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Armia Krajowa
|Home Army
Armia Krajowa
Kotwica, one of the symbols of the Polish Underground State and Armia Krajowa inscribed on the Flag of Poland
|14 February 1942 – 19 January 1945
|Polish government-in-exile
|Armed forces of Polish Underground State/Polish government-in-exile
|400,000 (1944)
|World War II
Warsaw Uprising
|Tadeusz Komorowski
Stefan Rowecki
Leopold Okulicki
Emil August Fieldorf
Antoni Chruściel
|Part of a series on the
| Polish
Underground State
Political organizations
Military organizations
Armia Krajowa (AK)
Mostly integrated
with ZWZ–AK
Partially integrated
with ZWZ–AK
Non-integrated but recognizing
authority of ZWZ-AK
Related topics
Armia Krajowa (Polish pronunciation: [ˈarmja kraˈjɔva], abbreviated AK), or the Home Army, was the dominant Polish resistance movement in World War II German-occupied Poland. It was formed in February 1942 from the Związek Walki Zbrojnej (Union for Armed Struggle). Over the next two years, it absorbed most other Polish underground forces. It was loyal to the Polish government in exile and constituted the armed wing of what became known as the "Polish Underground State." Estimates of its membership in 1944 range from 200,000 to 600,000, with the most common number being 400,000; that figure would make it not only the largest Polish underground resistance movement but one of the three largest in Europe during World War II.[a] It was disbanded on 19 January 1945, when Polish territory had been mostly cleared of German forces by the advancing Soviet Red Army.
The AK's primary resistance operations were the sabotage of German activities, including transports headed for the Eastern Front in the Soviet Union. The AK also fought several full-scale battles against the Germans, particularly in 1943 and 1944 during Operation Tempest. They tied down significant German forces, diverting much-needed supplies, while trying to support the Soviet military.
The most widely known AK operation was the Warsaw Uprising. The AK also defended Polish civilians against atrocities committed by German and non-German (collaborationist) military organizations. Due to its ties with the Polish government in exile, the Armia Krajowa was viewed by the Soviet Union as a major obstacle to its takeover of the country. There was increasing conflict between AK and Soviet forces both during and after the war.
- 1 History and operations
- 2 Membership
- 3 Structure
- 4 Weapons and equipment
- 5 Relations with other groups
- 6 Notes
- 7 See also
- 8 References
- 9 External links
History and operations[edit]
World War II[edit]
The AK's origins were in the Służba Zwycięstwu Polski (Service for the Victory of Poland), which had been set up, just as the joint German & Soviet invasions of Poland were nearing completion, on 27 September 1939, by General Michał Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski.[1] Seven weeks later, 17 November 1939, on the orders of General Władysław Sikorski, this organization was succeeded by Związek Walki Zbrojnej (Union for Armed Struggle), which over two years later, on 14 February 1942, became the AK.[1][2] While these two organizations were the founders of the AK, intended as the main Polish resistance movement, there were numerous other resistance organizations in Poland.[3] A majority of these groups would eventually merge with the ZWZ-AK during the years of 1939–1944, significantly contributing to AK's growth.[2][3][4]
According to the Polish government in exile, AK was to be a non-political, nationwide resistance organization.[5] The supreme command defined the main tasks of the AK as partisan warfare against the German occupiers, recreation of armed forces underground and, near the end of the German occupation, general armed revolt until victory.[1][2][5] At the war's end, AK plans envisaged the seizure of power in Poland by the Delegatura (Government Delegate's Office at Home) establishment, the representatives of the London-based government in exile; and by the government-in-exile itself, which would return to Poland. In addition to the London government there was also a political organization in Poland itself, a deliberative body of the resistance and the Polish Underground State. The Political Consultative Committee (Polityczny Komitet Porozumiewawczy) was formed in 1940 after an agreement by representatives of several major political parties (Socialist Party, People's Party, National Party and Labor Party); renamed to Home Political Representation (Krajowa Reprezentacja Polityczna) in 1943 and to Council of National Unity (Rada Jedności Politycznej) in 1944.[6] The AK, although in theory subordinated to the civil authorities and the government in exile, often acted somewhat independently with both the AK commanders in Poland and London government not fully aware of the situation of the other.[6]
Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Soviet Union joined the Allies; the Anglo-Soviet Agreement was signed on 12 July 1941. This shift put the Polish government in a difficult position, since it had previously pursued a policy of "two enemies." Although a Polish-Soviet agreement was signed in August, co-operation continued to be difficult, and deteriorated further after the Katyn massacre was publicized in 1943.[7]
Until the major revolt began in 1944, the AK concentrated on self-defence (freeing prisoners and hostages, defence against pacification measures) and striking at the German forces. Throughout the period of its existence AK units carried out thousands of armed raids and intelligence operations, sabotaging hundreds of railway shipments and participating in many partisan clashes and battles with German police and Wehrmacht units. The AK also conducted retaliatory operations to assassinate prominent Nazi collaborators and Gestapo officials in response to Nazi terror tactics imposed on the civilian population of Poland (notable individuals assassinated by AK include Igo Sym and Franz Kutschera).[1][5]
Armia Krajowa supplied valuable intelligence information to the Allies; 43% of all reports received by British secret services from continental Europe in 1939–45 had come from Polish sources.[8] Until 1942, most of British intelligence from Germany came from AK reports; until the end of the war AK would remain the main British source for news from Central and Eastern Europe.[9] Among other topics, Armia Krajowa intelligence provided the Allies with information on German concentration camps,[10] as well as intelligence concerning the V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rocket[1][4] One Project Big Ben mission used a stripped-for-lightness RAF twin-engine Dakota (Operation Wildhorn III[11]) (Most III) from Brindisi, Italy, to fly to an abandoned German airfield in Poland to retrieve information prepared by engineer and aircraft designer Antoni Kocjan, as well as 100 lb (45 kg) of cargo regarding V-2 rocket wreckage from a Peenemünde launch, including Special Report 1/R, no. 242, photographs, a select set of eight parts, and drawings of the wreckage.[12] Sabotage was coordinated by the Union of Retaliation and later Wachlarz and Kedyw units.[2] The AK also carried out psychological warfare, with the "Operation N" created the illusion of a German opposition movement to Hitler within Germany itself.[1]
Major operations[edit]
Major military and sabotage operations included: the Zamość Uprising of 1942–1943, with AK sabotaging German plans for expulsion of Poles under the Generalplan Ost;[2] the protection of the Polish population from the massacres of Poles in Volhynia in 1943–1944;[2] Operation Wieniec sabotaging German rail transport in 1942;[2] Operation Taśma in 1943, a series of attacks against German border outposts on the frontier between the General Government and the territories annexed by Germany; Operation Jula – another rail sabotage in 1944;[2] and most notably Operation Tempest in 1944, a series of nationwide uprisings whose chief goal was to seize control of cities and areas where German forces were preparing their defenses against the Soviet Red Army, so that Polish underground civil authorities could take power before the arrival of Soviet forces.[13] The largest and best known of the Operation Tempest battles was the Warsaw Uprising – the attempt to liberate Warsaw, the capital of Poland. It started on 1 August 1944; the Polish troops took control of significant portion of the city and resisted the German-led forces until 2 October (63 days in total). With no aid from the approaching Red Army, the Germans eventually defeated the rebels and burned the city, finally quelling the Uprising on 2 October 1944.[1] Other major city uprisings of AK included the Operation Ostra Brama in Wilno and the Lwów Uprising. In addition, AK prepared an uprising in Kraków, but it was canceled due to several circumstances. While the AK managed to liberate a number of places from German control, for example in the Lublin region where the regional structures were able to set up a functioning government, in the end due to hostility and lack of support from the Soviet Union, it failed to secure sufficient territory for the government in exile to return.[1][2][13]
Axis fatalities due to the actions of the Polish underground, of which AK formed the bulk, are estimated at up to 150,000[14] (one should however note that estimates of guerrilla warfare inflicted casualties often have a wide margin of error[15]). The AK primary focus was on sabotage of German rail and road transports to the Eastern Front in the Soviet Union.[4][16] It is estimated that one eighth of all German transports to Eastern Front were destroyed or significantly delayed due to AK's activities.[16] The battles with the Germans, particularly in 1943 and 1944, tied down several German divisions (upper estimates suggest about 930,000 German soldiers in total).[4][17]
|Sabotage / Diversionary Action Type
|Damaged locomotives
|Delayed repairs to locomotives
|Derailed transports
|Transports set on fire
|Damage to railway wagons
|Blown up railway bridges
|Disruptions to electricity supplies in the Warsaw grid
|Army vehicles damaged or destroyed
|Damaged aeroplanes
|Fuel tanks destroyed
|Fuel destroyed (in tonnes)
|Blocked oil wells
|Wagons of wood wool destroyed
|Military stores burned down
|Disruptions of production in factories
|Built-in faults in parts for aircraft engines
|Built-in faults into cannon muzzles
|Built-in faults into artillery projectiles
|Built-in faults into air traffic radio stations
|Built-in faults into condensers
|Built-in faults into (electro-industrial) lathes
|Damage to important factory machinery
|Various acts of sabotage performed
|Planned assassinations of Germans
The AK officially disbanded on 19 January 1945 to avoid armed conflict with the Soviets and civil war.[18] However, many units decided to continue their struggle under new circumstances. The Soviet Union and the Polish Communist Government it controlled viewed the underground, still loyal to the Polish government in exile, as a force that had to be removed before they could gain complete control over Poland. Future general secretary of Polish United Workers' Party, Władysław Gomułka, is quoted as saying: "Soldiers of AK are a hostile element which must be removed without mercy." Another prominent Polish communist, Roman Zambrowski, said that AK had to be "exterminated."[19]
The first AK structure designed primarily to deal with the Soviet threat was NIE, formed in mid-1943. NIE's goals was not to engage the Soviet forces in combat, but rather to observe and conduct espionage while the Polish government in exile decided how to deal with the Soviets; at that time the exiled government still believed that the solution could be found through negotiations. On 7 May 1945 NIE ("NO") was disbanded[19] and transformed into Delegatura Sił Zbrojnych na Kraj ("Homeland Armed Forces Delegation"), this organization however lasted only until 8 August 1945, when the decision was made to disband the organization and stop partisan resistance.[19]
