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Cahier technique no. 194
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1 Collectio Techique... Cahier techique o. 194 Curret trasformers: how to specify them P. Foti
2 "Cahiers Techiques" is a collectio of documets iteded for egieers ad techicias, people i the idustry who are lookig for more i-depth iformatio i order to complemet that give i product catalogues. Furthermore, these "Cahiers Techiques" are ofte cosidered as helpful "tools" for traiig courses. They provide kowledge o ew techical ad techological developmets i the electrotechical field ad electroics. They also provide better uderstadig of various pheomea observed i electrical istallatios, systems ad equipmets. Each "Cahier Techique" provides a i-depth study of a precise subject i the fields of electrical etworks, protectio devices, moitorig ad cotrol ad idustrial automatio systems. The latest publicatios ca be dowloaded from the Scheider Electric iteret web site. Code: Sectio: Experts' place Please cotact your Scheider Electric represetative if you wat either a "Cahier Techique" or the list of available titles. The "Cahiers Techiques" collectio is part of the Scheider Electric s "Collectio techique". Foreword The author disclaims all resposibility subsequet to icorrect use of iformatio or diagrams reproduced i this documet, ad caot be held resposible for ay errors or oversights, or for the cosequeces of usig iformatio ad diagrams cotaied i this documet. Reproductio of all or part of a "Cahier Techique" is authorised with the prior coset of the Scietific ad Techical Divisio. The statemet "Extracted from Scheider Electric "Cahier Techique" o...." (please specify) is compulsory.
3 o. 194 Curret trasformers: how to specify them Paola FONTI INPG egieer (Istitut Natioal Polytechique de Greoble). Graduate i Joied Merli Geri i 1981 as cosultat ad head of the Medium Voltage Export egieerig ad desig departmet. She is curretly resposible for the MV project completio ad teder support group for Scheider Electric. ECT 194 first issue, February 2000 Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.1
4 Lexico I f : maximum through curret crossig a protected area. I s : curret threshold settig. k : omial accuracy limit factor (ALF) of a CT (associated with its accuracy load). k r : real ALF of a CT associated with its real load. P i : (=R ct I 2 ). Iteral losses of the CT at I. P : (=R I 2 ). Accuracy power of the CT. P r : (=R r I 2 ). Real load cosumptio of the CT at I. R L : wirig resistace. R p : protectio relay resistace. ALF: accuracy limit factor. CT: curret trasformer. Overratig of a CT: selectio of a CT whose primary I is greater tha the I immediately greater tha the load I. Matchig, auxiliary or iterposig CT: low voltage CTs istalled at the secodary of the mai CTs for correctig a ratio ad/or the curret phase shift. SF: security factor. Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.2
5 Curret trasformers: how to specify them Electrical power maagemet requires implemetatio of data processig uits able to moitor etworks or equipmet ad, as applicable, to iitiate the appropriate actios... Data set by curret trasformers are processed by protectio, cotrol ad moitorig uits that sed sigals to operate switchgear ad/or iformatio to a supervisory uit or to a cetral cotrol room. The task, cosistig of idetifyig ad ratig the curret trasformers ad associatig them with the protectio ad/or meterig uits, has always give rise to problems, both for electrical egieers (oversizig the characteristics) ad for the maufacturer (radom feasibility, excessive sizig, high costs). This documet does ot cover the techical demostratios amply referred to i the literature (see Cahiers Techiques o. 164 ad 170). Its purpose is to remid users of a few simple rules eablig the best possible defiitio of the secodary characteristics of a curret trasformer (CT) accordig to the protectios ad applicatios cocered. Practically, it offers costructive assistace for techicias who have reached a dead ed: c either because they do ot possess the ecessary iformatio, c or because the results of their desig have led to curret trasformers that caot be maufactured by the potetial suppliers. Cotets 1 Itroductio p. 4 2 Network disturbaces ad protectios 2.1 Disturbaces p Protectios p. 7 3 Curret trasformers 3.1 Remider of ferromagetic trasformers p No-magetic trasformers p CT maufacturig ad implemetatio p Choosig CTs accordig to protectios 4.1 Choosig CT ALF accordig to protectios p. 15 ad applicatios 4.2 Characterisig CTs accordig to applicatios p Special case of differetial protectio p Distace protectios p CT specificatio examples 5.1 Motor feeder protectios p Trasformer feeder protectios p Trasformers differetial protectio p Differetial protectio for busbars (87B) p Coclusio p. 31 Bibliography p. 32 Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.3
6 1 Itroductio The desig of MV ad HV electrical etworks is a complex udertakig that must take ito accout the eeds to be satisfied, i.e.: c safety of people ad equipmet, c cotiuity of supply, c istallatio ad operatig costs. The desiger uses the load poits, their simultaeity coefficiet ad the above-metioed criteria to draw up the sigle-lie diagram for the istallatio (see fig. 1 ). He must the select the earthig system, defie the busways, calculate the fault currets, defie the protectio system (discrimiatio, choice of protectios, see Cahier Techique o. 174). Figure 2 shows a example of protectios chose for the stadby supply i figure 1. G 63 kv Staby supply 10 MVA 2 MVA 10 MVA 20 kv Bak Crushig 5 kv Processig Mills LV Shaft o.1, level 300 LV 5 kv Shaft o. 2, level 500 Fig. 1 : example of a geeral sigle-wire diagram for a mie. Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.4
