text:
|Company / developer
|Written in
|Various (Notably C and Assembly)
|OS family
|Working state
|Source model
|mainly Free and open source software,
Proprietary software also available
|Initial release
|Latest release
|3.14.1 (14 April 2014[±][2])
|Latest preview
|3.15-rc2 (20 April 2014[±][3])
|Marketing target
|Personal computers, mobile devices, embedded devices, servers, mainframes, supercomputers
|Available in
|Supported platforms
|Alpha, ARC, ARM, AVR32, Blackfin, C6x, ETRAX CRIS, FR-V, H8/300, Hexagon, Itanium, M32R, m68k, META, Microblaze, MIPS, MN103, OpenRISC, PA-RISC, PowerPC, s390, S+core, SuperH, SPARC, TILE64, Unicore32, x86, Xtensa
|Kernel type
|Monolithic (Linux kernel)
|Default user interface
|Many[4] ("Linux" trademark owned by Linus Torvalds[5] and administered by the Linux Mark Institute)
Linux (i/ˈlɪnəks/ LIN-əks[6][7] or /ˈliːnʊks/ LEE-nuuks)[8][9][10] is a Unix-like and POSIX-compliant computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel,[11] an operating system kernel first released on 5 October 1991 by Linus Torvalds.[12][13]
Linux was originally developed as a free operating system for Intel x86-based personal computers. It has since been ported to more computer hardware platforms than any other operating system. It is a leading operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers and supercomputers.[14][15][16] As of June 2013[update], more than 95% of the world's 500 fastest supercomputers run some variant of Linux,[17] including all the 44 fastest.[18] Linux also runs on embedded systems, which are devices whose operating system is typically built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system; this includes mobile phones,[19] tablet computers, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions[20][21] and video game consoles. Android, which is a widely used operating system for mobile devices, is built on top of the Linux kernel.
The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open source software collaboration. The underlying source code may be used, modified, and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under licenses such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a format known as a Linux distribution for desktop and server use. Some popular mainstream Linux distributions include Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Fedora, Arch Linux, and the commercial Red Hat Enterprise Linux and SUSE Linux Enterprise Server. Linux distributions include the Linux kernel, supporting utilities and libraries and usually a large amount of application software to fulfill the distribution's intended use.
A distribution oriented toward desktop use will typically include X11 or Wayland as the windowing system, and an accompanying desktop environment such as GNOME or the KDE Software Compilation. Some such distributions may include a less resource intensive desktop such as LXDE or Xfce, for use on older or less powerful computers. A distribution intended to run as a server may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, and instead include other software to set up and operate a solution stack such as LAMP. Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use.
- 1 History
- 2 Design
- 3 Development
- 4 Uses
- 5 Market share and uptake
- 6 Copyright, trademark, and naming
- 7 See also
- 8 References
- 9 External links
The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&T's Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna. It was first released in 1971, and initially, was written entirely in assembly language, a common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, Unix was re-written in the programming language C by Dennis Ritchie (with exceptions to the kernel and I/O). The availability of an operating system written in a high-level language allowed easier portability to different computer platforms.
With AT&T being required to license the operating system's source code to anyone who asked (due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding them from entering the computer business),[22] Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs. Free of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, Bell Labs began selling Unix as a proprietary product.
The GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, had the goal of creating a "complete Unix-compatible software system" composed entirely of free software. Work began in 1984.[23] Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation and wrote the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell, and a windowing system) were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete.[24]
Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own.[25]
Although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Linus Torvalds has said that if 386BSD had been available at the time, he probably would not have created Linux.[26]
MINIX, initially released in 1987, is an inexpensive minimal Unix-like operating system, designed for education in computer science, written by Andrew S. Tanenbaum. Starting with version 3 in 2005, MINIX became free and was redesigned for "serious" use.
In 1991, while attending the University of Helsinki, Torvalds became curious about operating systems[27] and frustrated by the licensing of MINIX, which limited it to educational use only. He began to work on his own operating system which eventually became the Linux kernel.
Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on MINIX, and applications written for MINIX were also used on Linux. Later, Linux matured and further Linux kernel development took place on Linux systems.[28] GNU applications also replaced all MINIX components, because it was advantageous to use the freely available code from the GNU Project with the fledgling operating system; code licensed under the GNU GPL can be reused in other projects as long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license, which prohibited commercial redistribution, to the GNU GPL.[29] Developers worked to integrate GNU components with the Linux kernel, making a fully functional and free operating system.[24]
Commercial and popular uptake[edit]
Today, Linux systems are used in every domain, from embedded systems to supercomputers,[16][30] and have secured a place in server installations often using the popular LAMP application stack.[31][dead link] Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing.[32][33][34][35][36][37][38]
Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments. The federal government of Brazil is well known for its support for Linux.[39][40] News of the Russian military creating its own Linux distribution has also surfaced, and has come to fruition as the G.H.ost Project.[41] The Indian state of Kerala has gone to the extent of mandating that all state high schools run Linux on their computers.[42][43] China uses Linux exclusively as the operating system for its Loongson processor family to achieve technology independence.[44] In Spain, some regions have developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in education and official institutions, like gnuLinEx in Extremadura and Guadalinex in Andalusia. Portugal is also using its own Linux distribution Caixa Mágica, used in the Magalhães netbook[45] and the e-escola government program.[46] France and Germany have also taken steps toward the adoption of Linux.[47]
Linux distributions have also become popular in the netbook market, with many devices such as the ASUS Eee PC and Acer Aspire One shipping with customized Linux distributions installed.[48]
Current development[edit]
Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel.[49] Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation,[50] which in turn supports the GNU components.[51] Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries.
Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions.
A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, and peripheral and file system access. Device drivers are either integrated directly with the kernel or added as modules loaded while the system is running.[52]
Separate projects that interface with the kernel provide much of the system's higher-level functionality. The GNU userland is an important part of most Linux-based systems, providing the most common implementation of the C library, a popular shell, and many of the common Unix tools which carry out many basic operating system tasks. The graphical user interface (or GUI) used by most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation of the X Window System.[53]
|User mode
|User applications
|e.g. bash, LibreOffice, Blender, 0 A.D.
|Low-level system components:
|System daemons:
systemd, logind, networkd, soundd, ...
|Windowing system:
display server
|Other libraries:
GLib, GTK+, Qt, EFL, SDL, SFML, FLTK, GNUstep, etc.
Mesa 3D, AMD Catalyst, ...
|C standard library
|open, exec, sbrk, socket, fopen, calloc, ... (up to 2000 subroutines)
glibc aims to be POSIX/SUS-compatible, uClibc targets embedded systems, bionic written for Android, etc.
|Kernel mode
|Linux kernel
|stat, splice, dup, read, open, ioctl, write, mmap, close, exit, etc. (about 380 system calls)
The Linux kernel System Call Interface (SCI, aims to be POSIX/SUS-compatible)
|Process scheduling
|Memory management
|Virtual files
|Articles: ALSA, DRI, evdev, LVM, device mapper, Linux Network Scheduler, Netfilter
Linux Security Modules: SELinux, TOMOYO, AppArmor, Smack
|Hardware (CPU, main memory, data storage devices, etc.)
