like playing catch with your hands tied behind your back, but three Toronto kitchens have nevertheless succeeded in making tasty raw dishes.
Belmonte Raw in Leslieville, Rawlicious in High Park and Hoof Raw Bar on Dundas West all opened in the past few months. All specialize in uncooked food, which despite its apparent simplicity can be quite labour intensive.
Hoof Raw Bar chef Jonathon Pong tweaks raw seafood and fish, which represent a third of the dishes on the changing menu, with cooked sauces.
Belmonte Raw and Rawlicious take it further, eschewing heating food above 118F, in the belief that any higher temperature kills digestion-enhancing enzymes. Both are vegan.
"I don't think of it as a trend. People want to go back to how food used to be. It's been so overprocessed," says Carol Belmonte, the chef/owner of Belmonte Raw.
Certainly, eating well-balanced salads and ceviche makes sense during a Toronto summer, when appetites are diminished by the heat.
Here's a raw picture of fresh food in the city:
2122 Bloor St. W. (near Clendenan Ave.) plus four other locations, 416-519-7150. Open Sunday to Thursday, 11 a.m. to 9 p.m.; Friday and Saturday, 11 a.m. to 10 p.m.; rawlicious.ca
Opened: October 2011
Atmosphere: High-ceilinged room with 45 seats smells like a health-food store but looks like a modern-art gallery. Also doubles as a piano bar on Friday or Saturday nights, with locals playing show tunes on the black baby grand in exchange for meals.
Service: Benevolent neglect.
Why raw: "By cooking foods, we'd kill the enzymes," explains general manager Kyla Whitmore.
Raw power: Crunchy and cool, faux Pad Thai ($15) suits warm-weather dining. "Noodles" are zucchini strips of amazing length as well as shorter, translucent strands of kelp.
The ground mushroom patty in the Thai burger ($16) makes for excellent mock meat, springy and highly seasoned.
Half-baked: Onion rings made from dehydrated white onions coated in pulverized flax seed look sad and taste acrid.
Raw deal: Moroccan daily gazpacho ($6) is weirdly khaki and utterly bland.
The hamburger "bun" made from sprouted buckwheat and flax seed is gummy and in no way convincing. It tastes the way I imagine a hippie would taste.
To drink: Coconut Cooler ($8) is green from cucumber and tastes like pineapple juice. Boiling water for roiboos tea ($3) is permissible.
Dessert: A macaroon ($2) of ground cashews and coconut butter has the texture of puffed-rice squares and a legit coating of dark chocolate.
Overall: Too much repetition in large menu, not enough colour.
Hoof Raw Bar
926 Dundas St. W. (at Bellwoods Ave.), 647-346-9356. Open Tuesday to Saturday, 5:30 p.m. to midnight. theblackhoof.com
Opened: May 2012
Atmosphere: Particleboard bar, punk-rock soundtrack, low-key conversations and 45 seats, none reservable.
Service: Top drawer.
Why raw?: "It's a pretty sophisticated dining crowd in Toronto. Are they ready to eat raw seafood that's not sashimi? Absolutely," says owner Jen Agg.
Raw power: Iridescent sea bream sashimi ($16) unfurls on the plate like a pink lily, with wasabi-sparked cucumber "noodles" resembling green pistils. Umami-rich soy butter sauce and shiso-like nasturtium leaves reinforce the Japanese palate.
Half-baked: Diced green apples and tiny fried potatoes make an excellent textural counterpoint to raw scallops ($13). Too bad the scallops smell and taste slightly fishy.
Raw deal: Mushy spot-prawn crudo ($15) comes showered in parsley that looks and tastes like lawn clippings.
To drink: A server will offer you a taste of crisp white Telmo Rodriguez "Basa" Verdejo wine before you commit to a $15 glass.
Dessert: Dehydrated strawberries glazed with balsamic are like fruit leather for grown-ups, decorating an intense banana mousse ($10) with black-pepper meringues.
Overall: Innovative and cheeky in the mold of elder sibling and neighbour The Black Hoof.
Belmonte Raw
1022 Queen St. E. (near Pape Ave.), 647-340-1218. Open Tuesday to Thursday, 10 a.m. to 3 p.m.; Friday and Saturday, 10 a.m. to 7 p.m. belmonteraw.com
Opened: October 2011
Atmosphere: Comfortably eclectic, the 14-seat dining room doubles as a consultation space for those seeking juice cleanses.
Service: Cheery counter staff delivers to the table.
Why raw?: "If you leave it raw, you don't need as much energy to digest it," says chef/owner Carol Belmonte.
Raw power: Asian slaw ($14) is as good as Susur Lee's famous Singapore slaw, with 14 harmonious ingredients to Susur's 19 — though Susur doesn't use chewy goji berries, sprouted lentils and beans or daikon strips. Peanut-tamarind dressing is rich, tangy and spicy from Thai bird's eye chilies.
