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Kepler's laws of planetary motion
|This article has statements which are anachronisms.
- This article uses more modern mathematical notation and concepts than were available to Johannes Kepler. For a more historical approach, see in particular the article Astronomia nova.
In astronomy, Kepler's laws of planetary motion are three scientific laws describing the motion of planets around the Sun. Kepler's laws are now traditionally enumerated in this way:
|Orbital mechanics
Efficiency measures
- The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.
- A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.[1]
- The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
Most planetary orbits are almost circles, so it is not apparent that they are actually ellipses. Calculations of the orbit of the planet Mars first indicated to Kepler its elliptical shape, and he inferred that other heavenly bodies, including those farther away from the Sun, have elliptical orbits also. Kepler's work broadly followed the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus by asserting that the Earth orbited the Sun. It innovated in explaining how the planets' speeds varied, and using elliptical orbits rather than circular orbits with epicycles.[2]
Isaac Newton showed in 1687 that relationships like Kepler's would apply in the solar system to a good approximation, as consequences of his own laws of motion and law of universal gravitation. Together with Newton's theories, Kepler's laws became part of the foundation of modern astronomy and physics.[3]
- 1 Nomenclature
- 2 History
- 3 First Law
- 4 Second law
- 5 Third law
- 6 Zero eccentricity
- 7 Planetary acceleration
- 8 Position as a function of time
- 9 See also
- 10 Notes
- 11 References
- 12 Bibliography
- 13 External links
It took nearly two centuries for the current formulation of Kepler's work to take on its settled form. Voltaire's Eléments de la philosophie de Newton (Elements of Newton's Philosophy) of 1738 was the first publication to use the terminology of "laws".[4] The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers in its article on Kepler (p. 620) states that the terminology of scientific laws for these discoveries was current at least from the time of Joseph de Lalande. It was the exposition of Robert Small, in An account of the astronomical discoveries of Kepler (1804) that made up the set of three laws, by adding in the third. Small also claimed, against the history, that these were empirical laws, based on inductive reasoning.[4]
Further, the current usage of "Kepler's Second Law" is something of a misnomer. Kepler had two versions of it, related in a qualitative sense, the "distance law" and the "area law". The "area law" is what became the Second Law in the set of three; but Kepler did himself not privilege it in that way.[5]
Johannes Kepler published his first two laws about planetary motion in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe.[2] Kepler's third law was published in 1619.[2]
Kepler in 1622 and Godefroy Wendelin in 1643 noted that Kepler's third law applies to the four brightest moons of Jupiter.[Nb 1] The second law ("area law" form) was contested by Nicolaus Mercator in a book from 1664; but by 1670 he was publishing in its favour in Philosophical Transactions, and as the century proceeded it became more widely accepted.[6] The reception in Germany changed noticeably between 1688, the year in which Newton's Principia was published and was taken to be basically Copernican, and 1690, by which time work of Gottfried Leibniz on Kepler had been published.[7]
First Law[edit]
Mathematically, an ellipse can be represented by the formula:
where (r, θ) are polar coordinates, p is the semi-latus rectum, and ε is the eccentricity of the ellipse.
Note that 0 < ε < 1 for an ellipse; in the limiting case ε = 0, the orbit is a circle with the sun at the centre (see section Zero eccentricity below).
For a planet r is the distance from the Sun to the planet, and θ is the angle to the planet's current position from its closest approach, as seen from the Sun.
At θ = 0°, perihelion, the distance is minimum
At θ = 90° and at θ = 270°, the distance is
At θ = 180°, aphelion, the distance is maximum
The semi-major axis a is the arithmetic mean between rmin and rmax:
The semi-minor axis b is the geometric mean between rmin and rmax:
The semi-latus rectum p is the harmonic mean between rmin and rmax:
The eccentricity ε is the coefficient of variation between rmin and rmax:
The area of the ellipse is
The special case of a circle is ε = 0, resulting in r = p = rmin = rmax = a = b and A = π r2.
- Practical examples
|Semi-major axis
|Orbital eccentricity
|Interfocal distance
|Location of f2
|7,783 mn km
|75 mn km
|Roughly half-way between Mercury's (58 mn km) and Venus's (108 mn km) orbital distances.
|14,267 mn km
|154 mn km
|Roughly at Earth orbit distance (150 mn km).
Second law[edit]
In a small time the planet sweeps out a small triangle (or, more precisely, a sector) having base line and height and area and so the constant areal velocity is
The planet moves faster when it is closer to the Sun.
The area enclosed by the elliptical orbit is So the period satisfies
and the mean motion of the planet around the Sun satisfies
- Practical examples
|Perihelion distance
|Perihelion speed
|Aphelion distance
|Aphelion speed
|Sector area swept
in one second
|46.0 mn km
|59,000 m/s
|69.8 mn km
|38,900 m/s
|1.3565×1015 m2
for both perihelion and aphelion
|11,423 bn km
|4,640 m/s
|~ 140,000 bn km
|~ 430 m/s
|3.01×1016 m2 (based on perihelion measurements)
2.65×1016 m2 (based on aphelion measurements)
- Note: the point speeds are worked out based on v=√GM(2/d−1/a); the "area swept" figure is less accurate for Sedna due to the imprecise degree to which its orbital parameters are currently known.
Third law[edit]
|The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
The third law, published by Kepler in 1619 [1] captures the relationship between the distance of planets from the Sun, and their orbital periods.
Kepler enunciated this third law in a laborious attempt to determine what he viewed as the "music of the spheres" according to precise laws, and express it in terms of musical notation.[8] So it used to be known as the harmonic law.[9]
Mathematically, the law says that the expression has the same value for all the planets in the solar system.