7 Permaet isulatio moitor a 49 Thermal image 46 Negative sequece 87T Differetial 51V 32P Voltage restraied O/C Reverse active power 32Q Field loss (max. reactive power) 27 Udervoltage 59 Overvoltage 81 Over ad uder frequecy 59N Zero sequece voltage Fig. 2 : protectios of a MV uit module. The protectio pla must specify the operatig or o-operatig coditios for all the protectios durig a fault ad durig ormal operatio (trasiets). It must idicate the protectio settigs. However, the pla rarely idicates the characteristics of the protectio iput circuit ad other data ecessary to specify the curret trasformers (CT). This is because it is ofte very hard for the desiger to collect all the ecessary data. The cosequeces o idustrial start-up ca be serious: usuitability, overratig, o-stadard specificatios ad high costs, additio of matchig CTs, last miute CT chages, postpoemet of delivery, commissioig, productio times, etc. More serious still, icorrect defiitio ca lead to malfuctios i the protectio chael causig destructio of equipmet or, worse still, dager for the operator. A few examples: c Overestimatio of the short-circuit curret ca lead to feasibility problems, overratig ad high CT costs. c O the other had, uderestimatio of the short-circuit curret ca lead to failure to detect the fault, thus destroyig the equipmet, placig the operator i dager ad geeratig operatig dowtime. c A output power or accuracy error ca result i a malfuctio or i failure to trip of the protectio devices, thus destroyig the equipmet, placig the operator i dager ad geeratig operatig dowtime. c A error i defiig the accuracy class of a meterig widig will lead to icorrect eergy billig ad thus a loss of icome for the electrical utility or the customer. c Etc. Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.5
8 The aim of this documet is to provide assistace with defiig curret trasformers. Before eterig the heart of the subject, a remider is give of the iformatio ecessary to defie a CT (see the table i figure 3 ). Necessary iformatio Abbreviatios Uits Isulatio level U kv Nomial short-circuit curret I sc ka Duratio (1 to 3 secods) t s Nomial primary curret I p A Number of secodary widigs (1 to 3) For each secodary widig: c what type c associated protectio or meterig ad settig c output power P output VA (relay ad wirig cosumptio) c accuracy factor v protectio ALF v meterig SF c Nomial secodary curret (1 or 5 A) I s A Fig. 3 : iformatio ecessary to specify a CT with a sigle primary. Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.6
9 2 Network disturbaces ad protectios 2.1 Disturbaces A MV or HV electrical etwork is disturbed: c exceptioally by lightig overvoltages, by temperature rises further to overloads or followig violet short-circuits betwee phases or phase-to-earth, c more frequetly, ad more aturally, by switchig overvoltages (e.g. capacitor eergisatio) or atural trasiet coditios (e.g. motor startig or power trasformer switchig) resultig i high but temporary overcurrets. The cosequeces of disturbaces Major disturbaces, such as short-circuit currets, ca result i serious damage: c fatigue or deterioratio of etwork compoets, c dager for people, c loss of supply ad productio, etc. It is thus ecessary to provide the relevat protectio devices with the right iformatio to esure prompt actio, as the greater the damage, the loger ad more costly the repairs ad the heavier the losses. However, trasiet ad ormal disturbaces are a ecessary evil ad istallatios must be desiged to withstad them. Furthermore, the curret trasformer/protectio pair(s) must ot cause uisace trippig. Elimiatio of faults Permaet moitorig of etwork electrical values by reliable ad properly rated curret trasformers supplyig protectio relays allows rapid isolatio of the faulty area. These relays must igore trasiet ad ormal disturbaces but systematically trip whe a destructive fault has to be elimiated. 2.2 Protectios Défiitio of protectios c Fuctio of protectios The protectio fuctios of a etwork are iteded to moitor oe or more parameters of the istallatio, for example: currets, voltage, temperature, frequecy, etc. These values are permaetly measured ad compared with setpoits or thresholds beyod which the situatio is defied as abormal ad dagerous. Whe a fault occurs, the protectio device issues a trippig sigal. The, i order to durably isolate the faulty part, it prevets reclosig util the device has bee repaired. It ca also geerate a alarm to iform maiteace persoel ad eable them to take the ecessary actio. c The techologies With the particularly rapid growth of electroics techology, protectio relays, origially electromechaical, have become static devices: aalogue electroic the digital electroic thaks to microprocessors. These devices perform icreasigly sophisticated fuctios ad are more ad more ofte referred to as processig uits. Digital techology is becomig widespread for all applicatios (etwork compoets or protected loads). This techology has a ample data processig capacity, which allows cotrol ad moitorig liked to protectio fuctios ad commuicatio to a supervisory uit or a cetralised cotrol system. These uits are ormally supplied with a stadard protectio, cotrol ad idicatio programme, thus eablig them to be used without extra studies or programmig. Oly parameters have to be set o commissioig (e.g. the protectio settigs). They are desiged to fully meet applicatio eeds. All you have to do is select the versio correspodig to the fuctios available for each applicatio. Some examples of applicatios are: v trasformers, v geerators, v capacitors, v motors, v substatios, v etc. Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.7
10 These uits icorporate meters such as ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, kilowatt hour meters, etc. with fewer wirig ad compact space requiremets (see fig. 4 ). Furthermore, their reduced power requiremets (less demadig tha those of electromagetic relays), requirig less powerful CTs, make them more ecoomic. Whe combied with protectio fuctios ad cotrol logic, they also display alarm ad operatig messages. c The curret trasformers The CT characteristics are defied accordig to the techology selected for the processig uit ad the scheduled fuctios (protectio, meterig, cotrol ad moitorig, idicatio). c Implemetatio Choice of protectio settigs is very tricky. It calls for thorough kowledge of parameter levels accordig to whether the disturbace is ormal or trasiet or caused by a fault that must be elimiated. Furthermore, it is commo kowledge that a short-circuit at oe poit of the etwork may be detected right up to the source. The protectio co-ordiatio study esures that oly the faulty part of the etwork is deeergised. The protectios relatig to short-circuits either phase-to-phase or phase-to-earth use oe of the followig discrimiatio types, as applicable: v overcurret, v time, v logic, v differetial, v directioal, (see Cahiers Techiques o. 174 ad 113). Electromagetic techique Multifuctioal digital system Fig. 4 : simplificatio ad savigs provided by a multifuctioal digital system (protectio - automatio - meterig) compared with the former electromagetic techique. Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.8