Caesar wrap ($14) is like eating crab salad without the crab, without bread — slightly bitter collard leaves stand in for tortillas — and without mayonnaise: Cashew and coconut "mayo" binds the crunchy vegetable strips.
Half-baked: Chilled carrot & dill soup ($7) is too close to carrot juice, despite thickening with puréed avocado.
Raw deal: Balsamic salad dressing is way too sweet.
To drink: Mason jars of juices, like the apple-based Happiness ($9), quickly separate into layers of pulp and liquid.
Dessert: No-cook peanut-butter cup ($4.50) is better than Reese's, and not just because of the snazzy gold-leaf decoration.
Overall: Big flavours despite restricted menu.


text:
At the University of Central Florida, 30-year-old student James Oliver Seevakumaran pulled a fire alarm went off at the Tower 1 dormitory. According to plans he had written, Seevakumaran intended to attract a large amount of people inside the building to gather and shoot them. He then pointed a handgun at his roommate and threatened to shoot him inside their dormitory room. Seevakumaran released his roommate who ran into a bathroom to call 911. Seevakumaran then fatally shot himself in the head. Authorities found an assault weapon, a couple hundred rounds of ammunition and four homemade bombs inside his backpack.
Deaths: 1, Injuries: 0


text:
Alumni Arena: Dance Studio
Tuesday and Thursdays: 9:00pm to 11:00pm
Saturday: 1:30pm to 3:30pm
Sword Tournament
The Tournament is September 12th. Contact Sam for details.
Need help finding your way?
North Campus Map
For club joining questions email: email@example.com
The University at Buffalo Kendo Club Is A Part Of UB Student Association
Mission Statement:"Welcoming all who want to learn the art of Kendo"
UB Kendo Club is a member of The All United States Kendo Federation and a Member of the All Eastern United States Kendo Federation


text:
Aren't these the cutest? They are little doll furniture, tea sets and plastic food (really key chains) that we found at the Muslim market. Star and the littles have been having a ball with them!
Today we spent the morning assembling shelving units for the medicine cupboards here at Starfish. With a house full of babies, there is always a need for medication, and Amanda is well stocked. As of today, she also has a full inventory, and all medications are organized by type and expiration date! It has been a much bigger job than I expected, but it has all come together well. We found the shelves at Home Depot (yes, there is one here in Xi'an) and they fit so perfectly that we had to take the doors off the cabinets to fit them in!
After the shelves were together we cleaned up and headed out for some comfort food for those of us who are not feeling 100%. We ended up with two pizza's, herb roasted chicken, and a plate of french fries. I can't tell you how good it all tasted…but it was expensive, so that is probably our last trip to the Village Cafe this month!
After lunch, we decided to hit the Muslim market again and show Da around. We had a grand time and it was not near as crowded as it was the last time were were there. We made a few purchases this time, including some Miao minority silver jewelry for the girls, and a tiger hat (something I have wanted for years!) Da is beginning to wonder how we are going to get it all home, and I have reassured him that most of it is going in his suitcases! ;o)
Look close at the photo above! Those are pigs feet! Yum! (No, I have not tried these!)
At this point in the day, Xuxu decided she wanted to spend some time with the babies before they are put to bed and so we headed out. It was about 4:40 p.m., i.e. RUSH HOUR! Getting a taxi at this time of day is nearly impossible and we tried and tried. We finally gave up and grabbed a tut tut to at least get out of down town . Boy, were we SCARED! I took video of some of the ride, but I quit taping about the time it got really scary! There were moments that I was sure we were going to be squished between the buses and several cars. After about 5 minutes of sheer terror, I banged on the window and told him to pull over. I gave him his money and we ran away! I will NEVER take another tut tut!!
We made it the rest of the way home safely and spent some time with the babies, had dinner and now we're headed to bed…so happy to be safe and together!
The following is a video that I took this afternoon while looking for a taxi. It gives you an idea of how serious the congestion problems are during rush hour in Xi'an.


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New Zealand LOTR Stamps - For Collectors and Enthusiasts
From Ben in New Zealand:
To coincide with the launch of 'The Two Towers' New Zealand Post is delighted to release The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers range of stamps collectables. The issue provides beautifully presented moments from the film, in an intriguing form, for stamp collectors and film enthusiasts alike.
From Aragorn to Wormtongue the exciting images capture many of your favourite stunningly costumed characters in their continuing battle for the Dark Lord Sauron's infamous 'One Ring' and save the world from certain slavery.
Eluding darkly dramatic, awe-inspiring action, this stamps collectables range enables you to gaze right into the utopic fantasy land of Middle-earth and hold forever your own piece of 'The Lord of the Rings' cinematic history.
For more information or to order your The Lord of the Rings(tm) stamp collectables simply click on the web link below.


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Malware linked to the Russian government can manipulate your internet traffic, harvest personal information, and serve as a launch point for a broad range of internet attacks.