- Examples
|Period & Semi-major axis
(in relation to Earth)
|Period 2 : Semi-major axis 3
(in relation to Earth)
|Period & Semi-major axis
(in real terms)
|Period 2 : Semi-major axis 3
(in real terms)
|0.615 yr, 0.723 AU
|0.3785 : 0.3785
|19.4 mn secs, 1.082×1011 m
|3.769×1014 : 1.267×1033
|1 : 3.362×1018
|164.8 yrs, 30.1 AU
|27160 : 27280
|5.2 bn secs, 4.498×1012 m
|2.704×1019 : 9.103×1037
|1 : 3.366×1018
The modern formulation with the constant evaluated reads:
- T the orbital period of the star
- M the mass of the star,
- G the universal gravitational constant and
- r the radius, the semi-major axis of the ellipse.
In the full formulation under Newton's laws of motion, should be replaced by , where is the mass of the orbiting body. Consequently, the proportionality constant is not truly the same for each planet. Nevertheless, for all planets in our solar system such that variations in the proportionality constant are negligible.
Zero eccentricity[edit]
Kepler's laws refine the model of Copernicus, which assumed circular orbits. If the eccentricity of a planetary orbit is zero, then Kepler's laws state:
- The planetary orbit is a circle with the Sun at the center
- The speed of the planet in the orbit is constant
- The square of the sidereal period is proportionate to the cube of the distance from the Sun.
Actually, the eccentricities of the orbits of the six planets known to Copernicus and Kepler are quite small, so the rules above give excellent approximations of planetary motion, but Kepler's laws fit observations even better.
Kepler's corrections to the Copernican model are not at all obvious:
- The planetary orbit is not a circle, but an ellipse
- The Sun is not at the center but at a focal point
- Neither the linear speed nor the angular speed of the planet in the orbit is constant, but the area speed is constant.
- The square of the sidereal period is proportionate to the cube of the mean between the maximum and minimum distances from the Sun.
The nonzero eccentricity of the orbit of the earth makes the time from the March equinox to the September equinox, around 186 days, unequal to the time from the September equinox to the March equinox, around 179 days. A diameter would cut the orbit into equal parts, but the plane through the sun parallel to the equator of the earth cuts the orbit into two parts with areas in a 186 to 179 ratio, so the eccentricity of the orbit of the Earth is approximately
which is close to the correct value (0.016710219). (See Earth's orbit). The calculation is correct when the perihelion, the date that the Earth is closest to the Sun, is on a solstice. The current perihelion, near January 4, is fairly close to the solstice on December 21 or 22.
Planetary acceleration[edit]
Isaac Newton computed in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica the acceleration of a planet moving according to Kepler's first and second law.
- The direction of the acceleration is towards the Sun.
- The magnitude of the acceleration is in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the Sun.
This suggests that the Sun may be the physical cause of the acceleration of planets.
Newton defined the force on a planet to be the product of its mass and the acceleration. (See Newton's laws of motion). So:
- Every planet is attracted towards the Sun.
- The force on a planet is in direct proportion to the mass of the planet and in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the Sun.
Here the Sun plays an unsymmetrical part, which is unjustified. So he assumed Newton's law of universal gravitation:
- All bodies in the solar system attract one another.
- The force between two bodies is in direct proportion to the product of their masses and in inverse proportion to the square of the distance between them.
As the planets have small masses compared to that of the Sun, the orbits conform to Kepler's laws approximately. Newton's model improves upon Kepler's model and fits actual observations more accurately. (See two-body problem).
A deviation in the motion of a planet from Kepler's laws due to the gravity of other planets is called a perturbation.
Below comes the detailed calculation of the acceleration of a planet moving according to Kepler's first and second laws.
Acceleration vector[edit]
From the heliocentric point of view consider the vector to the planet where is the distance to the planet and the direction is a unit vector. When the planet moves the direction vector changes:
where is the unit vector orthogonal to and pointing in the direction of rotation, and is the polar angle, and where a dot on top of the variable signifies differentiation with respect to time.
So differentiating the position vector twice to obtain the velocity and the acceleration vectors:
where the radial acceleration is
and the transversal acceleration is
The inverse square law[edit]
Kepler's laws say that
is constant.
The transversal acceleration is zero:
So the acceleration of a planet obeying Kepler's laws is directed towards the sun.
The radial acceleration is
Kepler's first law states that the orbit is described by the equation:
Differentiating with respect to time
Differentiating once more
The radial acceleration satisfies
Substituting the equation of the ellipse gives
The relation gives the simple final result
This means that the acceleration vector of any planet obeying Kepler's first and second law satisfies the inverse square law
is a constant, and is the unit vector pointing from the Sun towards the planet, and is the distance between the planet and the Sun.
According to Kepler's third law, has the same value for all the planets. So the inverse square law for planetary accelerations applies throughout the entire solar system.
The inverse square law is a differential equation. The solutions to this differential equation include the Keplerian motions, as shown, but they also include motions where the orbit is a hyperbola or parabola or a straight line. See Kepler orbit.
Newton's law of gravitation[edit]
By Newton's second law, the gravitational force that acts on the planet is:
where is the mass of the planet and has the same value for all planets in the solar system. According to Newton's third Law, the Sun is attracted to the planet by a force of the same magnitude. Since the force is proportional to the mass of the planet, under the symmetric consideration, it should also be proportional to the mass of the Sun, . So
where is the gravitational constant.
The acceleration of solar system body number i is, according to Newton's laws:
where is the mass of body j, is the distance between body i and body j, is the unit vector from body i towards body j, and the vector summation is over all bodies in the world, besides i itself.
In the special case where there are only two bodies in the world, Earth and Sun, the acceleration becomes
which is the acceleration of the Kepler motion. So this Earth moves around the Sun according to Kepler's laws.
If the two bodies in the world are Moon and Earth the acceleration of the Moon becomes
So in this approximation the Moon moves around the Earth according to Kepler's laws.
In the three-body case the accelerations are
These accelerations are not those of Kepler orbits, and the three-body problem is complicated. But Keplerian approximation is basis for perturbation calculations. See Lunar theory.
