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Current Issues in Education > Volume 1, 1998 > Number 5
Miller, J. A., Tansy, M., & Hughes, T. L. (1998, November 18). Functional behavioral assessment: The link between problem behavior and effective intervention in schools. Current Issues in Education [On-line], 1(5). Available: http://cie.ed.asu.edu/volume1/number5/.
Jeffrey A. MillerDuquesne University
Michael TansyGilbert School District, Gilbert, AZ
Tammy L. HughesArizona State University
An important current issue in education is the mandate in the 1997 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997) that schools must conduct a functional behavioral assessment when a student's behavior disrupts the educational environment. This article reviews the literature on functional analysis and how it relates to the legal mandate for functional behavioral assessment in schools. Functional behavioral assessment is considered an important and frequently missing link between topographical descriptions of behavior and treatment planning. Problems with existing functional behavioral assessment methodologies include the complexity of data synthesis and treatment selection. Also, existing efforts to define functional behavioral assessment have not included sufficiently diverse theoretical models for the causes of behavior or for treatment. In contrast, we provide a definition of functional behavioral assessment that includes proximal, distal, physiological, and intrapsychic causes of problem behavior. Based on this definition, a multimodal, team problem-solving approach to conducting functional behavioral assessments and developing behavior intervention plans in schools is proposed. The proposed approach distributes complex decision making across team members, includes multiple theoretical perspectives, can be readily adopted by existing child study teams, and is in compliance with the 1997 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
Important advances in the assumptions about the management of children with behavioral problems in schools have arisen following the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (P.L. 105-17; Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997). Specifically, P.L. 105-17 requires that a functional behavioral assessment (FBA) be conducted for children exhibiting behavior that interferes with the educational process. This means that school personnel must conduct preintervention assessments of the functional relationships between a child's behavior and the suspected causes of that behavior. Subsequently, school personnel must develop intervention plans based on the information provided through this assessment (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997). The actual process of FBA, however, was not defined by P.L. 105-17. As a result, practitioners and researchers concerned with child misbehavior need to define the process of functional behavioral assessment.
Since the passage of P.L. 105-17 in 1997 researchers and practitioners have proposed several methods for functional behavioral assessment (Quinn, Gable, Rutherford, Nelson, & Howell, 1998; Skiba, Waldron, Bahamonde, & Michalek, 1998; Thomas, 1997) that are to varying degrees conflicting with or complementary to each other. The effort to define a process for FBA is complicated because the literature prior to P.L. 105-17 includes a variety of methods that may comprise the foundation for a functional behavioral assessment process. Methods that may provide direction for developing a process of functional behavioral assessment include functional analysis (Carr, 1977; Daly, Witt, Martens, & Dool, 1997; Haynes & O'Brien, 1990; Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1982; Repp, 1994; Schill, Kratochwill, & Gardner, 1996; Sturmey, 1996), functional assessment (Flannery, O'Neill, & Horner, 1995; Hendrickson, Gable, Novak, & Peck, 1996; Horner, 1994; Repp, 1994; Sasso, Harrell, & Doelling, 1997), behavioral assessment (Martin & Pear, 1992), and functional communication (Carr & Durand, 1985). With each approach comes a minor or major variation in process and/or outcome.
This article provides a rationale and procedure for a specific method of functional behavioral assessment. First, we will provide a definition for functional behavioral assessment and examine its relationship to functional analysis. Second, we will discuss some of the legal and interpretive issues raised by the current reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997) with respect to discipline of children in special education. Third, we describe the theoretical and empirical basis for a multimodal, team problem-solving approach to functional behavioral assessment. Next, the actual procedure of functional behavioral assessment will be described with a case example. Associated with functional behavioral assessment is the process of developing interventions, called behavior intervention plans (BIPs) in P.L. 105-17. School-based behavior intervention plans are the direct result of functional behavioral assessments (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997). We will describe a procedure for developing specific behavior intervention plans from functional behavioral assessments. Finally, follow-up procedures mandated by the law are discussed.
Consideration of function is not new to education or psychology. Indeed, it was functional psychology that was espoused by early psychologists John Dewey and G. Stanley Hall (Boring, 1957). As opposed to structuralism, which is concerned with description, functionalism is at its core concerned with cause and prediction. Boring (1957) wrote that to be a functionalist was to be "more interested in the future than the past, to prefer to ride facing forward on the train" (p. 551).
In applied psychology the debate regarding the relative importance of the function of behavior and the structure of behavior continues. When interventions are selected based on an assessment of the causes of behavior for an individual the intervention is based on functional assessment. Alternatively, structuralists choose interventions demonstrated effective with some percentage of people with a similar pattern of behavior. For example, a child disrupting a classroom with verbal outbursts could be treated with the customary intervention of differential reinforcement for no outbursts for a period of time. On the other hand, a functional assessment of the causes of the child's verbal outbursts should result in an intervention tailored to the child's individual experiences. By most accurately identifying the causes, selected interventions will be more effective and more appropriate, that is, less aversive (Iwata et al., 1982).
Currently, there is no legislated definition of functional behavioral assessment. Consensus, however, is emerging in the views of some researchers in school-based assessment. Quinn and her colleagues (1998) define functional behavioral assessment as a variety of techniques and strategies to diagnose the causes and to identify likely interventions intended to address problem behaviors (p. 3). They go on to say FBA includes consideration of biological, social, affective, and environmental factors as potential functions of problem behavior (Quinn et al., 1998). Skiba and his colleagues (1998) do not directly define functional behavioral assessment, but argue that "functional assessment moves...toward gathering information that increases our understanding of student behavior in the classroom, and identifying and teaching needed replacement behaviors" (p. 24). Skiba cites seminal research by Carr (1977) and Iwata and colleagues (1982) on functional analysis as providing the foundation for functional behavioral assessment.
Researchers have looked to the literature on functional analysis (e.g., Iwata et al., 1982) for guidance in defining functional behavioral assessment (Daly et al., 1997; Quinn et al., 1998; Skiba et al., 1998). However, the term "functional behavioral assessment" has become entwined with functional analysis. This is further complicated by writers' use of these words interchangeably. For example, Skiba and colleagues (1998) cite Daly's (1997) article on functional analysis of academic performance as an example of functional assessment. Further, they made the connection between functional assessment and functional behavioral assessment (Skiba et al., 1998). Haynes and O'Brien (1990) also described this link when they asserted functional analysis had been used interchangeably with "functional behavioral analysis" and "behavioral assessment." These terms are further confused in the applied behavior analysis literature. For example, Repp (1994) wrote an article titled "Comments on Functional Analysis Procedures for School-Based Behavior Problems," but the running head was "Functional Assessment" and functional assessment was used interchangeably with functional analysis. It may be the case that functional analysis and functional assessment mean the same thing, but these words have now been linked with the meaning of functional behavioral assessment as indicated in P. L. 105-17. This discussion is relevant because it is our position that functional analysis is only one, relatively well defined, technique to be used in the not so well defined process of functional behavioral assessment.
Functional analysis is generally described as a two step analysis of the proximal causes of a problem behavior. First, hypotheses are generated about potential antecedents and consequences of behavior for an individual. Second, experimental manipulation of conditions is conducted to test the hypotheses (Iwata et al., 1982). Functional analysis does not, however, define what qualifies as a function or cause of behavior. Because functional analysis developed in the field of applied behavior analysis, functions have typically been limited to operant aspects of behavior, specifically antecedents and consequences. For each type of problem described in the literature, researchers using functional analytic techniques generate a group of potential causes that are proximal to the problem behavior and operantly defined. For example, Iwata and colleagues (1982) hypothesized that the antecedent conditions (social disapproval, academic demand, unstructured play, being alone) leading to increased self-injury would vary across children with developmental delays. They exemplified the functional aspects of problem behavior across different children, but only focused on functions related to the child's immediate situation or environment. In a more recent school-based example of functional analysis, Daly and his colleagues (1997) hypothesized the following five "reasonable hypotheses" of academic failure: did not want to do the work, did not spend enough time on the work, have not had enough help, have not had to do it that way before, and it is too hard. Again, these hypotheses do not begin to describe the full range of potential causes for academic failure.
Typically, there are multiple causes for problem behaviors that require diverse methods of identification (Cone, 1997; Flannery et al., 1995; Haynes and O'Brien, 1990). The need for multiple assessment methods is complicated by the fact that problem behaviors are not consistent and can change over time. One way this manifests is in conflicting reports about a particular student's behavior from day to day. For example, when attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is the cause of behavior problems children often experience periods of good behavioral control and work completion (Barkley, 1990; Nathan, 1992). When this variability in performance is observed by some treatment teams, it is inappropriately used as evidence indicating that the child could maintain control if he or she just tried, and a consequence-based intervention is initiated. Implementing an intervention in the classroom for this child without consideration of the physiological cause and indicated pharmacotherapy would result in the child's behavior persisting despite the classroom-based intervention. Thus, the accurate identification of the complicated and sometimes transient causes of behavior require data from a variety of explanatory models.
Functional analysis represents an important tool for functional behavioral assessment. However, the functional analysis methodology does not include methods to assess important distal, physiological, and intrapsychic variables that cause children to misbehave. In the school-based formulations of functional behavioral assessment reviewed here (Quinn et al., 1998; Skiba et al., 1998), the authors initially make claims that biological, social, affective and environmental variables should be considered, but in the end they offer operant forms of functional behavioral assessment considering only proximal antecedents and consequences. School implementations of functional behavioral assessment should not be restricted to antecedents and consequences as the limitations of such an approach have been recognized even in the recent functional analysis literature. Carr (1994) identified social factors and biological factors such as physical illness, exercise, and drug use as potential causes of problem behavior. Mace (1994) provided the following example to show that multiple factors may control problem behavior:
To discourage allocation of behavior to aggression, a treatment could be designed that arranged high-rate (continuous reinforcement) and high-quality parental attention (affectionate praise) for appropriate social interaction, while discontinuing the contingency between aggression and attention (i.e., extinction). The intervention could be further strengthened by teaching appropriate social interaction following periods of low adult attention in order to increase the reinforcing value of parental attention. (p. 387).
This example represents inclusion of variables that comprise more causes of problem behavior than previous functional analytic models or recent efforts to describe functional behavioral assessment. Specifically, Mace's (1994) example refers to direct instruction as an intervention rather than just manipulation of contingencies; further, parent-child emotional issues are considered as potential causes. Mace (1994) does not consider whether or not the parent is capable of giving high-quality attention and, if so, how to get the parent to do it. These points exemplify some of the complex, distal causes of problem behavior. Functional behavioral assessment, thus, should include the consideration of variables that are proximal (e.g., task avoidance), distal (e.g., family conflict), physiological (e.g., depression), and intrapsychic (e.g., thoughts and feelings) causes of problem behaviors that interfere with education. Functional analysis is uniquely qualified for identifying proximal, operant causes, but is insufficient to address the full complexity of children's problems.
The functional behavioral assessment definition used to develop the present model was adopted from Haynes and O'Brien's (1990) definition of functional analysis. This is not to further confuse these terms; rather, their definition is sufficiently general to include the functions typically considered in functional analysis as well as the broader range of functions we propose. Further, Haynes and O'Brien's (1990) work represents a different strand of functional analysis research than that of Carr (1977) or Iwata (1982) used to define extant models of functional behavioral assessment. Haynes and O'Brien (1990) describe in detail the evidence for their definition. Among other things, they took an idiographic perspective and advocated the examination of multiple causes and the use of multiple assessment methods. Thus, borrowing from Haynes and O'Brien's (1990) definition of functional analysis, functional behavioral assessment is, "The identification of important, controllable, causal functional relationships applicable to a specific set of target behaviors for an individual client" (p. 654).
For the first time, the 1997 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997) included the requirement that school personnel conduct an FBA for children experiencing behavior problems that interfere with their education. Because P.L. 105-17 is somewhat ambiguous regarding when to conduct an FBA, local education agencies (LEAs) are left to determine to some extent when an FBA is legally mandated and to a greater extent for what types of behavior. As previously noted, the 1997 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act offers little guidance regarding how to conduct a functional behavioral assessment. With reference to FBA, P.L. 105-17 (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997) states:
In the case of a child whose behavior impedes his or her learning or that of others, consider, when appropriate, strategies, including positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and supports to address that behavior. (� 614(d)(3)(B)(i)).
If the LEA did not conduct a functional behavioral assessment and implement a behavioral intervention plan for the child before the behavior that resulted in the suspension ... the agency shall convene an IEP meeting to develop an assessment plan and appropriate behavioral interventions to address that behavior; or if the child already has a behavioral intervention plan, the IEP team shall review the plan and modify it, as necessary, to address the behavior. (� 615(k)(1)(A)(i)(ii))
If the LEA did not conduct a functional behavioral assessment and implement a behavioral intervention plan for the child before the behavior that resulted in the suspension ... the agency shall convene an IEP meeting to develop an assessment plan and appropriate behavioral interventions to address that behavior; or if the child already has a behavioral intervention plan, the IEP team shall review the plan and modify it, as necessary, to address the behavior. (� 615(k)(1)(A)(i)(ii))
It should be noted that P.L. 105-17 makes reference to suspension and consideration of the right of a student to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) for a "change in placement of more than 10 days" (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997 � 614(k)(4)(A)).