A recent discovery that new router-based malware, known as VPNFilter, had infected well over 500,000 routers just became even worse news. In a report expected to be released June 13, Cisco states that over 200,000 additional routers have been infected and that the capabilities of VPNFilter are far worse than initially thought. Ars Technica has reported on what to expect from Cisco Wednesday.
VPNFilter is malware that is installed on a Wi-Fi router. It has already infected almost one million routers across 54 countries, and the list of devices known to be affected by VPNFilter contains many popular consumer models. It's important to note that VPNFilter is not a router exploit that an attacker can find and use to gain access — it is software that is installed on a router unintentionally that is able to do some potentially terrible things.
VPNFilter is malware that somehow gets installed on your router, not a vulnerability that attackers can use to gain access.
VPNFilter's first attack consists using a man in the middle attack on incoming traffic. It then tries redirecting secure HTTPS encrypted traffic to a source that is unable to accept it, which causes that traffic to fall back to normal, unencrypted HTTP traffic. The software that does this, named ssler by researchers, makes special provisions for sites that have extra measures to prevent this from happening such as Twitter.com or any Google service.
Once traffic is unencrypted VPNFilter is then able to monitor all inbound and outbound traffic that goes through an infected router. Rather than harvest all traffic and redirect to a remote server to be looked at later, it specifically targets traffic that is known to contain sensitive material such as passwords or banking data. Intercepted data can then be sent back to a server controlled by hackers with known ties to the Russian government.
VPNFilter is also able to change incoming traffic to falsify responses from a server. This helps cover the tracks of the malware and allows it to operate longer before you can tell something is going wrong. An example of what VPNFilter is able to do to incoming traffic given to ARS Technica by Craig Williams, a senior technology leader and global outreach manager at Talos says:
But it appears [attackers] have completely evolved past that, and now not only does it allow them to do that, but they can manipulate everything going through the compromised device. They can modify your bank account balance so that it looks normal while at the same time they're siphoning off money and potentially PGP keys and things like that. They can manipulate everything going in and out of the device.
It's difficult or impossible (depending on your skill set and router model) to tell if you are infected. Researchers suggest anyone who uses a router known to be susceptible to VPNFilter assume they are infected and take the necessary steps to regain control of their network traffic.
Routers known to be vulnerable
This long list contains the consumer routers known to be susceptible to VPNFilter. If your model appears on this list it is suggested you follow the procedures in the next section of this article. Devices in the list marked as "new" are routers that were only recently found to be vulnerable.
Asus Devices:
- RT-AC66U (new)
- RT-N10 (new)
- RT-N10E (new)
- RT-N10U (new)
- RT-N56U (new)
D-Link Devices:
- DES-1210-08P (new)
- DIR-300 (new)
- DIR-300A (new)
- DSR-250N (new)
- DSR-500N (new)
- DSR-1000 (new)
- DSR-1000N (new)
Huawei Devices:
- HG8245 (new)
Linksys Devices:
- E3000 (new)
- E3200 (new)
- E4200 (new)
- RV082 (new)
Mikrotik Devices:
- CCR1009 (new)
- CRS109 (new)
- CRS112 (new)
- CRS125 (new)
- RB411 (new)
- RB450 (new)
- RB750 (new)
- RB911 (new)
- RB921 (new)
- RB941 (new)
- RB951 (new)
- RB952 (new)
- RB960 (new)
- RB962 (new)
- RB1100 (new)
- RB1200 (new)
- RB2011 (new)
- RB3011 (new)
- RB Groove (new)
- RB Omnitik (new)
- STX5 (new)
Netgear Devices:
- DG834 (new)
- DGN1000 (new)
- DGN3500 (new)
- FVS318N (new)
- MBRN3000 (new)
- WNR2200 (new)
- WNR4000 (new)
- WNDR3700 (new)
- WNDR4000 (new)
- WNDR4300 (new)
- WNDR4300-TN (new)
- UTM50 (new)
QNAP Devices:
- TS439 Pro
- Other QNAP NAS devices running QTS software
TP-Link Devices:
- TL-WR741ND (new)
- TL-WR841N (new)
Ubiquiti Devices:
- NSM2 (new)
- PBE M5 (new)
ZTE Devices:
- ZXHN H108N (new)
What you need to do
Right now, as soon as you're able, you should reboot your router. To do this simply unplug it from the power supply for 30 seconds then plug it back in. Many models of router flush installed apps when they are power cycled.
The next step is to factory reset your router. You'll find information about how to do this in the manual that came in the box or from the manufacturer's website. This usually involves inserting a pin into a recessed hole to press a microswitch. When you get your router back up and running, you need to ensure it is on the very latest version of its firmware. Again, consult the documentation that came with your router for details on how to update.
Next, perform a quick security audit of how you're using your router.
- Never use the default user name and password to administer it. All routers of the same model will use that default name and password and that makes for an easy way to alter settings or install malware.
