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It seems as though we have been celebrating the 40th anniversary of Star Wars for months now, but this Thursday, May 25 marks the actual 40 year mark since the original release of Star Wars in theaters. So it should come as no surprise that the Disney Store is celebrating the occasion with collectible merchandise. Thanks to Yahoo Movies, we have the first look at the lineup that will be available at Disney Stores on Thursday.
Han Solo and Luke Skywalker Elite Series Die-Cast Action Figures
These fully articulated deluxe 6-inch die-cast figures allow fans to fans to recreate the famous scene where the heroes disguise themselves as Stormtroopers to rescue Leia from the Death Star. Each $49.95 set includes both Han and Luke with detachable Stormtrooper helmets, two blasters, and two standing bases.
Tsum Tsum Plush Set
Luke, Leia, Han, and Artoo are all kinds of adorable in this special set of 2 ½-inch Tsum Tsums, Disney's uber-popular line of plushies. The $19.95 collection comes in a box designed after the Millennium Falcon.
Limited-Edition Ornament Set
Have your own Star Wars Holiday Special with this limited-edition set of six ornaments featuring A New Hope characters: Luke, Leia, Han, Chewie, Darth Vader, and R2-D2/C-3PO. Available for $59.95, there will only be 2,700 of these sets available. (Note: I have seen this ornament set available at the Galactic Outpost at Disney Springs already this week)
Luke Skywalker and Princess Leia Limited-Edition Figurine
Striking the classic poster pose, this $249.95 Luke Skywalker and Princess Leia resin statuette has been limited to 1,250 copies. Each box comes with a certificate of authenticity.
Lithograph Set
This collection includes reproductions of five vintage A New Hope posters from around the world. The lithograph set, limited to a run of 3,300, will be available for $39.95. Each print comes packaged in a glossy, embossed envelope within reusable clear plastic folio.
Limited-Edition Pin Set
This quartet of jumbo-size pins includes Luke Skywalker, Princess Leia, Darth Vader, and the 40th anniversary logo. Each has a brushes-steel finish and a Mickey-shaped pinback, and Disney has limited the set to 1,250 units. The $79.95 collection comes packaged in a commemorative display box.


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My Review
Rebecca thought she had life sorted out; she's married, well off, and has time to pursue her interests, but that all changes when a sudden psychic connection with a man across the country shows her a life she's been missing. Dylan is struggling to not let past mistakes and bad habits mess up the life he's finally scrapped together so he's thrown for a loop when he begins seeing things through Rebecca's eyes and visa versa. I absolutely loved the concept of In Your Eyes and was pleasantly surprised by how much I enjoyed it. It's a perfect blend of romance, comedy, and fantasy and the integration of the physic connection was so perfect that I felt like this could really happen to someone.
I quickly added Michael Stahl-David, who plays Dylan, to my list of celebrity crushes because he completely captivated me throughout. There was just something about his smile that was so sweet and attractive. Dylan was a wonderful "normal guy" hero in that he works a regular job, he lives in a trailer, and he hangs out at the local bar. He's the type of guy most women would actually meet and fall for and this was so appealing for me. Both Dylan and Rebecca, played by Zoe Kazan, do a great job of creating real chemistry between their characters even though they spend almost all their time apart. As they start to become friends they find acceptance from the other that's missing in their regular lives. I found myself with a big goofy grin on my face so many times because Dylan and Rebecca were just so cute together. And once they begin to acknowledge their feelings for each other things really start to heat up and we'll just say there is a very steamy, psychic love scene that had me fanning my face afterward.
I will provide one viewer warning that technically Rebecca is cheating on her husband but I thought it was handled very well. It's clear that Rebecca isn't happy and while something like cheating is a big no for me in romance novels, I'm a little more lenient in movies (don't ask why because I honestly don't know).
Released April 2014