The first Polish communist government, the Polish Committee of National Liberation, formed in July 1944, declined jurisdiction over AK soldiers, therefore for more than a year it was the Soviet Union agencies such as NKVD that took responsibility for disarming the AK.[19] By the end of the war approximately 60,000 AK soldiers were arrested, 50,000 of them were deported to the Soviet Union's Gulags and prisons; most of those soldiers were captured by Soviets during or in the aftermath of Operation Tempest, when many AK units tried to cooperate with the Soviets in a nationwide uprising against the Germans.[19] Other veterans were arrested when they decided to approach the Polish communist government officials after being promised amnesty. After several such broken promises during the first few years of communist control, AK soldiers stopped trusting the government.[19]
The third post-AK organization was Wolność i Niezawisłość ("Freedom and Sovereignty"). Again its primary goal was not combat. Rather, it was designed to help the AK soldiers in transition from the life of partisans into that of civilians; while secrecy and conspiracy were necessary in the light of increasing persecution of AK veterans by the communist government.[20] WiN was however in significant need of funds, necessary to pay for false documents and to provide resources for the partisans, many of whom had lost their homes and entire life's savings in the war. Viewed as enemies of the state, starved of resources, and with a vocal faction advocating armed resistance against the Soviets and their Polish proxies, WiN was far from efficient.[19] A significant victory for the NKVD and the newly created Polish secret police, Urząd Bezpieczeństwa, came in the second half of 1945, when they managed to convince several leaders of AK and WiN that they truly wanted to offer amnesty to AK members. In a few months they managed to gain information about vast numbers of AK/WiN resources and people. By the time the (imprisoned) AK and WiN leaders realised their mistake, the organizations had been crippled with thousands of their members having been arrested.[19] WiN was finally disbanded in 1952. By 1947 a colonel of the communist forces declared that "Terrorist and political underground has ceased to be a threatening force, although there are still men of the forests" that need to be dealt with.[19]
The persecution of AK was only part of the repressions under Stalinism in Poland. In the period of 1944–1956, approximately 2 million people were arrested,[19] over 20,000, including the hero of Auschwitz, Witold Pilecki, were executed or murdered in communist prisons,[19] and 6 million Polish citizens (i.e. every third adult Pole) were classified as a reactionary or criminal element and subject to invigilation by state agencies.[19] Most soldiers of the Home Army were captured by the NKVD or UB political police. They were interrogated and imprisoned on various charges like fascism.[21][22] Many of them were sent to Gulags, executed or "disappeared."[21] For example between 1944 and 1956 all members of Batalion Zośka unit who took part in Warsaw Uprising was closed in communist jail.[23] In 1956 an amnesty released 35,000 former AK soldiers from prisons: for the crime of fighting for their homeland they had spent sometimes over 10 years in prisons. Even at this time however, some partisans remained in the countryside, unwilling or simply unable to rejoin the community; they became known as the cursed soldiers. Stanisław Marchewka "Ryba" was killed in 1957, and the last AK partisan, Józef Franczak "Lalek," was killed in 1963[19] – almost 2 decades after World War II ended. It was only four years later, in 1967, that Adam Boryczka, a soldier of AK and a member of the elite, Britain-trained Cichociemny ("The Silent and Hidden") intelligence and support group, was released from prison. Until the end of the People's Republic of Poland AK soldiers remained under investigation by the secret police, and it was only in 1989, after the fall of communism, that the sentences of AK soldiers were finally declared invalid and annulled by the Polish courts.[19] Many monuments to Armia Krajowa have been erected in modern Poland; among the most prominent is the Monument of Polish Underground State and Home Army near Polish Sejm building in Warsaw, unveiled in 1999.[24][25] and there are museum exhibitions such as the Armia Krajowa Museum in Kraków[26] and the Warsaw Uprising Museum in Warsaw.[27]
|"Within the framework of the entire enemy intelligence operations directed against Germany, the intelligence service of the Polish resistance movement assumed major significance. The scope and importance of the operations of the Polish resistance movement, which was ramified down to the smallest splinter group and brilliantly organized, have been in (various sources) disclosed in connection with carrying out of major police security operations""
— Heinrich Himmler, 31 December 1942[28]
In February 1942, when AK was formed from ZWZ, it numbered about 100,000 members.[5] In the beginning of 1943, it had reached a strength of about 200,000.[5] In the summer of 1944 when Operation Tempest begun AK reached its highest membership numbers.[5] Estimates of AK membership in the first half of 1944 and summer that year range from 200,000,[29] 300,000,[30] 380,000,[5] 400,000,[4] 450,000–500,000[31] to even "over 600,000."[32] Most estimates put the highest numbers in summer 1944 between 300,000 and 500,000, with the average of 400,000. The strength estimates vary, due to constantly ongoing integration of other resistance organizations into AK; as well as because while the number of members was high and sympathizers even much higher, the number of armed members participating in actions would be smaller(due to insufficient number of weapons).[5][15][29] AK's numbers in 1944 include a cadre of more than 10,000–11,000 officers, 7,500 officers-in-training (podchorąży) and 88,000 NCOs.[5] The officer cadre was formed from pre-war officers and NCOs, graduates of underground courses and elite operatives usually parachuted from the West (cichociemni).[5] A basic organization unit was a platoon, which numbered 35–50 people, with a skeleton, unmobilized version of 16–25; in February 1944 AK had 6287 regular and 2613 skeleton platoons operational.[5] Such numbers made Armia Krajowa not only the largest of the Polish resistance movements, but among the two largest in World War II-time Europe [a]. Casualties during the war are estimated at about 34,000[30]-100,000,[5] plus about 20,000[30]-50,000[5] after the war (casualties and imprisonment).
AK was intended as a mass membership organization, organized around a core of pre-war officers.[5] AK soldiers could be divided into three groups. The first two consisted of "full-time members": the undercover operatives, living mostly in urban setting under false identities (most senior AK officers belonged to this group) and uniformed (to a certain extent) partisans, living in the forested regions (see leśni), and fighting Germans openly (the numbers of that group can be estimated at about 40 groups numbering in total 1,200–4,000 in early 1943 but the numbers would grow significantly during Operation Tempest).[33] The largest group consisted of "part-time members," sympathizers leading 'double life', under their real names in their real homes, receiving no payment for their services, staying in touch with their undercover unit commander, but usually not called for any actions, as AK was planning to use them only during the planned nationwide uprising.[33]
AK was intended as a representative of the Polish nation, as its members were recruited from all social parties and classes (the communists sent by Soviets and Soviet created Armia Ludowa (People's Army) being the only notable exception).[6] Growth of the AK was significantly based on integration of scores of smaller resistance organizations into its ranks.[5] Most of the other Polish underground armies became incorporated into the AK (retaining a varying amount of autonomy)[2][4] including:
- The Konfederacja Narodu (Confederation of the Nation). Created in 1940 by far-right Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny (National Radical Camp) and opposed to more center SZP-ZWZ, it would partially merge with ZWZ around 1941 and finally join AK around fall 1943.
- The Bataliony Chłopskie (Peasants' Battalions). Created by the leftist People's Party around 1940–1941, it would partially merge with AK around 1942–1943, although in 1944 parts would split and join the AL.
- The Gwardia Ludowa WRN (People's Guard of WRN) of Polish Socialist Party (PPS) (joined ZWZ around 1940) and Socjalistyczna Organizacja Bojowa (Socialist Fighting Organisation) created in 1943 and subordinated to AK,
- The Narodowa Organizacja Wojskowa (National Military Organisation), (joined AK around the fall 1942/summer 1943) established by the National Party.
- The Obóz Polski Walczącej (Camp of Fighting Poland), established by the Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego (Camp of National Unity) around 1942, subordinated to AK in 1943.
- From March to summer 1944, parts of the Narodowe Siły Zbrojne (National Armed Forces) were also subordinated to AK.
The largest group that refused to join AK was the pro-Soviet and communist Armia Ludowa (AL), which at its height in 1944 numbered 30,000 people.[34] As a result, individual AK units varied significantly in their political outlooks (notably in their attitude towards ethnic minorities or the Soviets).[6]
AK's Headquarters was divided into five sections, two bureaus and several other specialized units:[1][5]
- Section I: Organizations – organization, planning, personnel, justice, religion
- Section II: Information and Espionage – espionage and counterespionage
- Section III: Operations and Training – coordination, planning, preparing for the nationwide uprising
- Section IV: Logistics – information management (ex. maps), supplies
- Section V: Communications – communication (including with the Western Allies), air drops
- Bureau of Information and Propaganda, sometimes known as Section VI – propaganda
- Bureau of Finances and Control, sometimes known as Section VII – finances, budget
- Kedyw (acronym for Kierownictwo Dywersji, Polish for Directorate of Diversion), a highly independent special operations section, responsible for much of the ongoing resistance operations
- Directorate of Underground Resistance
- others
The Commanders of AK were subordinated to the Polish commander-in-chief (General Inspector of the Armed Forces) of the Government in Exile in the military chain of command[5] and responsible to the Government Delegate's at Home in the civilian chain of command. Stefan Rowecki (pseudonym Grot, or "Arrowhead"), served as the AK's first commander until his arrest in 1943; Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski commanded from July 1943 until his capture in October 1944 and Leopold Okulicki, pseudonym Niedzwiadek ("Bear Cub") led the organisation in its final days.[1]
|Replaced because
|General Michał Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski
Technically, commander of Służba Zwycięstwu Polski and Związek Walki Zbrojnej as AK was not named such until 1942
|27 September 1939 – March 1940
|Arrested by the Soviets
|Joined the Anders Army, fought in the Polish Armed Forces in the West. Emigrated to the United Kingdom.
|General Stefan Rowecki
|18 June 1940 – 30 June 1943
|Discovered and arrested by German Gestapo
|Imprisoned in Sachsenhausen concentration camp. Executed by personal decree of Heinrich Himmler after Warsaw Uprising has started.
|General Tadeusz Komorowski
|July 1943 – 2 September 1944
|Surrendered after the end of Warsaw Uprising.
|Emigrated to United Kingdom.
|General Leopold Okulicki
|3 October 1944 – 17 January 1945
|Dissolved AK trying to lessen the Polish-Soviet tensions.
|Arrested by the Soviets, sentenced for imprisonment in the Trial of the Sixteen. Likely executed in 1946.