- Never expose any internal devices to the internet without a strong firewall in place. This includes things like FTP servers, NAS servers, Plex Servers or any smart device. If you must expose any connected device outside your internal network you can likely use port filtering and forwarding software. If not, invest in a strong hardware or software firewall.
- Never leave remote administration enabled. It may be convenient if you're often away from your network but it's a potential attack point that every hacker knows to look for.
- Always stay up to date. This means check for new firmware regularly, and more importantly, be sure to install it if it is available.
Finally, if you're unable to update the firmware to prevent VPNFilter from becoming installed (your manufacturer's website will have details) just buy a new one. I know that spending money to replace a perfectly good and working router is a bit extreme, but you will have no idea if your router is infected unless you're a person who doesn't need to read these sort of tips.
We love the new mesh router systems that can be automatically updated whenever new firmware is available, such as Google Wifi, because things like VPNFilter can happen anytime and to anyone. It's worth having a look if you are in the market for a new router.
Google Hardware
- Google Wifi review
- Google Home review
- Chromecast Ultra: all you need to know
- Which Chromecast should you buy?
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text:
This Equality Policy for Newham Bridge Primary School brings together all previous policies, schemes and action plans around equality including those that we had previously for Race, Gender and Disability. It includes all the protected characteristics covered under the Equality Act 2010 as well as other aspects which have the potential to discriminate against or to devalue any individuals within our community. We are further committed to the development of cohesive communities both within our school's physical boundaries and within our local, national and global environments.
Our school embraces the aim of working together with others to improve children's educational and wellbeing outcomes, and notes the rights set out in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Our Equality Policy is inclusive of our whole school community – pupils/ students, staff, parents/carers, visitors and partner agencies – who we have engaged with and who have been actively involved in and contributed to its development.
The purpose of this Policy is to set out how our practice and policies have due regard to the need to:
- eliminate discrimination, harassment and victimisation;
- advance equality of opportunity and
- foster good relations between groups.
It explains how we aim to listen to and involve pupils, staff, parents and the community in achieving better outcomes for our children and young people.
Our school within the wider context
- Newham Bridge School was built in 1969.
- It serves a mixed catchment of private and council housing.
- There are 263 pupils in Reception to Year 6 and an additional 26 place Nursery.
- Currently we have a waiting list of 43 for admission to Nursery.
- Children enter Nursery after their third birthday during the current academic year.
- 75% of the children live outside the catchment area with a majority drawn from the Beechwood Ward which has a significant proportion of disadvantaged families.
- Despite challenging circumstances the school has achieved high levels of success in all Key Stages.
- 39.1% of pupils claim free school meals.
- 19% of children are on the Special Needs Register with 11.4% are at concern level, 8% at School Action and Action Plus.
- Four children have Statements for Special Needs issued by the Local Authority.
- Mobility of children is not a significant factor.
- There are 19.1% of pupils from ethnic minority groups mainly Asian ethnicity.
- 11.8% of children do not have English as their first language.
- Staff movement is not significant and is due to promotion or retirement.
- Staff attendance is excellent with very few absences (In the past year less than 2 days per FTE)
Overall aims of our Equality Policy
- To eliminate discrimination, harassment and victimisation.
- To promote equality of access and opportunity within our school and within our wider community. To promote positive attitudes to difference and good relationships between people with different backgrounds, genders, cultures, faiths, abilities and ethnic origins.
- To ensure that equality and inclusive practice are embedded across all aspects of school life the Equality Policy refers to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which includes recognition of a range of educational, wellbeing, and material outcomes.
Principles and Ethos
Newham Bridge Primary School is committed to making the school a fully accessible and inclusive organisation that welcomes and respects the diversity of its pupils, staff, community and visitors to the school.
- All learners and staff are of equal value and benefit equally from their experience of school
- Difference is recognised and valued so that where appropriate individuals can be treated differently to achieve equality
- We encourage positive attitudes, interactions, mutual respect and a shared sense of belonging
- Policies and procedures relating to employees (and potential employees) promote equality positively
- We create opportunities to remove barriers to equality
- Policy development involves consultation and participation
- Our ethos and practice embrace the local, national and international communities in which we operate
The Single Equalities, Diversity and Cohesion policy ensures that the school complies with equalities legislation and satisfies the Ofsted criteria for making judgements relating to equalities, diversity and inclusive practice.
Newham Bridge Primary School seeks to foster warm, welcoming and respectful environments,
which allow us to question and challenge discrimination and inequality, resolve conflicts peacefully and work and learn free from harassment and violence.
We recognise that there are similarities and differences between individuals and groups but we will strive to ensure that our differences do not become barriers to participation, access and learning and to create inclusive processes and practices, where the varying needs of individuals and groups are identified and met. We therefore cannot achieve equality for all by treating everyone the same.
We will build on our similarities and seek enrichment from our differences and so promote understanding and learning between and towards others to create cohesive communities.
Our approach
We seek to embed equality of access, opportunity and outcome for all members of
our school community, within all aspects of school life.