Therefore, educators are encouraged to develop positive behavioral interventions when a behavior impedes a student's learning or that of his or her peers. However, the local education agency is mandated to conduct an FBA and develop a BIP when the behavior results in a suspension of more than ten days, as this is considered a violation of a student's right to a free and appropriate public education. This may include out-of-school suspensions in which the student is asked to stay at home during the school day, in-school suspensions in which the student is not allowed to attend his or her regular schedule of classes but still attends school, or a combination of in-school and out-of-school suspensions. This also includes interim placements for students found with weapons or drugs on a school campus and considerations of expulsion from a school district. The pivotal issue with regard to suspension is that the student has been or is being considered for removal from the current educational placement for more than ten days. It is clear that an FBA and a BIP is mandated at this point.
However, school districts offer different opinions on what "change in placement of more than 10 days" means. Some school districts accumulate a student's days of suspension and when ten are reached, the procedures for FBA are initiated. Others do not accumulate days and only invoke these procedures when a transgression sufficient to warrant more than ten consecutive days of suspension or expulsion has occurred. As this aspect of educational law has yet to be fully clarified by case law, a conservative approach would be to consider FBA when more than 10 days of removal from the current educational placement have accumulated. Thus, the behaviors legally considered for FBA do not have to be as severe as those resulting in greater then ten consecutive days of suspension, interim placements for weapons or drugs on a school campus, or expulsion.
Although P.L. 105-17 specifies that functional behavioral assessments must be conducted for children exhibiting behaviors that will result in suspension, there are other times when FBAs are warranted and useful. Schools must determine when conducting an FBA would be best practice even if not mandated for a specific case. For example, behavioral deficits such as poor work completion may not result in a legal mandate to conduct an FBA, but may be successfully remedied through FBA and behavior intervention planning. Indeed, there are many cases well suited for preintervention assessment of functional relationships (Thomas, 1997). Functional behavioral assessment is appropriate for any behavior that interferes with a student's education or that of his or her peers as recommended by law. It may also be appropriate as part of the reevaluation process for students with problem behaviors (Skiba, 1998), as part of prereferral intervention for children not covered under P.L. 105-17, or as part of Section 504 (Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990) accommodation plans. It also has been argued that FBA is a better way of intervention planning than the syndromal or topographical approach used in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Fourth Edition (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) (Cone, 1997; Haynes & O'Brien, 1990). The wide range of potential uses suggests that a procedure for FBA should be theoretically inclusive enough to address everything from bringing a weapon on campus to self-injurious behaviors in children with severe disabilities to social skills deficits in nonreferred students.
Synthesis of functional behavioral assessment data for students with multiple problems and multiple causes "exceeds the bounds of deductive abilities for most professionals" (Haynes, 1998, p. 13). Therefore, it is imperative that a procedure or method be identified for assimilating this information. Existing efforts to simplify data synthesis include functional analytic causal models (Haynes, Leisen, & Blaine, 1997; Haynes & O'Brien, 1990; Nezu, Nezu, Friedman, & Haynes, 1997), decision-making rules (Hagopian, Fisher, Thompson, Owen-DeSchryver, Iwata, & Wacker, 1997), and expert systems based on conditional probabilities (Hayes & Follette, 1993). Also, to assist in collecting and organizing functional assessment information, researchers have constructed rating scales such as the Motivation Assessment Scale (Durand, 1990).
Despite these efforts to simplify data synthesis and the increased interest in preintervention assessment of function, there has not been a significant increase in its use in the research. Haynes and O'Brien (1990) showed that only 20% of 156 intervention studies for the years 1985 to 1988 in major behavior analysis journals assessed functional relationships prior to conducting interventions. They further indicated that intervention decisions were based primarily on a topographical model of psychopathology. Blakeslee, Sugai, and Gruba (1994) reviewed single-subject treatment research in several journals from 1986 to 1992 and found only 27% of the 130 studies included some form of functional assessment. They showed an upward trend in the number of articles published with functional assessment from 1986 to 1990 and a downward trend from 1991 to 1992. Presumably, with the inclusion of functional behavioral assessment in P.L. 105-17 interest will increase.
One can speculate about the reasons for the lack of application of this potentially powerful tool. Despite the above efforts, the available methods of data synthesis and interpretation (e.g., Haynes & O'Brien, 1990) are still complicated and time consuming. Also, the methods of data collection (e.g., experimental manipulation) recommended in the literature consume substantial resources. Haynes (1998) listed three limitations that contribute to the lack of proliferation of functional analytic practices. First, there are no clear procedures for selecting the best assessment method for an individual client. Second, better methods of integrating data have yet to be developed. Finally, the contribution of the variance in decision making and cost effectiveness of functional assessment procedures have yet to be demonstrated.
What may work better for school-based functional behavioral assessment is a multimodal, problem-solving approach in a child study team or multidisciplinary team format. Using the provided documentation, which is designed to guide a team through the process of FBA and intervention planning as well as keep the team on track, school teams should experience successful intervention planning in a cost-efficient manner.
To understand childhood behavior problems one must consider multiple causes (Bandura & Goldman, 1995; Cone, 1997; Haynes & O'Brien, 1990). A thorough consideration of the multiple causes of behavior requires the investigator to understand the child's behavior from multiple theoretical perspectives. To date, most of the research on functional aspects of behavior has been from a relatively strict operant perspective (Dunlop et al., 1993; Durand, 1990; Iwata, Vollmer, Zarcone, & Rogers, 1993). We have argued that this method is inadequate to identify the full range of causes or functions of behavior, which in turn leads to the prescription of insufficient or inappropriate interventions. For example, an operant analysis of a child's disruptive classroom behavior will lead to interventions targeting antecedents and consequences in the immediate classroom. However, if a family systems perspective also is considered, interventions may include utilizing the school social worker to make contact with the family and recommend family services in addition to classroom interventions. It is not always the case that the antecedents and consequences that are bound temporally to behaviors also are bound functionally to those behaviors. We refer to the consideration of multiple causes from multiple theoretical perspectives as multimodal. Consideration should not only be given to multiple theories for the functions of behavior, but also to multiple theories for intervening or treating the problem. That is, the functions of behavior can be linked to multiple, simultaneous interventions designed to treat the "whole" person.
The proposed method of functional behavioral assessment is expected to be conducted in school-based, problem-solving or multidisciplinary teams. There are several strengths to a team problem-solving approach to FBA. First, in schools, the collective efforts of teachers, administrators, psychologists, social workers, counselors, and parents represent a cadre of problem-solvers, brought together to meet the challenge of synthesizing information and choosing interventions (Phillips, McCullough, Nelson, & Walker, 1992). Second, many schools already use some form of child study teaming. Third, team problem-solving is considered best practice by the National Association of School Psychologists (Ross, 1995; Shaw & Swerdik, 1995) because of its strength in solving complex problems. Finally, P.L. 105-17 requires that the individualized education program (IEP) team be convened to conduct a mandated functional behavioral assessment.
Although child study teams are already in place in most school districts, many school teams have difficulty staying focused, talking only about the child at hand, and reaching productive solutions (Shaw & Swerdik, 1995). The multimodal method of FBA, while designed to simplify the integration and interpretation of data, has the secondary effect of guiding the child study team and keeping members focused on the task. Our experience indicates that child study meetings in which this approach is used tend to be briefer, more goal-directed, and more productive. Further, functional behavioral assessment as conducted within schools will be an iterative process for each child (the mandated review process for subsequent transgressions) as well as become an iterative process for child study teams. With time and effort teams will adopt an increasing range of interventions with which they are comfortable. To encourage this evolution, there must be a commitment by the team to identify interventions that have been shown valid for a specific cause, implement treatments with integrity, and critically evaluate outcomes.
It is interesting to consider the impact of a multimodal approach to FBA on school service delivery. Currently there is an emphasis in the literature on including various health, social welfare, and law enforcement services, known as wraparound services, on school campuses (Clarke, Schaefer, Burchard, & Welkowitz, 1992; Eber & Nelson, 1997; Eber, Osuch & Redditt, 1996). Multimodal FBA logically leads team members to consider referrals and interventions that utilize such wraparound services. As urban schools proceed to develop wraparound models of service delivery, our proposed method of FBA may become a useful step in selecting and referring students to the proper service.
Anticipating the inclusion of wraparound services in schools and given the complexity of data synthesis, the composition of child study teams conducting FBA should be broadened. P.L. 105-17 indicates a teacher, a special education teacher, parents, a person qualified to interpret test data, an administrator capable of allocating funds, and, whenever appropriate, the child constitute a multidisciplinary team (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997). In addition to those required, it may be appropriate to include community members, law enforcement personnel, health care professionals, clergy, and state agency representatives. By targeting more aspects of a child's life, interventions will be more effective and will generalize beyond the classroom.
A major challenge to educational teams embarking on the enterprise of FBA is synthesizing assessment information and selecting among treatment alternatives. Assimilation and integration of the multiple causes of childhood behavior require a high level of expertise and insight into the full range of potential functions of children's behavior. A straightforward solution to this problem is to provide a roadmap for guiding the school child study team. To organize this potentially complex experience, we developed a stepwise procedure to guide school teams through the process of FBA. Although more linear than procedures recommended by others (e.g., Haynes & O'Brien, 1990; Nezu et. al., 1997), this method assumes parallel rather than serial relationships between functions and interventions. That is, a single function may require more than one intervention, yet a single intervention may address more that one function simultaneously. For example, a group counseling intervention may address familial and emotional causes of behavior; similarly, a self-monitoring behavioral intervention may address the cognitive aspects of the emotional cause and antecedent conditions related to the topography of the behavior in the classroom. Thus, each counseling and behavioral intervention addresses multiple causes and the single cause of emotional discomfort is treated with multiple interventions.
The steps in conducting an FBA and developing subsequent interventions are similar to team problem-solving approaches described by others (Cosden & Semmel, 1992; Zins & Erchul, 1995). First, the team determines what data to collect. This determination is based on the team's consensus regarding those behaviors that are most disruptive to the learning environment. Next, the team describes the behavior based on assessment information. This description is free of judgment regarding the purpose or motive of the child. Rather, the disruptive behavior is described with a minimum of inference, noting the setting, frequency, intensity, and duration of the behavior. After describing the behavior, the team determines the functions of the behavior, systematically generating hypotheses about the multiple causes of the behavior. Then the team develops an intervention plan, selecting interventions with demonstrated treatment validity. After this, the plan is implemented correctly; that is, with treatment integrity. Finally, the entire intervention plan is critically evaluated and modified as needed. This process is facilitated using the forms included with this article. (Click HERE to view Figures 1 to 6. Viewing requires Acrobat Reader. Click HERE to download Acrobat Reader.)
Determining what assessment data to collect is the first step. Figure 1 shows some of the types of data that can be collected including observation, student interview, teacher interview, parent interview, rating scales, and normative testing. Each type of data considered should be noted on the form. Not all assessment methods are necessary for all students. A case manager should be assigned to each child in which FBA is being conducted and that person should be responsible for determining what data to collect and who should collect it. This list of potential sources of data is somewhat different from those recommended in a strictly behavioral approach to data collection, which typically includes gathering information from people who know the child, collecting direct observation data, and conducting controlled manipulations of antecedents and consequences (Flannery et al., 1995). The present approach includes indirect assessment of proximal and distal causes through student interviewing and formal testing and de-emphasizes the role of experimental manipulation. Simplifying assessment has been addressed by Iwata (1994), indicating that "nonexperimental methodologies have sufficient reliability and validity to be valuable most of the time" (p. 415). With respect to formal observation, the people with first hand experience with the child may already have valuable direct observation information (Sarfan & Sarfan, 1996). In most cases it is indicated to augment teacher observation with more structured approaches. This, however, is not always absolutely necessary. As Iwata (1994) stated, "many of us have found that parents, teachers, and other caregivers sometimes can describe the functional characteristics of a client's behavior problem with uncanny accuracy" (p. 414).
Figure 1 shows the first page of the FBA, entitled "Description." The data reported in this section are similar to most behavioral models of describing problem behavior. In addition to the typical topographical description of behavior, the team describes previous interventions and the educational impact of the problem behavior. Identifying previous interventions is important for several reasons. First, in most cases the team should not rush to conduct an FBA and develop intervention plans before less formal attempts to modify the behavior have been attempted unless, of course, an FBA is mandated by law. Second, one should not repeat failed interventions. At the least, one should significantly modify and correct whatever made previous interventions fail. Finally, if there is an intervention already implemented that is having some success it should be continued. Typically, interventions that are implemented prior to the FBA meeting are implemented by teachers on their own in the classroom (Sarfan & Sarfan, 1996). Educational impact is included on the form because P.L. 105-17 states that educators must consider FBA when a problem behavior impedes a child's learning or that of others; therefore, the educational impact must be determined. Typically, it is easy to link the disruptive behavior to decreased time on academic assignments simply by documenting the amount of administrator time spent managing the behavior and examination of the student's grades.
In cases where there are multiple problem behaviors that appear functionally distinct from each other the team should conduct an FBA for each behavior. Team members should keep in mind that behaviors often cluster, and avoid the temptation to separate behaviors that serve the same function. It can be seen in this simple example that repeatedly walking to the pencil sharpener and asking to use the restroom are elements of off-task behavior, with a common function such as math avoidance. In cases of multiple distinct behaviors there still should only be one behavior intervention plan (BIP), because even though the behaviors are distinct there may be some interventions that affect the functions of more than one problem behavior. Figures 4, 5, and 6 present an example of the current approach to FBA and behavior intervention planning. Figure 4 exemplifies the outcome of the behavioral description phase for an FBA.