Position as a function of time [edit]
Kepler used his two first laws to compute the position of a planet as a function of time. His method involves the solution of a transcendental equation called Kepler's equation.
The procedure for calculating the heliocentric polar coordinates (r,θ) of a planet as a function of the time t since perihelion, is the following four steps:
- 1. Compute the mean anomaly where n is the mean motion.
- where P is the period.
- 2. Compute the eccentric anomaly E by solving Kepler's equation:
- 3. Compute the true anomaly θ by the equation:
- 4. Compute the heliocentric distance r from the first law:
The important special case of circular orbit, ε = 0, gives θ = E = M. Because the uniform circular motion was considered to be normal, a deviation from this motion was considered an anomaly.
The proof of this procedure is shown below.
Mean anomaly, M[edit]
The Keplerian problem assumes an elliptical orbit and the four points:
- s the Sun (at one focus of ellipse);
- z the perihelion
- c the center of the ellipse
- p the planet
- distance between center and perihelion, the semimajor axis,
- the eccentricity,
- the semiminor axis,
- the distance between Sun and planet.
- the direction to the planet as seen from the Sun, the true anomaly.
The problem is to compute the polar coordinates (r,θ) of the planet from the time since perihelion, t.
It is solved in steps. Kepler considered the circle with the major axis as a diameter, and
- the projection of the planet to the auxiliary circle
- the point on the circle such that the sector areas |zcy| and |zsx| are equal,
- the mean anomaly.
The sector areas are related by
The circular sector area
The area swept since perihelion,
is by Kepler's second law proportional to time since perihelion. So the mean anomaly, M, is proportional to time since perihelion, t.
where n is the mean motion.
Eccentric anomaly, E[edit]
When the mean anomaly M is computed, the goal is to compute the true anomaly θ. The function θ=f(M) is, however, not elementary.[10] Kepler's solution is to use
- , x as seen from the centre, the eccentric anomaly
as an intermediate variable, and first compute E as a function of M by solving Kepler's equation below, and then compute the true anomaly θ from the eccentric anomaly E. Here are the details.
Division by a2/2 gives Kepler's equation
This equation gives M as a function of E. Determining E for a given M is the inverse problem. Iterative numerical algorithms are commonly used.
Having computed the eccentric anomaly E, the next step is to calculate the true anomaly θ.
True anomaly, θ[edit]
Note from the figure that
so that
Dividing by and inserting from Kepler's first law
to get
The result is a usable relationship between the eccentric anomaly E and the true anomaly θ.
A computationally more convenient form follows by substituting into the trigonometric identity:
Multiplying by 1+ε gives the result
This is the third step in the connection between time and position in the orbit.
Distance, r[edit]
The fourth step is to compute the heliocentric distance r from the true anomaly θ by Kepler's first law:
See also[edit]
- Circular motion
- Free-fall time
- Gravity
- Kepler orbit
- Kepler problem
- Kepler's equation
- Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector
- ^ Godefroy Wendelin wrote a letter to Giovanni Battista Riccioli about the relationship between the distances of the Jovian moons from Jupiter and the periods of their orbits, showing that the periods and distances conformed to Kepler's third law. See: Joanne Baptista Riccioli, Almagestum novum … (Bologna (Bononiae), (Italy): Victor Benati, 1651), volume 1, page 492 Scholia III. In the margin beside the relevant paragraph is printed: Vendelini ingeniosa speculatio circa motus & intervalla satellitum Jovis. (The clever Wendelin's speculation about the movement and distances of Jupiter's satellites.)
In 1622, Johannes Kepler had noted that Jupiter's moons obey (approximately) his third law in his Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae [Epitome of Copernican Astronomy] (Linz ("Lentiis ad Danubium"), (Austria): Johann Planck, 1622), book 4, part 2, page 554.
- ^ a b Bryant, Jeff; Pavlyk, Oleksandr. "Kepler's Second Law", Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Retrieved December 27, 2009.
- ^ a b c Holton, Gerald James; Brush, Stephen G. (2001). Physics, the Human Adventure: From Copernicus to Einstein and Beyond (3rd paperback ed.). Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN 0-8135-2908-5. Retrieved December 27, 2009.
- ^ See also G. E. Smith, "Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica", especially the section Historical context ... in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
- ^ a b Wilson, Curtis (May 1994). "Kepler's Laws, So-Called". HAD News (Washington, DC: Historical Astronomy Division, American Astronomical Society) (31): 1–2. Retrieved December 27, 2009.
- ^ Bruce Stephenson (1994). Kepler's Physical Astronomy. Princeton University Press. p. 170. ISBN 0-691-03652-7.
- ^ Wilbur Applebaum (13 June 2000). Encyclopedia of the Scientific Revolution: From Copernicus to Newton. Routledge. p. 603. ISBN 978-1-135-58255-5.
- ^ Roy Porter (25 September 1992). The Scientific Revolution in National Context. Cambridge University Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-521-39699-8.
- ^ Burtt, Edwin. The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science. p. 52.
- ^ Gerald James Holton, Stephen G. Brush (2001). Physics, the Human Adventure. Rutgers University Press. p. 45. ISBN 0-8135-2908-5.
- ^ MÜLLER, M (1995). "EQUATION OF TIME -- PROBLEM IN ASTRONOMY". Acta Physica Polonica A. Retrieved 23 February 2013.
- Kepler's life is summarized on pages 523–627 and Book Five of his magnum opus, Harmonice Mundi (harmonies of the world), is reprinted on pages 635–732 of On the Shoulders of Giants: The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy (works by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton, and Einstein). Stephen Hawking, ed. 2002 ISBN 0-7624-1348-4
- A derivation of Kepler's third law of planetary motion is a standard topic in engineering mechanics classes. See, for example, pages 161–164 of Meriam, J. L. (1966, 1971). Dynamics, 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 0-471-59601-9. .