We actively seek out opportunities to embrace the following key concepts:
- Shared Humanity. Identifying commonality and shared values, aspirations and needs underpins our approach to equality. We value our fundamental similarities and universality.
- Valuing difference and diversity. We appreciate the richness within our differences and look for ways of celebrating and understanding them better
- Interdependence, interaction and influence. We recognise that, as they evolve, distinct cultures, beliefs and lifestyles will impact on and inform each other
- Social cohesion within our school and within our local community
- Excellence. We aim to inspire and recognise high personal and collective achievement throughout our community, the UK and the wider world. Excellence is to be found everywhere
- Personal and cultural identity. We will provide opportunities to explore and value the complexity of our personal and cultural identities
- Fairness and social justice. We will develop our understanding of the inequality that exists in society and explore ways of individually and collectively promoting a more equitable society
Our duties
We recognise and accept our equality duties as set out in the Equality Act 2010 and have sought to involve the whole school community in the process in order to ensure better outcomes for all.
They are also guided by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.
We will ensure we identify opportunities for promoting our vision, the key
concepts and our duties on equality legislation across all aspects of school
life, including the provision of extended services.
We comply fully with legislation which protects our staff (including teachers, teaching assistants, supervisors and student teachers) from discrimination based on the protected characteristics. With regard to disability, we make such reasonable adjustments as are necessary to prevent a disabled person being at a substantial disadvantage in comparison with people who are not disabled.
This includes discrimination in relation to recruitment, terms and conditions,
promotions, transfers, dismissals, training and employment practices (such as dress codes) and disciplinary procedures. We make efforts to ensure that the diversity of our workforce reflects that of our local community and wider society. In accordance with the Equality Act we do not enquire about the health of an applicant until a job offer has been made.
We will ensure the safety and well-being of our staff and take seriously and act on incidents of harassment and discrimination recognising that our staff may be either victims or perpetrators.
We interpret our duties positively; take the necessary actions to remove barriers to inclusion and work hard to ensure a safe, positive and inclusive environment.
Additionally, we seek to meet our duties to promote equality on a daily basis in all areas of our school activity as follows:
A Cohesive Community
In order to achieve a cohesive community, we will:
• Promote understanding and engagement between communities.
• Encourage all children and families to feel part of the wider community.
• Understand the needs and hopes of all our communities.
• Tackle discrimination.
• Increase life opportunities for all.
• Ensure teaching and the curriculum explores and addresses issues of diversity.
Pupil Attainment And Progress
This school expects the highest possible standards. Staff have high expectations of all pupils and continually challenge them to reach higher standards. The school recognises and values all forms of achievement. We will monitor and analyse pupil performance by ethnicity, gender, disability and special educational need and take account of socio-economic circumstances. Any disparities which are identified will be addressed through targeted curriculum planning, teaching and support.
The Quality Of Provision – Teaching And Learning
All staff ensure the classroom is an inclusive environment in which pupils feel all contributions are valued. Positive steps are taken to include pupils who may otherwise be marginalised. We take account of pupils' experiences and starting points and are responsive to pupils' different learning styles. All pupils are consulted about their learning. Pupil grouping is planned and varied to reflect the requirements of learners and their social development needs. Allocations to teaching groups will be kept under regular review and analysed by ethnicity, gender and SEN. Our teaching styles include collaborative learning. All pupils will be encouraged to question, discuss and collaborate in problem solving tasks. Staff encourage pupils to become independent and assist them in taking responsibility for the management of their own learning and behaviour.
This school believes that self-assessment is a teaching-learning strategy, and we will provide all pupils with opportunities to take responsibility for their own learning through regular reflection and feedback on their progress.
The Quality Of Provision – Curriculum And Other Activities
This school provides an appropriate curriculum for pupils of all backgrounds. We will monitor and evaluate its effectiveness through target setting and attainment analysis. All pupils participate in the mainstream curriculum of the school. The curriculum builds on pupils' starting points and is differentiated appropriately to ensure the inclusion of:
• boys and girls
• pupils learning English as an additional language
• pupils from minority ethnic groups
• pupils who are gifted and talented
• pupils with special educational needs
• pupils with a disability
• pupils who are in public care
• pupils who are at risk of disaffection and exclusion
Each area of the curriculum is planned to incorporate the principles of equality and to promote positive attitudes to diversity. All subjects contribute to the spiritual, moral, social, and cultural development of all pupils.
The Quality Of Provision – Guidance And Support
We actively promote good personal and community relations and recognise diversity as having a positive role to play within the school. All staff are expected to foster a positive atmosphere of mutual respect and trust among boys and girls from all ethnic groups and range of abilities. Staff challenge stereotypes and foster pupils' critical awareness and concepts of fairness, enabling them to detect bias and challenge inequalities. Our pastoral support takes account of religious, cultural and ethnic differences, special educational needs, and disability.