Some components of an installed Linux system are:[53][54]
- A bootloader, for example GNU GRUB or LILO. This is a program which is executed by the computer when it is first turned on, and loads the Linux kernel into memory.
- An init program. This is the first process launched by the Linux kernel, and is at the root of the process tree: in other terms, all processes are launched through init. It starts processes such as system services and login prompts (whether graphical or in terminal mode).
- Software libraries which contain code which can be used by running processes. On Linux systems using ELF-format executable files, the dynamic linker which manages use of dynamic libraries is "ld-linux.so". The most commonly used software library on Linux systems is the GNU C Library. If the system is set up for the user to compile software themselves, header files will also be included to describe the interface of installed libraries.
- User interface programs such as command shells or windowing environments.
User interface[edit]
The user interface, also known as the shell, is either a command-line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or through controls attached to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default mode is usually a graphical user interface, although the CLI is available through terminal emulator windows or on a separate virtual console. Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple inter-process communication.
On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces are the extensive desktop environments KDE Plasma Desktop, GNOME, Cinnamon, Unity, LXDE, Pantheon and Xfce,[55] though a variety of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on the X Window System, often simply called "X". It provides network transparency and permits a graphical application running on one system to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application; however, certain extensions of the X Window System are not capable of working over the network.[56][57]
Other GUIs may be classified as simple X window managers, such as FVWM, Enlightenment, and Window Maker, which provide a minimalist functionality with respect to the desktop environments. A window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X Window System. The desktop environments include window managers as part of their standard installations (Mutter for GNOME,[58] KWin for KDE,[59] Xfwm for Xfce as of January 2012[60]) although users may choose to use a different window manager if preferred.
Video input infrastructure[edit]
Linux currently has two modern kernel-userspace APIs for handing video input devices: V4L2 API for video streams and radio, and DVB API for digital TV reception.[61]
Due to the complexity and diversity of different devices, and due to the large amount of formats and standards handled by those APIs, this infrastructure needs to evolve to better fit other devices. Also, a good userspace device library is the key of the success for having userspace applications to be able to work with all formats supported by those devices.[62][63]
The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used.[64] Some free and open source software licenses are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the GNU General Public License (GPL), is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU Project.
Linux based distributions are intended by developers for interoperability with other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere to POSIX,[65] SUS,[66] LSB, ISO, and ANSI standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.[67][68]
Free software projects, although developed in a collaborative fashion, are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution.
Many Linux distributions, or "distros", manage a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows users to adapt the operating system to their specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a package manager such as dpkg, Synaptic, YAST, yum, or Portage to install, remove and update all of a system's software from one central location.
A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with Fedora and SUSE does with openSUSE.
In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux User Groups (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many Internet communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open source projects have IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.org and the various distribution specific support and community forums, such as ones for Ubuntu, Fedora, and Gentoo. Linux distributions host mailing lists; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.
There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print magazines on Linux often include cover disks including software or even complete Linux distributions.[69][70]
Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and of free software. An analysis of the Linux kernel showed 75 percent of the code from December 2008 to January 2010 was developed by programmers working for corporations, leaving about 18 percent to volunteers and 7% unclassified.[71] Some of the major corporations that contribute include Dell, IBM, HP, Oracle, Sun Microsystems (now part of Oracle), SUSE, and Nokia. A number of corporations, notably Red Hat, Canonical, and SUSE, have built a significant business around Linux distributions.
The free software licenses, on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.
Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the computer industry, with operating systems such as CP/M, Apple DOS and versions of Mac OS prior to 7.6 freely copyable (but not modifiable). As computer hardware standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more difficult for hardware manufacturers to profit from this tactic, as the OS would run on any manufacturer's computer that shared the same architecture.
Programming on Linux[edit]
Most Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The original development tools used for building both Linux applications and operating system programs are found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Java, and Fortran. First released in 2003, the LLVM project provides an alternative open-source compiler for many languages. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler, Sun Studio, and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler. BASIC in the form of Visual Basic is supported in such forms as Gambas, FreeBASIC, and XBasic, and in terms of terminal programming or QuickBASIC or Turbo BASIC programming in the form of QB64.
A common feature of Unix-like systems, Linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted at scripting, text processing and system configuration and management in general. Linux distributions support shell scripts, awk, sed and make. Many programs also have an embedded programming language to support configuring or programming themselves. For example, regular expressions are supported in programs like grep, or locate, while advanced text editors, like GNU Emacs have a complete Lisp interpreter built-in.
Most distributions also include support for PHP, Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. While not as common, Linux also supports C# (via Mono), Vala, and Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like Kaffe and JikesRVM.
GNOME and KDE are popular desktop environments and provide a framework for developing applications. These projects are based on the GTK+ and Qt widget toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated development environments available including Anjuta, Code::Blocks, CodeLite, Eclipse, Geany, ActiveState Komodo, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, and Qt Creator, while the long-established editors Vim, nano and Emacs remain popular.[72]
As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: computer architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for real-time applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only free software. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.[73]
Linux is a widely ported operating system kernel. The Linux kernel runs on a highly diverse range of computer architectures: in the hand-held ARM-based iPAQ and the mainframe IBM System z9, System z10; in devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers.[74] Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the µClinux kernel fork may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers (with both PowerPC and Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones. See List of Linux supported architectures.
There are several industry associations and hardware conferences devoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware under Linux, such as FreedomHEC.
The popularity of Linux on standard desktop computers and laptops has been increasing over the years.[75] Currently most distributions include a graphical user environment, with the two most popular environments being GNOME (which can utilize additional shells such as the default GNOME Shell and Ubuntu Unity), and the KDE Plasma Desktop.[citation needed]
There is no "one" Linux desktop, but rather there is a pool of free and open-source software from which desktop environments and Linux distributions select components with which they construct a GUI implementing some more or less strict design guide. GNOME, for example, has its human interface guidelines as a design guide, which gives the human-machine interface an important role, not just when doing the graphical design, but also when looking at people with disabilities, and even when looking at security.[76]
The collaborative nature of free software development allows distributed teams to perform language localization of some Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example the Sinhalese language version of the Knoppix distribution was available significantly before Microsoft Windows XP was translated to Sinhalese.[citation needed] In this case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, linguists, and local developers.