Geographically, AK was divided into regional branches or areas (obszar).[1] Below the branches (or areas) were the subregions (or subareas) (podokręg) or independent areas (okręgi samodzielne). Smaller organizational units involved ; inspectorates (inspektorat), of which there were eighty-nine (89) and districts (obwód), of which there were two hundred eighty (280, as of early 1944).[5] Overall, AK regional structure resembled to a significant extent Polish interwar administration division, with okręg being similar to Polish voivodeship (see also Administrative division of Second Polish Republic).[5]
There were three to five areas: Warsaw (Obszar Warszawski, with some sources differentiating between left- and right-bank areas – Obszar Warszawski prawo- i lewobrzeżny), Western (Obszar Zachodni in the Pomerania and Poznań regions), South-Eastern (Obszar Południowo-Wschodni in the Lwów area); sources vary on whether there was a North-Eastern Area (centered in Białystok – Obszar Białystocki) or whether Białystok was classified as an independent area (Okręg samodzielny Białystok).
|Units (re)created during the reconstruction of Polish Army in Operation Tempest
|Warsaw area
Codenames: Cegielnia (Brickworks), Woda (Water), Rzeka (River)
Col. Albin Skroczyński Łaszcz
Col. Hieronim Suszczyński Szeliga
|Struga (stream), Krynica (source), Gorzelnia (distillery)
|10th Infantry Division
Col. Franciszek Jachieć Roman
|Hallerowo (Hallertown), Hajduki, Cukrownia (Sugar factory)
|28th Infantry Division
Lt. Col. Zygmunt Marszewski Kazimierz
|Olsztyn, Tuchola, Królewiec, Garbarnia (tannery)
|8th Infantry Division
|South-Eastern area
Codenames: Lux, Lutnia (lute), Orzech (nut)
Col. Władysław Filipkowski Janka
Lwów – divided into two areas
Okręg Lwów Zachód (West) and Okręg Lwów Wschód (East)
Col. Stefan Czerwiński Luśnia
|Dukat (ducat), Lira (lire), Promień (ray)
|5th Infantry Division
Capt. Władysław Herman Żuraw
|Karaś (crucian carp), Struga (stream), Światła (lights)
|11th Infantry Division
Maj. Bronisław Zawadzki
|Komar (mosquito), Tarcza (shield), Ton (tone)
|12th Infantry Division
|Western area
Codename: Zamek (Castle)
Col. Zygmunt Miłkowski Denhoff
Col. Janusz Pałubicki Piorun
|Borówki (berries), Pomnik (monument)
Col. Henryk Kowalówka
|Pałac (palace), Parcela (lot)
|Independent areas
Col. Aleksander Krzyżanowski Wilk
|Miód (honey), Wiano (dowry) (subunit "Kaunas Lithuania")
Lt.Col. Janusz Szlaski Borsuk
|Cyranka (garganey), Nów (new moon)
|Zgrupowanie Okręgu AK Nowogródek
Col. Antoni Chruściel Monter
|Drapacz (sky-scraper), Przystań (harbour),
Wydra (otter), Prom (shuttle)
Col. Henryk Krajewski Leśny
|Kwadra (quarter), Twierdza (keep), Żuraw (crane)
|30th Infantry Division
Col. Kazimierz Bąbiński Luboń
|Hreczka (buckwheat), Konopie (hemp)
|27th Infantry Division
Col. Władysław Liniarski Mścisław
|Lin (tench), Czapla (aigrette), Pełnia (full moon)
|29th Infantry Division
Col. Kazimierz Tumidajski Marcin
|Len (linnen), Salon (saloon), Żyto (rye)
|3rd Legions' Infantry Division
9th Infantry Division
various commanders, incl. Col. Julian Filipowicz Róg
|Gobelin, Godło (coat of arms), Muzeum (museum)
|6th Infantry Division
106th Infantry Division
21st Infantry Division
22nd Infantry Division
24th Infantry Division
Kraków Motorized Cavalry Brigade
various commanders, incl. Col. Zygmunt Janke Zygmunt
|Kilof (pick), Komin (chimney), Kuźnia (foundry), Serce (heart)
Kielce, Radom
Col. Jan Zientarski Mieczysław
|Rolnik (farmer), Jodła (fir)
|2nd Legions' Infantry Division
7th Infantry Division
Col. Michał Stempkowski Grzegorz
|Arka (ark), Barka (barge), Łania (bath)
|25th Infantry Division
26th Infantry Division
|Foreign areas
Lt.Col. Jan Korkozowicz
|Blok (block)
From 1943 AK started to recreate the organization of the pre-war Polish Army, with its various units being designated as platoons, battalions, regiments, brigades and divisions and operational groups.[5]
Weapons and equipment[edit]
As a clandestine army operating in a country occupied by the enemy, separated by over a thousand kilometers from any friendly territory, the AK faced unique challenges in acquiring arms and equipment.[35] AK was able to overcome these difficulties to some extent and put tens of thousands of armed soldiers into the field. Nevertheless, the difficult conditions meant that only infantry forces armed with light weapons could be fielded. Any use of artillery, armor or aircraft was impossible (except for a few instances during the Warsaw Uprising, like the Kubuś armored car).[35] Even these light infantry units were as a rule armed with a mixture of weapons of various types, usually in quantities sufficient to arm only a fraction of a unit's soldiers.[15][29][35]
The arms and equipment for Armia Krajowa mostly came from four sources: arms buried by the Polish armies on the battlefields after the Invasion of Poland in 1939, arms purchased or captured from the Germans and their allies, arms clandestinely manufactured by Armia Krajowa itself, and arms received from Allied air drops.[35]
From the arms caches hidden in 1939, the AK obtained: 614 heavy machine guns, 1,193 light machine guns, 33,052 rifles, 6,732 pistols, 28 antitank light field guns, 25 antitank rifles and 43,154 hand grenades.[36] However, because of inadequate preservation, which had to be improvised in the chaos of the September campaign, most of these guns were in poor condition. Of those that were hidden in the ground and dug up in 1944 during preparation for Operation Tempest, only 30% were usable.[37]
Sometimes arms were purchased on the black market from German soldiers or their allies or stolen from German supply depots or transports.[35] Purchases were made by individual units and sometimes by individual soldiers. As Germany's prospects for victory diminished and the morale in German units dropped, the number of soldiers willing to sell their weapons correspondingly increased and thus made this source more important.[37] All such purchases were highly risky, as the Gestapo was well aware of this black market in arms and tried to check it by setting up sting operations. For the most part this trade was limited to personal weapons, but occasionally light and heavy machine guns could also be purchased. It was much easier to trade with Italian and Hungarian units stationed in Poland, which more willingly sold their arms to the Polish underground as long as they could conceal this trade from the Germans.[37]
The efforts to capture weapons from Germans also proved highly successful. Raids were conducted on trains carrying equipment to the front, as well as guardhouses and gendarmerie posts. Sometimes weapons were taken from individual German soldiers accosted in the street. During the Warsaw Uprising, the AK even managed to capture several German armored vehicles.[37]
Arms were clandestinely manufactured by the AK in its own secret workshops, and also by its members working in German armament factories.[35][37] In this way the AK was able to procure submachine guns (copies of British Sten, indigenous Błyskawica and KIS), pistols (Vis), flamethrowers, explosive devices, road mines and hand grenades (Filipinka and Sidolówka).[35] Hundreds of people were involved in this manufacturing effort. AK did not produce its own ammunition, but relied on supplies stolen by Polish workers from German-run factories.[35]
The final source of supply were Allied air drops. This was the only way to obtain more exotic but highly useful equipment such as plastic explosives or antitank weapons (PIAT). During the war 485 air drop missions from the West (about half of which was flown by Polish airmen) delivered about 600 tons of supplies for Polish resistance.[38] Besides equipment, the planes also parachuted highly qualified instructors (the Cichociemni), of whom 316[30] were inserted into Poland during the war.[36]
In the end despite their efforts most of AK forces had inadequate weaponry. In 1944, when AK numbers where at their peak strength (200,000–600,000 according to various estimates), AK had enough weaponry only for about 32,000 soldiers.[29] On 1 August 1944 when Warsaw Uprising started, only one sixth of AK fighters in Warsaw were armed.[29]
Relations with other groups[edit]
Relations with Jews[edit]
While AK was largely untainted with collaboration with Nazis during the Holocaust,[39] some historians have asserted that because of antisemitism AK was reluctant to accept Jews into its ranks.[40][41][42] However records confirm that numerous Jewish resistance fighters were members of the Armia Krajowa.[42][43] Notable Jewish members of AK included Julian Aleksandrowicz,[44] Stanisław "Shlomo" Aronson,[45] Alicja Gołod-Gołębiowska,[46] Leon Kopelman,[47] Marceli Handelsman,[48] Jerzy Makowiecki[48] and Ludwik Widerszal,[48] (some, like Handelsman, Makowiecki and Widerszal, were members of AK headquarters staff[48]), while others, such as Ignacy Schwarzbart annd Szmul Zygielbojm held top leadership positions in the National Council of the Polish government in exile to which the AK answered.[49] (However, there were no Jewish representative in the Delegatura).[50]
In February 1942, the Operational Command of the AK Information and Propaganda Office set up the Section for Jewish Affairs, directed by Henryk Woliński.[51] This section collected data about the situation of the Jewish population, drafted reports and sent information to London. It also centralized contacts between Polish and Jewish military organizations. The AK also supported the Relief Council for Jews in Poland (codenamed Żegota) as well as the formation of Jewish resistance under Nazi rule organizations in Poland.[52][53][54] One member of the AK, Witold Pilecki, was the only person to volunteer for imprisonment in Auschwitz. The information he gathered proved crucial in convincing Western Allies about the fate of the Jewish population.[10] In 1942, AK sent Jan Karski on a secret mission to personally carry the first eyewitness accounts of the Holocaust to the mostly disbelieving Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Before leaving, Karski visited the Warsaw Ghetto and one of the Nazi concentration camps.[50][55]
|When we invaded the Ghetto for the first time, the Jews and the Polish bandits succeeded in repelling the participating units, including tanks and armored cars, by a well-prepared concentration of fire. (...) The main Jewish battle group, mixed with Polish bandits, had already retired during the first and second day to the so-called Muranowski Square. There, it was reinforced by a considerable number of Polish bandits. Its plan was to hold the Ghetto by every means in order to prevent us from invading it. (...) Time and again Polish bandits found refuge in the Ghetto and remained there undisturbed, since we had no forces at our disposal to comb out this maze. (...) One such battle group succeeded in mounting a truck by ascending from a sewer in the so-called Prosta [Street], and in escaping with it (about 30 to 35 bandits). ... The bandits and Jews – there were Polish bandits among these gangs armed with carbines, small arms, and in one case a light machine gun – mounted the truck and drove away in an unknown direction.