The school provides appropriate support for pupils learning English as an additional language and employs two bi-lingual Teaching Assistants as part of that support.
Behaviour And Attendance
This school expects high standards of behaviour from all pupils. We have procedures for managing behaviour that are fair and applied equally to all. All staff are expected to operate consistent systems of rewards and discipline. Clear procedures are in place so that all forms of bullying and harassment, including racism and harassment related to disability, sexism and homophobia, are dealt with promptly, firmly and consistently and are in line with relevant LA and school policies. All incidents are recorded, monitored and dealt with in line with relevant school policies. Adults in school take care to lead through example, demonstrating high expectations ofall pupils. This school will take all reasonable steps to prevent the exclusion of a pupil for a reason related to any disability they may have. Pupils, staff and parents know that any language or behaviour, which is racist, sexist, homophobic or potentially damaging to any minority group, is always unacceptable.
Extra-Curricular Provision
It is the policy of this school to provide equal access to all activities from an early age e.g. girls playing football, boys playing netball and mixed teams wherever possible. We undertake responsibility for making contributors to extra-curricular activities aware of the school's commitment to equality of opportunity (e.g. sports helpers, coach drivers, etc.)
The roles and responsibilities within our school community
Our Headteacher will:
- ensure that staff, parents/carers, pupils/students and visitors and contractors are engaged in the development of and informed about the Equality Policy
- oversee the effective implementation of the policy ensure staff have access to training which helps to implement the policy
- develop partnerships with external agencies regarding the policy so that the school's actions are in line with the best advice available
- monitor the policy and report to the Governing Body at least annually on the effectiveness of the policy and publish this information
- ensure that the Senior Leadership team is kept up to date with any development affecting the policy or actions arising from it
Our governing body will:
- designate a governor with specific responsibility for the Equality Policy ensure that the objectives arising from the policy are part of the School
- Improvement Plan (SIP) support the headteacher in implementing any actions necessary
- engage with parents and partner agencies about the policy
- evaluate and review the policy annually
Our Senior Leadership Team will:
- have responsibility for supporting other staff in implementing this Policy
- provide a lead in the dissemination of information relating to the Policy
- with the Headteacher, provide advice/support in dealing with any incidents/issues
- assist in implementing reviews of this policy as detailed in the SIP
Our pupils/students will:
- be involved in the development of the Policy and will understand how it relates to them, appropriate to age and ability
- be expected to act in accordance with the Policy
- be encouraged to actively support the Policy
Our parents/carers will:
- have access to the Policy through a range of different media appropriate to their requirements
- be encouraged to actively support the Policy
- be encouraged to attend any relevant meetings and activities related to the Policy
- be informed of any incident related to this Policy which could directly affect their child
Our school staff will:
- be involved in the development of the Policy
- be fully aware of the Equality Policy and how it relates to them
- understand that this is a whole school issue and support the Equality Policy
- make known any queries or training requirements
Relevant voluntary or community groups and partner agencies will:
- Be involved in the development of the Policy
- Be encouraged to support the Policy
- Be encouraged to attend any relevant meetings and activities related to the Policy
Responding to hate or prejudice-based incidents and bullying
We recognise that hate incidents or prejudice –based bullying behaviour is driven by
negative assumptions, stereotypes or misinformation. These are then directed against an individual or group, based on difference (real or perceived), and linked to, for example, racism, homophobia, negative views of disabled people or sexism. We will take action to prevent, challenge and eliminate any such behaviour.
We recognise that we as individuals and society often struggle with difference of any kind (perceived or actual), which can result in seizing upon the most visible sign of difference e.g. skin colour or disability.
Through our school ethos and curriculum, we want our pupils/students to understand better the diversity that exists in society. We want to provide opportunities for them to explore the subtleties and complexities in order to prevent and respond to incidents and situations. We will address the experience, understanding and needs of the victim, the perpetrator, bystanders and the wider school community through our actions and responses.
We will record all hate incidents and prejudice based bullying. We will use this information to identify trends and patterns, so that we have approaches in place to provide appropriate responses in terms of support for victims and their families, sanctions and support for perpetrators and their families and education for our children, young people and communities.
In developing our Equality Scheme and Action Plan, we have involved stakeholders, for example pupils, parents, staff and Governors.
- Pupils views are gathered during Circle times/School Council meetings and Surveys
- Parents of all pupils have had the opportunity to complete a survey which includes questions related to equality
- Governors have been involved in discussions
Our Priorities:
The duties to promote race, disability and gender equality alongside community cohesion supports the school's priorities as follows:
- Ensuring our school is accessible to wheelchair users.
- Improving the range and number of after school and extra-curricular opportunities for girls and boys of all ethnic groups.
- Ensuring maximum progress for all children through the actions outlined in our School Improvement Plan
We also intend to build on our successes so far:
- Continue to build on our inclusive practices
- Maintain our high attendance levels
- Maintain our high achievement in our SEN pupils
Community Cohesion:
The EIA (2006) requires the Governing Bodies of maintained schools to promote community cohesion under a new duty which came into force in September.