- Murray and Dermott, Solar System Dynamics, Cambridge University Press 1999, ISBN 0-521-57597-4
- V.I. Arnold, Mathematical Methods of Classical Mechanics, Chapter 2. Springer 1989, ISBN 0-387-96890-3
External links[edit]
- B.Surendranath Reddy; animation of Kepler's laws: applet
- Crowell, Benjamin, Conservation Laws, http://www.lightandmatter.com/area1book2.html, an online book that gives a proof of the first law without the use of calculus. (see section 5.2, p. 112)
- David McNamara and Gianfranco Vidali, Kepler's Second Law - Java Interactive Tutorial, http://www.phy.syr.edu/courses/java/mc_html/kepler.html, an interactive Java applet that aids in the understanding of Kepler's Second Law.
- Audio - Cain/Gay (2010) Astronomy Cast Johannes Kepler and His Laws of Planetary Motion
- University of Tennessee's Dept. Physics & Astronomy: Astronomy 161 page on Johannes Kepler: The Laws of Planetary Motion [2]
- Equant compared to Kepler: interactive model [3]
- Kepler's Third Law:interactive model [4]
- Solar System Simulator (Interactive Applet)
- Kepler and His Laws, educational web pages by David P. Stern


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The original invitation
Mrs. Martin in her garden, Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
"Walden," the garden of Mrs. Cyrus H. McCormick, a founding member of the Lake Forest Garden Club
GCA members campaigned against the logging of redwoods as early as the 1930s.
The Garden Club of America: a timeline
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April 30, 1913: Encouraged by the letter-writing campaign of Mrs. J. Willis Martin and Mrs. Bayard Henry, the founding garden clubs gather in Philadelphia "to overcome their indifference and to put aside their fear that being organized would destroy their independence and kill the joy of living." The women call their new organization "The Garden Guild," and agree to hold their First Annual Meeting the next day. Adopted at that meeting is the following policy:
"The objects of this association shall be: to stimulate the knowledge and love of gardening among amateurs; to share the advantages of association through conference and correspondence, in this country and abroad; to aid in the protection of native plants and birds; and to encourage civic planting."
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The twelve founding clubs of The Garden Club of America are:
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Find the perfect pet bird for you with the BirdChannel.com Species Guide! Each species profile has information about the pet bird's personality and behavior traits, along with expert advice. Search by the pet birds' species name or by the genus name, or check out the most popular pet birds below:
Considered the Einsteins of the parrot world, African grey parrots are one of the most popular pet birds. Native to Africa, there are two species of African greys: the Congo African grey (Psittacus erithacus erithacus) and the timneh African grey (Psittacus erithacus timneh). The Congo African grey is the larger of the two species, with light gray feathers, black beak and a red tail. The timneh African grey is smaller, with dark gray feathers and a maroon tail. While Congo African greys are more popular than timneh African greys, owners praise both for their intelligence and mimicking capabilities. Read more about African greys here.
One of the most popular pet birds, cockatiels live up to their reputation as a friendly pet bird. Native to Australia, cockatiels are considered the best pet birds for young and old. Male cockatiels are known for their whistling capabilities, and both male and female cockatiels love to cuddle and hang out on your shoulder. There are several color mutations of cockatiels, including: normal grey, pied, pearl, lutino, albino and mutation variations (e.g., pearl-pied mutation). Read more about cockatiels here.
Conures are medium-sized parrots that bring the tropics to mind when you see their range of vivid colors. Native to South America, there are severa genera of conures, but the ones most often seen as pets are the Pyrrhura conures and the Aratinga conures. From the Pyrrhura genera, the most popular conure is the green-cheeked conure. Feisty, clever and generally quieter than an Aratinga conure, the green-cheeked conure is roughly the size of a cockatiel. While not known for its talking ability, the green-cheeked conure, as well as other Pyrrhura conures, is playful and a great pet birds for the family.
On the Aratinga side (Latin for "little macaw), the most popular pet conure is the sun conure and it shares many characteristics with its macaw cousins, mostly their vivid colors and noise levels. Other popular Aratinga conures are jenday conures and nanday conures. Aratinga conures can be very loud but, like the green-cheeked conure, they make great pets for families. Read more about conures here.
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L.E. Wilson Neck Sizer Die Bushing 368 Diameter Steel
Product #: 215939 L.E. Wilson #: B-368
Suggested Products
Product Information
L.E. Wilson has been making precision reloading tools for over 80 years. The L.E. Wilson Neck Sizing Bushing allows the reloader to custom fit the L.E. Wilson Neck Sizer Die to any brass and bullet combination helping to ensure top accuracy. Since brass has a tendency to "spring-back" after sizing, it is very important to take the correct measurement resulting in consistent .001" to .002" inch of grip between the case neck and the bullet. Consistent neck tension is a key factor in the most accurate reloads possible.
Technical Information
Material: Heat Treated Steel
Bushings will freely interchange in all Wilson bushing type neck sizing dies.
To Determine Bushing Size, measure the outside neck diameter of a loaded cartridge with a precision micrometer. From this measurement subtract .002" to .003", to allow for brass spring back and bullet tension.
By selecting the correct bushing you can provide just the right amount of neck tension to properly hold the bullet without excessive resizing.
Technical Information
Material: Heat Treated Steel
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Founded: Indiana University, 1911Chapter Founding: Pi Omicron, 2009Symbols: Diamond, Red Carnation, Laurel WreathColors: Crimson & CreamNickname(s): Kappa, Nupes
Kappa Alpha Psi, a college Fraternity now comprised of functioning Undergraduate and Alumni Chapters on major campuses and in cities throughout the country, is the crystallization of a dream by our respected 10 founders. We were founded on January 5, 1911 on the campus of Indiana University at Bloomington as a social fraternity. One of our core objectives is to unite college men of culture, patriotism, and honor in the bond of a fraternity. Our motto is "Achievement in Every Field of Human Endeavor" and we continually train for leadership. We currently are operating under the theme of 100 Years and Building, which means we have more work to do as an organization and more leaders to build within the framework of the global world.