subset: commoncrawl


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The Austin Board of Realtors (ABoR) released May's Austin-area statistics a few days ago and this infographic will give you a quick idea of the findings!
Last month, Austin had yet another record-setting May with median home prices rising to $271,000. (Last May, median home prices were just under $249K) Essentially, for those of you who said last year that you would wait till next year to buy- you'll be needing to pay $22,000 more for the same house! The average (sold) home price in May was $348,201.
According to the same report, only 25% of single-family home options in our Central Texas region were under $200,000. Something tells me that percentage is even smaller in Austin proper.
Barb Cooper, 2015 President of the Austin Board of REALTORS¨, explained, "Affordability remains an issue across the region, identifying a need for Central Texas to address the "missing middle" with an influx of diverse housing stock."
Often times, when I tell people I'm in real estate, they respond with something like "Oh wow! Austin is such a great market to be in!" I guess that depends on who you are. Ask the hard-working guy trying to buy a home in south Austin for under $200K and he'll tell you "This market freaking sucks." So, what is there to be done? We'll save that for next week…
Barrett Raven


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Pastor brown & pastor Zach, InstructoRs
September 18-November 27, Tuesdays 6-7:30p
We all start somewhere. Even the most scholarly theologians at one time had to learn the basics of the Bible If you're new to Christianity or church, or just wanting to brush up on the fundamentals of faith, we'd love to have you join us at one of our discipleship.101 session. Join with others who are asking the same questions as you and find answers in God's Word.
Bethany's pastors teach discipleship.101 with a goal of meeting you where you are and helping you begin or develop your connection to Jesus. This eleven-week class also serves as a membership class at Bethany, so those who complete it will be eligible to take the next step of membership at Bethany.
Our next session of discipleship.101 runs September 18-November 27.
Click below to register for discipleship.101.


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The Spa at Beverly Wilshire, Beverly Hills (A Four Seasons Hotel) welcomes busy brides to its calming oasis. Designed around a curved water wall embracing a majestic amethyst crystal geode, this soothing environment pulses with a vibrant energy. Delicate aromas and harmonious music permeate the atmosphere, seducing the senses and encouraging mind, body and soul to relax.
A couple's room offers the bride and groom a chance to unwind while the bridal party experiences relaxing or invigorating treatments in one of the spa's nine treatment rooms. Or, groups can gather in a private cabana by the pool for a day of sun and pampering spa services while enjoying The Pool Bar & Café. The salon of Lea Journo, stylist to the stars, is also located at the Beverly Wilshire, Beverly Hills (A Four Seasons Hotel), and offers make-up application, manicures and pedicures as well as hair services.
Featured treatment – Personalized time
We understand that personal time is precious – and this exceptional spa experience will truly help you enjoy it more. Reserve two hours or more of facial or body treatments, and your therapist will guide you in choosing the treatments and rituals that are best for you. Enjoy a delicious spa lunch when you reserve four or five hours of personalized time. An exclusive gift is also yours when you reserve five hours.
120 minutes – USD 385.00 | 180 minutes – USD 575.00
240 minutes – USD 800.00 | 300 minutes – USD 990.00


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https://www.securitycurmudgeon.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/blackhat-1.jpeg 123 320 milton milton2018-07-19 14:36:472018-07-19 14:55:25Black Hat Presentation: OWASP DeepViolet
On August 8, 2018 I will be presenting DeepViolet, a TLS/SSL scanning API & tools at the Black Hat conferences event in Las Vegas. The project is divided in two code repositories, DeepViolet the primary Java code API, and DeepVioletTools which is a command line tool and desktop application or reference cases demonstrating the API's usefulness.
Project: OWASP DeepViolet Project
GitHub Projects: DeepViolet | DeepVioletTools
Following is the detailed conference information for those attending.
Wednesday, August 8 | 10:00am-11:20am | Business Hall (Oceanside), Arsenal Station 9, DeepViolet SSL/TLS Scanning API & Tools
If you don't have time to catch my presentation or you would like to meet in person, send me a DM (Twitter: @spoofzu)