Performance and applications[edit]
The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic;[citation needed] for example in 2007 Con Kolivas accused the Linux community of favoring performance on servers. He quit Linux kernel development because he was frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a "tell all" interview on the topic.[77] Since then a significant amount of development has been undertaken in an effort to improve the desktop experience. Projects such as Upstart and systemd aim for a faster boot time; Wayland and Mir projects aim at replacing X11, while bringing enhanced desktop performance, security and appearance.[78]
Many popular applications are available for a wide variety of operating systems. For example Mozilla Firefox, OpenOffice.org/LibreOffice and Blender have downloadable versions for all major operating systems. Furthermore, some applications were initially developed for Linux, such as Pidgin, and GIMP, and were ported to other operating systems including Windows and Mac OS X due to their popularity. In addition, a growing number of proprietary desktop applications are also supported on Linux,[79] such as Autodesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake in the high-end field of animation and visual effects; see the List of proprietary software for Linux for more details. There are also several companies that have ported their own or other companies' games to Linux, with Linux also being a supported platform on both the popular Steam and Desura digital distribution services.[80]
Many other types of applications available for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X are also available for Linux. Commonly, either a free software application will exist which does the functions of an application found on another operating system, or that application will have a version that works on Linux, such as with Skype and some video games such as Dota 2 and Team Fortress 2. Furthermore, the Wine project provides a Windows compatibility layer to run unmodified Windows applications on Linux. CrossOver is a proprietary solution based on the open source Wine project that supports running Windows versions of Microsoft Office, Intuit applications such as Quicken and QuickBooks, Adobe Photoshop versions through CS2, and many popular games such as World of Warcraft. In other cases, where there is no Linux port of some software in areas such as desktop publishing[81] and professional audio,[82][83][84] there is equivalent software available on Linux.
Components and installation[edit]
Besides externally visible components, such as X window managers, a non-obvious but quite central role have the programs hosted by freedesktop.org, such as D-Bus or PulseAudio; both big desktop environments (GNOME and KDE) include them, each offering graphical front-ends written using the corresponding toolkit (GTK+ or Qt). A display server is another component, which for the longest time has been communicating in the X11 display server protocol with its clients; prominent software talking X11 includes the X.Org Server and Xlib. Frustration over the cumbersome X11 core protocol, and especially over its numerous extensions, has led to the creation of a new display server protocol, Wayland.
Installing, updating and removing software in Linux is typically done through the use of package managers such as the Synaptic Package Manager, PackageKit, and Yum Extender. While most major Linux distributions have extensive repositories, often containing tens of thousands of packages, not all the software that can run on Linux is available from the official repositories. Alternatively, users can install packages from unofficial repositories, download pre-compiled packages directly from websites, or compile the source code by themselves. All these methods come with different degrees of difficulty; compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it is hardly needed in modern distributions and is not a method specific to Linux.
GNOME Shell (GNOME 3)
KDE Plasma (KDE 4)
Trinity (KDE 3)
Servers, mainframes and supercomputers[edit]
Linux distributions have long been used as server operating systems, and have risen to prominence in that area; Netcraft reported in September 2006 that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies ran Linux distributions on their web servers.[85] Since June 2008, Linux distributions represented five of the top ten, FreeBSD three of ten, and Microsoft two of ten;[86] since February 2010, Linux distributions represented six of the top ten, FreeBSD two of ten, and Microsoft one of ten.[87]
Linux distributions are the cornerstone of the LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MariaDB/MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.[88]
Linux distributions have become increasingly popular on mainframes in the last decade partly due to pricing and the open-source model.[16][citation needed] In December 2009, computer giant IBM reported that it would predominantly market and sell mainframe-based Enterprise Linux Server.[89]
Linux distributions are also commonly used as operating systems for supercomputers: as of June 2013, more than 95% of the world's 500 fastest supercomputers run some variant of Linux,[17] including all the 44 fastest.[18] Linux was also selected as the operating system for the world's most powerful supercomputer,[90] IBM's Sequoia, which became operational in 2011.[91]
Embedded devices[edit]
Due to its low cost and ease of customization, Linux is often used in embedded systems.
In the mobile sub-sector of the telecommunications equipment sector there are three major platforms based on a more or less modified version of the Linux kernel: mer, Tizen, and Android. Android has become the dominant mobile operating system for smartphones, during the second quarter of 2013, 79.3% of smartphones sold worldwide used Android.[93] Cell phones and PDAs running Linux on open-source platforms became more common from 2007; examples include the Nokia N810, Openmoko's Neo1973, and the Motorola ROKR E8. Continuing the trend, Palm (later acquired by HP) produced a new Linux-derived operating system, webOS, which is built into its new line of Palm Pre smartphones.
In the non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector, the majority of customer-premises equipment (CPE) hardware runs some Linux-based operating system. OpenWrt is a community driven example upon which many of the OEM firmwares are based.
The popular TiVo digital video recorder also uses a customized Linux,[94] as do several network firewalls and routers from such makers as Cisco/Linksys. The Korg OASYS, the Korg KRONOS, the Yamaha Motif XS/Motif XF music workstations,[95] Yamaha S90XS/S70XS, Yamaha MOX6/MOX8 synthesizers, Yamaha Motif-Rack XS tone generator module, and Roland RD-700GX digital piano also run Linux. Linux is also used in stage lighting control systems, such as the WholeHogIII console.[96]
Many quantitative studies of free / open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.[97] The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux was expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.[98]
IDC's Q1 2007 report indicated that Linux held 12.7% of the overall server market at that time.[99] This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies, and did not include server hardware purchased separately which had Linux installed on it later. In September 2008 Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer stated that 60% of Web servers ran Linux versus 40% that ran Windows Server.[100]
Primarily based on web server statistics, the estimated market share of Linux on desktop is 1.61%.[101] In comparison, Microsoft operating systems hold more than 85%.[32][33][34][35][36][37][38][102][103]
Analysts and proponents attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.[104][105]
The Wine compatibility layer allows users to run many programs designed for Windows under Linux.[106] About half of Wine's code has been contributed by volunteers and half sponsored by commercial interests including CodeWeavers, which produces a commercial version of the software. Since 2009, Google has also provided funding to the Wine project.[107][108]
The XO laptop project of One Laptop Per Child planned to reach millions of schoolchildren and their families in the developing world.[109] Major supporters of the project included Google, Red Hat, and eBay.[110] Although the XO had a Windows option, it was be primarily deployed with Fedora Linux while using Sugar as the desktop environment.
For years Linux has been the platform of choice in the film industry. The first major film produced on Linux servers was 1997's Titanic.[111][112] Since then major studios including DreamWorks Animation, Pixar, Weta Digital, and Industrial Light & Magic have migrated to Linux.[113][114][115] According to the Linux Movies Group, more than 95% of the servers and desktops at large animation and visual effects companies use Linux.[116]
Copyright, trademark, and naming[edit]
Linux kernel is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), version 2. The GPL requires that anyone who distributes software based on source code under this license, must make the originating source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms.[117] Other key components of a typical Linux distribution are also mainly licensed under the GPL, but they may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X.org implementation of the X Window System uses the MIT License.
Torvalds states that the Linux kernel will not move from version 2 of the GPL to version 3.[118][119] He specifically dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in digital rights management.[120] It would also be impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.[121]
A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code.[122] Using the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost about $1.48 billion (2014 US dollars) to develop in the United States.[122] Most of the source code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.[122]
In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian version 4.0 (etch, which was released in 2007).[123] This distribution contained close to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have required about seventy three thousand man-years and cost US$8.16 billion (in 2014 dollars) to develop by conventional means.