The national service program of Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc. is Guide Right. The purpose of this program is to place the training experience and life lessons of successful men at the disposal of youth for educational and occupational guidance, primarily inspirational and informational in character. Nationally, we have partnered with St. Jude Children's Hospital to help raise funds for their research to save lives.
Inter-Fraternity Council (IFC)Pi Kappa PhiSigma Alpha Epsilon Register for 2013 IFC Recruitment
National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc.Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc.Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc.Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc.Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc.Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, Inc.Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc.
Panhellenic Council Delta ZetaPhi MuZeta Tau AlphaAbout Panhellenic Recruitment Panhellenic Recruitment Guide Potential Member Bill of RightsRecruitment Rules Register for 2013 UPC Recruitment
More InformationFrequently Asked QuestionsWhy Join Greek Life?Greek Life Information for ParentsGreek Speak Code of Student BehaviorEvent Calendar
Contact UsOffice of Student Life800 University WayCampus Life Center, Suite 203 Spartanburg, SC 29303Phone: 864-503-5122Fax: 864-503-5100
The University of South Carolina Upstate is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges to award baccalaureate and masters degrees. Contact the Commission on Colleges at 1866 Southern Lane, Decatur, Georgia, 30033 or call 404-679-4500 for questions about the accreditation of USC Upstate. Comments or Complaints?


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SALEM - David and Debra Young, Salem, are announcing the engagement and forthcoming marriage of their daughter, Nicole Young, to Michael McKinney, son of Samuel and Carol McKinney, Salem.
The bride-elect is a graduate of Salem High School and earned a bachelor's degree in nursing from Kent State University. She is employed as a registered nurse at Akron General Medical Center.
Her fiance is also graduate of Salem High School and earned a bachelor's of science degree from Youngstown State University. He earned an education degree from Notre Dame College and is employed as a career specialist at JOG Our Way, Akron.
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Michael McKinney and Nicole Young
The couple is planning a June wedding at Emmanuel Lutheran Church, Salem.


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Velocity Screwed
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TrUbY xD
Joined: 28 October 2013
Location: Leicester
Status: Offline
Points: 2
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Posted: 28 October 2013 at 7:05am
Hi guys, I have a tippmann sierra one, with a few mods.
One of the mods was a new aluminium power tube.
Recently I when went paintballing and had to adjust my velocity.
Being a bit heavy handed I fully unscrewed the velocity screw, and cross threaded it trying to put it back in...
Once I'd returned home I replaced the screw with one out of my spares box (which I think may be the 98 parts).
It took a few attempts to re thread the screw and was a bit longer than the original.
I took it to my local paintball place and it was shooting at 350 - 370 fps.
I tried adjusting the velocity but nothing happened.
Any ideas ???
Platinum Member
Strike 1 - Swearing on Facebook
Joined: 10 June 2002
Location: Under Your Bed
Status: Offline
Points: 10954
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What type of air system are you using? CO2 or HPA? If CO2, what's the temperature where you're playing like?
One option if it continues to chrono high is to clip the main spring (a coil or two at a time) and then try again. Velocity in the Sierra One is determined by two factors, flow interruption (the velocity screw) and dwell (how long the valve stays open). If adjusting one doesn't fix it, adjusting the other will.
To clip the spring, turn your velocity screw all the way out and clip a coil or two, re-install the spring and chrono. Continue to do this until the chrono speed gets down to around 310FPS with the screw backed out to its limit (but not removed) You should then be able to use the velocity screw to fine tune the velocity down to a safer level.
<Removed overly wide sig. Tsk, you know better.>
TrUbY xD
Joined: 28 October 2013
Location: Leicester
Status: Offline
Points: 2
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Sweet ill give it a go!
CO2 btw
TrUbY xD
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I think we need a bigger Government with more Federal employees that live and work in Washington DC. Period.
I like the way they make decisions about your lives. I remain to be convinced that people here are actually qualified to make their own decisions about themselves and their families.
They need Government help. And I am all for that.


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Hyundai sells two cars under the Genesis name, but they could hardly be more different. The softly sprung Genesis sedan is a luxurious shot across the bow of high-end European and Japanese carmakers. The Hyundai Genesis Coupe, on the other hand, is a serious rear-wheel-drive sport coupe that gives more established performance marques a run for their money.
Available with a turbocharged four-cylinder engine or a naturally aspirated V6, the Genesis Coupe is a typically impressive Hyundai value, but with a high-performance edge. Sending power to the rear wheels makes for a superior driving experience, and the Genesis Coupe also boasts distinctive styling and ample feature content. These virtues make Hyundai's taut two-door one of our favorite affordable performance cars.
Current Hyundai Genesis Coupe
The Hyundai Genesis Coupe is available with either a 2.0-liter turbocharged four-cylinder engine or a 3.8-liter V6. The turbo ("2.0T") makes 274 horsepower and 275 pound-feet of torque, while the V6 cranks out 348 hp and 295 lb-ft of torque.
For the base 2.0T, Hyundai offers either a six-speed manual or eight-speed automatic with manual shift control. The R-Spec trim is manual only, while the Premium level is automatic only. The V6 models follow suit: a choice of manual or automatic for the Track trim, manual only in the R-Spec, and automatic only for the Grand Touring.
Hyundai's reputation for generous standard equipment continues with the Genesis Coupe, which offers features like 18-inch wheels, a leather-wrapped tilt-and-telescoping steering wheel and Bluetooth and USB/iPod connectivity on 2.0 models. Moving up to 3.8 trim levels unlocks additional niceties like leather upholstery, heated front seats and rear parking sensors. The performance-minded R-Spec models add a sport-tuned suspension, 19-inch alloy wheels, Brembo brakes and a limited-slip rear differential.