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Some one can help me to find which bank will provide loan for 20th Arkavathy layout.
From last week, tried all national banks and no one is ready to give loan for arkavathy layout.
I know past it has issues not sure it exists and how it impacts.
Bank Loan for Arkavathy Layout
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Re: Bank Loan for Arkavathy Layout
Have you tried private banks like HDFC?
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1. Cover the bottom of a springform pan with parchment paper or line a round cake pan with plastic wrap (drape the wrap over the sides so that you can lift the pie from the pan when it's ready).
2. Let the green sherbet soften at room temperature for 10 minutes, then spread 3 cups around the perimeter of the pan. Cover it with plastic and freeze it for 45 minutes.
3. Add a ring using 2 cups softened white sorbet and refreeze.
4. Stir 1/3 cup mini chocolate chips into 3 cups softened red sorbet, then fill the center with the mixture.
5. Freeze the entire dish until firm, about 6 hours. Slice the pie into wedges with a hot knife and serve.


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I saw a facebook magnet (god, I hate those) that said 'Threatening to delete your facebook account is like running away was as a kid...you'll come back.'
And that's probably true.
I tried to ween myself off of it before.
I posted on Facebook all the time about it. Irony, that.
Even now, while I'm trying to move on, all I'm doing is fucking posting about it. But my time on there tonight was a lot less than it would have otherwise been.
I swear it's the fucking devil. Or at least a demon spawn.
I think I need a whole chapter in my book on "God, the Universe, and Whatever Else Pops in My Head"* on how antiGod uses Facebook and other (anti)Social Media to lure us away from love in to apathy.
You see, the opposite of love is not hate. To hate you still have focus as much attention and passion, if not more, on your object of hatred than you do when you're in love. The emotional ties are actually stronger with hatred. They aren't opposites. No, love and hate are more like neighbors.
The opposite of love is apathy. When you no longer care about someone or something, you fall out of love with it. You fall out of hate with it. It ceases to have any concern or hold in your life whatsoever. Apathy is the true antiLove. But that's quite likely going to be a chapter in one of my next books, so I'll refrain from including it here.
Fuggnuts. Wouldn't you know it?I still didn't cut my hair.
I need to. Shit's long.
See what happens when I just start going all stream of consciousness on it without any concern for whether I'm going to run out of space to type? Yeah...strap yourselves in ladies and gents. This is the real Todd. Not that Reader's Digest Condensed version you've been getting over yonder in Zuckerfuckerland.
With that dear reader(s), I'm off to bed. I have some things to check on in Dreamland.
One of these days I'll dig in depth about what I mean when I say 'Dreamland'...or I could leave that for the book, too.
Either way, it's time for me to slumber now.
Peace out.
*I was originally going to call the next book "UGH: Unifying God Hypothesis" but I'm really digging the title, "God, the Universe, and Whatever Else Pops in My Head" instead. I mean, it pays homage to one of my writing (style) heroes, whilst simultaneously giving the reader a clear understanding about what they will be reading should they crack the spine and actually realize that there are words within.
Prettyfuckingbrilliant if you ask me.
no, I know you didn't.
Oh...sometimes I swear. And stupid me, one of my facebook friends is actually a co-worker (not at my location, but for the same company)....oh...and another is married to my ...oh...never mind. This is part of who I am. I have to be honest and tell you now that anything you get on this particular blog would be no better or worse than you would hear from me if you joined me for a pint at my local watering hole.
In other words, this is the unfiltered (mostly) Todd.
You've been given fair notice. Hope that helps.
Heh. OK. Now I really AM heading up to bed.
Running Away 2012 Style
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The Kindness of Strangers
This post is going to be a little bit all over the place. If you know me, you are probably used to that by now. If you don't know me, we...
Greetings from SkaggleRock and the Gallifrey Annex. It's almost Fall. Well, technically it is Fall, but it's almost that magical 3 ...
The house lights are down. The audience an invisible mass gathered with a low jumbled murmuring sit restless, somewhere out there in a cloud...
It's 5:40 AM on a Wednesday. I have been up for an hour. I have an outline for a work in progress that I intended to work on this mornin...