—Jürgen Stroop – "Stroop Report" 1943[56][57]
According to Antony Polonsky, the commander of the AK General Stefan Grot-Rowecki made clear in an order of 10 November 1942, that they did not regard the Jews 'as part of our nation', and that action was not to be taken to defend them if it endangered other AK objectives.[58] Joshua D. Zimmerman disputes such a description of Rowecki, noting that he was willing to provide them with aid and resources when it contributed to the greater war effort, but concluded that providing large supplies of arms to the Jews would be ineffectual. Zimmerman notes that Rowecki was "clearly sympathetic to Jews and eager to help", and his reasoning was a norm among the Western Allies, whose reaction to the news about the Holocaust was that only regular military action against Nazi Germany can halt it. Zimmerman further notes that while Polonsky is right to note that at that time Rowecki did not see Jews as part of the Polish nation, and his support for them was limited, his (and AK's) attitude would shift significantly in the coming months as the brutal reality of the Holocaust became more apparent, and the support of Polish public opinion for the Jewish resistance increased.[50][59]
Records confirm that the AK provided the Warsaw Ghetto with firearms, ammunition and explosives;[52][60] Zimmerman described the supplies as "limited but real".[59] Jewish fighters from Jewish Military Union received from AK, among others: 2 heavy machine guns, 4 light machine guns, 21 submachine guns, 30 rifles, 50 pistols, and over 400 grenades.[61] During the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943, AK units tried twice to blow up the ghetto wall, carried out holding actions outside the ghetto walls, and together with GL forces sporadically attacked German sentry units near the ghetto walls. Security Cadre (Kadra Bezpieczeństwa or KB), one of the organizations subordinate to the AK, under the command of Henryk Iwański took a direct part in fights inside the ghetto together with Jewish fighters from ŻZW[60] and ŻOB.[62] During the Warsaw Uprising a year later, Batalion Zośka, one of the most notable units of the Uprising, liberated hundreds of Jews from the Gęsiówka part of the Warsaw Concentration Camp.[52]
On the other hand, instances of AK individuals or groups engaging in violence against Jews have been reported, albeit their extent has been disputed.[39][63] AK members' attitudes towards Jews varied widely from unit to unit.[64] According to some sources the bulk of antisemitic behavior can be ascribed to only a small minority of AK members,[39] often affiliated with the far-right endecja spectrum of the Polish political scene, whose National Armed Forces organization was only partially incorporated into AK.[65][66] To the extent that wartime circumstances permitted the leadership of the AK tried to punish instances of violence, on several occasions issuing and carrying out death sentences against perpetrators.[39] Nonetheless some Jewish sources have characterized Armia Krajowa as anti-Semitic.[67][68][69][70][71] The issue remains a controversial one and is subject to a difficult debate.[60][72][73]
Relations with Lithuanians[edit]
Although Lithuanian and Polish resistance movements had in principle the same enemies – Nazi Germany and Soviet Union – they started cooperating only in 1944–1945, after the Soviet re-occupation, when they both fought against the Soviet occupiers.[74] The main obstacle in forming an earlier alliance was a territorial dispute centering on Vilnius (see Żeligowski's Mutiny for background).[75]
Some Lithuanians, encouraged by Germany's vague promises of autonomy,[76] cooperated with the Nazis in their actions against Poles during the German occupation. In autumn of 1943, Armia Krajowa started retaliation operations against the Lithuanian Nazi supporters, primarily the Lituanian Schutzmannschaft battalions, Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force and Lithuanian Secret Police,[77] and killed hundreds of mostly Lithuanian policemen and other collaborators during the first half of 1944. In response, Lithuanian police, who had already murdered hundreds of Polish civilians since 1941 (see Ponary massacre),[78] intensified their operations against the Poles. In April 1944, Armia Krajowa in the Vilnius Region attempted to open negotiations with Povilas Plechavičius (commander of Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force), proposing a non-aggression pact and cooperation against the Nazi Germany.[79] The Lithuanian side refused and demanded that the Poles either abandon the Vilnius Region (disputed between Poles and Lithuanians) or subordinate themselves to the Lithuanians in their struggle against the Soviets.[79] In May 1944 in the battle of Murowana Oszmianka AK dealt a significant blow to the Lithuanian Nazi auxiliaries of the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force.[80][81] What resulted was a low-level civil war between anti-Nazi Poles and pro-Nazi Lithuanians, encouraged by the German authorities,[77] which culminated in the massacres of Polish and Lithuanian civilians in June 1944 in the Glitiškės (Glinciszki) and Dubingiai (Dubinki) villages.[78]
The postwar assessment of AK's activities in Lithuania has been a matter of controversy. Its activities in Lithuania were investigated by a special Lithuanian government commission in 1993. Only in recent years have Polish and Lithuanian historians been able to reach some compromises, even if they still differ in the interpretation of many events.[82][83]
Relations with the Soviets[edit]
Armia Krajowa relations with the Red Army became increasingly poor over the course of the war. Not only did the Soviet Union invade Poland following the German invasion of Poland in 1939, but even after the Germans invaded Soviet Union the Soviet Union saw Polish partisans loyal to the government in exile as more of an enemy to their plans to take control of post-war Poland, than as a potential ally.[84] On orders from Stavka sent on 22 June 1943,[85] Soviet partisans engaged Polish partisans in combat, and it has been claimed that they attacked the Poles more often than they did the Germans.[84]
In late 1943, the actions of Soviet partisans, who were ordered to liquidate the AK forces,[85] even resulted in a limited amount of uneasy cooperation between some units of AK and German forces.[39] While AK still treated Germans as the enemy and conducted various operations against them,[39] when Germans offered AK arms and provisions to be used against the Soviet partisans, some Polish units in the Nowogródek and Wilno decided to accept them. However, any such arrangements were purely tactical and did not evidence the type of ideological collaboration as shown by the Vichy regime in France or the Quisling regime in Norway.[39] The Poles main motivation was to acquire intelligence on Germans and to acquire much needed equipment.[72] There are no known joint Polish-German actions, and the Germans were unsuccessful in their attempt to turn the Poles toward fighting exclusively against Soviet partisans.[39] Further, most of such collaboration of local commanders with the Germans was condemned by AK headquarters.[39] Tadeusz Piotrowski quotes Joseph Rothschild saying "The Polish Home Army was by and large untainted by collaboration" and adds that "the honor of AK as a whole is beyond reproach."[39]
With the Eastern Front entering Polish territories in 1944, AK established an uneasy truce with the Soviets. Even then, the main forces of the Red Army and the NKVD conducted operations against the AK partisans, including during or directly after the Polish Operation Tempest, which was designed by the Poles to be a joint Polish-Soviet action against the retreating Germans and to establish Polish claims to those territories.[4][19] AK helped Soviet units with scouting or organizing uprisings and helping to liberate various cities (ex. Operation Ostra Brama, Lwów Uprising), only to find that immediately afterwards AK troops were arrested, imprisoned – or even executed.[16] Unknown to the Poles, Joseph Stalin's aim to ensure that an independent Poland would never reemerge in the postwar period made the Operation Tempest idea fatally flawed from the beginning.[86]
Soviet forces continued to engage the elements of AK long after the war. Many AK soldiers continued fight after World War II in anti-Soviet Polish underground, known as the cursed soldiers.[19]
Relations with Ukrainians[edit]
Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), a Ukrainian nationalist force and the military arm of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), fighting against the Germans, the Soviets and the Poles – all three seen as occupiers of Ukraine – decided in 1943 to direct most of their attacks against the Poles. One of its leaders, Stepan Bandera, and his followers came to the conclusion that the war would end with the exhaustion of both Germany and the Soviet Union, and thus the Poles, which also laid claims to the territories of East Galicia (seen by Ukrainians as Western Ukraine, and Poles as Eastern Poland), had to be weakened before the Polish state could rise again.[87] The collaboration of some Ukrainian groups with Nazi Germany (although declining in 1943) had discredited Ukrainian partisans as potential Polish allies; Polish pretensions to restore the borders of pre-war Poland were opposed by the Ukrainians.[87]
The OUN decided to attack Polish civilians who constituted about a third of the population of the disputed territories.[87] The OUN equated Ukrainian independence with ethnic homogeneity; the Polish presence had to be removed completely.[87] By February 1943 OUN started a deliberate campaign of murdering Polish civilians.[87] OUN troops targeted Polish villages, leading to the formation of Polish self-defence units (ex. Przebraże Defence) and fights between Armia Krajowa and OUN.[87] The Germans encouraged both sides against each other. Erich Koch once said: "We have to do everything possible so that a Pole, while meeting a Ukrainian, would be willing to kill him and conversely, a Ukrainian would be willing to kill a Pole"; a German commissioner from Sarny, when local Poles complained about massacres, answered: "You want Sikorski, the Ukrainians want Bandera. Fight each other."[88] In massacres of Poles in Volhynia in spring and summer 1943 at least 40,000 Poles were killed; the death toll would rise in the following year although by that time Polish resistance would stiffen.[87]
The Polish government in exile in London were taken by surprise; it had not expected a Ukrainian anti-Polish action of such magnitude.[87] There is no evidence that the Polish government in exile contemplated a general policy of revenge against the Ukrainians but local Poles, including commanders of AK units, would engage in various retaliations.[87] Polish partisans attacked OUN, assassinated prominent Ukrainians and carried out operations against Ukrainian villages.[87] According to Ukrainian estimates, the AK may have killed in retaliation as many as 20,000 Ukrainians in Volhynia.[89] By winter 1943 and spring 1944 AK was preparing for Operation Tempest; one of the goals of the operation was to reinforce Polish position in Volhynia. Most notably, in January 1944 the 27th Infantry Division of Armia Krajowa, numbering 7,000, was formed, and tasked with defense of Polish civilians, engaging OUN and the German troops.[87] By mid-1944 the region was occupied by the Soviet Red Army; Polish partisans were disbanded or went underground, as did most of the Ukrainians; both would however increasingly concentrate on Soviets as their primary enemy – and both would ultimately be unsuccessful.[87]
a ^ Several sources note that Armia Krajowa was the largest resistance movement in Nazi-occupied Europe. For example, Norman Davies wrote "Armia Krajowa (Home Army), the AK, which could fairly claim to be the largest of European resistance";[90] Gregor Dallas wrote "Home Army (Armia Krajowa or AK) in late 1943 numbered around 400,000, making it the largest resistance organization in Europe";[91] Mark Wyman wrote "Armia Krajowa was considered the largest underground resistance unit in wartime Europe."[92] The numbers of Soviet partisans were very similar to that of the Polish resistance.[93]
See also[edit]
- Polish resistance movement in World War II
- Polish contribution to World War II
- Szare Szeregi
- Western betrayal
- Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Marek Ney-Krwawicz, The Polish Underground State and The Home Army (1939–45). Translated from Polish by Antoni Bohdanowicz. Article on the pages of the London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j (Polish) Armia Krajowa. Encyklopedia PWN. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
- ^ a b Tomasz Strzembosz, Początki ruchy oporu w Polsce. Kilka uwag. In Krzysztof Komorowski (ed.), Rozwój organizacyjny Armii Krajowej, Bellona, 1996, ISBN 83-11-08544-7
- ^ a b c d e f g Eastern Europe in World War II: October 1939 – May 1945. Lecture notes of prof Anna M. Cienciala. Retrieved 21 December 2006.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t (Polish) Armia Krajowa. Encyklopedia WIEM. Retrieved 2 April 2008.