At this point, the team must consider the functions of the behavior described. The team should refer to Haynes and O'Brien's (1990) definition of functional analysis provided above to activate the group process and focus on the salient aspects of potential causes. Figure 2 shows the second page of the FBA, entitled "Function." There are at least eight different categories of functions that the team should consider. This list obviously is not exhaustive, but represents a manageable set of potential functions from a variety of theoretical positions. With each function there are descriptors to help guide the team's thinking. The areas to consider are affective regulation/emotional reactivity, cognitive distortion, reinforcement, modeling, family issues, physiological/constitutional, communicate need, and curriculum/instruction. Fully understanding these areas will require team members to have different areas of expertise. It is expected that the school psychologist and counselor will have expertise in the more clinical functions; social workers and state agency representatives will have expertise regarding systemic functions; and teachers and administrators will have expertise in educational functions (Cosden & Semmel, 1992). As school teams become more cohesive and experienced, each team member will contribute more to all areas of potential function. Figure 5 exemplifies a completed examination of potential functions of the problem behavior described in Figure 4. It should be noted that hypotheses about function are probabilistic and may require modification after interventions have been tried (Cone, 1997; Haynes & O'Brien, 1990).
Next, the team must determine a plan of action based on the FBA. Public Law 105-17 refers to this plan of action as a behavior intervention plan. Figure 3 depicts the behavior intervention plan form used in the current approach. The notable difference of this form from other treatment planning forms is the lack of horizontal lines keeping the intervention for a specific goal separate from all other goals and interventions. This is because the goals and interventions are related to each other in a parallel manner as described above. This concept continues in the outcome evaluation section of the form and will be described later. Based on the description of behavior and the description of functions (Figures 1 and 2) the expected outcomes and goals of the plan are itemized. Next, based on the description of the functions of behavior (Figure 2) the specific interventions are delineated. Finally, the person responsible for each intervention and the intervention review date are identified. Figure 6 shows an example of a BIP based on the problem described in Figure 4.
Treatment validity is imperative for successful intervention. This means that a selected treatment is logically related to the functions of the behavior and results in achievement of expected outcomes (Reshley & Ysseldyke, 1995). The professional literature can be consulted to determine if treatments have demonstrated efficacy for the specific function. Dunlop and Childs (1996) conducted a comprehensive review of the literature on treatments selected for students with emotional disabilities based on functional analysis. It was concluded that skills training and consequence-based interventions were most frequently employed. Self-management and antecedent-based interventions were the second most commonly applied with peer mediation being the least frequently used. Results also indicated a downward trend in antecedent- and consequence-based interventions and an upward trend in skills training and self-management interventions from the periods 1980-1986 to 1987-1993. This is consistent with our recommendation that educators should transcend the purely behavioral model that has become synonymous with FBA. It should be pointed out that although Dunlop and Child's (1996) results are promising, frequency of intervention use does not necessarily provide evidence for treatment validity. Rather, research must show the actual efficacy of a treatment for a specific cause.
Next, each team member responsible for a specific treatment must initiate his or her respective portion of the plan. Treatment integrity is a highly important consideration during this phase of the process (Watson, Sterling, & McDade, 1997). Treatment integrity is the degree to which an intervention is conducted correctly and consistently. To prevent treatment integrity problems team members should ask themselves if the prescribed intervention is reasonable to implement given the setting and situation. Treatment integrity also should be considered when examining the outcomes of interventions. That is, if an intervention failed, one should ask if it was implemented correctly and consistently. Treatment integrity can be increased in a number of ways. More experienced members of the team should offer support and training the first time a less experienced teacher attempts to implement a recommendation. Working side-by-side with the teacher can be helpful (Watson et al., 1997). It is important to treatment integrity to collect data other than teacher report while the intervention is being implemented. Independent data may reduce unintentional bias on the part of a teacher and it provides an excellent opportunity to conduct a brief structured behavioral observation in situ.
The final phase is outcome evaluation and maintenance, discontinuance, or modification of the intervention plan. These decisions are based on data. There are several considerations about data collection in the current approach in an effort to strike a balance between reliability, validity, and practicality. First, child study teams should review only necessary and sufficient information to address the effectiveness of interventions. Experimental data collection methods with graphing in reversal designs are typically not reasonable in applied school settings. This is not to say time-series studies and reversal designs should not be applied in research to validate treatments. Rather, we assume that laborious data collection designs with time consuming record keeping tax the resources of the educators, decreasing their availability for what they see as their primary role--teaching. Second, child study teams should spend time on interventions rather than gather more assessment data than necessary. That is, if a treatment is working, it should continue. Third, review existing data such as permanent products, grade books, standardized testing, amount of work turned in, discipline reports, and teacher and parent reports before resorting to more time consuming data collection methods. Finally, conduct structured behavioral observations and student interviews as the first type of data collection when more convenient methods have proven fruitless.
In the current model, when the child study team reconvenes and addresses outcomes, they do so in a holistic, rather than linear, fashion. Figure 3 depicts the place where outcome notes are taken and Figure 6 shows an example of outcomes based on the problem described in Figure 4. The plan can be considered as a whole or different goals can be examined individually. This method is necessary because of the parallel process used to link goals and interventions. For example, an intervention may be working for Goal 1 and not for Goal 2. If the intervention was linearly linked to Goal 2 and the intervention was discontinued because it did not work for that goal, the benefits to Goal 1 would be lost. Also, it is assumed that the team will take narrative notes in the outcome evaluation section to make the BIP more useful to readers who are not part of the team. Often the informal comments about an intervention clarify how and why the intervention is or is not working.
We have reviewed the literature on functional analysis and how it relates to the legal mandate for functional behavioral assessment in schools. It was determined that FBA is a more general process than functional analysis and should include the examination of proximal, distal, physiological, and intrapsychic causes of problem behavior. After reviewing the empirical research on extant methods of FBA and addressing some of their drawbacks we have presented a multimodal, team problem-solving approach for conducting FBA and developing behavior intervention plans in schools. The strengths of this approach are that it provides a procedure to identify the potential functions of a student's behavior and to prescribe interventions from a variety of theoretical orientations. This approach adopts a relatively integrated view of the relationships among behavior, functions, goals and interventions while remaining mindful of the team process used in schools. Finally, data collection and outcome evaluation are defined in ways that can readily be adopted in school settings.
The primary criticism of this approach that we have heard from educators is that it is more "clinical" than "educational." If "educational" means behavioral and limited to classroom variables then we would have to agree. The reality is, however, that the types of behavior problems children are bringing to school will not be solved solely with antecedent- or consequence-based interventions carried out in the classroom. It is imperative that the multiple causes of children's behavior problems be considered and that schools make a concerted effort to provide a variety of services and interventions (e.g., wraparound services) that will afford child study teams with a sufficient range of options to truly help these children.
Jeffrey A. Miller, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of school psychology with Duquesne University. His research interests include functional behavioral assessment and interactional factors that contribute to the development of internalizing emotional disorders in children. Dr. Miller can be reached via e-mail at email@example.com.
Michael Tansy, Ph.D., is a practicing school psychologist and district consultant with the Gilbert School District, Gilbert, AZ. His research interests include functional behavioral assessment and the treatment of emotional problems in school-aged children. Dr. Tansy can be reached via e-mail at email@example.com.
Tammy L. Hughes, M.A., is a doctoral candidate in school psychology with Arizona State University. Her research interests include prediction of violence in school-aged children and diagnosis of learning difficulties in preschool children. Ms. Hughes can be reached via e-mail at email@example.com.
References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the review.
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Clarke, R. T., Schaefer, M., Burchard, J. D., & Welkowitz, J. W. (1992). Wrapping community-based mental health services around children with a severe behavioral disorder: An evaluation of Project Wraparound. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 1, 241-261.
Cone, J. D. (1997). Issues in functional analysis in behavioral assessment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 259-275.
Cosden, M. A., & Semmel, M. I. (1992). Teacher assistance teams: A conceptual and empirical review. Special Services in the Schools, 6, 5-25.
Daly, E. J., Witt, J. C., Martens, B. K., & Dool, E. J. (1997). A model for conducting a functional analysis of academic performance problems. School Psychology Review, 26, 554-574.
Dunlop, G., & Childs, K. E. (1996). Intervention research in emotional and behavioral disorders: An analysis of studies from 1980-1993. Behavioral Disorders, 21, 125-136.
Dunlop, G., Kern, L., dePerczel, M., Clarke, S. C., Wilson, D., Childs, K. E., White, R., & Falk, G. D. (1993). Functional analysis of classroom variables for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 18, 275-291.
Durand, V. M. (1990). Severe behavior problems: A functional communication training approach. New York: Guilford Press.
Eber, L., & Nelson, C. M. (1997). School-based wraparound planning: Integrating services for students with emotional and behavioral needs. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67, 385-395.
Eber, L., Osuch, R., & Redditt, C. A. (1996). School-based applications of the wraparound process: Early results on service provision and student outcomes. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 5, 83-99.
Flannery, K. B., O'Neill, R. E., & Horner, R. H. (1995). Including predictability in functional assessment and individual program development. Education and Treatment of Children, 18, 499-509.
Hagopian, L. P., Fisher, W. W., Thompson, R. H., Owen-DeSchryver, J., Iwata, B. A., & Wacker, D. ( 1997). Toward the development of structured criteria for interpretation of functional analysis data. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 313-326.
Hayes, S. C., & Follette, W. C. (1993). The challenge faced by behavioral assessment. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 9, 182-188.
Haynes, S. N. (1998). The changing nature of behavioral assessment. In A. S. Bellack & M. Hersen (Eds.), Behavioral assessment: A practical handbook (4th ed., pp. 1-21). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Haynes, S. N., Leisen, M. B., & Blaine, D. D. (1997). Design of individualized behavioral treatment programs using functional analytic clinical case models. Psychological Assessment, 9, 334-348.
Haynes, S. N., & O'Brien, W. H. (1990). Functional analysis in behavior therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 649-668.
Hendrickson, J. M., Gable, R. A., Novak, C., & Peck, S. (1996). Functional assessment as strategy assessment for teaching academics. Education and Treatment of Children, 19, 257-271.
Horner, R. H. (1994). Functional assessment: Contributions and future directions. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 401-404.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20, U.S.C, & Sect. 1400, et. seq. (I.D.E.A. 1997).
Iwata, B. A. (1994). Functional analysis methodology: Some closing comments. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 413-418.
Iwata, B. A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K. J., Bauman, K. E., & Richman, G. S. (1982). Toward a functional analysis of self-injury. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 2, 3-20.
Iwata, B. A., Vollmer, T. R., Zarcone, J. R., & Rodgers, T. A. (1993). Treatment classification and selection based on behavioral function. In R. Van Houten & S. Axelrod (Eds.), Behavior analysis and treatment (pp. 101-125). New York: Plenum Press.
Mace, F. C. (1994). The significance and future of functional analysis methodologies. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 385-392.
Martin, G., & Pear, J. (1992). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Nathan, W. A. (1992). Integrated multimodal therapy of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 56, 283-312.
Nezu, A. M., Nezu, C. M., Friedman, S. H., & Haynes, S. N. (1997). Case formulation in behavior therapy: Problem-solving and functional analytic strategies. In T. D. Eells (Ed.), Handbook of psychotherapy case formulation (pp. 368-401). New York: The Guilford Press.
Phillips, V., McCullough, L., Nelson, C. M., & Walker, H. M. (1992). Teamwork among teachers: Promoting a statewide agenda for students at risk for school failure. Special Services in the Schools, 6, 27-50.
Quinn, M. M., Gable, R. A., Rutherford, R. B., Nelson, C. M., & Howell, K. W. (1998). Addressing student problem behavior: An IEP team's introduction to functional behavioral assessment and behavior intervention plans (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: The Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
Repp, A. (1994). Comments on functional analysis procedures for school-based behavior problems. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 409-411.
Reschly, D. J., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (1995). School psychology paradigm shift. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best Practices in School Psychology (3rd ed., pp. 17-31). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.
Ross, R. P. (1995). Best practices in implementing intervention assistance teams. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best Practices in School Psychology (3rd ed., pp. 227-237). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.
Safran, S. P., & Safran, J. S. (1996). Intervention assistance programs and prereferral teams: Directions for the twenty-first century. Remedial and Special Education, 17, 363-369.
Sasso, G. M., Harrell, L. G., & Doelling, J. E. (1997). Functional assessment and treatment of problematic behavior. In P . Zionts (Ed.), Inclusion strategies for students with learning and behavior problems: Perspectives, experiences, and best practices (pp. 197-227). Austin: Pro-Ed.
Schill, M. T., Kratochwill, T. R., & Gardner, W. I. (1996). Conducting a functional analysis of behavior. In M. J. Breen & C. R. Fiedler (Ed.), Behavioral approach to assessment of youth with emotional/behavioral disorders: A handbook for school-based practitioners (pp. 83-179). Austin: Pro-Ed.
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Skiba, R., Waldron, N., Bahamonde, C., & Michalek, D. (1998). A four-step model for functional behavioral assessment. Communique, 26, 24-25.
Sturmey, P. (1996). Functional analysis in clinical psychology. Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons.
Thomas, A. (1997). Functional assessment--not something new. Communique, 26, 5.
Watson, T. S., Sterling, H. E., & McDade, A. (1997). Demythifying behavioral consultation. School Psychology Review, 26, 467-474.
Zins, J. E., & Erchul, W. P. (1995). Best practices in school consultation. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best Practices in School Psychology (3rd ed., pp. 153-159). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.