In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[5] Initially, nobody registered it, but on 15 August 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and, in 1997, the case was settled.[124] The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for use of the Linux name as part of trademarks,[125] but later changed this in favor of offering a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.[126]
The Free Software Foundation prefers GNU/Linux as the name when referring to the operating system as a whole, because it considers Linux to be a variant of the GNU operating system, initiated in 1983 by Richard Stallman (president of the Free Software Foundation).[127][128][129][130]
Some distributions, notably Debian which had been sponsored by the Free Software Foundation,[131] use GNU/Linux when referring to the operating system as a whole.[132] The media and common usage, however, refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux, as do many large Linux distributions (for example, SUSE Linux and Red Hat). As of May 2011[update], about 8% of a modern Linux distribution is made of GNU components, as determined by counting lines of source code making up Ubuntu's "Natty" release; meanwhile, about 9% is taken by the Linux kernel.[133]
See also[edit]
- ^ Linux Online (2008). "Linux Logos and Mascots". Archived from the original on August 15, 2010. Retrieved August 11, 2009.
- ^ Kroah-Hartman, Greg (14 April 2014). "Linux 3.14.1". Linux kernel mailing list. http://lwn.net/Articles/594777/.
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External links[edit]
|Find more about Linux at Wikipedia's sister projects
|Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
|Media from Commons
|Quotations from Wikiquote
|Source texts from Wikisource
|Textbooks from Wikibooks
|Learning resources from Wikiversity
- Linux at DMOZ
- Graphical map of GNU/Linux OS Internals
- Linux kernel website and archives
- Linux.org
- The History of Linux in GIT Repository Format 1992–2010


text:
Support for legalizing marijuana has expanded dramatically in the nation's capital, with residents who were split evenly on the issue four years ago now favoring sales of the drug for personal use by a margin of almost two to one, according to a new Washington Post poll.
Washingtonians of every age, race and ethnicity - black and white, teenage and elderly - registered double-digit increases in support for legalization. Overall, 63 percent are in favor.
Even among the 34 percent who oppose legalization, nearly half of them support relaxing punishment for marijuana possession to a fine of no more than $100.
The survey comes amid growing momentum across the country to legalize pot. This month, Colorado allowed the first sales of the drug for recreational use, and the state of Washington is preparing to follow suit.
Yet the poll places District of Columbia residents significantly to the left of a more closely divided nation. A new, separate Washington Post-ABC News national poll this week shows voters coast-to-coast split 49 percent to 48 percent on the issue. Other national polls have shown higher support for legalization in the past year, but none as high as in the District.
The numbers also come on the same day when a committee of D.C. lawmakers is expected to take the first major step in decades to loosen the city's marijuana laws by advancing a bill to reduce the city's penalty for possession of pot from $1,000 and six months in jail to a $25 civil fine.
If passed by the full council, the token fine would amount to less than most city parking tickets and would run counter to federal penalties for simple possession of $1,000 and one year in jail, which could still be enforced on the National Mall and other federal properties within the District.
A band of District activists has also filed a ballot initiative that could put the broader question of legalization before city voters in November.
Majority support for legalization in the nation's capital, home to the federal law-enforcement agencies that most adamantly oppose it, could hasten the arrival on the East Coast of a debate that has largely simmered in western states. Ballot measures in Alaska, Arizona, California and Oregon this year could legalize marijuana in a contiguous, 1,800-mile swath stretching from the nation's border with Canada to Mexico.
"There's still a federal law that says it's a no-no, and yet states are starting to legalize it. In my lifetime, what's out West comes East. At this point, I think it's inevitable," said Richard Smith, a Northwest businessman who deals in scrap metal.
At 68, Smith is among the 38 percent of District senior citizens who support legalizing marijuana - up from just 26 percent in 2010. Smith says he simply no longer cares: "I argue with my kids all the time . . . My middle daughter, I know she smokes once in a while, but she makes good decisions. I told her to read books, books on prohibition, and you'll see where it's going."
The proposal before the D.C. Council would eliminate criminal penalties for possession, instead fining those violators $25, and allow for tickets of $100 for those caught smoking in public. Minors would also have a letter sent home to their parents.
The ballot initiative for which supporters would have to gather signatures to qualify for the November ballot would rival that in Colorado, allowing residents age 21 or older to possess as much as two ounces of marijuana for personal use and to grow up to three plants at home. The initiatve would also allow individuals to transfer, but not sell, up to one ounce of the drug, and it would permit the use and sale of paraphernalia. Because of federal oversight of District governance, the measure would have to go to Congress for review if passed.
The Post poll found that the dramatic expansion of support for legalization over the past four years was driven in part by a complete reversal of opinion among African Americans.
In 2010, 37 percent were in favor of legalization and 55 percent were opposed. Now, that number has flipped, with 58 percent of African Americans in favor and 39 percent opposed.
In the past, many older blacks have opposed legalization out of the fear that it could lead to addiction among black youths. Those fears are reflected in the poll. Just 40 percent of blacks age 50 and older favor legalization, compared with 73 percent for younger blacks. There is no such age difference on legalization among whites in the city.
But the overall change in opinion could reflect the recent effort by civil rights groups to call attention to the disproportionate arrest of African Americans on marijuana charges.
"I don't care one way or another about legalizing it," said Renee Matthews, 49, a resident who works as a receptionist at a teachers' organization downtown. "But it shouldn't be criminalized if the penalties are harder for African Americans."
Still, African American women are among the least likely to support legalization, with 51 percent in favor to 45 percent against.
Chuquita Berry, a homemaker, said she opposes both legalization and attempts to lessen penalties because she fears a rise in impaired driving as well as "major negative impacts" on her neighborhood.
"The law needs to remain the same," said Berry, 34. "You could see the negative effects on children, teenagers, adults. It would create more of a problem."
African Americans aren't the only ones driving the trend. Their share of the city's population has fallen below 50 percent over the past four years.
Since the 2010 census, the District's population has mushroomed by 45,000 people, a 7.4 increase, with many newcomers young and white. More than three-quarters of whites under age 40 favor legalization.
D.C. Council member and mayoral candidate Tommy Wells, D-Ward 6, is leading the council's first step toward decriminalizing marijuana in the bill expected to pass his public safety committee Wednesday.
Wells said he thinks it would be prudent to monitor the rollout of legalized marijuana in Colorado and elsewhere for at least a year before making a decision on whether the District should go the same route - a step that would likely set up a confrontation with Congress over the issue.
As it is, the $25 fine for possession would rank behind only Alaska as the most forgiving of the 17 states that have eliminated jail time for marijuana possession.
Community News Network
In major shift, Washington residents strongly support legalizing marijuana
Support for legalizing marijuana has expanded dramatically in the nation's capital, with residents who were split evenly on the issue four years ago now favoring sales of the drug for personal use by a margin of almost two to one, according to a new Washington Post poll.