- ^ a b c d Roy Francis Leslie, The History of Poland Since 1863, Cambridge University Press, 1983, ISBN 0-521-27501-6, Google Print, p.235-236
- ^ Andrew A. Michta (1990). Red Eagle: The Army in Polish Politics, 1944–1988. Hoover Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-8179-8861-6.
- ^ Kwan Yuk Pan, "Polish veterans to take pride of place in victory parade", Financial Times, 5 July 2005. Retrieved 31 March 2006.
- ^ Andrzej Suchcitz, The Home Army Intelligence Service. Translated from Polish by Antoni Bohdanowicz. Article on the pages of the London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
- ^ a b (Polish) Detailed biography of Witold Pilecki on Whatfor. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ Ordway, Frederick I., III. "The Rocket Team." Apogee Books Space Series 36 (pgs 158, 173)
- ^ McGovern, James. "Crossbow and Overcast." W. Morrow: New York, 1964. (pg 71)
- ^ a b (Polish) "Burza". Encyklopedia PWN. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
- ^ Marjorie Castle, Ray Taras, Democracy in Poland, Westview Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8133-3935-9, Google Print, p.27
- ^ a b c Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study, Transaction Publishers, 1998, ISBN 0-7658-0406-9, Google Print, p.202-203
- ^ a b c R. J. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century, Routledge, 1994, ISBN 0-415-05346-3, Google Print, p.198
- ^ Based on Campaigns of Polish Armed Forces 1940–1945 Map (p.204) from Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, Poland: A Historical Atlas, Hippocrene Books, 1987, ISBN 0-88029-394-2.
- ^ a b Bohdan Kwiatkowski, Sabotaż i dywersja, Bellona, London 1949, vol.1, p.21; as cited by Marek Ney-Krwawicz, The Polish Underground State and The Home Army (1939–45). Translated from Polish by Antoni Bohdanowicz. Article on the pages of the London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Rzeczpospolita, 02.10.04 Nr 232, Wielkie polowanie: Prześladowania akowców w Polsce Ludowej (Great hunt: the persecutions of AK soldiers in the People's Republic of Poland). Retrieved 7 June 2006.
- ^ (English) Stefan Korboński (1959). Warsaw in Chains. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 112–123.
- ^ a b Andrzej Paczkowski. Poland, the "Enemy Nation," pp. 372–375, in Black Book of Communism. Crimes, Terror, Repression. Harvard University Press, London. See online excerpt.
- ^ Michał Zając, Warsaw Uprising: 5 pm, 1 August 1944, Retrieved on 4 July 2007.
- ^ Żołnierze Batalionu Armii Krajowej "Zośka" represjonowani w latach 1944–1956," Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, Warszawa 2008, ISBN 978-83-60464-92-2
- ^ "Państwo Podziemne było fenomenem na skalę światową – Polska – Newsweek.pl". Polska.newsweek.pl. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
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- ^ http://www.muzeum-ak.krakow.pl/index.php
- ^ "Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego". 1944.pl. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
- ^ "Forgotten Holocaust. The Poles under German Occupation 1939–1944" Richard C. Lukas Hippocrene Books New York 1997, ISBN 0-7818-0901-0
- ^ a b c d e Roy Francis Leslie, The History of Poland Since 1863, Cambridge University Press, 1983, ISBN 0-521-27501-6, Google Print, p.234
- ^ a b c d Polish contribution to the Allied victory in World War 2 (1939–1945). Publications of Embassy of the Republic of Poland in Canada. Retrieved 21 December 2006.
- ^ Stanisław Salmonowicz, Polskie Państwo Podziemne, Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, Warszawa, 1994, ISBN 83-02-05500-X
- ^ Stanisław Salmonowicz citing Roman Korab-Żebryk, Polskie Państwo Podziemne, Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, Warszawa, 1994, ISBN 83-02-05500-X
- ^ a b Roy Francis Leslie, The History of Poland Since 1863, Cambridge University Press, 1983, ISBN 0-521-27501-6, Google Print, p.234-235
- ^ (Polish) Armia Ludowa. Encyklopedia PWN. Retrieved 21 December 2006.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Rafal E. Stolarski, The Production of Arms and Explosive Materials by the Polish Home Army in the Years 1939–1945.Translated from Polish by Antoni Bohdanowicz. Article on the pages of the London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
- ^ a b Stefan Korboński, The Polish Underground State, Columbia University Press, 1978, ISBN 0-914710-32-X
- ^ a b c d e (Polish) Uzbrojenie i zaopatrzenie w broń Związku Walki Zbrojnej – Armii Krajowej. Last retrieved on 16 March 2008
- ^ Michael Alfred Peszke, The Polish Underground Army, the Western Allies, and the Failure of Strategic Unity in World War , McFarland, 2004, ISBN 0-7864-2009-X, Google Print, p.183
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Tadeusz Piotrowski, Poland's Holocaust, McFarland & Company, 1997, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3. Google Print, p.88, p.89, p.90
- ^ Wilhelm Heitmeyer; John Hagan (19 December 2005). International Handbook of Violence Research. Springer. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-4020-3980-5.
- ^ Marrus, Michael Robert (1989). The "Final Solution" Outside Germany v.1. Meckler. p. 27. ISBN 0-88736-257-5. "Generally speaking, the attitude of the Home Army was antisemitic; no Jews known as such could join its ranks, and when the leaders of the Home Army were asked to help the Jewish Fighting Organization in Warsaw, the amount of help extended was ridiculously and tragically small"
- ^ a b Shmuel Krakowski. The Attitude of the Polish Underground to the Jewish Question during the Second World War. In: Joshua D. Zimmerman, ed. Contested Memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its Aftermath. Rutgers University Press, 2003. Pages 102.
- ^ Willie Glaser (5 February 2000). "Letter to Polish Home Army (AK) Association" (WebCite). Jewish Military Casualties in The Polish Armies in World War II. Retrieved 24 May 2013.
- ^ Polin. Basil Blackwell for the Institute for Polish-Jewish Studies. 1986. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-631-15343-6.
- ^ "Powstańcze Biogramy – Stanisław Witold Aronson". 1944.pl. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
- ^ "Powstańcze Biogramy – Alicja Gołod-Gołębiowska". 1944.pl. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
- ^ "Powstańcze Biogramy – Leon Kopelman". 1944.pl. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
- ^ a b c d Stefan Korboński (1989). The Jews and the Poles in World War II. Hippocrene Books. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-87052-591-9.
- ^ Jewish Responses to Persecution: 1938–1940. Rowman & Littlefield. 2011. p. 478. ISBN 978-0-7591-2039-6.
- ^ a b c Joshua D. Zimmerman (January 2009). Murray Baumgarten; Peter Kenez; Bruce Allan Thompson, eds. Varieties of Antisemitism: History, Ideology, Discourse. University of Delaware Press. pp. 110–114. ISBN 978-0-87413-039-3.
- ^ Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 5 March 2008.
- ^ a b c Andrzej Sławiński, Those who helped Polish Jews during WWII. Translated from Polish by Antoni Bohdanowicz. Article on the pages of the London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
- ^ John Wolffe; Open University (2004). Religion in History: Conflict, Conversion and Coexistence. Manchester University Press. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-7190-7107-2.
- ^ Yad Vashem Shoa Resource Center, Zegota, page 4/34 of the Report.
- ^ Robert Cherry; Annamaria Orla-Bukowska (7 June 2007). Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 119–120. ISBN 978-1-4616-4308-1.
- ^ -"The Stroop report," Pantheon 1986 ISBN 0-394-73817-9
- ^ "The Stroop Report – The Jewish Quarter of Warsaw is No More," Secker & Warburg 1980
- ^ Mayevski, Florian (2003). Fire Without Smoke: Memoirs of a Polish Partisan. page 3: Mitchell Vallentine & Company. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-85303-461-2.
- ^ a b Joshua D. Zimmerman (January 2009). Murray Baumgarten; Peter Kenez; Bruce Allan Thompson, eds. Varieties of Antisemitism: History, Ideology, Discourse. University of Delaware Press. pp. 121–122. ISBN 978-0-87413-039-3.
- ^ a b c (English) David Wdowiński (1963). And we are not saved. New York: Philosophical Library. p. 222. ISBN 0-8022-2486-5. Note: Chariton and Lazar were never co-authors of Wdowiński's memoir. Wdowiński is considered the "single author."
- ^ Richard Conrad Lukas (28 August 2012). The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation 1939–1944. Hippocrene Books, Incorporated. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-7818-1302-0.
- ^ Addendum 2 – Facts about Polish Resistance and Aid to Ghetto Fighters, Roman Barczynski, Americans of Polish Descent, Inc. Retrieved 13 June 2006.
- ^ Eliach, Yaffa (2009) [1996]. "The Pogrom at Eishyshok". New York Times. Retrieved 27 September 2009.
- ^ Ulrich Herbert (2000). National Socialist Extermination Policies: Contemporary German Perspectives and Controversies. Berghahn Books. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-57181-751-8.
- ^ Gunnar S. Paulsson (2002). Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw, 1940–1945. Yale University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-300-09546-3.
- ^ Gunnar S. Paulsson (2002). Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw, 1940–1945. Yale University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-300-09546-3.]
- ^ Kohn, Moshe M. (1972). Jewish Resistance During the Holocaust: Proceedings of the Conference on Manifestations of Jewish Resistance, Jerusalem, April 7–11, 1968 (2nd ed.). Yad Vashem. p. 325. "As for the strong force, the Armia Krajowa (AK), which was by far the largest part of the Polish Underground – it was almost entirely anti-Semitic."
- ^ Felicja Karay (1996). Death Comes in Yellow. Taylor & Francis. p. 242. ISBN 978-3-7186-5741-4.