11 3 Curret trasformers 3.1 Remiders of ferromagetic trasformers Istrumet ad protectio CTs Curret trasformers are used to supply iformatio to the protective relays ad/or curret, power ad eergy meterig istrumets. For this purpose they must supply a secodary curret proportioal to the primary curret flowig through them ad must be adapted to etwork characteristics: voltage, frequecy ad curret. They are defied by their ratio, power ad accuracy class. Their class (accuracy as a fuctio of CT load ad of overcurret) is chose accordig to the applicatio. c A protectio CT must saturate sufficietly high to allow a relatively accurate measuremet of the fault curret by the protectio whose operatig threshold ca be very high. Curret trasformers are thus expected to have a Accuracy Limit Factor (ALF) that is usually fairly high. Note that the associated relay must be able to withstad high overcurrets. c A istrumet CT requires good accuracy aroud the omial curret value. The meterig istrumets do ot eed to withstad currets as high as the protectio relays. This is why the istrumet CTs, ulike the protectio CTs, have the lowest possible Safety Factor (SF) i order to protect these istrumets through earlier saturatio. c Some CTs have secodary widigs dedicated to protectio ad meterig. These istrumet ad protectio CTs are govered by stadard IEC (i Frace NF C ). The matchig of CTs with protectio relays calls for a thorough kowledge of CTs. The followig sectio gives a few remiders of CTs correspodig to this use. Characterisatio of CTs c A example of a protectio CT: v rated primary curret: 200 A, v rated secodary curret: 5 A. 15 VA 5P 10 accuracy limit factor = 10 accuracy class = 5P accuracy power = 15 VA Its accuracy load: P = 15 VA Its accuracy limit factor is ALF = 10 For I = ALF. I, its accuracy is 5% (5P), (see fig. 5 ) To simplify, for the protectio CT give i example, the ratio error is less tha 5% at 10 I, if the real load cosumes 15 VA at I. However these data are ot sufficiet. Also, it is useful to kow the stadard values. CT serial umber with year of maufacture Network voltage characteristics Rated isulatio voltage: 17.5 kv Power frequecy withstad voltage: 38 kv 1 m 50Hz Impulse withstad voltage: 95 kv peak CT type Applicable CT stadard Network curret characteristic I th : 25 ka/1 s I dy : 62.5 ka peak trasformateur de courat - curret trasformer ,5/38/95 kv 50 Hz Ith 25 ka 1 s rapport bores ratio termials 150/5 1S1-1S2 150/5 2S1-2S2 RCF 2 / B type CEI orme stadard Idy 62,5 ka ext. % classe VA FS ou FLP 15 class 0, P Safety factor (SF) Accuracy limit factor (ALF) Ratio 1 primary circuit 1 secodary circuit 1S1-1S2 1 secodary circuit 2S1-2S2 Accuracy power Fig. 5 : example of the ameplate of a curret trasformer with two secodaries. Accuracy class Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.9
12 c A few defiitios v Rated (omial) primary curret I 1 Defied by stadards, it is chose from the discrete values: A ad their decimal multiples. v Rated (omial) secodary curret I 2 Equals 1 or 5 A. v Ratio (I 1 / I 2 ) The primary ad secodary currets are stadard, thus these values are discrete. v Accuracy load Load value o which the accuracy coditios are based. v Rated (omial) accuracy power P Expressed i VA, it is the apparet power supplied to the secodary circuit for the omial (rated) secodary curret ad the accuracy load. The stadard values are: VA. v Real power P r I this Cahier Techique, it is the power correspodig to the real load cosumptio of the CT at I. v Accuracy class This class defies the error limits guarateed o the ratio ad o the phase shift i specified power ad curret coditios. For the omial 5P ad 10P classes, the table i figure 6 defies these limits. v Special accuracy class Class X is a class defied by British stadard BS It must also be defied i the future stadard IEC uder the ame of class PX. This class specifies the miimum value of the kee poit voltage V k of the CT. It also imposes a maximum value of R ct (CT secodary widig resistace). Sometimes, it specifies the maximum value of the magetisig curret I o at kee poit voltage. If we cosider the magetisig curve V(I o ) of the CT, the kee poit voltage V k is defied as the poit o this curve from which a 10% icrease i voltage causes a 50% icrease i the magetisig curret I o. Class X correspods to a better meterig accuracy tha classes 5P ad eve more so 10P (see fig. 7 ). It is always possible to fid a equivalece betwee a CT defied i class X ad a 5P CT or i some cases eve a 10P CT (refer to Cahier Techique o. 195 which deals with equivaleces). v Real accuracy factor (F p or K r ) This is the ratio betwee the overcurret correspodig to the omial error ad the rated curret of the CT whe the real load is differet from the omial load. v Accuracy limit factor (ALF or K ) This is the ratio betwee the omial overcurret (e.g. 10 I ) ad the rated curret (I ). v Short time withstad curret Expressed i ka, this is the maximum curret I th that ca be withstood for oe secod (whe the secodary is short-circuited). It represets the 10P 5P X V S V S2 V S1 V k I S Fig. 7 : voltages correspodig to differet CT classes. I o Accuracy Curret error for Phase shift for the Composite error for the class the omial curret omial curret accuracy limit curret as as a % Miutes Cetiradias a % 5P ± 1 ± 60 ± P ± 3 10 Fig. 6 : errors o the module ad the phase at omial curret accordig to stadard IEC Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.10
13 thermal withstad of the CT to overcurrets (the stadard values are give by the stadards metioed i the appedix). v CT rated voltage This is the rated voltage to which the CT primary is subjected. It is importat to remember that the primary is at HV potetial ad that oe of the termials of the secodary (which must ever be opeed) is ormally earthed. Just as for ay devices, a maximum withstad voltage for oe miute at power frequecy ad a maximum impulse voltage withstad are also defied. Their values are defied by the stadards. For example: for a rated voltage of 24 kv, the CT must withstad 50 kv for 1 miute at 50 Hz ad 125 kv at the impulse voltage. c CT with several secodaries Some CTs may have several secodaries dedicated to protectio or to meterig. The most typical cases are CTs with 2 secodaries, more rarely with 3 secodaries. Physically, these CTs group i the same mould the equivalet of 2 or 3 separate CTs that ca have differet classes ad ratios (see fig. 8 ). Ifluece of the load o the accuracy limit factor Remember that the equivalet simplified diagram of the magetic curret trasformer is show i figure 9. I 1 I o Fig. 9 : CT equivalet diagram. I S R ct I 2 Applied to this diagram, Ohm s law lets us write: V = I 2 (R ct + R), where: R ct : CT secodary widig resistace R: load resistace icludig wirig, v if I 2 = k I ad R = R = P / I 2, V = k I (R ct + R ) (1) ( k = omial ALF) v if I 2 = k I ad R = R p = P r / I 2, V r = k I (R ct + R p ) O figure 10 we ca see that although R p is far smaller tha R, the CT saturatio kee poit is far from beig reached at the declared accuracy limit factor k. The real accuracy limit factor correspodig to the real load (protectio + wirig) ca be calculated. This is ALF r = k r for which the saturatio kee poit voltage V is reached: V = k r I (R ct + R p ) (2) If R p is less tha R, k r is greater tha k (ALF r > ALF) V R V (volts) I 1 V Operatig poit of the CT whe it is loaded at P ad supplied by a curret k I V r Operatig poit of the CT whe it is loaded at P r ad supplied by the same curret k I S 1 S 2 S 3 Fig. 8 : maufacturig priciple of a CT with 3 secodaries (with 3 widigs i the same mould). I or I o I o Fig. 10 : operatig poits of the CT accordig to its load. Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.11