From our perspective, 'community' has a number of dimensions including:
- The school community, our pupils, their families, our staff and governing body and the wider community which uses our facilities and services
- The community within which we are located and beyond into Middlesbrough
- The UK and global community
Our focus on community cohesion work is about promoting cohesion across different cultures, and religious and non-religious, ethnic and socio-economic groups as we are responsible for equipping pupils to live and thrive alongside people from many different backgrounds. Our main contribution to community cohesion can be made in three areas:
- Teaching and learning and the curriculum: using the curriculum to value diversity whilst also promoting shared values
- Equity and excellence: ensuring equality and high standards for all and tackling underperformances by a particular group
- Engagement and extended services: engaging with other schools, parents and the community, as well as local authorities and other partners in developing extended services.
Impact Assessment
The specific duty requires us to conduct impact assessments to ensure that due regard is given to race, disability and gender equality in our polices and practices and their likely impact.
The specific duty requires the assessment of existing policies and practices as well as ones which are developed subsequently.
We provide equality training through:
- Specific Equality Training organized by the LA and attended by SLT
- PSA attending courses
- Governor training
Information Gathering
We are required to gather information on the effect of our policies and practices in particular:
- The extent to which equality between pupils is promoted
- The extent to which equality between staff is promoted
- The extent to which the curriculum and other school activities take race, disability and gender into account
Information gathering will include;
- The profile of our workforce
- Attainment levels
- RAISEonline
- Bullying/Incident reports
- The composition of our Governing Body
Procurement and Contractors
We will take steps to ensure that our contractors are adhering to our commitment to equality in their employment and service delivery policy and practices.
We will ensure this by using only LA approved contractors.
Visitors to the school:
We will take steps to ensure that visitors to our school including parents are adhering to our commitment to equality. We will always challenge any discriminatory behaviour.
Implementation, monitoring and reviewing
This policy was published on date of publication. It will be actively promoted and disseminated.
Implementation, monitoring and review are the responsibility of our Senior Leadership Team and our governors.
This policy will be reviewed annually.
Appendix 1
Specific Duties
The Race Duty and Community Cohesion
The School recognises that Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic [BAME] people experience discrimination on the basis of colour, race, nationality, religion and ethnic origin. This discrimination manifests itself in all areas of their lives such as housing, employment, education and access to services. Racial harassment and violence is one of the most serious consequences of racism, damaging people emotionally and physically and limiting life choices and opportunities. The School will take all necessary measures to prevent and tackle racial harassment and assist BAME people to live in freedom from harassment and to feel safe as they enjoy and achieve throughout their education.
The School is committed to working for the equality of all ethnic groups and the Governing Body understands its accountability.
Under the duty in the Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000 to promote racial equality we will:
- Tackle unlawful discrimination by
- Keeping accurate records of all ethnic and faith groups
- Dealing with complaints of discrimination and harassment speedily according to Local Authority Guidance, and notify complainants of the outcomes and action taken;
- Prevent racial discrimination, and to promote equality of opportunity and good relations between members of different racial, cultural and religious groups.
- Support cohesion by
- Promoting activities that celebrate our common experience as well as those that recognise diversity generally and foster understanding and respect for the culture and faith of all our learners and their families;
- Encouraging learners and their families of all ethnic groups to participate fully in all aspects of school life;
- Using our support for the voluntary and community sector to promote good race relations;
- Countering myths and misinformation that may undermine good community relations;
- Work in partnership with Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic individuals and groups to
- Promote the active participation of minority communities in shaping the future of our school;
- Ensure the school staff (both permanent and temporary), learners and their families as well as our partners and the wider community fully understand the principles of good race relations.
- Expand access across all communities and in all areas of school activity.
We will report on progress annually and the review of our race equality policy will be brought in line with the review for the School Equality Scheme.
Community Cohesion
From September 2007 we understand our duty to Promote Community Cohesion
as part of the response to the duties contained in the Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000. Our school already considers this to be a fundamental part of our role.
We understand that Community Cohesion is the process that should happen in all communities to ensure that different groups and individual people get on well together. It should also allow for new residents and existing residents to adapt to one another.
We will evidence our effectiveness for OFSTED by demonstrating:
- A widely shared sense of the contribution of different communities to a shared vision.
- A strong sense of individual rights and responsibilities within the school community.
- That all children and parents feel they are being treated fairly and have the same opportunities.
- That children trust the school to act fairly.
- We have strong and positive relationships.
The Disability Equality Duties
The School's commitment to disabled learners, their families and staff's equality has four objectives:
- We will promote equality for disabled people by:
- Removing barriers to accessibility, particularly in relation to education, employment and access to services, information and buildings;
- Encouraging good practice by our partners
- Ensuring equality principles in our role in procurement and in our partnership duties.