- ^ Krakowski, Shmuel (1973). "Policy of the Third Reich in Conquered Poland". In v.9. Yad Vashem Studies on the European Jewish Catastrophe and Resistance. Yad Vashem. "From not a few Polish sources it is possible to learn quite easily that racialist, anti-Semitic tendencies were widespread in a large part of the AK"
- ^ Pell, Joseph; Rosenbaum, Fred (2004). Taking Risks: A Jewish Youth in the Soviet Partisans and His Unlikely Life in California. Western Jewish History Center, RDR Books. p. 100. ISBN 1-57143-116-0. "We Jews had mixed feelings about this mission because the Home Army was anti-Semitic. It had rejected many Jewish men and women who were qualified to enter its ranks"
- ^ Leonid Smilovitsky. "Jews and Poles Among Belorussian Partisans". JewishGen, Inc. Retrieved 15 July 2009. "Anti-Semitism was widespread among the fighters of Armia Krajowa and of the grouping National Armed Forces (Narodowy Sily Zbrojne – NSZ). Jews were regarded as a "pro-Soviet element" – they were persecuted and killed."
- ^ a b Review by John Radzilowski of Yaffa Eliach's There Once Was a World: A 900-Year Chronicle of the Shtetl of Eishyshok, Journal of Genocide Research, vol. 1, no. 2 (June 1999), City University of New York.
- ^ Robert D. Cherry; Annamaria Orla-Bukowska (1 January 2007). Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-7425-4666-0.
- ^ (Lithuanian) Arūnas Bubnys. Lietuvių ir lenkų pasipriešinimo judėjimai 1942–1945 m.: sąsajos ir skirtumai (Lithuanian and Polish resistance movements 1942–1945), 30 January 2004
- ^ Petersen, Roger (2002). Understanding Ethnic Violence: Fear, Hatred, and Resentment in Twentieth-century Eastern Europe. Cambridge University. p. 152. ISBN 0-521-00774-7.
- ^ Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1998). Poland's Holocaust. McFarland & Company. p. 163. ISBN 0-7864-0371-3.
- ^ a b Snyder, Timothy (2003). The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999. Yale University Press. p. 84. ISBN 0-300-10586-X.
- ^ a b Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1998). Poland's Holocaust. McFarland & Company. pp. 168, 169. ISBN 0-7864-0371-3.
- ^ a b (Polish) Piskunowicz, Henryk (1996). "Armia Krajowa na Wileńszczyżnie". In Krzysztof Komorowski. Armia Krajowa: Rozwój organizacyjny. Wydawnictwo Bellona. pp. 213–214. ISBN 83-11-08544-7.
- ^ (English) Tadeusz Piotrowski (1997). Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide.... McFarland & Company. pp. 165–166. ISBN 0-7864-0371-3. Retrieved 15 March 2008. See also review
- ^ (Polish) Henryk Piskunowicz, Działalnośc zbrojna Armi Krajowej na Wileńszczyśnie w latach 1942–1944 in Zygmunt Boradyn; Andrzej Chmielarz; Henryk Piskunowicz (1997). Tomasz Strzembosz, ed. Armia Krajowa na Nowogródczyźnie i Wileńszczyźnie (1941–1945). Warsaw: Institute of Political Sciences, Polish Academy of Sciences. pp. 40–45. ISBN 83-907168-0-3.
- ^ (Polish) Gazeta Wyborcza, 2004-09-01, W Wilnie pojednają się dziś weterani litewskiej armii i polskiej AK (Today in Vilnius veterans of Lithuanian army and AK will forgive each other). Retrieved 7 June 2006.
- ^ Dovile, Budryte (30 September 2005). Taming Nationalism?. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-7546-4281-X. p.187
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- ^ a b Tadeusz Piotrowski, Poland's Holocaust, McFarland & Company, 1997, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3, Google Print, p.98-99
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- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Timothy Snyder, "To Resolve the Ukrainian Question Once and for All: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ukrainians in Poland, 1943–1947," Journal of Cold War Studies, Spring 1999 Vol. 1 Issue 2, pp. 86–120
- ^ Jurij Kiriczuk, Jak za Jaremy i Krzywonosa, Gazeta Wyborcza 23 April 2003. Retrieved 5 March 2008.
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- ^ Norman Davies (28 February 2005). God's Playground: 1795 to the present. Columbia University Press. p. 344. ISBN 978-0-231-12819-3. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
- ^ Gregor Dallas, 1945: The War That Never Ended, Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-300-10980-6, Google Print, p.79
- ^ Mark Wyman, DPs: Europe's Displaced Persons, 1945–1951, Cornell University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-8014-8542-8, Google Print, p.34
- ^ See for example: Leonid D. Grenkevich in The Soviet Partisan Movement, 1941–44: A Critical Historiographical Analysis, p.229 or Walter Laqueur in The Guerilla Reader: A Historical Anthology, (New York, Charles Scribiner, 1990, p.233
- Further reading
- Norman Davies, Rising '44, Macmillan, 2003.
- Richard Lukasz, Forgotten Holocaust, The Poles under German Occupation 1939–1944 New York, 1997.
- Marek Ney-Krwawicz, The Polish Home Army, 1939–1945, London, 2001.
- Roger Moorhouse, Killing Hitler, Jonathan Cape, 2006. ISBN 0-224-07121-1
- Michael Alfred Peszke, Polish Underground Army, the Western Allies, and the Failure of Strategic Unity in World War II, McFarland & Company, 2004, ISBN 0-7864-2009-X Google Print
- Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski.Secret Army. Macmillan Company, New York City 1951. ISBN 0-89839-082-6.
- Jonathan Walker, Poland Alone: Britain, SOE and the Collapse of the Polish Resistance, 1944, The History Press, 2008, ISBN 978-1-86227-474-7
External links[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Armia Krajowa.
- Armia Krajowa Museum in Krakow
- Polish resistance – AK – Site edited by the London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association
- Warsaw Uprising Museum
- (Polish) Archiwum Pomorskie Armii Krajowej
- (Polish) Armia Krajowa, whatfor infoportal
- (Polish) Armia Krajowa, information from the pages of Primary School 11 "of Armia Krajowa soldiers" in Nowy Targ
- (English) The Home Army After July 1944 Polish Underground Soldiers 1944–1963 – The Untold Story


text:
After taking a look at players who seemed to have turned into unforeseen princes in my last article, this week I'm focusing on players who've been mainly frogs this season when you expected them to be your fantasy team princes. You'll notice that there have been much more disappointments this season than there have been pleasant surprises.
Note: The values next to each player indicate the pace of production over 82 games based on the player's per-game production through November 10.
Patrice Bergeron – 47 points Not only does Bergeron have to deal with coming back following serious concussion repercussions last season he has to manage with linemates such as P.J Axelsson and Michael Ryder. Verdict: Frog as long as he plays with current linemates
Zdeno Chara – 23 points Chara hasn't scored fewer than 39 points in the past five seasons. He'll snap out of it sooner rather than later. Verdict: Prince
Eric Staal – 49 points Although he averages over a point-per-game over the last three season, Staal has the habit of being very streaky. When he's hot few players can put up the points like he can. Get him before he hits that hot stride. Verdict: Prince
Jonathan Toews – 6 goals It took Toews 13 games to score his first goal this season. It won't take 13 more for him to get his second one. Remember that he scored 24 goals in only 64 games last season. He's getting his shots on goal with 41 so it's only a matter of time before the puck starts finding the back of the net on a regular basis. Verdict: Prince
Erik Cole – 27 points I applauded the Oilers when they acquired Cole this past offseason and expected him to revert to the near 30-goal form he displayed in Carolina before last season. However, he hasn't clicked with any linemate yet in Edmonton despite lining up with Shawn Horcoff and Ales Hemsky to start the season. Verdict: Second half Prince
Dustin Penner – 22 points I am not a fan of Dustin Penner. I didn't believe his 29 goals in 2006-07 were for real and even his 23 goals last season were a pleasant surprise. While his production is bound to increase, I won't be surprised on the other hand if he fails to reach 20 goals this season. Verdict: Frog
Sam Gagner – 12 points It's been a very difficult season for the sophomore following a surprising 49-point season as a rookie. He got the opportunity to play on the top line next to Hemsky during the last couple of games, but there were no dividends so that experiment might not last very long. It could be a very difficult season for Gagner, but I'd expect him to bounce back in 2009-10. Verdict: Frog
Jay Bouwmeester – 18 points A notorious second-half player, Bouwmeester isn't surprising anyone with his slow start. As always acquire him after the Holidays. Verdict: First half frog, second half Prince
Sydney Crosby – 18 goals, Alexander Ovechkin – 21 goals Just to get those numbers up here…
Mike Ribeiro – 6 goals Ribeiro's 27 goals last season were an aberration considering he had never scored more than 20 goals and his once in a lifetime shooting percentage. While he could very well end up with 80 points, he won't reach 20 goals this season. Verdict: Frog for goals
Brendan Morrison – 10 points Morrison has been a perennial 50-point scorer averaging 58 points per 82 games since the start of his career. You'd have thought this kind of production would continue with Teemu Selanne at his side, but the two have struggled mightily. Of Selanne's nine goals, eight have come on the power play and Morrison isn't part of the top power play unit. My guess is that they'll soon have a hot streak and Morrison will be a hot pickup in most fantasy leagues. Verdict: Will become a Prince for a span
Andrei Kostitsyn – 33 points While both Kostitsyn brothers have struggled much more is expected of Andrei than Sergei. Linemates Alex Kovalev and Tomas Plekanec have been doing well lately so Andrei should follow suit soon enough. Verdict: Prince
Brian Gionta – 13 goals Nobody expects Gionta to ever score 48 goals again, heck, we don't even expect him to score 30 goals anymore. But we do expect at least 20 to 25 goals…or we did at least. I just don't trust Gionta and wouldn't have him on any of my fantasy teams. Verdict: Frog
Steve Stamkos – 23 points It's a tough career debut the top overall pick in this year's draft. Other than a 3-point game Stamkos has been a non factor this season. His playing time is irregular and he has no quality linemates so don't expect much from Stamkos all season. 2009-10 will be the first real indicator of his true NHL value. Verdict: Frog as a rookie
Antoine Vermette – 23 points Vermette's point production increased each season during his four NHL seasons, but it will be extremely difficult to continue that trend this year following such a slow start. He's currently lining up with Jason Spezza and Dany Heatley so the outlook is very bright for Vermette, but he must seize this opportunity and produce quickly. Verdict: Prince
Ed Jovanovski – 13 points Much has been written about Jovocop on the site lately. You know he'll get going soon enough. Verdict: Prince
Milan Michalek – 18 goals After scoring 26 and 24 goals the last two seasons, Michalek was expected to make a run for the 30-goal mark this year. However, with Patrick Marleau now playing wing on the top line, Michalek is stuck with Pavelski at center and he's simply not good enough to take Michalek to another level. Verdict: Frog
David Perron – 0 goals Sophomore Perron has yet to score a goal this season. While I didn't expect a huge jump in production from last year's 13 goals, a run for 20 goals was reasonable. It obviously won't happen this season, but keeper leaguers shouldn't despair, he still has a bright future. Verdict: Frog
Tobias Enstrom – 33 points There were several doubters when before the season when I wrote that Hainsey's arrival would hurt Enstrom's production. Not only did this occur, but Mathieu Schneider's arrival didn't help matters for Enstrom either. He's adjusted his numbers thanks to five points in three games recently, but it's no coincidence that his resurgence has occurred during Schneider's absence due to injury. When Schneider returns expect Enstrom's numbers to suffer again. Verdict: Frog
Radim Vrbata – 10 points Stupid is as stupid does, the Lightning was stupid for signing him and so were you if you drafted him. Verdict: Not even worthy of being a frog.