14 By combiig the equatios (1) ad (2), we fid the followig formula: R + + kr = k ct R kr = R + R, or k P i P ct p Pi + Pr where: P i =R ct I 2 = iteral losses of the CT at I P =R I 2 = CT accuracy power P r =R p I 2 = real load cosumptio of the CT at I. It is obvious that proper operatio of a protectio relay is liked to the behaviour of the associated CT ad to its real load ad ot to the behaviour of the CT associated with a theoretical omial load. Real eeds eable us to determie the miimum accuracy power to be chose. Usig a CT with a load P r < P icreases the ALF. Likewise, the ALF icreases more if the R ct (iteral losses P i ) is low (see fig. 11 ). Calculatio of the real ALF (k r ) of a CT, associated with its real load, esures that the right CT is chose i all traditioal cases. Note: for very demadig protectios (e.g. differetial protectios), curret trasformers are most ofte defied i class X. This class is always defied accordig to the real load of the CT ad to its ow iteral losses. k r 80 P i = 2 VA P i = 5 VA P r Fig. 11 : behaviour of the accuracy limit factor k r = f(p r ) of two CTs of 10 VA-5P20 with differet iteral losses (R ct ) accordig to the real load coected to the secodary. Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.12
15 3.2 No-magetic trasformers The output sigal, delivered by the o-magetic trasformers (also kow as ROGOWSKI coils) is a voltage proportioal to the derivative of the primary curret. (Lez law: e= d φ dt ) They do ot saturate ad their respose is liear. Cosequetly, they ca be used over wide curret rages: the oly limitatio is the dyamics ad the liearity of the iput circuit of the associated protectio. The techology of the protectio, cotrol ad moitorig uits coected to these omagetic trasformers is of the digital microprocessor type. This techology is able to process sigals of very low amplitude. For a give o-magetic trasformer, i view of the liearity of the output sigal, the omial primary curret is replaced by a wide rage, for example 30 to 300 A. I additio to the advatage of liearity, the use of o-magetic CTs reduces: c risks of error whe choosig primary curret at the desig stage of the istallatio, c the umber of models to be maaged. It also miimises the delivery times. Today these trasformers are seldom used. A stadard (IEC ) should defie them. Scheider Electric has bee usig these trasformers (see fig. 12 ) i associatio with the Sepam protectio, cotrol, moitorig ad meterig uits sice To specify them, all you have to do is idicate: Primary widig 2 - Dielectric scree 3 - Dielectric isulatio 4 - Settig resistace Secodary widig 6 - Secodary widig support 7 - Magetic shieldig Fig. 12 : cross-sectio of a o-magetic trasformer used i MV. c the CT isulatio level, defied just as for a traditioal CT, c the rated thermal short-circuit curret (I th ) ad the dyamic curret (I dy ) set accordig to the same rules as for the CTs, c the utilisatio rage (rated primary curret ad the thermal curret) CT maufacturig ad implemetatio CTs are idustrial products desiged accordig to stadards. They are mass produced, thereby reducig costs ad guarateeig their characteristics. Their live part is duplicate moulded i order to comply with isulatio, temperature rise ad electrodyamic withstad requiremets. The umber of moulds correspodig to a stadard rage is ecessarily limited. Furthermore, the switchgear ad CTs are most ofte istalled i paels that have bee optimised, stadardised ad subjected to qualificatio tests. I this case, use of stadard moulds is compulsory as CTs perform other fuctios such as the bushigs betwee the cable ad the circuitbreaker compartmets (see fig. 13 overleaf). Cosequetly, ay modificatio i volume or shape of a CT results i major study, productio ad test ivestmets. Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.13
16 To solve special cases, without overcosts or additioal techical risks, it is therefore always advisable to look for solutios i order to fit the mould of stadard CTs. Pael structure is thus maitaied itact. These solutios are: c good ratig of electrical characteristics: for example avoid overratig i power ad ALF, c use of CTs with two or three widigs, c use of relays performig several protectio fuctios with the same curret iformatio. Fig. 13 : cross-sectioal view of the pael ad multifuctioal CT. Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.14
17 4 Choosig CTs accordig to protectios ad applicatios Thorough kowledge of CTs, their possibilities ad their limits is useful oly whe they are associated with a specific protectio relay whose characteristics ad scope of actio regardig the moitored curret rage are kow. The protectio relays istalled o a electrical etwork are defied i the protectio pla. This pla specifies the positio ad settig of the selected protectios. It also defies the positio of the CTs, their ratio ad, more rarely, their power, accuracy ad ALF. I poit of fact, complete specificatio of CTs also requires kowledge of: c the protectio iput impedace, c the wirig impedace, c the protectio operatig thresholds (ormally take ito accout i the protectio co-ordiatio study). Today, most protectios are of the digital techology kid ad are highly accurate. CT accuracy is thus a decisive factor. The type of protectio also affects the required CT accuracy: c a overcurret protectio oly takes the curret value ito accout, c a differetial protectio compares two currets, c a earth fault protectio treats the sum of the three phase currets. 4.1 Choosig CT ALF accordig to protectios Whe choosig a CT out of the stadard CTs, a remider is ecessary of the relatioship likig the omial ALF (liked to R ) ad the real ALF liked to the real load R p : k = k r Rct + Rp Rct + R + R or k = k R ct r Rct + Rp A CT ca supply several differet protectios either separate or grouped i a multi-protectio system (e.g. the Sepam). This leads us to examie the protectios determiig CT sizig. V 2V s V s Operatig poit at k r I Operatig poit at 2 I s max Operatig poit at I s max Defiite time overcurret protectio The threshold I s (protectio settig) ca be set, for example, from 2 to 10 I of the CT if the CT I is the applicatio I. To esure that the CT will ot affect the operatig accuracy of the protectio, it is ecessary to have o saturatio up to the settig poit. But it is usual to take a safety coefficiet of 2 (see fig. 14 ). Thus the ALF r (k r ) at real load will be: k r u 2 I Is if I s = 10 I k r u 20 Example: 200/5 CT - 10 VA-5P10, Load I : 160 A I s = 8 I of load Let us verify if the proposed CT is suitable: Fig. 14 : operatig poits of the CT at maximum threshold. Is of O/C I of CT = = the miimum recommeded ALF r (k r ) is thus: k r u 2 x 6.4 = If the CT load ad its iteral resistace are kow with, for example: R ct + R p = 1 2 (R ct + R ) we obtai: k r = k x 2 = 20 higher tha the miimum value required. Thus the CT is suitable. I m Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.15