In testing, the V6-powered Hyundai Genesis Coupe Track made the 0-60-mph sprint in a quick 5.3 seconds. The 2.0T did the same in 6.5 seconds. The 2.0T's lighter weight, however, makes for a slightly more balanced driving experience, but driving dynamics for both levels are a study in classically sporty rear-wheel-drive behavior. Steering response is quick and crisp, balance is excellent and body roll is kept nicely in check. The ride is nonetheless agreeable, and non-Track trims are even more compliant.
Inside, the Hyundai Genesis Coupe has relatively high-quality materials with good fit and finish. The driver seat has ample bolstering and provides a low, cockpit-like driving position. Buyers should know that the small backseat is strictly for children. Overall, though, the Genesis Coupe is a great leap forward for the South Korean carmaker, helping define it as a value leader in both luxury and performance cars.
Used Hyundai Genesis Coupe Models
The Genesis Coupe debuted for 2010 in seven trim levels. For 2011, Hyundai dropped the 2.0T Track trim and added the 3.8 R-Spec (basically a 2.0 R-Spec with the V6 engine). Coupes through the 2012 model year had more mundane front-end styling and were not as powerful compared to the current model. Engine output topped out at 210 hp for the 2.0T and 306 hp for the V6 and the automatic transmissions were limited to only five (four-cylinder) or six (six-cylinder) speeds. Elsewhere, steering response was a bit more relaxed and a telescoping steering column was not offered, something taller drivers should consider.
Read the most recent 2014 Hyundai Genesis Coupe review.
If you are looking for older years, visit our used Hyundai Genesis Coupe page.


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List Price: $97.99Edition: 12thPublisher: McGraw-Hill EducationBinding: PaperbackPages: 496Size: 8.80" wide x 10.80" long x 0.70" tall Weight: 3.014Language: English
Well-known for its balanced approach to media industries and professions,Dynamics of Mass Communicationoffers a lively, thorough, and objective introduction for mass communication majors and non-majors alike.Dynamics of Mass Communicationtakes a comprehensive and balanced look at the changing world of mass media. Social media, 'apps' and the new media Goliaths are new and major themes of the 12th edition. Explore how the traditional mass media are dealing with shrinking audiences, evaporating advertising revenue and increased competition from the Internet. The 12th edition brings students up-to-date on the latest developments in the media world including cyber-bullying; new media business models; e-book readers' affects on the traditional print publishing industry; online video sites such as YouTube and hulu.com.; the decoupling of advertising from media content, and much more.
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Yamaha XS400 – Volure Cycles
Written by Martin Hodgson
The phrase second time lucky tends to suggest that the first time around didn't go as planned. For Sander Ziugov of Volure Cycles and his Yamaha XS400 all was looking perfect when he converted his stock red Yamaha into a stunning grey on black café racer. So good in fact it was featured on Pipeburn, until a misadventure saw the bike tumbling down the road.
'79 Yamaha SR500 – Volts Mechanix
Most bike builders who are lucky enough to have more than a few projects under their belt will likely tell you the same thing; they'd love to have their own shop. Be it ever so humble, there's no place like not your home. So you'd think that once you have a shop on the go, you'd be a happy camper. But not for Tony and Clive from the UK's Volts Mechanix. See, they currently have two shops. Yes, two. One for summer and one for winter. We've heard of the English landed gentry, but this is ridiculous.
'75 Yamaha XS650 – Maccomotors
If you've got any lingering doubts about the 21st Century custom motorcycle scene not being a truly global affair, then prepare to have them squashed like the model buildings in a Godzilla movie. This, the 4th Maccomotors bike to feature on Pipeburn, is the product of no less than four different countries; namely Spain, Mexico, the UK and Japan. And although you might assume that such an international affair might end up looking like a poster child for design-by-committee, we're here to tell you it's turned out quite the opposite. Say 'hola' to 'The Mexican'.
Yamaha SR400 – Gasoline Custom Motorcycles
The most recent of Gasoline's two-wheel custom work, taking the title "Tomahawk", manages to transform one of the world's most popular motorcycles into a custom dream machine worthy of any garage. The Yamaha SR400 has been toyed and tampered many times before. It's an old favorite to work with, being one of Japan's biggest selling motorcycles for over three decades. So you'd think that the platform might just have been exhausted. If so, it looks like no-one has told these Aussies; they have pushed the boundaries to create a classic thumper with a streamlined, modern edge. At first sight the transformation looks deceptively simple, but peer deeper and you can see the beautiful details that has been included by the team in their East Sydney workshop, Gasoline Custom Motorcycles, run by Jason Gasoline.
1977 Yamaha XS650 – 'Escape Machine'
Hill Hudson is a talented young illustrator studying at the Pacific Northwest College Of Art in Portland, Oregon. This year he had to complete his senior thesis, which usually involves doing an illustration. But Hill wanted to do something a little different and build a motorcycle. "I guess I'm the first to ever do this in the history of the 100 plus years the school as been running" he says. "This thesis will be documented and stored in the library here in Portland and will go down as the first art school breakdown and construction of a motorcycle in a gallery setting at this school". Hill's project started by searching for a suitable low cost donor. He eventually found a 1977 XS650 that was the perfect 'blank canvas' for his art project and got to work.
Click to read more...
1976 Yamaha DT400
By guest writer Ian Lee.
"I have an idea, let's make it a two stroke bobber'. And that's how the build started. From a rusted lawn ornament, the 1976 Yamaha DT400 was changed into the impressive piece of machinery you see before you today. Built over the course of three months, using original parts from the bike and anything else that fell to hand in the workshop, it was a failed attempt to enter the Rusty Kustoms Biker Build Off. Mind you, we use the term 'failure' in the loosest sense of the word. Built by Tom Armstrong, Matthew Blythman and Steven Blythman; a spray painter, industrial designer and civil engineer respectively. This bike is proof that you don't need alot of money or time to build a unique custom motorcycle – a six pack of beer helps though.
Click to read more...