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Recent Comments made by patootie63, 1261-1280
Comments are a great way to add your own thoughts to things you find on Fold3 or add details that don't seem to fit in the body of a Memorial Page or Spotlight.
Lt Biesecker crew 24 missions (first on 3 nov 43) shoot down on 18 march 44, mission to Berlin/Augsburg aboard 42-37925 "Rick-O-Shay III" 7 kia 3 pow macr 3182
Lt Berryman crew 8 missions hit by flak on 18 march 1945 (mission to Berlin) aboard 43-38600 "No Name Jive" 4 kia 1 pow 4 rtd macr 13138
Lt Bergland crew 30 missions between 18 dec 44 and 17 april 45 first aboard 43-38577 source 379thbga.org website
Lt Bell crew 26 missions between 11 dec 43 and 22 march 44 12 aboard 42-37880 "Liberty Belle-E" source 390th.org website
Lt Baldwin crew 23 missions between 26 feb and 5 may 1945 12 aboard 43-37868 "Gentleman Jim" source 390th.org website
1Lt Baker crew (31 missions between 24 august 1944 and 11 march 1945) source 401bg.org website
1Lt Babcock crew : 37 missions between 25 oct 44 and 8 april 45 source 401bg.org website
Lt Aschenbach crew : 26 missions between 26 nov 44 and 17 april 45 source : 401bg.org
mission of the day : Mannheim
Lt Alberts crew (14 missions between 29 dec 44 and 2 march 45) lost on Dresden aboard 43-39058, on 2 march 45, all returned macr 12847
crewmen : 1Lt Aiken (pilot) 2Lt Henford Jr (copilot) 2Lt Osborne (navigator) 2Lt Benton (bombardier) S/Sgt Barrow (radio) S/Sgt Peterson (engineer) Sgt Baal (ball turret…
1Lt Aiken crew (401st BG 612th BS) 34 missions between 5 aug and 29 dec 44 source : 401bg.org website
Crewmen aboard 42-29664 : P Mitchell, Kirk R., Capt CP Marion, Charles E., Col NAV McElwain, Richard E., 2Lt NAV Summers, Thomas E., 1Lt BOM McCord, Lawrence E., 2Lt ENG Koenig,…
another crewmen aboard 43-37620 this day : 2Lt Hardwick (navigator) 1Lt Blythe (bombardier)
lead crew : pilot : Col Stevens copilot : Capt James navigator : Capt Strickland navigator : Lt Scroggins bombardier : Lt Butt engineer : T/Sgt Scheuerer tail gunner : S/Sgt…
other crewmen (not in order, front row : T/Sgt Arter : engineer S/Sgt May : ball turret gunner S/Sgt Micek : left waist gunner S/Sgt Keaton : right waist gunner
Mission to Kassel (28 july 43, not credited)
20 january 1944 : "Hell's Angels" 41-24577, returns to United States twelve men aboard for the trip home
Lt Bingham crew 32 missions between 11 jan and 19 june 44 (20 aboard "Hell's Angel out of Chute 13" source 401bg.org website
12 july 1944 (mission to Munich) Lt Hill crash landed "Mollita" (#2 engine out, tanks on empty) crew safe
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KEITH E. GNIRS, 80, of Interlochen, passed away peacefully on Saturday, Aug. 3, 2013, at his residence with his wife by his side.
Visitation will be held today, Aug. 5, from 4 to 7 p.m. at Redeemer Lutheran Church. A memorial service will be held on Tuesday, Aug. 6, at noon at the church. Military honors will be provided following the service by Cherryland VFW Post #2780.
The family is being served by the Reynolds-Jonkhoff Funeral Home and Cremation Services.
BARBARA (BACHANT) LYMAN, 94, formerly of Traverse City, died July 16, 2013, in Lansing.
No services will be held at this time.
CHARLES J. STEVENS, 81, of Williamsburg, died Sunday, Aug. 4, 2013.
A memorial service will be scheduled for later this week.
Arrangements are pending with the Reynolds-Jonkhoff Funeral Home.
CAROLYN JEAN WEAVER, 76, of Benzonia, passed Sunday, Aug. 4, 2013, peacefully at home.
A celebration of Carolyn's life will be Saturday, Aug. 10, at her home with family and friends. Arrangements by Jowett Family Funeral Homes & Cremation Service.
RICHARD VIRGIL WILSON, 86, of Traverse City, formerly of Lake City, died Sunday, Aug. 4, 2013, at Munson Hospice House.
Cremation will take place. Private family services will be held.
The family chose Life Story Funeral Home, Traverse City, to handle the arrangements.