18 Iverse time overcurret protectio If the aim is correct accuracy over the etire relay iverse curve, it is ecessary to kow at what poit it becomes a defiite time curve. For most relays it occurs at the miimum value betwee 20 I s ad 24 I (CT). So, assumig I sc max is the maximum short-circuit curret, the same reasoig as above, usig a safety coefficiet of 1.5, gives: k r mi = miimum value betwee: Is Isc max 30, 36, ad 1.5 I (CT) I (CT) Directioal curret protectio The rules, uless otherwise specified (refer to Cahier Techique o. 181) are the same as for the overcurret protectios. Note that for the three curret protectios described above: c If several curret protectios are supplied by the same CT, it is the oe with the lowest curve (the shortest time delay) for high currets that determies the sizig. c I difficult cases, the safety coefficiet of 2 ca be lowered to 1.5. Earth fault protectio As the protectio is supplied by the vector sum of the secodary currets of 3 CTs coected as per the Nicholso arragemet (see fig. 15 ), it is preferable to use idetical CTs produced by the same maufacturer. However, if there is a DC compoet (eergisatio of a trasformer) or whe a high curret occurs, this arragemet (parallel-coectio of the secodary of the 3 CTs) will deliver a false earth fault curret which may cause uisace trippig of the protectio. To give a example, with the 5P10 CTs, a protectio threshold of 10 % of CT I is a limit below which there is a risk of uisace trippig for defiite time protectios. The CT accuracy limit factor is give by the expressio: k rh > X I. Ihs The safety coefficiet (X) is ormally equal to 6 (give by the relay maufacturers). This correspods to the fact that the CT (associated with the phase with the earth fault) must be able to develop a voltage V h = X I hs (R ct + 2 R L + R h ). Note: c If a CT also supplies a overcurret relay, R h must be replaced by R h + R p. c If the CTs are iitially desiged for overcurret protectio, we recommed you check that they are suitable for supplyig earth fault protectio too. Thus, the k rh of a 100/1 CT - 10 VA-5P10 is give by the expressio: Rct + P/I 2 krh = k. Rct + 2 RL + Rp + Rh Bearig i mid that the impedace of the relay used depeds o the settig of I h (i this case 0.1 A), the digital applicatio gives: R h 1VA 0.1A = ( ) = 2 100, 3+10 k rh = 10 = a value to be compared with the expressio of the eeded k rh : k rh = = 0.6, the CT is suitable. 1 I h > Fig. 15 : the vector sum of the phase currets gives the earth fault curret. Cahier Techique Scheider Electric o. 194 / p.16
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- Deliver On Defense - Set the tone on defense with more control thanks to an all-new arsenal of pass rush moves, contain the open field with intuitive tackling mechanics, and play as a team with redesigned zone and man coverage logic all while being immersed in the play from the other side of the line, with defensive player lock cameras
- Player Sense 2.0 - In Madden NFL 15, Player Sense 2.0 creates the smartest playing Madden ever by improving player emotion, contextual awareness, head tracking, reach tackles and more
- War in the Trenches 2.0 - Madden NFL 15 raises the bar even further with War in the Trenches 2.0, including all-new pass rush mechanics for both finesse and power moves, as well as new disengage and block shedding animations
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This event is added by Kodoom Robot, We're waiting for final details from the organizer.
Dariush Live in Montreal PastFriday, May 29, 2015 - Montreal Metro Area, QC, Canada
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Dariush – Dariush Eghbali (born February 4, 1951 in Mianeh, East Azarbaijan, Iran) better known by the name Dariush is a famous Iranian singer, actor and humanitarian. His talent was first ...


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Pet Sitter in Beaverton
Hi my name is Tamera and I am 11 years old going into 7th grade, I am looking for a pet sitting job I have experince pet sitting with my aunts dog and my old chihuahua.
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PORCELAIN MATTEL Makeup Artist
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Some of the details into the terrifying robbery involving U.S. swimming star Ryan Lochte and three of his teammates are starting to unfold, and it seems like he was just over it.
Following conflicting reports initially — with Lochte's mom breaking the news — then the IOC denying any incident took place — Lochte confirmed the news to NBC himself a short time ago.
"We got pulled over, in the taxi, and these guys came out with a badge, a police badge, no lights, no nothing just a police badge and they pulled us over," Lochte said. "They pulled out their guns, they told the other swimmers to get down on the ground — they got down on the ground. I refused, I was like we didn't do anything wrong, so — I'm not getting down on the ground.
"And then the guy pulled out his gun, he cocked it, put it to my forehead and he said, "Get down," and I put my hands up, I was like 'whatever.' He took our money, he took my wallet — he left my cell phone, he left my credentials."
It sounds like Lochte either didn't understand the serious nature of the situation he was in — or is just exaggerating with the "whatever" claims.
USOC spokesman Patrick Sandusky later told confirmed the same thing:
BREAKING: Full USOC statement on Lochte & 3 US swimmers stopped by "individuals posing as armed police officers." pic.twitter.com/PbryVsf71g
— Peter Alexander (@PeterAlexander) August 14, 2016
Lochte won a gold in the 4×200-meter freestyle relay.