- Community News Network
American sunscreens need an upgrade
The last time a new sunscreen ingredient came on the U.S. market, the Y2K bug was threatening to destroy our way of life. Intel had just introduced the Pentium III processor, featuring an amazing 500 MHz of computing power.
Coffee growers' prayers for rain met with threat of deluge
Brazil's drought made arabica coffee this year's best-performing commodity. Now, farmers are facing a downpour that is once more threatening crops.
Celebrity quack moms are a terrible influence on everyday parents
On April 15, the actress Alicia Silverstone released a book called "The Kind Mama: A Simple Guide to Supercharged Fertility, a Radiant Pregnancy, a Sweeter Birth, and a Healthier, More Beautiful Beginning." It's chock-full of attachment parenting lessons and dangerous misinformation.
Affirmative action ruling challenges colleges seeking diversity
The U.S. Supreme Court's support of Michigan's ban on race-based affirmative action in university admissions may spur colleges to find new ways to achieve diversity without using racial preferences.
A 'wearable robot' helps her walk again
Science is about facts, numbers, laws and formulas. To be really good at it, you need to spend a lot of time in school. But science is also about something more: dreaming big and helping people.
Cuba is running out of condoms
The newest item on Cuba's list of dwindling commodities is condoms, which are now reportedly in short supply. In response, the Cuban government has approved the sale of expired condoms.
The waffle taco's biggest enemy isn't McDonald's. It's consumer habits.
Gesturing to Taco Bell, Thompson said McDonald's had "not seen an impact relative to the most recent competitor that entered the [breakfast] space," and that new competition would only make McDonald's pursue breakfast more aggressively.
VIDEO: Leopard attacks crowd in India
A leopard caused panic in the city of Chandrapur when it sprung from the roof of a house and charged at rescue workers.
The top 12 government programs ever
Which federal programs and policies succeed in being cost-effective and targeting those who need them most? These two tests are obvious: After all, why would we spend taxpayers' money on a program that isn't worth what it costs or helps those who do not need help?
'Warlock' in West Virginia accused of sexual assault
Police in West Virginia say a man claiming to be a "warlock" used promises of magical spells to lure children into committing sexual acts with him.
- More Community News Network Headlines
- American sunscreens need an upgrade

subset: commoncrawl


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- $280.00
- Color: TNF BLACK TNF BLACK ATHENS BLUE
- Size Advisor
- Waist: S M L XL
- Inseam: REGULAR
Inspired by the European ski culture, this tailored fit ski pant is constructed from waterproof, breathable, fully seam sealed HyVent® Alpha 2L material with mechanical stretch for unrestricted mobility while your grind through the mogul field. Lightweight-yet-warm insulation for ample wintertime warmth. Rider-specific features throughout.
Features Include
- Waterproof, breathable, fully seam sealed
- Recco® avalanche rescue reflector
- Adjustable internal waist tabs
- Polyurethane (PU) handwarmer zip pockets
- StretchVent™ gaiter with elastic gripper
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- Reinforced edge guards
Product Specifications
- Style:
- Fabric:
- shell: 70D 170 g/m² HyVent® 2L nylon stretch twill with mechanical stretch / insulation: 60 g ThermoCool™ stretch
- Avg Weight:
- 680 g (23.99 oz)
- Inseam:
- Source:
- Imported
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- Lifetime Warranty
A waterproof, breathable technology utilizing a polyurethane (PU) coating that consists of a tri-component, multi-layer formula for waterproof protection, moisture permeability and durability. HyVent® technology has been lab- and field-tested to ensure the best possible durability and function while also maintaining an optimum level of breathability. To test the level of waterproofness, we subjected HyVent® garments to 20 wash cycles, where garments retained an average of more than 60 PSI on the waterproofing Mullens test.


text:
6.3 Million Private Sector Workers in California Lack Access to a Retirement Plan on the Job
Nari Rhee
Labor Center, June 2012
A Depressive State: Assessing California's Labor Market Four Years after the Onset of the Great Recession
Sylvia A. Allegretto and Luke Reidenbach
CWED, April 2012
Faculty Research
Minimum Wage Shocks, Employment Flows and Labor Market Frictions
Arindrajit Dube, T. William Lester and Michael Reich
Working Paper No. 122-12
April 2012
The Labor Market Four Years Into the Crisis: Assessing Structural Explanations
Jesse Rothstein
Working Paper No. 120-12
March 2012
IRLE Grant Recipients 2011-12
Power and Dissent: Implications for Ethics in Organizations
Cameron Anderson
Interdisciplinary Immigration Workshop
Irene Blomraad and Cybil Fox
Ready Made Social Impact Assessments
Clair Brown
Scaling within the a-net: Progressive Bureacrats and State-Induced Mobilization
Ruth Collier
2012 Sponsored Research and Foundation Support
Clair Brown (Economics)
A National Survey of Organizations to Study Globalization, Innovation, and Employment
National Science Foundation
Ken Jacobs (Labor Center)
CHIS 2009 Policy Research Studies
UC Los Angeles
The California Health Policy Research Program (March 2012)
California Endowment
California Health Policy Research Program 2012-2013
California Endowment
Estimating the Underground Economy - Impact of Fraud on Complying Employers, Affected Workers, and State and Federal Government
California Department of Industrial Relations
Geographic Distribution of Uninsured California Population After Health Care Reform Implementation
UC San Francisco
Low-Income Health Program (LIHP) Evaluation
UC Los Angeles
California Low–Income Health Program Evaluation
Blue Shield of California Foundation
Estimating the Underground Economy – Impact of Fraud on Complying Employers, Affected Workers,
and State and Federal Government
California Division of Labor Standards Enforcement
Maximizing Health Care Enrollment through Seamless Coverage for Families in Transition
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation
Addressing Potential Exposure to Subsidy Repayment Due to Income Volatility
California Program on Access to Care
Design and Recommendations for Building to Medi-Cal Enrollment from the Low-Income Health Program
Blue Shield Foundation of California Foundation
Planning and Coordination to Carry Out the Design and Recommendations for Building the Bridge to Medi-Cal Enrollment from the Low-Income Health Program
California Department of Health Care Services
Demographic Analysis and Microsimulation Model Comparisons
California Health Benefit Exchange
Steven Pitts (Labor Center)
National Black Worker Center Project
Discount Foundation
Project on Improving the Quality of Jobs Held by Black Males
Open Society Institute
National Black Worker Center Project
Unitarian Universalist Veatch Program at Shelter Rock
Katie Quan (Labor Center)
Building Relationships between Labor Sociologists in the United States and China
Ford Foundation
Labor Summer Internship Program
Rosenberg Foundation
Marcy Whitebook (Center for the Study of Child Care Employment)
Building Workforce Data Systems: Measuring Progress Towards Quality
Birth to Five Policy Alliance
No Single Ingredient (NSI): The Complexity of Effective Early Childhood Teacher Preparation (April 2012)
W. Clement and Jessie V. Stone Foundation
Rutgers University
Mapping and Quality Assessment of the Professional Preparation and Professional Development Opportunities for the Early Childhood Workforce (birth to eight) in New Jersey
No Single Ingredient: The Complexity of Effective Early Childhood Teacher Preparation (December 2012)
W. Clement and Jessie V. Stone Foundation
Research and Policy Activities on the Early Care and Education Workforce
David and Lucile Packard Foundation
Carol A Zabin (Labor Center)
Achieving Clean Energy Goals through High-road Implementation
William and Flora Hewlett Foundation
60th Anniversary Poster Session
In 2006 the IRLE celebrated its 60th anniversary. As part of the celebration, IRLE invited a number of its affiliated faculty to contribute information on their recent research activities. Although some time has passed since the event, the materials that were compiled continue to be available on this directory.