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CAVE CITY — A Cave City man was arrested Saturday in connection with a break-in at a Cave City attraction.
Capt. Danny Coomer with the Cave City Police Department received a call Saturday in reference to a break-in at Guntown Mountain. When Coomer and other police officers with the Cave City Police Department arrived on the scene, they found a window had been broken and a door was open. They also discovered a medical card with Carl P. Gifford's name on it, according to a Cave City Police Department press release.
Upon further investigation, police located Gifford, 22, at the Star Motel at 908 S. Dixie Highway. Gifford was questioned about the break-in and admitted to the crime. He also admitted to several other break-ins that have occurred throughout the city over the past few months, the press release stated.
Other businesses where break-ins had occurred are Junior Poynter Distributors and the T&N Laundromat on S. Dixie Highway. Gifford was accompanied by two juveniles, the press release stated.
Gifford was charged with third-degree burglary, theft by unlawful taking under $500 (auto) and criminal mischief. He was lodged in the Barren County Detention Center. A bond for Gifford was pending at press time.
Cave City police are continuing their investigation regarding the break-ins and more arrests are expected, the press release stated.


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Velvet Furniture Protectors
Service Bar on Ice
These voile panels are perfect for adding style and privacy to your porch, patio or gazebo! Flowing curtain panels are designed to withstand rain, wind and sun. Durable polyester voile fabric is mildew-resistant, water-repellant and UV-protected—they'll look great for years—indoors or out. The lovely leaf and vine motif panels have silver metal grommets, making them a cinch to hang and adjust. Machine washable 54"-wide, sold individually. Imported. Choose from Blue, Khaki, or Green.
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INCLUDED IN Tech Music Pack Vol.1
Instrumental drum and bass track with funk guitar and electronic elements that signify a start to a technology oriented show.
The track has been mastered not by me, but by a professional mastering engineer and is ready for broadcast.Zip Contains:
DnB_Opener - 00:53
Delivered in both wav and mp3 format.
1. Motivate Me
2. Skynet Particles Logo
3. Morale Lift
4. Fashion Show Disco Bus
5. New Day
6. Crystal Timelapse
7. Future Tech Talk
8. Troytek
9. Hip Hop Beat 2