Ryan Malone – 18 points Stupid is as stupid does, the Lightning…hey didn't I just write this?
Nicklas Backstrom – 35 points Once Ovechkin gets going so will Backstrom. I was way wrong expecting him to top the 90-point mark, but I'd acquire him still expecting that kind of production sooner or later. Verdict: Prince
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LS: Bruce Cameron Column September 21, 2008
Enjoying reader mail
My favorite e-mail thus far this year was from a reader who wrote, "Dear Bruce, I was reading your column over breakfast today, and I laughed so hard beer came out my nose." I…
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Property ID: 2174
Address: Asomada de Los Ceres 2 Los Cristianos Arona Tenerife not aplicable 38650 Canary Islands
Phone: 922-794864
Situated in the beautiful foothills of Los Cristianos and about one mile from the beach, Los Claveles offers the perfect setting for a romantic getaway for two or a family vacation. The resort offers a heated swimming pool, overlooked by the poolside bar and restaurant, as well as a children's pool. Enjoy tennis, live entertainment, and the resort's close proximity to shopping, restaurants, and water sports. Los Cristianos is within walking distance, and Playa de las Americas is only a short ride away. For your convenience, the resort has a small supermarket on-site.
Los Claveles offers studios and one- or two-bedroom apartments – each beautifully appointed with modern amenities and comfortable furnishings. Depending upon the size, the apartments can accommodate between 4 and 6 people. Some units comprise two levels. All include a fully equipped kitchen, satellite television, and large, sunny patios with sun loungers.


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15 Feb 2008
mauricio zuniga says:Now with support for Google Base!
15 Mar 2008
fractalien says:I have made a series of additions and changes to the site. An Ebay based popular search to allow much friendlier alternatives. I have enabled an Ajax style bookmarking feature which will remember your items. I have also included new menus that hide and show based on your settings. You can also now pull almost all results into the same page via Ajax. In short... I'm always working on my little baby so stop by and take look!
21 Mar 2008
fractalien says:I have gone through and made major adjustments to the interface so that you can get 16 pictures with title and description wherever possible.
I fixed a bug in the Popular and Suggested Searches.
The menus now toggle to open and closed so you have a nice set of browsing options that are hidden most of the time, but are quite useful.
11 Jun 2008
prolific.coder says:Great work ! I am also trying to do a similar task for a client. I am trying to get yahoo, shopzilla and shopping.com.
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|Feature Story
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|By Will O'Bryan and Doug Rule
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|An Eye for It All
|Photographer and filmmaker Amanda Lucidon shares the stories of real couples and real discrimination
|By Will O'Bryan
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|From Covert to Commercial
|Images from decades past illustrate a homoerotic – and cultural – evolution
|By Doug Rule
|Feature Story
|Love's Lens
|Duo breaks new ground with photography guide for same-sex weddings
|By Will O'Bryan
|Memorial Set for Dan Massey
|Local pioneer of sexual freedom movement, 70, dies peacefully
|By Will O'Bryan
|D.C. Is Tops in Gallup's LGBT Tally
|District bests all 50 states for highest percentage of LGBT residents, while Maryland and Virginia sit below national average
|By John Riley
|Virginians Rally for Marriage
|Courthouses across the commonwealth forced to deny marriage licenses to same-sex couples during Valentine's Day protest
|By John Riley
|Science As Art
|Industry Gallery offers two installations that straddle the art/science divide
|By Doug Rule
|Die Hard Death Knell
|The latest offering of the action-packed franchise is an unworthy iteration
|By Chris Heller
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|Round House and Theater J do their parts, but the shortcomings in the stories themselves remain
|By Doug Rule
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|''Good People'' is a highly entertaining, very funny and all-around insightful drama, painted with exquisite cultural detail
|By Kate Wingfield
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|By Randy Shulman
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|By Doug Rule
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|Phase 1 of Dupont celebrates its one-year anniversary this weekend and offers a taste of what's to come in year two
|By Doug Rule
|Obey Your Thirst
|Marco Rubio's badly timed parch was just another distraction in the ongoing circus on Capitol Hill
|by Sean Bugg
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|Though ''black hearts'' go to the pope, Matt Moore and Chris Brown
|By Richard J. Rosendall
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|The DC Center rolls out its annual Oscar red carpet at Town
|By Doug Rule
|Many developers prefer iOS as their app platform, often leaving Android lying in state and Windows Phone in starvation mode
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Illustration by Christopher Cunetto
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text:
Seems like a good idea to record stats in real time.
Must go faster: Select college players will be electronically monitored in 2013
Three power college football conferences — the SEC, Pac-12 and Big 12 — will outfit players with monitoring devices during the 2013 season, and not for the usual court-mandated reasons! Electronic trackers will relay players' actions on the field as if they're dangerous and mysterious wild critters with inexplicable movements and consumptive habits to be studied. We're not really kidding; to hear Steve Shaw tell it to AL.com, at this point the experiment will be science for science's sake, which is always interesting:
"I think it really is more for tracking how fast a player is moving and the direction of his movements so you have an electronic signature of all of that … Then what you do with that, we have to figure that out. You could track speed before a collision and that sort of thing. To be honest, I'm not sure what all of the applications are. But it has potential benefit in player safety, so I think it's worth taking an initial step to see what the technology does."
While we're looking forward to the herd of Jurassic Park jokes this will unleash (they spared no expense!), our one regret is that this endeavor launches too late to enable a full study of the aerodynamic properties of Will Goggans' beard.


text:
Discussion Forums
- Topic List
- Most Recent Posts
- Sign In for more options
I have a rather large web app to deploy that was originally 3 websites with lots of random php scripts. In order to keep the current urls working, I'm going to end up with a lot of routes or a lot of apache rewrites. Which is faster? (I remember hearing at one point about a lot of entries in routes.rb slowing things down but that being fixed in the current edge rails, but can't seem to find any text about that)
routes.rb would be things like:
map.resouces :events map.connect 'event.php?id=:id', :controller => 'events', :action => 'show'
and so on.. and on..
Would all those map.connects do better in mod_rewrite even though the request is still going to hit the rails app?
Yeha I'd have to agree. I think I heard that routing in Rails was always the weakest performance link. I have legacy routes handled by nginx at it seems to work just dandy. And I feel comfortable in the fact that my app doesn't have to deal with the added traffic.
url rewriting (in apache in your case) is the better option IMHO. It would be much faster than the rails routes counterpart.
You definitely want to move legacy URLs into mod_rewrite. Two compelling reasons to do so.
(1) mod_rewrite has better URL mangling and filtering capabilities. You can make the final target use a different host name, port, or URL prefix. You could even get fancy and do some proxying or tunnelling if you had to.
(2) It keeps your Rails App clean. That means you can more easily redeploy the Rails App on other servers (IIS, Apache, Lighttpd, etc) or Ruby containers (Ruby, Jruby, IronRuby). If you put the legacy routes into routes.rb, you'll have a lot more to regression-test if you decide to switch servers or containers.
Thanks guys...
Sounds like outside of rails is the way to go. I shall take the advice and start cooking up some rewrite recipes..


text:
- Product Description
- Customer Reviews (2)
Product Description
- An exciting shield for Shoei helmets
- Coated in a high-vacuum chamber with metallic compound, the Spectra shield by Shoei gives a rainbow appearance while the coating improves eye protection by deflecting the sun's harmful rays
- 100% protection from harmful UV A & B rays
- Superb bright-light eye protection
- Space-age technology
- Impact resistant
- Great looking
- Shapes and sizes will vary upon make and model of helmet
Customer Reviews (2)
Average Customer Rating:
Write a review and share your thoughts with others.
Reviewer: I sneezed in my helmet (Los Angeles, CA) 9.10.2009
Not so Mirrored
I have the Mirrored Spectra for the Shoei. It helps a bit with the sun and not too bad for driving at night in well lit areas. That being said, I'm a little disappointed with the lack of mirroring on the visor. Most of the time during the day it's pretty easy to see right into it. In fact if you leave your gloves in your helmet hanging on the bike without a cover it is very easy to see them. My friend has an Arai with a mirrored visor and it's substantially better. Next time I'll probably go with Aria even if I make out with the helmet when I yawn.
Reviewer: Mike Breeding (denton, tx) 9.8.2009
Spectra Shield is Great!
I've had my spectra shield for about a year. I love it. Makes cruising in the texas sun a breeze!


text:
Kirsten Lang
2009-10: (Cross Country): Crossed the finish line in 10th place at the rainy MVC Cross Country Championships in a time of 19:14 to earn All-Valley honors and help the women's team to a second place finish ... ran a season-best time of 17:55 at the Illinois Intercollegiate Championships to finish in second ... ran a season-best 6K mark of 22:19 at the NCAA Pre-Nationals to place 113th ... placed 78th at the Midwest Regional, running the 6K course in 22:48. (Indoor): Ran a personal-best time of 10:13.07 in the 3000-meter run at the Iowa State Classic ... ran the 5000-meter run in 17:54.76, which was an indoor-career best, at the Meyo Invitational. (Outdoor): Finished the 1500-meter run at the Billy Hayes Invitational in 4:53.40 to finish in 13th place ... recorded two third-place finishes in the 3000-meter steeplechase ... finished fourth at the Redbird Spring Invitational in the 5000-meter run in a time of 18:11.21 ... ran a season-best time in the 3000-meter steeplechase at the MVC Championships in a time of 10:59.52 to finish in fifth place ... ran a season-best time of 18:03.35 in the 5,000-meter run at the MVC Outdoor Championships ... named a 2010 MVC Scholar-Athlete.