text:
30 April 2009,
London, South Kensington
Price realised GBP 8,750
Estimate GBP 8,000 - GBP 12,000
Paul Morrison (b. 1966)
signed, titled and dated ''DENE' 1998 Paul Morrison' (on the reverse)
acrylic on canvas
72 x 108in. (182.9 x 274.3cm.)
Painted in 1998
New York +1 212 636 2000
London +44 (0)20 7839 9060
Hong Kong +852 2760 1766
Shanghai +86 21 6355 1766
Special Notice
No VAT will be charged on the hammer price, but VAT at 15% will be added to the buyer's premium which is invoiced on a VAT inclusive basis.Artist's Resale Right ("Droit de Suite"). Artist's Resale Right Regulations 2006 apply to this lot, the buyer agrees to pay us an amount equal to the resale royalty provided for in those Regulations, and we undertake to the buyer to pay such amount to the artist's collection agent.
Asprey Jacques, London.
Acquired from the above by the present owner.


text:
Blende Dental Group
June 2011
Re: Dental misery
I highly recommend Blende Dental Group in San Francisco. Blended specializes in sedation dentistry and in treating people anxious for whatever reason about dental treatment. Worth every penny. Susan
August 2008
Re: Dentist for Autistic Child
I know this challenge sooooo well and I'm very happy to pass along this excellent resource to you. My 11 yr old autistic son was absolutely terrified of dentists and doctors and we had several nightmarish experiences trying to get his teeth checked/cleaned. Each visit ended with a complete meltdown and no work done. I finally lucked into finding the Blende Dental Group in San Francisco. They are a special needs practice with wonderful staff who really get autism. They are sensitive and caring, paying attention to every detail of my son's needs and I'm thrilled that he's finally able to get great dental care. Its worth the drive into the city. They're located at 390 Laurel Street, Suite 310, SF, 94118 (near Laurel Village Shopping Center). Phone is (415) 563-4261. There's alot of helpful information at their website too. www.drblende.com Hope this helps. Meg
Nov 2006
My Mother-in-law is in need of dental work but also has severe phobia of having her mouth touched. She lives in Atlanta and found Dr. Blende in San Francisco who apparently specializes in working with people that have phobias. She is planning a visit out for the work but would like some more information. Does anyone have any personal experience with Dr. Blende, know of his work or know anyone who does?
Because Dr. Blende was the dentist that works with Kaiser when patients need oral surgery, my mother saw Dr. Blende. In short, everything about the experience was totaly professional. The staff was exceedingly warm to my mother. There were minor drawbacks. Please contact me if you want more information. Sally


text:
Reviewed By steven z (belvidere, IL) Reviewed for a 2005 Ford Expedition —10/13/2016 3:17 PM
These WeatherTech vent visors are so simple to install and look great with the low profile design. I was so impressed with the quality and ease of install, I bought a set for the wife's car. Excellent floor mats as well.


text: Regency Energy Partners LP ( NYSE: RGP), ("Regency" or the "Partnership"), announced today its financial results for the fourth-quarter and full-year ended December 31, 2012. For full-year 2012, adjusted EBITDA increased by 14 percent to $480 million compared to $422 million in 2011. For fourth-quarter 2012, adjusted EBITDA increased to $116 million compared to $115 million for fourth-quarter 2011. These increases in adjusted EBITDA were primarily due to volume growth in the gathering and processing segment, partially offset by higher operations and maintenance expenses. The full-year increase was also partly due to a full-year contribution from the Lone Star Joint Venture in 2012, compared to a partial-year contribution in 2011. For the year-ended December 31, 2012, Regency generated $310 million in cash available for distribution, compared to $285 million for full-year 2011, primarily due to the same items set forth above. For fourth-quarter 2012, Regency generated $68 million in cash available for distribution, compared to $82 million in the fourth-quarter of 2011. This decrease was primarily due to lower proceeds from asset sales in the fourth-quarter of 2012 compared to the prior period. Net income decreased to $48 million for the full-year ended December 31, 2012, from $74 million for the full-year ended December 31, 2011. These decreases were primarily due to non-cash valuation adjustments recorded in each respective period. For fourth-quarter 2012, Regency reported a net loss of $9 million compared to a net income of $14 million for fourth-quarter 2011. "In 2012, robust drilling activity in south and west Texas and in north Louisiana contributed to a 20 percent increase in gathering and processing volumes, and we also saw an upswing in revenue generating horsepower in our contract compression business," said Mike Bradley, president and chief executive officer of Regency. "In addition, we continued construction on major organic growth projects in several of our liquids-rich operating regions."


text:
VideoHive Transitions II 1312366
After Effects Project \ Openers
After Effects Project - Transitions II by elements @ VideoHive
After Effects Project \ Openers
After Effects Version: CS4, CS5; File Size: 13mb; Requires Plugins: Yes Resolution: 1280x720
Transitions II is a 1:35 sec High End animation.
This file requires Trapcode PARTICULAR V2 to run correctly.
Main features.
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Video tutorial on how to edit the file.
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Music is not included but can be purchased from here http://audiojungle.net/item/adrenaline-of-fear/798948?WT.ac=portfolio_itemWT.seg_1=portfolio_itemWT.z_author=DEYCH Adrenaline of Fear and if you want to check DEYCH 's great portfolio you can http://audiojungle.net/user/DEYCH/portfolio?WT.ac=item_portfolioWT.seg_1=item_portfolioWT.z_author=DEYCH check it out here.
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Key Words: clean, closer, dark, opener, titles.
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- Autor: SHERMAN, BARBARA KAREN
Produto disponível até 15min após
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Você pode ler este livro digital em vários dispositivos:
Joe De Killer likes keeping everything in his life under control. As a ruthless partner in a prominent law firm, Joe uses his power to verbally abuse his staff, dresses in a mix of leather and Yves Saint Laurent, and believes that no one is indispensable, including his lover, Ingrid. Now he is secretly developing a narcissistic plan to live in luxury for the remainder of his life. To carry out his plan to embezzle funds from his law firm, Joe enlists the help of Ivan, a lawyer acquaintance, to keep the money hidden from the prying eyes of his fellow partners and Ingrid, who is becoming more of a hindrance with each day. In their mad scramble from the law, the two associates in crime suddenly find themselves caught in a series of adventures that take them—and Ingrid—back in time where supernatural forces add to the suspense and intrigue. But what no one knows is that the golden boy, Joe, is full of interesting surprises. In this legal thriller, a law firm partner attempting to fulfill his egocentric dreams is transported back in time where he proves that he is smarter, shiftier, and more selfish than anyone could have predicted.