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Cope With Menstrual Pain
Menstrual pain is often experienced by women who usually occur in the bottom abdomen before or during the menstrual period even after stopping. This are common due to increased prostaglandin and hormonal factors. There are a few things you can try to cope with menstrual pain that is Natural Treatments. Natural treatments using multiple techniques without the use of chemical drugs, this is done to avoid the side effects of the drug. The following are the natural ingredients used:
1. Warm water
Using warm water to relieve pain during menstruation. Provide warm water pads or put in a bottle. Then put on the pain abdomen
for 20-30 minutes while lying down. Do it regularly for still menstrual pain.
2. Ginger
This method is quite easy. All you need to do is prepare the ginger taste. wash ginger peeled using clean water then mashed (not to be too fine). Then boil the ginger and add sugar to taste so delicious drink.
3. Turmeric
Other materials that can be used are turmeric, despite making a little bit difficult potion than the ginger water. You need to provide is ¼ kg turmeric, tamarind, ½ liter of water, 1 spoon of salt, and white sugar. Saffron puree that has been cleaned, can use blender. Then filtered to take water, mix with sugar, salt and tamarind, heat to boiling and ready to drink.
4. Mint Leaves
Do you like to drink tea? The easiest way to cope with menstrual pain is to add one or two mint leaves into tea that you drink every day.
5. Massage
Other natural methods to relieve menstrual pain is doing massage abdominal pain slowly while lying on the mattress. you can do this yourself or ask a masseuse to do so.
6. Taking analgesics
The next step you can do is take analgesic drugs. Analgesics are set of drugs that function as pain killers. But before you take medicine analgesics you should discuss with your doctor first. Usual analgesic drugs used for the relief of menstrual pain is Neuralgin and Ibuprofen. Make sure you understand the instructions and rules of use of the drug.
7. Pay attention to your food
The main factor which can only add to and aggravate the pain of menstruation is diet and the type of food consumed. Therefore, every woman should pay more attention another diet.
Consumption : water, milk or calcium milk, nuts, red meat, or other foods that contain a lot of iron, Whole wheat or brown rice instead of rice, Fruits and vegetables, especially spinach and bananas.
Avoid: Soft drinks, caffeine, and alcohol, Food and drinks that contain a lot of sugar.
8. Light Exercise
Perform light exercise to lessen menstrual pain, because without this the lower abdomen. You will be more pain and even made a part of the body limp. You do not need to do strenuous exercise, just do the following two things:
– Walk. Walk a lot of benefits including relieving menstrual pain. Another benefit is good for the heart, strengthens bones and muscles, and healthy & refreshes the skin.
– Gymnastics. You can also do exercises to relieve menstrual pain excessive. Kegel exercises are usually done by pregnant women can be the perfect solution. example movement that is crawling with one leg lifted straight or sleep on their backs as he crossed his legs.
9. Sleeping
Do not ignore your sleep time despite daily activities very solid. rest your body for a moment during the day if you feel pain in the lower abdomen during menstruation. In addition, you also should sleep a night at a fixed and regular hours. This is just as important as the previous steps to relieve menstrual pain.
10. Warm bath
Besides using warm water to compress you can also try a bath with warm water. Warm bath can help relieve menstrual pain, but you do not need soak in warm water pool, simply by using the shower to moisten the entire part of your body.
Similar Posts:
- How to Cure Back Neck Pain?
- How to Cope With Muscle Pain
- Healthy Sleep
- The Benefits of Dates for the Uterus After a Miscarriage
- Know the Trigger Factors of Gout Rheumatism.