- We will tackle discrimination against disabled people by:
- Promoting positive images of disabled people;
- Challenging patronising or discriminating attitudes;
- Making the environment as safe as possible for and challenging antisocial or bullying behaviour against, or harassment of, disabled learners, staff and families.
- We will support disabled learners to achieve their full potential by:
- Providing where possible, support, assistance and care to disabled learners to enable them to lead independent lives;
- Supporting the formation of groups, networks and services for disabled learners and disabled employees of the school and people who are disabled in the community;
- Supporting disabled learners, staff and carers according to their individual need.
- We will work in partnership with disabled learners and their carers and staff by:
- Enabling disabled learners, their families and disabled staff active participation;
- Involving disabled learners, their families and disabled staff in the changes and improvements we make;
- Consulting with disabled learners, their families and disabled staff on issues affecting them rather than with people acting on their behalf.
We welcome the requirements of the Disability Equality Duty and this section sets out our commitment to meeting the Duty. Our Scheme shows how we promote disability equality across all areas of the school, to disabled pupils, staff, parents, carers and other school users.
When carrying out our functions, we will have due regard to the need to:
- Promote equality of opportunity between disabled people and other people.
- Eliminate discrimination that is unlawful under the Disability Discrimination Act (2005).
- Eliminate disability related harassment.
- Promote positive attitudes towards disabled people.
- Encourage participation of disabled people in public life.
- Take steps to meet disabled people's needs
- Monitor staff and learners by disability.
- Have a Disability Equality Scheme.
We plan to increase access to education for disabled pupils by:
- Increasing the extent to which disabled learners can participate in the school curriculum.
- Increasing the inclusion of positive images of disabled people across the curriculum.
- Improving the environment of the school to increase the extent to which disabled learners can take advantage of education and associated services.
- Improving the delivery of information to disabled learners, to the standard of which is provided in writing for learners who are not disabled.
The Gender Equality Duties
The School is committed to combating sex discrimination and sexism and promoting the equality of women and men. We recognise that society has stereotypes for both women and men, and both women and men can lose opportunities because of these stereotypes. The School is aware that staff with caring and domestic responsibilities may need to work part-time or flexible working hours. We will work in partnership with other agencies to eliminate sexual harassment, domestic violence and other hate crimes.
We welcome the requirements of the Gender Equality Duty and this section sets out our commitment to meeting the duty. We will give due regard to the need to:
- Eliminate unlawful discrimination and harassment on the grounds of sex, including domestic violence, sexual violence, bullying and exploitation.
- Promote equality of opportunity between women and men in all of our functions.
Religion and Belief
The School recognises that people can face discrimination because of attitudes in society towards the faith communities to which they belong. Faith-based hate crime has been a new phenomenon in recent years, developing a character that is distinct from race hate crime.
The School also recognises that a person's religious (or similar) beliefs may mean that they have different needs, demands and expectations, which require flexibility.
The School is committed to eliminating illegal discrimination and exclusion on the basis of religion or belief.
Our school recognises the need to consider the actions outlined by the Equality Act 2006 (Religion & Belief) which requires us to assess the impacts of our policies, functions and procedures have on promoting equality for people based on their religion, belief and non-belief.
We have developed a Religious Education Values and Inclusion Statement with the involvement of Governors, Parents and Staff.
Sexual Orientation
The School is committed to combating discrimination faced by lesbians, gay men and bisexual (LGB) people. We want to ensure equality of opportunity for LGB people across services and employment.
We will respect the rights of individuals to be open about their sexual orientation, tackle homophobia, challenge stereotyping and improve knowledge about LGB communities, both internally and to the community as a whole.
Our school recognises the need to protect learners from unlawful discrimination and harassment on grounds of sexual orientation as required by the Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2007. We are committed to taking a pro-active approach to preventing all forms of homophobia within the school and will assess the impacts of our policies, functions and procedures on promoting sexual orientation equality as part of the Equality Impact Assessment process.
We will deal with complaints of discrimination and harassment speedily and according to Local Authority Guidance and notify complainants of the outcome and actions taken.
The School is committed to promoting equality of opportunity for younger and older people. We recognise that society has negative attitudes, stereotypes and myths about youth, ageing, younger and older people. These attitudes and beliefs can lead to both younger and older people being socially and economically disadvantaged, excluded and marginalised. We believe that younger and older people have the right to equality of opportunity and that they make a significant and valuable contribution to the community at large.
Age equality means securing the equal participation in society of people of every age, securing a balance between equal citizenship, equality of opportunity, equality of outcome and respect for difference
Anti-Bullying and Discriminatory Policy Framework
Our School states clearly that all forms of bullying and discrimination are unacceptable and will not be tolerated. We have set out the measures that our school will take to address bullying and discriminatory incidents in our Anti-Bullying Policy and in our Harassment and Bullying Against Staff Policy.
Employment Practices
In our School we ensure that we observe the principles of equal opportunities in how we employ, develop and treat our staff.