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This is an update to a tip from last March. For those of you who have gotten Microsoft Office 2010, and want to keep on using those handy pushpins to nail down your oft-used documents, here is how to find them again:
You will see all of the recent (or currently open) documents. "Nail" the ones that you want to access easily by clicking the pushpins to the right. The document will immediately be transferred to the top of the list and the Pushpin will be pushed in next to it! The next time you want to access a favorite file, just go back to Recent and click that file.
Computer Tutorials
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University of Charleston · 2300 MacCorkle Ave SE · Charleston, WV 25304 · 1-800-995-4682 (GO UC)
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The University of Charleston is Accredited by the Higher Learning Commission.


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I've been looking for a decent inexpensive gaming headset for a couple years now, and thought I'd share some thoughts on my latest find. I have a few requirements, nothing outrageous.
- Wireless
- Good Sound
- needs to work with PS3, XBOX, PC and Mac
- needs to have a microphone for online gaming on the PC and Mac
- Inexpensive, under a couple hundred bucks
- Comfortable
I don't really do online gaming on my consoles, mostly that's on the computers as that's where most of my friends are. I do some online stuff occasionally on the PS3, but never on the XBOX as I don't pay for Gold membership.
So I've been through my share headsets, and while I won't list them all out here I'll note that I've been through all the usual suspects from companies like Turtle Beach as well as many of the lesser brands and even the original Sony Wireless headset that came out last year. I've not tried the more expensive models by Astra as they're out of my budget, but that's about all I haven't tried. Some are better than others, but all the models I tried had flaws that prevented them from meeting at least one of my criteria.
Enter the Sony Pulse headset. I did some initial research and this ticked all the boxes on paper, so I picked this up at Best Buy for $150 the other day. I've been testing it out and am very impressed with it. These are great for gaming, localization of sounds is very well done and impact is very good as well. These may not be as localized as some of the true 5.1 headsets that I've tried, but sound quality is much better and overall I get a much more immersive realistic sound.
It's not only great as a gaming headset, but respectable for music playback as well. Even as a pair of regular headphones with no other features or functionality, you could do alot worse for $150. This is not an audiophile grade headphone for music playback and isn't on par with my PSB 'portable' headphones and certainly nowhere near my Senns, but it performs quite well and really just as good as anything at the $150 price that I've heard. I have cans that are better suited for music playback, but if you're wanting a good all-rounder, this is a great choice.
It has dual functionality as both a wireless headset with a built in rechargeable battery AND has a regular 3.5mm jack and will work in passive mode when using that jack. For wireless mode it comes with a small USB stick that acts as the transmitter, you just plug that stick into your PS3, PC or Mac and it works with no driver install or anything of the sort.
Another really cool feature is that the USB stick also has a 3.5 jack and will wireless transmit whatever is being fed into that jack, and the great thing is it doesn't matter what you plug the USB stick into as long as it has power. So you can plug this into your iPod headphone jack, plug the USB into, say, a wall charger, and then wirelessly transmit your music to the headphone. Maybe I'm just an easy sell, but that's brilliant. Where it matters more to me is in using these with the XBOX 360. Since M$ uses a proprietary wireless tech instead of bluetooth on their console, these don't work with the USB stick on the XBOX, BUT I just run the headphone cable out of the audio port on the XBOX and plug it into the USB stick and BAM, wireless functionality even on the XBOX.
These also have a thing called BassImpact which is like a rumble pad on your ears, but I've not been able to get used to that yet and leave that turned off. They also have preset modes for music, movies and different types of games and I've not experimented with those yet either. They also have a virtual surround sound setting for movies that alot of people seem to like, but I won't be using these in that manner and have not tested this yet either. Apparently they get 7.1 support on BD movies with the latest PS3 firmware patch, again not tested on my end. All that 'stuff' are really the selling points for most people, and I'm not using a bit of it. The fact that I'm still thrilled with them at the $150 price point WITHOUT using those features should tell you something, if any of those features appeals to you then it's an even more impressive set.
All the stuff above is on the right ear. On the left ear is the volume control, on/off switch, mic on/off, a slider that adjusts between voice and game volumes, 3.5mm jack and finally the USB charging port. The Mic is built into the headset and works well, there is no boom mic like on the last set.
They are comfortable and are built very well, these are MUCH better designed and built than the previous version Sony released last year. If I had to nitpick, I'd prefer a headband with more padding. The one here is not bad at all, and my hair is very closely cut (almost shaved) so I'm worst case scenario, but I prefer a solid headband vs the split type that they used. Sony doesn't toss a USB charging cable in the box which is a bit curious. I realize that everyone has these cables laying around these days, including all the PS3 owners that these are primarily designed for, but I'd still argue that a cable should be in the box.
So there are my impressions. I'm very impressed and think this is a brilliant product for its intended purpose and price point.


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The history of keeping cool
Published On: Jul 18 2012 11:24:26 AM CDT Updated On: Jul 16 2013 08:59:54 AM CDT
With temps on the rise nationwide, look back at the ways humans have tried to stay cool through the centuries.
The views expressed are not those of this company or its affiliated companies. Please note by clicking on "Post" you acknowledge that you have read the Terms Of Service and the comment you are posting is in compliance with such terms. Due to a technical change, all comments posted before February 26, 2014 no longer appear on News8000.com. Comments posted after February 26 are not impacted.


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Antonio Di Natale has backed Roberto Pereyra to star for Juventus ahead of his proposed move to the Italian champions.
Oklahoma City Thunder have claimed their seventh NBA victory in a row with a 114-108 win over the Los Angeles Lakers.Oklahoma City blitzed the second quarter, scoring 41 to 26 for the term, with Kevin Durant scoring 14 points for the home side as they jumped out to a 67-53 lead at half-time.
|Hamilton sets the pace in Hungary
|Iniesta: Suarez has talent to restore Barca glory
|Jadeja fined after Anderson spat
|Cerci in charge of his future, says Cairo
|West Ham target new striker
|McIlroy aims to build on Open success
|Pardew hopeful over De Jong
|Rodgers expects new Gerrard deal
|Jones: United embracing Van Gaal methods
|Henry: Time had come to sell Suarez
|Brunt eyes new West Brom deal
|Arsenal´s World Cup winners to miss league opener
|Blue Jays blank Red Sox in rout
|Modric hails Rodriguez, Kroos signings
|Cech does not want bench role
|Inzaghi blames fatigue for Milan loss
|Real´s time to shine, says Ancelotti
|Real Salt Lake 3 Montreal Impact 1: Garcia stars in Utah
|De Bakker stuns Anderson, Isner survives
|Downing: Carroll injury a ´big blow´
|Granollers, Monaco look for form
|Irvine: I have not seen Ideye play live
|Olympiacos triumph in Toronto
|Giggs likens Van Gaal to Ferguson
|Copa do Brasil Review: Corinthians among trio on the verge of progression
|Bouchard withdraws from Citi Open
|Hamilton expects to extend Mercedes contract
|French pair engaged in Tour podium battle
|Putnam, Petrovic share lead in Quebec
|Blanc: World Cup stars will move on
|Pinto steps down as Costa Rica coach
|Mourinho planning Drogba swoop
|UEFA Europa League Review: Rosenborg complete comeback to see off Sligo
|Mathieu out to enjoy Barcelona move
|Mandzukic not Diego Costa´s replacement
|Wiggins set to quit ´cut-throat´ road cycling
|Australia clinch team pursuit as Scots taste success in the pool
|Eliseu returns to Portugal with Benfica
|Majka eyes future Tour triumph
|Fognini conquers Montanes to reach last eight
|Sanabria makes Roma switch
|Carroll to miss start of season
|Vidal: I´m not going to Manchester
|Youzhny, Haase through as rain frustrates Verdasco
|Xavi staying at Barcelona
|Rice handed two-game suspension
|Hayden to miss two MotoGPs
|New ball the key for South Africa, says Donald
|Defending champion Phillips out to prove his quality
|Hannover complete Gulselam signing
|Nibali ´in control of the Tour´
|Bangladesh include Rubel, Imrul in ODI squad for Sri Lanka
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text:
Commonwealth Journal
September 17, 2013
Fountain Square Soap Opera
Somerset Police taking sudsy fountain seriously
by Chris Harris
Commonwealth Journal
Somerset —
Bubble bubble, toil and trouble.
The common malapropism of a familiar line from Shakespeare's "Macbeth" was applicable to the scene in downtown Somerset Monday morning, as the new Fountain Square received its maiden sudsing.
Tiffany Bourne, Pulaski County's Community Development Director, was the one to oversee the project and has taken great pride in the new-look fountain. Still, she took the prank in stride.
"Kids will be kids," she said. "It's a local tradition. It didn't hurt my feelings any.
"Back in high school, with the seniors and the sports teams, I can't lie, we did it too," she added. "It's just a part of Somerset."
Indeed, for decades, idle hands made detergent their playthings. A favorite pastime of local teens has been putting soap in the fountain on the town square, causing a massive amount of white, fluffy bubbles to materialize in the shallow pool.
It's proven mostly harmless, with only a bit of trouble on the part of those tasked with removing the bubbles, but still, it was a rite of passage Bourne had hoped to prevent.
Bourne had billed the new fountain — part of a million-dollar square overhaul scheduled to be officially unveiled October 4; the fountain actually started flowing in mid-August — as having "anti-suds technology."
Inserted into the water was a special chemical substance that would "eat" the bubbles, as Bourne put it.
Ideally, the suds-dissipation would take about an hour. Bourne noted that it took a little bit longer Monday, however. Work crews even took to blowing some of the bubbles out with lawn equipment to hurry along the removal.
"It's a bigger pool than the one (engineers) had been testing it in," said Bourne.
Still, "if we didn't have it in there, the bubbles probably would have flowed into the streets," she added. "(The chemicals) kept it contained."
Even though Bourne was expecting the sudsing to eventually happen, it's still not something that's okay to do. Bourne said the county does have cameras positioned to observe anyone involved in such monkeyshines, and is actually in the process of putting better cameras in place.
Plus, shampooing the fountain is a criminal offense — seriously. Capt. Shannon Smith of the Somerset Police Department could warrant a misdemeanor charge of disorderly conduct for those responsible. However, he believed it might be more likely to draw a charge of criminal mischief — a felony.
"(The fountain) is so large, it could do a lot of damage," said Smith. And it's expensive — so keep in mind that anything worth more than $1,000 in destruction could fetch a penalty of one to five years in jail.
Smith said his department has received about 10 to 12 complaints since the fountain opened about people climbing on it, wading in the pool, and general horseplay around the fountain.
It's dangerous, he noted, because there are lights in the fountain — and water and electricity prove a dangerous combination. If something went wrong, somebody could be severely injured or even die.
"People dangling their feet in (the water) don't realize the dangers," said Smith, who suggested signs posted around the fountain warning citizens not to get in the water would be helpful.
Still, even Smith knows people are going to do just that — and this most recent sudsing likely won't be the last.
"I was just driving to work and saw it going around the square like anybody else did," said Bourne. "I was just waiting for it to happen."