Detalhes do Produto
- Formato: ePub
- Subtítulo: A NOVEL
- Origem: IMPORTADO
- Editora: AUTHORHOUSE
- Assunto: Literatura Internacional - Terror e Sobrenatural
- Idioma: INGLÊS
- Ano de Edição: 2016
- Ano: 2016
- País de Produção: United States
- Código de Barras: 2001032296568


text:
Benq GW2270. Display diagonal: 55.9 cm (22"), Display brightness: 250 cd/m², Display resolution: 1920 x 1080 pixels. Colour of product: Black, Heavy metals free: Hg (mercury). Windows operating systems supported: Windows 10 Education,Windows 10 Education x64,Windows 10 Enterprise,Windows 10 Enterprise x64,Window. VESA mounting interfaces: 100 x 100 mm, Tilt angle: -5 - 20°. AC input voltage: 90-264 V, Power consumption (PowerSave): 0.5 W
Simple and Exquisite for Minimalist livingThe GW2270 VA LED monitor brings viewing pleasure to everyday work and play with exquisite details on the exterior and striking visual performance delivered by 3000:1 high contrast ratio, 178°/178°wide-viewing angle and BenQ's eye-caring design, which consists of BenQ's Flicker-free technology and Low Blue Light modes.Key features:- TUV Rheinland Certification for Flicker-free- and Low Blue Light- 3000:1 Native Contrast Ratio- True 8-bit Color Performance- 178°/178° Wide-Viewing Angles


text:
John Prescott has snubbed a personal plea for help from Gordon Brown, it was claimed yesterday.
The Prime Minister telephoned Mr Prescott last week to beg him to return to Westminster from a Council of Europe meeting in Strasbourg so he could vote on a planning bill.
According to the Sunday Times, the former Deputy Prime Minister refused to co-operate, leading to a row between the two men.
Mr Brown made the call on the eve of a crucial vote on changes to planning laws, despite having secured a last-minute deal with Labour rebels not to derail the bill.
He contacted Mr Prescott at the secretariat office in Strasbourg to appeal to him to return to Britain for a government show of strength.
During what is described as a 'tense' exchange, Mr Prescott was apparently heard shouting at the PM, insisting it was not necessary to come home. In his recent autobiography-Prezza: My Story, Pulling No Punches, Mr Prescott portrayed himself as a constant peacemaker between Mr Brown and Tony Blair as the two men argued bitterly over the succession to the Premiership.
He also described his eight years working as a waiter on liners in the Merchant Navy.
Yesterday it was revealed that Mr Prescott is to go back to his old job when he is one of the lots at a charity auction to raise funds for the Labour Party.
Guests will be able to bid for the chance to have Mr Prescott serve them in a private box at a rugby league final this autumn.
Former Sports Minister Richard Caborn, who is masterminding the event at Wembley on July 10, said: 'It's 50 years since John last wore his wine waiter's uniform. It's a terrific prize. He'll be fetching and carrying the drinks for a group of people --and I'm sure it's something they'll never forget.'
- More about:
- Auctions
- Fund Raising
- Labour Party
- Rugby League
- Strasbourg
- Tony Blair


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This professional nail treatment promotes structural rigidity & hydration. Smooth & glassy surface for natural nails. Protects against nail discolouration & dries quickly.
• New formulations are nasty free! (NO Formaldehyde, NO Toluene, NO DBP, NO Camphor, NO Formaldehyde Resin)
• Made in Australia
• Not tested on animals
15 mL
Customer Reviews
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We hope that you will be delighted with your order. However, if for any reason you are not completely satisfied then please contact us within 7 days of receipt of your parcel, and our customer service team will be pleased to assist you with organising a return authorisation. All returned merchandise must arrive back to us in their original, unopened and unused condition.
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Ouidad cut when trying to grow out?
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Join Date: Mar 2010
Posts: 2
Saturday, February 25, 2012 at 03:49PM
: Ouidad cut when trying to grow out?
I need some advice on when to get my next haircut. A Ouidad salon opened here last year and after two years of Deva cuts I want to get a Ouidad cut. (I've had one in NYC but that was 10 years ago).
I am also trying to grow my hair out. I cut it to short last year and immediately missed my bsl long curls. I have 3b hair that is now just past my shoulders.
My question is, when should I schedule the Ouidad cut? I am not looking to cut length, but am hoping the Ouidad method will shape my hair better. Should I wait until it grows out a little more? My last trim was in October at a Deva salon.
Any advice is much appreciated!


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Great object lesson in the sacrifice of our military.
+1 on the THANKS!
This is a discussion on I have to say Thank you! within the Law Enforcement, Military & Homeland Security Discussion forums, part of the Related Topics category; I went camping this past weekend at the Red River Army Depot with some friends and one of the things we did was go to ...
I went camping this past weekend at the Red River Army Depot with some friends and one of the things we did was go to the Humvee staging area (the only thing I can think to call it) where there are rows and rows of humvees sitting in various stages of repair/disrepair.
I wanted to take the kids to show them some of the reasons the humvees were at this post, to be fixed or stripped of parts that can be reused.
I made sure to have a talk with my kids about some of the things they would see and to not joke around or climb on anything.
We walked around and they got to see bullet holes in doors, windshields and even some incendiary holes. I then sat them down and told them that someone may have died in one or several of these vehicles. I told them that one of the things that makes our military the best is it is made up of volunteers, men and women who willingly join knowing they may be called on to go in to dangerous areas where they may never come back home to see their families (my 9 yo daughter starts crying at this point).
With all that said, it hit home with me again how important of a job those of you who have served, in peace time or have been deployed to battle, are doing for our nation. It still hit me, and I wear a bracelet with the name of a friend of mine who was KIA in Afghanistan in '02.