Yamaha Star Bolt by JPD Customs
A little while back Yamaha gave one of their fresh off the factory floor Star Bolt's to 10 custom bike builders. The brief was pretty simple, do whatever you want with it. Jeff Palhegyi from JPD Customs was one of the chosen builders. Over the years Jeff has created more than 60 individual custom Stars for Yamaha, but this was his first Star Bolt. After throwing around a few concepts, Jeff decided to turn the Bolt into a retro styled dirt tracker. "I have always been a fan of Dirt Track Racing and the Star Bolt 'Dirt Track Concept' was a natural fit" he says. The bike may not have won the Bolt Build Off – that was awarded to Doc's Chops – but it did receive a lot of attention and is still one of our favourite Bolt builds.
Click to read more...
Yamaha XJR1300 'Eau Rouge' by Deus Ex Machina
Last year Yamaha started asking motorcycle customizers to provide inspirational ideas on how to transform modern Yamaha motorcycles into what they have dubbed 'Yard Built Specials'. It's only been a few months since Deus Ex Machina Italy launched their last 'Yard Built' Yamaha XJR1300 named Project X. Now they have just unveiled their latest take on the XJR1300 at the EICMA 2013 in Milan – the largest two-wheeled show in the world. Deus and Yamaha have collaborated to transform this powerful XJR1300 into something to behold. The 'Eau Rouge' is Deus Ex Machina's modern interpretation of endurance racing bikes of the 70s and 80s – and what a wonderful interpretation it is.
Click to read more...
'82 Yahama XV750 – Hageman Motorcycles
As a card-carrying member of the XV750 owner's club, I'm always on the lookout for sweet examples of the species to share with you, our beloved readers. And if there's one place on this planet that I'm almost certainly going to find the best examples of these fine creatures, it's the sunny wetlands of Tampa, Florida. Specifically, they seem to congregate in large numbers around the workshop of one Greg Hageman, a.k.a 'Doc's Chops'. This breeder of beautiful bikes has just landed 1st place in the Yamaha Bolt build-off, but never one to stay in a place for long, he's now back in his Florida nest. And just look at what he's hatched up now…
Click to read more...
Yamaha Star Bolt Scrambler – Doc's Chops
Doc's Chops is a household name in some parts, especially if the parts you are talking about are located within the borders of the glorious Custom Yamaha Land. There he's pretty much the undisputed ruler, save for the odd incursion by John Ryland and his band of merry metal men. DC's army of work on Yamaha's XV750 has been victorious to say the least and now Greg Hageman, the man behind the brand, has turned his golden hands to something decidedly non-XV. In a build-off organised by Yamaha America, Greg's now in battle with nine other shops to see who can take a 2014 Star Bolt and make her the fairest in the land.
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text: This study elucidated flora list of marine algae at Marine National Park of Korea. As a result, a total number of 190 algal species – 29 greens, 54 browns, 107 reds – was identified. The most species (141) were found at Hallyeohaesang National Park, while the fowest (80) were found at Dadohaehaesang National Park.


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on May 29th, 2012
in Strategy & Public Policy
| 1 comment
When online, how do you know who you're really communicating with? Does that affect your shopping or banking habits? Do you know people who don't use the Internet much because they are afraid of identity theft? The latest statistics from a Pew Research Center study demonstrate the pull of the Internet: •80 percent of Americans are users, whether through personal computer, tablet, or smartphone; •many of those users do not conduct any kind of commerce; •30 percent have not made a purchase online; •and 40 percent do not bank online. Would a more secure approach to online identity raise those figures? The Office of Inspector General's new paper Digital Identity: Opportunities for the Postal Service examines the world of digital identity as well as many existing digital authentication solutions, including pilot projects, and potential roles for the Postal Service in the digital identity ecosystem. The paper posits that there is a need for a trusted and neutral body to identify, authenticate, and certify users in a straightforward manner that reduces sign-up friction and maintains privacy with very clear, concise, and enforceable policy guidelines. The Postal Service, given its national presence, physical infrastructure, and history of protecting privacy, could operate in a number of roles: •As a Trusted Third Party Online – The Postal Service could verify individual or business addresses (with permission from each user) for other organizations to facilitate eCommerce or other online transactions. •As an Identity Provider – The Postal Service could offer its own digital identity service, an opt-in service verifying attributes of consumers, businesses and organizations. •Providing in-Person Verification Services – The Postal Service could expand the work it already does for passports and offer in-person verification of mailing addresses through its network of post offices and postal carriers. What do you think? Is there a role for the Postal Service in digital identity? Share your thoughts below!
on May 21st, 2012
in Ideas Worth Exploring
| 6 comments
Though there has been a steady decline of customers' usage of First-Class Mail™ over the last decade, writing and sending letters through the U.S. mail used to be very popular ways of letting someone know you cared. For example, many of us remember when we were kids waiting anxiously for the delivery of the mail to see whether that special birthday present from Grandma and Granddad had arrived. And, with sincere gratitude, many of us remember penning a letter to Grandma and Granddad, thanking them for that special birthday present. Family members often read, reflect on, and cherish letters exchanged decades ago between family, lovers, and friends. These letters often serve as time machines, transporting younger generations back to an era where they can gain fascinating insight into their loved ones' lives or valuable information about the family dynamics of previous generations. Writing and sending letters is a time honored tradition that offers tangible evidence that the writer cares or doesn't care about the recipient of the letter. Letters and greeting cards visually connect the receiver to the sender through handwriting, images, or messages in the letter or greeting card. Experian QAS, a provider of address management solutions, found that most people prefer to receive greeting cards. The company surveyed 500 respondents about their greeting card preferences, and 92 percent preferred receiving greeting cards mailed through the postal services over receiving e-cards. Email messages, on the other hand, have their advantages. For example, emails can be sent and received instantly wherever there is Internet service. Email does not require physical storage and if the receiver doesn't want anyone to read the email, it can be password protected or discarded with a click of the mouse. Yet, with all the modern conveniences of emails, how many people remember the first email they ever sent or received? How many people can appreciate the sensory connection to a loved one through an email? This blog is hosted by the OIG's Office of Audit.