text:
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Shows how to illustrate and communicate ideas with this powerful diagramming tool for the Mac.
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text:
This autumn the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek will show more than 50 of the artist's masterpieces with motifs from Tahiti – many of them being exhibited in Denmark for the first time. In addition, the Glyptotek will present around 60 artifacts of Polynesian culture, which inspired him: cult statues, weapons, jewellery (some of it made from human hair and bones) as well as tattoos.
"Gauguin & Polynesia" pursues the artist's idea of the primitive, from his time in Copenhagen and Brittany on to the Tahiti period, which has made him famous.
Oviri – the Wild Man
Gauguin often referred to himself as 'Oviri' – the wild man. He invented and refined his own form of "primitive" art, equal parts abstraction and observation of the natural world. The exhibition displays his intense quest for an artistic method of making statements about the human being, the erotic and the mysteries of life.
An icon for the future
Posterity has shown enormous interest in Gauguin's art, his personality and his life. His pictures from Tahiti are today icons of the meeting of European art with alien cultures, and he inspired such painters as Picasso and Matisse. With Gauguin art becomes seriously modern.
The exhibition has been realised in collaboration between the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Seattle Art Museum and Art Centre Basel.
The exhibition has been realised with support from A.P. Møller og Hustru Chastine McKinney Møllers Fond til Almene Formaal and FERRING Pharmaceuticals.
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The exhibition catalogue was financed by OAK Foundation Danmark.
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The Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek has cooperated on the presentation of the exhibition with the French Embassy in Copenhagen.


text:
$35 Worth of Makeup from E.L.F for $15
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The best deals can go quickly and don't always last as long as we first thought. Prices and inventory can be very fluid. There are many great deals that are still active.
See more active Groupon Deals or deals filed under: Health & Beauty, Beauty
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text:
Lockport Union-Sun & Journal — Two men were arrested after accusing each other of mischief in a Minnick Road trailer park Wednesday morning.
Peter A. Wolcott, 35, 1778 Lockport-Olcott Road, Burt, was charged with third-degree criminal mischief, after he was accused of damaging a headlight on a vehicle owned by Ray S. Brocklebank.
Brocklebank, 54, 6763 Minnick Road, lot 93, was charged with second-degree reckless endangerment. He's accused of swerving his vehicle toward Wolcott, who was walking on Chickadee Drive in the park around 9:20 a.m.
Brocklebank told a Niagara County Sheriff's deputy that Wolcott ran into the roadway in front of his moving vehicle, and kicked the vehicle as Brocklebank drove past him.
Wolcott told the deputy that he was walking on the side of the road and Brocklebank's vehicle swerved toward him. Wolcott said he tried to jump out of the way and the vehicle struck his right knee. The deputy wrote in his report that Wolcott did not appear to have suffered any injury, or even redness on his knee.
A witness told the deputy that Brocklebank's vehicle did appear to swerve toward a walking Wolcott, and that it looked like Wolcott used his foot to push off of the vehicle, the report said.
Wolcott was held at Niagara County Jail in lieu of $750 police bail on Wednesday. Brocklebank was held on $500 bail. Both were to be in Lockport town court today.


text:
CLAREMORE — During a traffic stop Sunday on Interstate 44, Rogers County Deputy Nate Cooper and K-9 companion Sandy found more than $50,000 in cash, sorted in $1,000 increments.
The vacuum-sealed bundles were discovered after Deputy Cooper pulled over a truck for a traffic violation.
Cooper said he ended up locating the two bundles in the microwave of the sleeper cab.
No additional cash or drugs were found.
The K-9 interdiction program has been in operation less than a year and makes close to 30 stops a day.
"Since the program began, we have successfully seized drugs, illegal guns, stopped a human smuggling ring and arrested many wanted felons, including a man from Florida who was featured on America's Most Wanted," said Walton. "Three months ago during a stop, deputies seized nearly $30,000 in cash.
In addition to interstate assistance, K-9 officer Sandy performs drug searches at schools and businesses that are worried about drugs in the workplace.
Walton said company vehicles have been brought in before because managers were suspicious of their employees using drugs.
"The style of investigation is always changing," he said. "We work with CPD and TPD because we have to stay connected to what's going on around us."
Nearly 80 percent of the proceeds from seized cash, illegal guns or vehicles goes to the RCSO for expenses, however Walton said that's not why deputies are making the stops.
"When people see us out on the highways it's not to generate revenue, we're trying to stop illegal drugs and money from coming through our county."


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text:
Documentation Center
This example shows you how to use the Legacy Code Tool to integrate legacy C functions with instance specific persistent memory.
The Legacy Code Tool allows you to:
Provide the legacy function specification,
Generate a C-MEX S-function that is used during simulation to call the legacy code, and
Compile and build the generated S-function for simulation.
|On this page…
Providing the Legacy Function Specification
Generating and compiling an S-Function for Use During Simulation
Generating an rtwmakecfg.m File for Code Generation
Generating a masked S-Function block for calling the generated S-Function
Providing the Legacy Function Specification
Functions provided with the Legacy Code Tool take a specific data structure or array of structures as the argument. The data structure is initialized by calling the function legacy_code() using 'initialize' as the first input. After initializing the structure, you have to assign its properties to values corresponding to the legacy code being integrated. For detailed help on the properties, call legacy_code('help')legacy_code('help'). The prototype of the legacy functions being called in this example are:
void memory_bus_init(COUNTERBUS *mem, int32_T upper_sat, int32_T lower_sat);
void memory_bus_step(COUNTERBUS *input, COUNTERBUS *mem, COUNTERBUS *output);
where mem is an instance specific persistent memory for applying a one integration step delay. COUNTERBUS is a struct typedef defined in counterbus.hcounterbus.h and implemented with a Simulink®. Bus object in the base workspace. The legacy source code is found in the files memory_bus.hmemory_bus.h, and memory_bus.cmemory_bus.c.
evalin('base','load sldemo_lct_data.mat') % sldemo_sfun_work def = legacy_code('initialize'); def.SFunctionName = 'sldemo_sfun_work'; def.InitializeConditionsFcnSpec = 'void memory_bus_init(COUNTERBUS work1[1], int32 p1, int32 p2)'; def.OutputFcnSpec = 'void memory_bus_step(COUNTERBUS u1[1], COUNTERBUS work1[1], COUNTERBUS y1[1])'; def.HeaderFiles = {'memory_bus.h'}; def.SourceFiles = {'memory_bus.c'}; def.IncPaths = {'sldemo_lct_src'}; def.SrcPaths = {'sldemo_lct_src'};
Generating and compiling an S-Function for Use During Simulation
The function legacy_code() is called again with the first input set to 'generate_for_sim' in order to automatically generate and compile the C-MEX S-function according to the description provided by the input argument 'def'. This S-function is used to call the legacy functions in simulation. The source code for the S-function is found in the file sldemo_sfun_work.csldemo_sfun_work.c.
legacy_code('generate_for_sim', def);
### Start Compiling sldemo_sfun_work mex('-I/mathworks/devel/bat/R2014ad/build/matlab/toolbox/simulink/simdemos/simfeatures/sldemo_lct_src', '-I/tmp/R2014ad_357_3462/tp7f48c22b_e06e_40d5_add9_e2abf4974325', '-c', '-outdir', '/tmp/R2014ad_357_3462/tpce7e57a3_19b7_4fb0_9ccc_e6fe9ba0a8ac', '/mathworks/devel/bat/R2014ad/build/matlab/toolbox/simulink/simdemos/simfeatures/sldemo_lct_src/memory_bus.c') Building with 'gcc'. MEX completed successfully. mex('sldemo_sfun_work.c', '-I/mathworks/devel/bat/R2014ad/build/matlab/toolbox/simulink/simdemos/simfeatures/sldemo_lct_src', '-I/tmp/R2014ad_357_3462/tp7f48c22b_e06e_40d5_add9_e2abf4974325', '/tmp/R2014ad_357_3462/tpce7e57a3_19b7_4fb0_9ccc_e6fe9ba0a8ac/memory_bus.o') Building with 'gcc'. MEX completed successfully. ### Finish Compiling sldemo_sfun_work ### Exit
Generating an rtwmakecfg.m File for Code Generation
After the TLC block file is created, the function legacy_code() can be called again with the first input set to 'rtwmakecfg_generate' in order to generate an rtwmakecfg.m file to support code generation through Simulink® Coder™. Generate the rtwmakecfg.m file if the required source and header files for the S-functions are not in the same directory as the S-functions, and you want to add these dependencies in the makefile produced during code generation.
Note: Complete this step only if you are going to simulate the model in accelerated mode.
legacy_code('rtwmakecfg_generate', def);
Generating a masked S-Function block for calling the generated S-Function
After the C-MEX S-function source is compiled, the function legacy_code() can be called again with the first input set to 'slblock_generate' in order to generate a masked S-function block that is configured to call that S-function. The block is placed in a new model and can be copied to an existing model.
% legacy_code('slblock_generate', def);
Demoing the Generated Integration with Legacy Code
The model sldemo_lct_worksldemo_lct_work shows integration with the legacy code. The subsystem memory_bus serves as a harness for the call to the legacy C function.
open_system('sldemo_lct_work') open_system('sldemo_lct_work/memory_bus') sim('sldemo_lct_work')