text:
Boston >Food & Dining > Porters Bar & Grill
173 Portland St, Boston, MA | Directions 0211442.364286 -71.061720
Mon-Fri 11:30am-2am
Sat-Sun Noon-2am
Extended food hours for Garden events
Neighborhoods: Central, Downtown
This sports bar provides great food and drink for pre or post game or any TD Garden (Boston Garden) event, with a full bar, menu and TVs tuned into local sports teams.
Open till 2am every night. Located in North Station area.
Burgers, Beers, Trivia on Tuesdays, Lunch and Dinner
Hidden Gem – I didn't think there were any surprises left in the Boston bar scene, but Porter's proved me wrong. With the exposed brick and high ceiling, it has a charming and relaxing atmosphere. The food is great pub food--another surprise. I had the good luck to be there on a Tuesday night when the trivia challenge is held. The MC is outstanding, and he plays great music while the teams are mulling their answers. This was not generic trivia. It covered a lot of ground, and I was totally humbled. Even when the place is crowded with pregame customers, it stays civilized, and the wait staff is attentive, friendly, and do a great job without being intrusive.
Straightforward bar and grill, right by the Boston Garden, is a good spot for a pre- or postgame meal. – The Scene
Crowds vary depending on the nearby arena schedule. Testosterone's in the air when a home game's on tap; otherwise, young professionals gather in front of the many TVs while taking in a casual dinner or drinks. High ceilings, exposed brick walls, soft lighting, comfy booths and a friendly waitstaff ensure a low-key vibe.
The Draw
Porters' appetizers, salads, sandwiches and generously portioned entrees circle the globe. The attractive Mediterranean starter plate features velvety hummus, tangy spinach-artichoke dip, roasted red peppers, marinated olives and a seemingly endless supply of pita bread. Chicken, ham and mushrooms on creamy mashed potatoes, all covered in a sublime wine sauce, make up the respectable chicken Marsala. Knowledgeable bartenders are quick to pour any of the 12 premium draft or 14 bottled beers, nine wines by the glass, and almost any cocktail imaginable.
Highly recommended for FleetCenter events – I attend many FleetCenter events and have tried a lot of different places. Porter's is undoubtedly one of the best. The service was prompt and affable, leaving us in a good mood and plenty of time before tipoff. The food was excellent for the price and expectations. Chicken tenders were made from tender, moist breast meat and nicely breaded with a good sauce. The pulled pork sandwich was very good. The biggest winner was the chicken and ribs combo. Both were melt-off-the-bone delicious.
The bar is friendly, well-lighted and has fairly high ceilings for this area. The bartenders are friendly, knowledgeable and let you try some of the unique beers before buying.
Also, Porter's is in some of the iDine programs, making it an even better value.
Good Clean Fun – Porter's offers a nice, bright bar atmosphere in this somewhat up and coming neighborhood. I visited because I was staying at the Onyx Hotel next stoor and was pleasantly surprised by the helpful staff and decent food and prices. Recommended.
AWESOME!!! – Pretty good for a straight bar! I am impressed! Great service, Drinks AND FOOD!
Everybody seems to have a good time here!
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Next Up On the Main Stage...
The Crucible
By Arthur Miller
Directed by Norm Johnson
Hoerner Theatre
Previews Tuesday, April 22, 2014
Opens Thursday, April 24, 2014
Closes Sunday, April 27, 2014
Finishing up the main-stage season is Miller's American classic about accusation, conscience, and retribution. Set during the Salem witch trials, the play was Miller's response to the McCarthy "witch hunts" of suspected communists in the 1950s, of which Miller himself was a target.
Tickets are on sale at the Ithaca College Theatre Box Office located in Dillingham Center on the IC campus. Tickets range in price from $5.50 to $11.00 and payment can be made by check or cash only, credit and debit cards cannot be accepted at this time.
The Dillingham Ticket Office is open noon-5:00 PM, Monday through Friday and may be reached during those hours by phone, 607-274-3224.


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Maine.gov > PFR Home > Insurance Regulation > Anthem Rate Notice FAQ
Anthem 2012 Rate Increase Request:
In May 2012, Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield sent out notices to policyholders of a change in rates to be applied to individual health insurance policies. The average increase requested was 1.7%. If you received a notice, these questions and answers should assist you with understanding the factors that contributed to your change in premiums.
Q: I received a notice from Anthem and my premium has increased by more than 10%. Isn't that illegal under Maine law? Also, if the average increase is 1.7%, why is my increase greater than that?
A: Maine law does not prohibit rate increases above a specific percentage. Due to recent legislative changes, individual medical insurance rate increase requests are no longer subject to Bureau of Insurance (Bureau) approval under certain circumstances.
If the average rate increase is below 10% and the company agrees to spend a certain percentage of each premium dollar on the payment of claims (the guaranteed medical loss ratio), there is no approval required. The Bureau does, however, review all rates for compliance with Maine law.
Anthem's filed rates were a 1.7% average increase, so they were not subject to prior approval by the Bureau. Some increases are above the average due to changes in age factors that companies are allowed to charge. The maximum increase in the filing is 18.2% for those over age 60 with a $15,000 deductible. The maximum decrease is 17.5%.
Q: If rates are filed for review only, what does that mean?
A: An insurer's rates depend on its medical claims experience (i.e., how much an insurer has paid out for its individual medical block of business) and current costs. In reviewing filed rates, the Bureau ensures that the company is correctly determining that they are exempt from prior approval and that calculations within the filing are accurate. The Bureau's review is guided by Maine law which requires that the increase not be: 1) excessive, 2) unfairly discriminatory, or 3) inadequate.
1) Whether the rates are excessive depends upon projected medical claims, plus a reasonable amount for administrative expenses and profit. Insurers are generally required to meet a medical loss ratio of at least 80 percent. This means that 80 percent of premium dollars will be spent on the payment of health care claims and quality-improvement activities as opposed to overhead, marketing, salaries, and profits. Pursuant to state and federal law, insurers that fail to meet that standard may be required to pay rebates to consumers. In addition, assumptions in the filing that are made about how claims will change in the future are evaluated for accuracy and reasonableness.
2) The requirement that rates not be unfairly discriminatory means that differences in rates must be justified and based on factors that are permitted by law. For example, rates cannot be raised more for people who have health problems or who have had larger claims than for healthy people.