on May 14th, 2012
in Strategy & Public Policy
| 3 comments
Do you ever wonder about the future? Will flying cars ever arrive? Are video phones here at last? Will the end of paper finally come? Businesses can greatly benefit from knowing a little about future possibilities. At a time of great social and technological transition, understanding what might lie ahead can help businesses – like the Postal Service - prepare themselves to adapt. Deutsche Post DHL, the logistics and delivery company, commissioned a study to look at the world in 2050. The study, Delivering Tomorrow - Logistics 2050, was prepared with the help of a firm of futurists and foresight experts. Through interviews with key experts, the study's authors determined 14 key factors that could influence the future of logistics such as income growth and trends in trade regulation. Then, they investigated potential outcomes for these factors. The possibilities were combined into five potential visions of the future: • Untamed Economy – Impending Collapse – World income grows rapidly, and globalization continues. The sheer pace of the growth threatens to strain natural resources. Logistics firms are critical for transporting goods through a logistics supergrid. • Mega-efficiency in Megacities – People live in urban metropolises that have managed to solve many of the problems of dense urban growth such as traffic jams. Rural areas are left behind as economic activity becomes increasingly concentrated in these giant megacities, which are connected by logistics firms. • Customized Lifestyles – A revolution in 3-D printing lets people make goods very near where they live. This allows for an incredible increase in customization and individualization. It also means that there is far less need to transport goods across the world. • Paralyzing Protectionism – Globalization falters as countries retreat into protected regional trade blocs. Even the Internet splits apart. Technological development lags, infrastructure crumbles, and resource scarcity slows economic growth. Regional logistics champions carry goods, and customs clearance takes weeks. • Global Resilience – Local Adaptation – Natural disasters, crises, and attacks make resilience and redundancy critical. Businesses use adaptable technology, such as production facilities that can turn off and on as needed. Redundancy is expensive so standards of living are lower. Trade is regionalized rather than global, and logistics firms focus on security rather than timeliness. What do you think of these visions of the future? (Keep in mind the short descriptions above only hint at the full scenarios in the paper.) What role will the U.S. Postal Service play?
This site provides a forum to discuss different aspects of the United States Postal Service and how it can be improved. We encourage you to share your comments, ideas, and concerns.
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A trellis setting decorated with round-cut diamonds and diamond baguettes gives this ring timeless beauty. Ring comes in signature blue and white packaging, including a wooden ring box, satiny pouch, gift box with ribbon, and gift bag.
Ring Details:
- Width: .37 in.
- Metal: 14k white gold
- Features: beaded milgrain details, open-worked setting, Vera Wang quote & ring information card
Diamond Details:
- Total weight: 3/4 ct.
- Center stone weight: 1/4 ct.
- Cut: round & baguette
- Color: I
- Clarity: I2
- Setting: pave & prong
Image(s) may be enlarged to show detail.
Diamond weights are approximate. Diamond total weights may vary between .01 and .08 ct. Some diamonds have fewer than 17 facets.
Rings are sized upon order. For this reason, please expect an actual delivery date later than the date listed on your order confirmation e-mail.
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This profile is the essential source for top-level energy industry data and information. The report provides an overview of each of the key sub-segments of the energy industry in Argentina. It details the market structure, regulatory environment, infrastructure and provides historical and forecasted statistics relating to the supply/demand balance for each of the key sub-segments. It also provides information relating
Author:Mike Kinge-mailWeb: http://www.companiesandmarkets.comTelefon: London: +44 (0) 203 086 8600


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Parents of the bride are Sherry and Mike Denham of Oxford and Stephen Sparks of Ashland. Parents of the groom are Katrina and Jerrell Campbell of Ashland and W.L. Moon and Maxine Palmer of South Carolina.
Grandparents of the bride are Patsy and Bobby Collier, Cecil and Crickett Freeman, Donald Sparks and the late Dimple Sparks and Jimmy and Gwen Denham. Grandparents of the groom are Velma Matthews, the late Ruby Smith, the late Clarence Moon, the late Hairm Davidson and the late Mittis Davidson.
The bride was given away by her brother Brett Sparks. The maid of honor was Katie Sparks, sister-in-law of the bride. Bridesmaids were Jessica Worthy, Brooke Anderson and Emily Anderson. Junior bridesmaid was Haylee Ulm. Flower girl was Brianna Moon, niece of the groom.
The best man was W.L. Moon, father of the groom. Groomsmen were Allen Preston, Brian Roberts and Brent Reynolds. The ring bearer was Hunter Sparks, nephew of the bride.
After a trip to the Smoky Mountains, the couple will reside in Ashland.


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text: A 21-year-old man from St. Bernard Parish is facing charges after police say he admitted to having sex with a girl under 17 years old and threatened to post a sex video of her to the Internet. "In an unusual case, a Meraux man was booked with carnal knowledge of a juvenile teen-age girl he met on a social networking site and with extortion for trying to force her to continue their relationship by threatening to post a videotape of them to the Internet," Sheriff James Pohlmann said in a news release. Sheriff's spokesman Steve Cannizaro says they arrested John Johnson Jr. after the girl from Violet told her mother about the threat. The family called police. "The teen, interviewed the next day by detectives from the Juvenile Division, said she wanted to end their relationship but Johnson claimed he had made a video of them having sex and said he would post it to the Internet if she broke up with him," Cannizaro explained. "Johnson admitted the couple had sexual relations earlier this year after they met on-line last year on a social networking site and began a relationship... he also said no sex video existed but admitted he told her that to scare her so she wouldn't break up with him." He says they booked Johnson on two counts of carnal knowledge of a juvenile and with extortion. "Sheriff Pohlmann said the case highlights the need for parents to try to monitor their underage juveniles' use of social networking sites and relationships they form with people they know only through contact on the Internet," according to Cannizaro. They are not releasing the victim's name or exact age to protect her identity.