text: During the presidential and vice presidential debates in October, The Times gathered luminaries from the left and right to opine in real time about the candidates' positions and performances. On election day, we've invited them back one more time to leave us with some final thoughts about the campaign season that's come to close at long last. With their decisions made and our ballots cast, here are a few of our opinionators' last words.


text:
Collegiate Bests:
3000m: 8:44.83
5000m: 14:58.45
10,000m: 30:58.89
5000m: 16:04.62
8000m: 25:29.60
2011 Track:
Placed fourth in the 5000m run at the Kent Taylor Relays on UNC's campus.
2010 Track
Set a new personal best in the 10,000m with a second place time of 30:58.89 at the FSU Relays.
Crossed the line in 31:13.01, finishing 18th in the 10,000m at the ACC Outdoor Championships.
Broke the 15-minute barrier for the first time in the 5000m with a 14:58.45 finish at the Georgia Tech Invitational.
Battled to finish the 3000m in a time of 8:44.83 at the Rod McCravy Memorial.
2009 Cross Country
Placed 20th with a time of 20:03 at the Covered Bridge Open.
Finished eighth at the FSU Invitational with a time of 25:52.03.
Set a personal best with his 65th place finish time of 25:29.60 in the 8K at the ACC Championships.
2008 Country
Finished in the top 15 of the FHSAA 3A Cross Country Championships his last two seasons at Ft. Myers.
Best finish was eighth-place his junior year in the championships.
Won a pair of district titles and was the regional runner-up his senior season.
Posted the best 5K time of his career, a 16:04.62, at the FACA All-Star Meet.
Earned All-State honors in track his senior year crossing the line sixth with a personal-best 9:41.14 in the 3200m at the FHSAA 3A meet.
Born on March 12, 1990...Majoring in Athletic Training.


text:
ST. PAUL — Minnesota sheriffs have issued a record number of permits to people who want to carry handguns in public, with 31,657 permits granted in 2012.
That's a near 50 percent spike from recent years. In 2011, there were just shy of 21,000 five-year permits issued.
An annual report by the Bureau of Criminal Apprehension that tallies the permit data was released Friday. It includes a county-by-county breakdown of permit holders.
Permits to carry a handgun were up in most Mankato area counties for 2012, compared to one year earlier.
Blue Earth County permits were up 30 percent from total permits of 755 in 2011 to 981 in 2012.
Brown County permits went from 285 to 259, though 86 were pending. If the vast majority of the pending were approved — the most likely case — the gain would be about 20 percent.
Faribault County valid permits went from 251 in 2011 to 323 in 2012, a gain of 28 percent.
Le Sueur County permits went form 439 to 550, a gain of 25 percent.
Nicollet County valid permits were 358 in 2011 and 439 in 2012, a gain of 23 percent.
Martin County permits went from 254 to 345, a gain of 36 percent.
Sibley County permits went from 265 to 328, a gain of 24 percent. Waseca County permits went from 250 to 294, a 17 percent gain and Watonwan County permits went from 176 to 214, a gain of 22 percent.
Total valid permits statewide were 114,793 at the end of 2012, a gain of about 26 percent.
Last year, there were 33,816 requests for permits. Fewer than 300 were denied and roughly 1,800 applications were pending when the report was produced.
The Associated Press contributed to this article.


text:
You might know Hot Sugar as the dude who produced a good chunk of the beats on Big Baby Gandhi's NO1 2 LOOK UP 2 mixtape. He's got his own EP coming out May 15th on Ninja Tune. That release's first single, "#MindControl," teeters drunkenly between futuristic ragga and spaced-out juke before launching into full-on overdrive mode, sounding not unlike something out of Bristol. Stream the track below and then journey over to Vimeo to watch its accompanying video, featuring weird wizard penis.
Stream: Hot Sugar, "#MindControl"


text:
DJ Mr. Jonathan Toubin
North America's most popular soul party DJ, Mr. Jonathan Toubin, isn't only known his wildly unique 45rpm "maximum rock and soul" sets, but also for throwing legendary parties like Soul Clap and Dance-Off, Shakin' All Over Under Sideways Down, the Happening, Polyglot Discotheque Declassified, and, most recently, his floating get-down "Ya Ya" Yacht. In only a few short years, this former writer, musician, and record label proprietor's relentless labors (300+ action-packed annual gigs!) haven't only sparked and spearheaded the emerging NYC rock and roll underground dance party scene, but have recently been planting seeds and changing nightlife around the globe – from art galleries to rock venues to discos to major music festivals.


text:
Team USA's Jamie Greubel, now competing in Sochi, Russia, games, earned her master's in elementary education here.
Friday, February 07, 2014
Update: Jamie Greubel and teammate Aja Evans won the bronze medal. Read the CBS News coverage.This month, however, she's pursuing Olympic Gold as a member of the TeamUSA bobsled/skeleton contingent in Sochi, Russia.
Greubel, 30, was a heptathlete during her undergraduate days at Cornell University and became a member of the U.S. bobsled team in 2009, first as a brakeman then as a driver on a two-woman sled.
A native of Newtown, Pa., Greubel as of last month was the points leader among U.S. women's bobsled drivers, and is the second-ranked driver in the world. Greubel has won five World Cup medals in the sport. The U.S. women have won a medal in every Olympic Winter Games since the sport was introduced in 2012, according to the TeamUSA website.
Her first few experiences in the sled ignited her desire for Olympic competition, even while she was studying elementary education.
"I definitely knew that's what I wanted to pursue when I was done with grad school," said Greubel in a quote on the TeamUSA website.
"Jamie Greubel's career path — in this case, literally an icy slide toward Olympic glory — builds on what we expect from our graduate students," said Jonathon "Jack" Gillette, dean of Lesley University's Graduate School of Education, "determination, resilience and a desire to always improve.
"We are all pulling for her and admire her pursuit of a dream. This is an especially exciting time at Lesley."
Eye-catching crane keeps construction in full swing on Lunder Arts Center
Doris Kearns Goodwin transfixes audience with humor, human side of legendary presidents
Unique science and service semester in Guyana wins national award
Lesley wins top prize for eco-friendly commuting from Green Streets Initiative
View all News
Three Interesting, Maybe Conflicting Ideas from Boston's SXSWedu Meetup
Professor Sue Cusack speaks about Lesley's innovative technology partnership with Kennedy-Longfellow SchoolWBUR | Learning LabJuly 11, 2014
Artist Adam O'Day Wins Boston's "Portrait of a City" Competition
Lesley alumnus Adam O'Day, who earned his BFA in illustration and design, wins Boston's "Portrait of a City" competition Boston Magazine July 8, 2014
San Anselmo arts veteran named head of Marin Center
Lesley alumna Gabriella Calicchio, who most recently served as chief executive of the Walt Disney Family Museum, will head California's Marin Center. Marin News July 8, 2014
'Transit' Captures the Spirit of Boston & Wins the Portrait of a City Competition
Artist Adam O'Day, who holds a BFA from Lesley's College of Art and Design, won Boston's "Portrait of a City" contest BostInno July 8, 2014
Woods Gallery shows off 'Wastelands'
Soviet-born artist Marat Paransky, who holds an MFA from Lesley, stages a new exhibition of art made from materials that would otherwise be thrown away Daily Tribune July 7, 2014
John SullivanDirector of email@example.com
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Lesley UniversityOffice of Communications29 Everett StreetCambridge, MA 02138Phone: 617.349.8579Fax: 617.349.8522Email


text:
Join with like-minded friends to celebrate this important day. December 21, the winter solstice is also the end of Mayan calendar. Celebrate the rebirth of consciousness and respect for mother earth as we drum, eat together, share visions and hopes for a new world and listen to wisdom from all ages.
Call Cameron at 914 589 6744 for more information.