2008-09: (Cross Country): Competed in six races ... led the Redbirds in three races ... was the first to cross the finish line for the `Birds at the NCAA Midwest Regional Championship, earning a 62nd place finish and covering the 6K course in a personal-best time of 22:42 ... finished 24th at the State Farm Missouri Valley Conference Cross Country Championships with a time of 18:55.83 ... turned in a personal-best 18:25 at the Notre Dame Invitational, finishing 33rd in the 5K race ... finished eighth and was ISU first runner to cross the finish line at the Illinois Intercollegiate Cross Country Championships in 18:43. (Indoor): Turned in a career-best 9:58.13 for a 3,000-meter run at the Rod McCravy Memorial to finish fourth ... held the team's season-best 3,000-meter run performance ... turned in a seventh-place finish at the State Farm MVC Championships in the 5,000-meter run ... ran a career-best 5K with a time of 17:32.99 to finish 23rd at the Iowa State Classic ... was runner-up in the mile at the Redbird Invitational with a time of 5:08.83. (Outdoor): Collected her first NCAA regional-qualifying performance in the 3,000-meter steeplechase with a time of 10:45.19 at the Valley Championships ... finished fifth in the event with her career-best performance ... finished sixth in the 5,000 at the Pacesetter Invitational with a time of 17:54.40.
2007-08: (Cross Country): Competed in four races ... placed 22nd in her first-collegiate race at the Illini Challenge, running the 4K course in 15:44 ... recorded her best 5K finish at the Illinois Intercollegiate Championship with a time of 18:58.51 (27th) ... finished 53rd at the Bradley Classic with her best 6K finish of 22:45. (Indoor): Placed second in the 800-meter run with a time of 2:34.10 at the Redbird Invite ... recorded a season-best performance in the mile at the Carle/Health Alliance Classic, crossing the finish line in 5:15.67 to place fourth ... ran a season-best in the 3,000-meter run with a time of 10:55.76 (25th place) at the State Farm Missouri Valley Conference Indoor Championships. (Outdoor): Finished seventh with a season-best time of 11:03.00 in the 3,000-meter steeplechase at the Valley Championships ... recorded a season-best time in the 1,500-meter run with a time of 4:54.44 at the SIU Spring Classic ... posted a time of 2:27.06 in the 800 at the Vanderbilt Invitational to finish 41st.
At St. Charles East HS: Named team captain senior year ... injured with a stress fracture most of her senior season ... placed 45th at the IHSA State Cross Country meet junior year ... named to the all-conference team freshman through junior seasons ... also named to the all-academic conference team all four years ... member of the cross country and track and field teams all four years.
Personal: Born 10/13/88 ... daughter of Harlod and Fay Lang ... has one brother, Kevin ... major is middle level-education.


text:
tv listings
7:30 a.m. Soccer: English Premier League: Manchester City at Newcastle.--ESPN2
9 a.m. Talk: Sports Highlights (d.; on Cox cable channel 47 and Verizon FiOs 17 in Newport News. Episode 220).--NNPS
9:30 a.m. College highlights: Maryland basketball.--CSN
9:30 a.m. Golf: Royal Trophy second round (d. in Negara, Brunei).--Golf
10 a.m. Soccer: English Premier League: Sunderland vs. Manchester United.--Fox Soccer Ch.
10:30 a.m. College highlights: Virginia Tech, then Notre Dame basketball at 11.--CSN
10:30 a.m. Basketball: Jan. 1998: Denbigh girls vs. Phoebus.--LSC 48
Noon Basketball: East Carolina at North Carolina.--ESPNU
Noon Soccer: English Premier League: Everton vs. Stoke City (d.).--Fox Soccer Ch.
Noon Basketball: Jan. 1998: Menchville boys vs. Hampton.-- LSC 48
Noon Basketball: Western Carolina at Georgetown.--MASN
1 p.m. Talk/highlights: (Carolina) Panthers Huddle.--WVEC 13
1 p.m. Football: New Mexico Bowl: Nevada vs. Arizona.--ESPN
1 p.m. Football: NCAA Division II final: Valdosta State vs. Winston-Salem State(in Florence, Ala.).--ESPN2
2 p.m. Basketball: Indiana vs. Butler (Crossroads Classic in Indianapolis).-- CBS: WTKR 3, WTVR 6
2 p.m. Action sports: Dew Tour: iON Mountain Championships (d. in Breckenridge, Colo.).--
2 p.m. Basketball: Cincinnati at Marshall.--CBS Sports Net.


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- COE Home
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EDI 636 GTC - Instruction in Middle and High Schools
Credits: 3
Multiple instructional strategies appropriate for teaching and assessing middle and high school curriculum; methods for addressing individual differences, incorporating students' ideas, developing thinking and problem solving skills, facilitating groups, promoting student responsibility and planning lessons, units, interdisciplinary activities, and experiences that foster achievement of the curriculum. Three credits. Offered at least once a year.
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text:
A San Antonio Rampage hockey player is accused of breaking into a family's home after a night of heavy drinking.
Scott Timmins was arrested early Monday morning at a home in the 100 block of Ridgecrest.
The homeowner told KSAT 12 News that he called police after his wife woke up to find Timmins sitting on their couch around 3 a.m. Timmins apparently broke in through a back door.
Timmins was reportedly extremely intoxicated and thought he was in his own home.
He was arrested for criminal trespassing.
For a list of recent stories Tim Gerber has done, click here.


text:
The Program provides students with three options:
Course Descriptions
All courses are three (3) credits unless noted otherwise.
ENGL 2080 Business & Administrative Writing
For all students and especially business and science majors. Focus is on developing writing, reading, and thinking skills through class discussion, analysis of business and administrative texts, and creating documents such as proposals, reports, letters and memos, and presentations. Prer., ENGL 1310 or equivalent.
ENGL 2090 Technical Writing & Presentation
Familiarizes students with the field of technical writing and teaches them to compose technical information effectively. Taught in a networked classroom with access to software tools for the design of written and visual texts. Prer., ENGL 1310 or ENGL 1410.
ENGL 3080 Advanced Business & Technical Writing
Writing workshop where students work on advanced business and administrative writing projects. Focus is on rhetorical strategies, document design principles, developing an understanding of ethics,and evaluating and synthesizing a variety of texts into students' own research and writing. Prer., ENGL 2080 or ENGL 2090.
ENGL 3110 Advanced Grammar
Provides a theoretical, historical, and practical study of grammar and the rules governing language use, particularly as they apply to professional writing.The emphasis is on the standard conventions of grammar, usage, mechanics, and syntax. Students will practice a variety of techniques for applying these skills to their own writing. Prer., ENGL 1310.
ENGL 3120 Technical Editing and Styles
Focuses on editing strategies for improving the stylistic features of professional writing. In particular, it is concerned with a document's organization, clarity, conciseness, consistency, completeness, and accuracy. Students will practice a variety of techniques for applying these skills to their own writing. Prer., ENGL 1310 and ENGL 3110.
ENGL 3130 Designing Documents for Business & Industry
Examines print and web-based design strategies in specific types of documents for a variety of professional audiences. Each project requires a proposal, a progress report, and a preliminary draft for peer review before submission of the final copy. Prer., ENGL 2080 or ENGL 2090.
ENGL 3140 Managing Writing Projects in Business & Industry
Provides a theoretical framework for managing writing projects and practice in working collaboratively in self-managed teams. Each team completes major writing projects collaboratively produced. Prer., ENGL 2080 or ENGL 2090.
ENGL 3150 Professional Writing Internship
Gives students an opportunity to apply writing theory to a work environment and to gain practical experience in writing on the job. Working for an organization participating in the Internship Program, students perform 40 hours of writing-related duties over the course of the semester for 1 credit, 80 hours for 2 credits, and 120 hours for 3 credits. Interns are evaluated by a supervisor at the host organization, keep a weekly log of their experiences, and write a final report to the instructor, summarizing and evaluating their internship experience. Prer., ENGL 3120.
ENGL 3160 Tools for Technical Writers
Students will learn to use the standard software tools critical to technical writers in print and online documentation, for example, Framemaker, Adobe Acrobat, MS Word, MS Powerpoint, Frontpage, and Paintshop Pro among others. Prer., ENGL 2080 or ENGL 2090.
ENGL 3750 Grant & Proposal Writing
Introduces students to the rhetorical process of grant and proposal writing: identifying a problem, generating ideas to solve the problem, finding potential sponsors, analyzing requests for proposals, and planning, developing, and submitting the grant proposal. Prer., ENGL 2080 or ENGL 2090.
ENGL 3850 Advanced Topics in Professional Writing
In this course, students intensively study selected topics in professional writing. Topics and instructors vary from semester to semester. Prer., ENGL 2080 or ENGL 2090
ENGL 4080 Special Topics in Professional and Technical Writing
Advanced, in-depth study of the theoretical and practical aspects shaping the discipline of professional and technical writing, including the diverse historical and cultural contributions and accomplishments of theorists, and practitioners. Theorists, practitioners, and historical contexts shift with topics. Prer., ENGL 3080 or equivalent courses. Meets with ENGL 5870.
ENGL 4800 Peer Tutoring
Study of writing center theory and practice in the tutoring of writing. Students will participate in two hours of supervised tutoring in the Excel Writing Center, weekly. Required for employment as writing center tutors. All majors and master's candidates encouraged to enroll. Prer., ENGL 1310 and ENGL 1410. Meets with ENGL 5800.
ENGL 4810 Special Topics in the Teaching of Writing
In-depth inquiry into theoretical topics in the teaching of writing in the public schools, with practical applications via the production of a theory-into-practice portfolio suitable to the topic. Topics vary. Prer., ENGL 3010. Meets with ENGL 5810.
ENGL 4820 Classical Rhetoric
Introduces the theories, practices, and cultural power of rhetoric in ancient Greece and Rome. Also includes the debates surrounding the relevance of classical rhetoric to the teaching of writing today. Prer., ENGL 3010, ENGL 3110, and senior standing, or instructor permission. Meets with ENGL 5820.
ENGL 4830 Rhetoric and Writing: Survey in Contemporary Approaches to Teaching Writing
Theoretical and practical study of writing processes across diverse contexts. Explores the rhetorical nature of writing, and applies rhetorical theory and research to the teaching and practice of writing. See the Schedule of Courses for the topic in any given semester. Prer., Upper-division standing or permission of instructor, and ENGL 1310 and ENGL 1410 or course equivalents. Meets with ENGL 5830.
ENGL 4860 Diversity Topics in Rhetoric/Writing
Advanced, in-depth study of the theoretical and practical accomplishments of writers and rhetors across diverse historical contexts. Rhetors, theorists, and historical contexts shift with topics. Prer., ENGL 1310 and ENGL 1410 or equivalent courses. Meets with ENGL 5860.