Thank you, from me and my whole family! I know the military mindset and you don't think you are, but to us you are all heroes.
"Don't hit a man if you can possibly avoid it; but if you do hit him, put him to sleep." - Theodore Roosevelt
Great object lesson in the sacrifice of our military.
+1 on the THANKS!
God is love (1 John 4:8)
Very awesome lesson to your children. As a juvenile probation officer, I wish more parents took more time to teach life lesson to their children. My thanks also goes out to those who serve.
Friends don't let friends be MALL NINJAS.
I am just as nice as anyone lets me be and can be just as mean as anyone makes me. - Quoted from Terryger, New member to our forum.
We will be much better off when we learn to deal with things as they really are, instead of how we wish them to be!
True soldiers dont see themselves as heroes--just folks "stepping up to the plate" to do a job that NEEDS to be done. They see the true heroes as the spouses and kids back home who have to carry on with life while knowing that there are folks out there trying to kill/blow-up/shoot their spouse.
We currently have our oldest daughter, and 3 grandsons under our roof while dad (our son-in-law) is in the sandbox and daily see the strains on our daughter and grandsons............
Scott, US Army 1974-2004
Freedom is never more than one generation away from extinction. It must be fought for, protected, and handed on or one day we will spend our sunset years telling our children what it was once like in the United States where men were free.
- Ronald Reagan
+1 million for people doing a dangerous job so I can play on DC.com
Where in the world did you find a dry place to camp at RRAD? I bet Elliot Lake was about to bust out of itself.
Glad you were able to share that with your kids, and glad they were able to comprehend the sacrafices some have made.
Just remember that shot placement is much more important with what you carry than how big a bang you get with each trigger pull.
Texas CHL Instructor
Texas Hunter Education Instructor
NRA Instructor
I can't say camp, we were in the cabins.
I think this was a very good lesson for them, most of them have been shooting or have seen videos of the others and the targets brought home, plus from watching Mythbusters or Time Warp on Discovery. So they know what guns can do, but when you see a bullet hole smack in the middle of a windshield and know there was a soldier right there, it will affect any one.
I have been stressing to my kids about service and the need for Americans to volunteer. I told them that I want to them to enlist, and they don't have to go to a combat specialty. I have told them that every job is vital in the military.
I can see my 7 yo Son as a Ranger, he is tough and meticulous. He has already pulled one of his own teeth when it was ready to come out, which would still freak out my 12 yo Son.
"Don't hit a man if you can possibly avoid it; but if you do hit him, put him to sleep." - Theodore Roosevelt
"...for they were all mighty men of valour..." I Chronicles 12:21
Paco. Good thread.
Moved to Law Enforcement, Military & Homeland Security Discussion.
Kids need to see and hear about this...great post, thanks!
Proverbs 27:12 says: The prudent see danger and take refuge, but the simple keep going and suffer for it.
Certified Glock Armorer
NRA Life Member
I wished I had taken pictures, but I was torn on that. I am not a reporter and was not doing anything other than teaching my kids about courage and duty. I felt it might be trampling on the place of a Soldier's death.
"Don't hit a man if you can possibly avoid it; but if you do hit him, put him to sleep." - Theodore Roosevelt
Thanks Paco! A very nice story with a great message. I wish we could teach all American kids this lesson.
NRA Life Member
With great power comes great responsibility.-Stan Lee
Great post! Too many parents don't take the time to teach lessons like that anymore.
Don't do things you don't want to explain to the Paramedics!
Stupidity should be painful.


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Greetings and welcome from the Space Coast of Florida!
This is a discussion on New member from Virginia! within the New Members Introduce Yourself forums, part of the Welcome To DefensiveCarry.com category; Hi everyone... I don't own any firearms yet but am researching on this site and plan to buy my first handgun next spring! I'm really ...
Hi everyone... I don't own any firearms yet but am researching on this site and plan to buy my first handgun next spring! I'm really enjoying all of the great info you guys have on this forum.
Greetings and welcome from the Space Coast of Florida!
I have a very strict gun control policy: if there's a gun around, I want to be in control of it.
Clint Eastwood
Welcome from Fort Worth, Texas.
NRA Life Member
GOA Life MemberMoving to a new location
Welcome from Delaware!
You can educate ignorance, you can't fix stupid
Retired DE Trooper, SA XD40 SC, S&W 2" Airweight
dukalmighty & Pure Kustom Black Ops Pro "Trooper" Holsters, DE CCDW and LEOSA Permits, Vietnam Vet 68-69 Pleiku
from Central Florida!
Proverbs 27:12 says: The prudent see danger and take refuge, but the simple keep going and suffer for it.
Certified Glock Armorer
NRA Life Member
Welcome from FL!
Welcome aboard. Lots of good info and opinions, here.
A true newbie? Brand new to firearms? Well, there's lots to learn. Time to head to a good rental range, if you've got one anywhere nearby. It's surprising how different some of them can be, in terms of ergonomics and "fit." Good luck in the hunt.
Your best weapon is your brain. Don't leave home without it.
Thoughts: Justifiable self defense (A.O.J.).
Explain: How does disarming victims reduce the number of victims?
Reason over Force: Why the Gun is Civilization (Marko Kloos).
Welcome to the forum from SW Ohio.
Live to ride, ride to live. Harley Road King And keep a .45 handy Kimber Custom TLE II
Welcome. Soon you will see some members who stand out as a lot smarter than I. As I do, don't be afraid to IM them with serious questions for serious advice.
Good luck on your soon upcoming (take some classes) safety training (firearms) and proficiency training (firearms) before you venture out....
Socialism Kills! Time proven, with a very large body count! We are a Constitutional Republic....... not a Democracy, get it correct!
Don't be mistaken for a Gecko45: http://lonelymachines.org/mall-ninjas/
ANGLICO Images
Welcome aboard from the great state of Pennsylvania!
Welcome from Michigan!
*WARNING - I may or may not know what I am talking about.
Welcome from the Richmond area.
Freedom doesn't come free. It is bought and paid for by the lives and blood of our men and women in uniform.
USAF Retired
NRA Life Member
Hello! Welcome from Southeast Kansas!


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I am central to LA, OC & San Diego
Send me a PM and let's chat
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