3) Rates also must not be inadequate. A rate is not inadequate unless insufficient to sustain projected losses and expenses and the use of the rate has had a tendency to create a monopoly or, if continued, will tend to create a monopoly in the market or will cause serious financial harm to the insurer.
Q: Did Anthem file its 2012 rates separately for each product?
A: No. Anthem's initial filing was a combined filing for five products, resulting in an average increase of 1.7%. At the request of the Bureau of Insurance, Anthem provided a product-specific breakdown of the rate increase. See the table below for the average increase by product.
GF: Grandfathered
Q: Why are my premiums going up?
A: The root cause of the increasing cost of health insurance is the rising cost of health care. Both the price and utilization rates of health care services have been increasing and new procedures and new drugs have further added to costs. State agencies are working to figure out how to reign in ever increasing healthcare costs, for example by looking at how to implement a statewide electronic medical system so tests don't have to be duplicated each time a person sees a new provider or goes to a hospital. If medical cost increases can be slowed, premium increase requests will slow down as well.
Maine's healthcare reform law also establishes the Maine Guaranteed Access Reinsurance Association, a mechanism for insurers to share the costs of covering people with expensive medical conditions. This has mitigated the requested increase that individual policies would have otherwise received.
The changes in how insurers use age to calculate rates likely contributed to your increase. Maine's new health reform law gives insurers more flexibility to vary premiums according to age, geography, and tobacco use.
The changes in age rating will be phased in over time and will allow insurers to charge lower rates for younger consumers than they can currently charge – relative to others buying the same coverage – and higher rates for older consumers.
For renewing plans, the allowable ratio due to age was previously 1.5 to 1 and changed to 2 to 1 for this filing. This means that the premium for a policy issued to an older individual can be up to 2 times the amount charged to someone at the youngest age for that same policy. In January 2013, this factor may increase to 2.5 to 1, and 3 to 1 for January 2014.
Q: What is MGARA?
A: Maine's healthcare reform law created the Maine Guaranteed Access Reinsurance Association (MGARA). MGARA allows insurance companies to share the costs of insuring individuals with more expensive medical conditions. Some policies will be automatically included in the program based on specific medical conditions, while other policyholders may receive a health statement to fill out regarding their current medical conditions.
To fund the reinsurance program, health insurers must pay $4 per member per month. This amount can increase by an additional $2 per member per month if the $4 assessment is insufficient to cover reinsured claims.
As a result of MGARA, Anthem estimates that total cost for its individual product claims will be reduced by approximately $11 Million.
Q: Why didn't Anthem use the money saved because of MGARA to reduce my premium?
A: The savings due to the MGARA program were used for the benefit of all insureds through a reduction in the "community rate" (i.e., the starting rate for all insureds that is adjusted for allowable factors such as geography and age).
Without the MGARA program, Anthem estimated that the justifiable premium increase would have been 21.6% based on rising claims costs.
Q: What is a "grandfathered plan"?
A: A grandfathered plan is a health plan in which you were enrolled on March 23, 2010. Grandfathered status means that the plan is exempt from some of the requirements of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) , such as coverage of recommended preventive care without cost sharing. There are many ways, however, in which a plan can lose its grandfathered status including: significantly raising co-pays, deductibles, or coinsurance charges, or significantly reducing benefits.
If your plan is grandfathered and you choose to switch to a new product, this will change the benefits provided to you, as the new plan is subject to the ACA's requirements. A potential new policy should be carefully compared to your current plan, as once you leave a grandfathered plan, you may not be able to return to your original coverage.
Q: What is a "closed block"?
A: A closed block of business is a policy type that an insurance company is no longer selling and no new policyholders are enrolled into the plan. The plan is still available for renewal for existing policyholders.
Q: I can't afford my new premium. Are there any other options for me?
A: There are other individual health plans available, which may have lower rates. It is important, however, to compare the benefits of one plan to another. If you are paying less in premiums, that may mean a reduction in the services that are covered or a larger amount you will have to pay for specific services (examples: higher deductibles or coinsurance). For additional information on plans that are available, please see the Bureau's brochure: A Consumer's Guide to Individual Health Insurance.
Q: Where can I send comments about my rate change?
A: The Bureau of Insurance is accepting comments regarding the Anthem rate change. Comments may be submitted to:
Department of Professional & Financial Regulation
Last Updated: January 31, 2013
|Copyright © 2006 All rights reserved.


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5700 East Mcdonald Drive, Scottsdale, AZ | Directions 8525333.521156 -111.959722
Daily 24 Hours
Neighborhoods: Paradise Valley
Wonderful Way To Spend The Day – A friend suggested a girl's day at the spa/pool for her birthday at the Sanctuary. She received a spa gift certificate and had heard wonderful things about the Sanctuary.
Two of us purchased a fitness pass in which we used the fitness facilities, took an excellent yoga class while our other two friends were getting facials and massages at the spa. We all spent the remainder of the day relaxing in the comfortable padded lounge chairs, cooling off in the sparkling pool, enjoying the beautiful views of the resort , and ordering lunch/drinks by the pool.
The pool waiters and waitresses were friendly, very tentative and continued providing ice cold pictures of water, checking to see if we needed any additional beverages/food items and brought us chilled towels to wipe our faces with. The food and drinks that we ordered were excellent.
No complaints here. Looking forward to another day at the Sanctuary and putting this on my gift "wish list". Highly recommended for a day of R&R or mini day vacation for yourself, you and your significant other or with some friends.
lovely – i loved my stay here. my girlfriends and i wanted to get away for a couple of nights and this was the perfect spot. the spa was peaceful and relaxing along with everything about the atmosphere. I also had GREAT COCKTAILS - perfect.
A contemporary boutique resort perched on the slope of Camelback Mountain. – In Short
The Sanctuary is perched on the north side of Camelback Mountain, combining the minimalism of the natural desert beauty with sleek decor and a modern sensibility. contemporary. The casitas are built right into Camelback Mountain, maximizing views of the landscape. The full-service, Asian-inspired spa includes a meditation garden, watsu pool and movement studio. Elements Restaurant serves New American cuisine and rates among the finest in the valley, while the Jade Bar attracts the rich and hip with its style and signature panoramic views.
Great Experience – We loved our weekend at Sanctuary. The property is beautiful, the staff is great and leaves little to complain about. Although I thought it was good, I suggest that Elements is a bit overrated. There is better food off of the property. Of course, who wants to leave the property!
BEST RESORT IN PHOENIX/SCOTTSDALE AREA – My wife and I stayed at The Sanctuary on Camelback Mountain and it was PERFECT! The spa casitas are amazing with the outdoor bathtubs and we even toured some of the private homes they offer, AMAZING! The cuisine in 'elements' was superb and not as expensive as one would think. The Sanctuary Spa was a peace of heaven in the well named area, Paradise Valley. We will return again, soon.
A great place to stay and relax! – I stayed here for two night in a mountain casita with my girlfriend and we enjoyed it very much. Wonderful little touches like tealight candles, bath salts, slippers. The infinity pool was great and dining at Elements was fabulous! I highly recommend a stay here - if you want a little more romance, book a spa suite.
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More About DDEITCH
Visit My SparkPage
Send Me SparkMail
Recipes I've Shared:
Cool Summer Chicken Salad
I was trying to come up with something healthy and not quite the typical "lettuce salad" for summer. I love fruits and veggies and try to sneak them in on my family when i can.
Recipes I've Rated:
Recipe Collections I've Shared:
|Dianne's Cookbook
I love to cook and I love trying new things!! Sometimes we have to get creative because with 5 kids in my house and some of them being picky eaters and 4 of them are strong hungry boys...creativity is a must!


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Hi all
Im thinking about selling my iPhone 8GB. Truth is I would rather have a new nano and my small Samnsung P300.
Anyway I ordered it from America costing me £450 in all, but obviously the price has dropped now. I have also paid for the iPhonesimFree unlock, so you would be covered if they update their unlocking method.
I have had it working on O2 in the UK. Everything works fine and I have had no problems with it. Its been hardly used as I dont like carrying it around. Its just too big for me.
Im thinking £330 inc P&P if anyone is interested. Remember the Apple US price doesnt include sales tax and the import Tax to the UK (which I paid). Cash by paypal or bank transfer.
If you are able the phone still has the $100 rebate not claimed on it as well. Guess you would need an American friend for that one...


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Daniel J. Weiss
Senior Fellow
Expertise: Energy and environment
Daniel J. Weiss is a Senior Fellow and the Director of Climate Strategy at American Progress, where he leads the Center's clean energy and climate advocacy campaign. Before coming to American Progress, he spent 25 years working with environmental advocacy organizations and political campaigns. Weiss is an expert in energy and environmental policy; legislative strategy and tactics; and advocacy communications. Most recently, he was a senior vice president with M+R Strategic Services, where he oversaw collaborative campaign efforts by 15 major national environmental organizations working to oppose anti-environmental legislation. This included field organizers, grassroots mobilization, earned and paid media, and opinion research.
Prior to M+R Strategic Services, Weiss served for 16 years at the Sierra Club, first as a Washington representative, then as director of the Environmental Quality Program, and for the final eight years as political director. He was chief strategist and lobbyist for legislative campaigns around the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, the Food Security Act, and budget bills. Weiss also designed and managed the Sierra Club's political action committee, endorsements, and $9 million Environmental Voter Education Campaign in 2000.
A graduate of the University of Michigan with both a Bachelor of Arts and Master of Public Policy degrees, Weiss has been involved with presidential, Senate, and House campaigns across the country since he was old enough to vote. In the 1990s, Roll Call named him one of the "Fabulous 50 Political People" and Regardie's magazine listed him in the "Power 100: 100 Most Influential People in Private Washington." Weiss is married to Sherry Ettleson and has two daughters and a son in high school.


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Rolex Rankings #13
Rolex Rankings #14
This is the first year for the event.
Will Inbee Park defend her title?
Read all about the first tournament of the season.
Fun Fact Friday is a new weekly series where LPGA.com will share with you five fun facts about a player.
Golf Channel caught up with Brad Beecher, caddie to Inbee Park, for a quick Q&A.


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Top tips for your awards entry
Welcome back from the Easter break and for those of you who went away we trust you had a well-deserved break and for the rest of us that worked through the weekend we trust that the sacrifice brings you great returns.
Another reminder that this year's CCMG awards are looming closer with every passing day and to ensure that you are afforded every opportunity to shine we thought we would take this opportunity to communicate and remind you of the categories up for grabs this year.
Contact Centre Showcase Cape Town 2014: Presentations
View all the presentations from the Contact Centre Showcase in Cape Town in April 2014
Workplace mobility
Kelly Group Executive Marketing, Kim Meszaros provides key insights into the KGWI 2013 findings on social media and technology in the workplace.
The Kelly Global Workforce Index (KGWI) is respected as an annual worldwide authority on trends and developments in the workplace. The 2013 report encapsulates opinions of over 122 000 people across the globe. It addresses issues from global mobility and technology as well as workplace changes.
Why you want a designation
In the Contact Centre Industry, the idea of a designation to manage the demand in changing skills was designed to manage this skills evolution on a step-by-step basis.
A designation confirms publically, to your employer and mostly to yourself, what your current worth is in the workplace. In many ways a designation is even better then a qualification.
List of designations awarded by the CCMG (SAQA approved)
Call centers are getting smarter
There are many companies that long for the days where landlines were still the norm, particularly when it comes to debt collecting. Because landlines were analogue and geographic in nature, which meant that callers had no idea who has ringing and whoever was calling knew or could find the address that landline was attached to, people were simply more likely to answer their phones.


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Many indications of heart trouble only occur during activities outside the doctor's office. Ambulatory electrocardiography, or heart rhythm monitoring, enables us to evaluate your heart's electrical impulses throughout your daily activities such as exercise, eating, emotional stress and sleep.
A portable Holter or event monitor can allow your doctor to review a larger sample of recorded heartbeats and identify abnormalities that only occur once in a while. With this information, your doctor can:
Your doctor will provide you with specific preparation information prior to your test. If you have any questions, please call 970.221.1000.
This is a lightweight recording device that is worn on a strap at your waist or over your shoulder. Two electrodes taped to your chest detect the electrical signals from your heart and transmit them to the recorder through small wires. The device is worn continuously for 24 hours.
While wearing the Holter monitor, you will be asked to keep a journal, noting times of all activities and symptoms. Use the monitor's clock display when you write down the exact times of activity (such as walking up stairs or gardening) or symptoms (such as dizziness or nausea). The success of the Holter test depends on how carefully you record the times of your activities and symptoms.
A King of Hearts monitor is a recording device about the size of a deck of cards. Wires lead from the recorder to two electrodes, which are taped to your chest. The monitor has a button on it that you must press as soon as you experience a symptom. When the button is pressed, your EKG is recorded inside the device. Following the symptom, or heart event, you will transmit the information by telephone to the EKG monitoring staff. You may be asked to keep the King of Hearts monitor for up to 30 days in order to obtain enough information to make a diagnosis.
University of Colorado Health employees dedicate themselves to providing patients and other customers with world-class care and service. Outside organizations recognize that, calling University of Colorado Health's hospitals some of the best in Colorado and even the best in the nation. Some of those accolades are listed below:
University of Colorado HealthFort Collins, email@example.com


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Welcome to our Travel Site
Thanks so much for stopping by! This is the former home of the travel website, American Girls Are Easy, that highlighted a year's worth of travel featuring Eastern and Western Europe, as well as a few destinations (and mostly just ridiculous stories) in Las Vegas.
The site was created in 2002 and was predominantly ignored for about a decade. We've dusted off the old content and left it online for posterity and are currently working on adding a whole lot of new pages.
Take a tour, click a few links, and enjoy. The bounce rate is like 99.9% on this website, as it seems traffic comes from porn seekers, so if you've read this far, you're not the average passerby. Enjoy!