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A circular walk from High Hoyland taking in Cannon Hall Park and Deffer Wood
Cattle at Cannon Hall Farm
This varied walk takes you through woods, along streams,through a country park and across fields. There are extensive views, and in spring, opportunities to see bluebells.
- Grade - Well defined paths. Some rough ground and stiles. Parts can be muddy and slippy in wet weather
- Start - High Hoyland
- Grid Reference – SE 270 097
- Parking - on the road
- Public transport –There is no bus service to High Hoyland. The 92/92A service (Barnsley / Cawthorne) goes to Cawthorne (join this route at instruction 7)
- Refreshments - Cannon Hall, Cannon Hall Garden Centre and Thyme Bistro, Cherry Tree (High Hoyland), The Pavilion (Cannon Hall CP)
- Public Toilets – Cannon Hall, Cannon Hall Country Park Car Park.
- Map OL1 Dark Peak OS Explorer 278 / 288


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We support Vancouver Film & TV!
By popular request, we now offer a selection of our school furniture for rental to BC film and TV productions! Our products have been on the sets of popular BC-made movies and TV shows, professional photoshoots, and real estate staging projects! Make an impact on your set design today! Call 1-855-ULFERTS (853-3787) to inquire.
Ulferts Kids furniture on the set of Bravo TV's, "Girlfriend's Guide to Divorce".
Rental Rates:
- Weekly rate of 15% on the retail price of items, plus BC sales taxes.
- Minimum 1-week rental period (optional overcharge protection*).
- Pick-up from our head office (sorry, we do not offer any truck delivery service).
- Most items are ready for pick-up within 1-to-2 business days.
- A security deposit of 30% is required per rental period, which is calculated on the total retail price of all items rented.
- Payment method accepted is production company cheque only.
- Valid government-issued Photo ID (e.g. driver's license), and current phone number required on ALL rentals.
Offered only to Vancouver-area productions only. Sorry, childcare facilities are not eligible for rentals for product safety reasons. We keep a separate set of products exclusively for commercial prop rentals.
*Overcharge Protection (optional):
Do you think your shoot may go-on longer than planned? Our simple, no hidden-fee overcharge protection plan protects you from long-term rental fees!
- Low-cost, flat-rate $25 per rental agreement.
- We stop billing you rental fees after 3-consecutive months of regular rental
- Ownership of props are automatically assigned to you or your production company.
Application & Rental Form:
- Download Rental Form & Agreement (Please print & fill-out completely).


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Time to announce our full roster....actually the new guys on the team cause im not sure who has quit or been left off the team this year.
Our other two new members came as a package deal, we call them the Bash Brothers. Davis Ross (L) and Bretton Mathews. Davis is a purest, only riding gears when he needs too. Very quiet, doesn't say anything unless its pure gold. Also Studying how to build bridges in Ottawa.
Look for these riders to contribute a blog post or two in the upcoming season.
Tristan Spurr
President AWI racing


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A Blessed Easter to you. On April 16th, we hold as a very special and important day. April 16th is special and important because it is the day we celebrate the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. The question is how much do we "celebrate" the Resurrection?
I have spent most of my church life in Baptist Land. I have seen a number of Christmas and Easter holidays come and go. In experiencing those Christmas and Easter holidays, I have observed that Christmas is by far in every way the more celebrated holiday. Easter celebration really does not compare to Christmas celebration. Sometimes, I wonder why there is such a difference. The Bible teaches in I Corinthians chapter 15 that our faith and hope is anchored in the Resurrection of Jesus Christ not in His birth. Without any doubt All the Events from the Birth to the Resurrection are indivisible and vital to our faith. My point is about celebration. Is it not then reasonable that we should celebrate the Resurrection at least as much as we celebrate the Birth? I believe we should. Consider how you celebrate the Resurrection Season.


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Sometimes* I get these cravings.
*Who am I kidding? Always!*
Serious, serious cravings. For chocolate. Rarely do I crave anything besides chocolate.
Except coffee, grapefruit, and peanut butter.
I pretty much crave these things constantly. I'm sure I'm not lacking nutrients found in chocolate, it's completely mental. What evs, dude. I like chocolate!
I have the most epic chocolate chip oatmeal cookie recipe ever, but it's kind of an involved process.
These cookies, however, are very similar in texture and chocolatey goodness, but they come together in a snap.
So when it's 7:30 on a school night, and I NEED some tasty morsels, I can whip these up and be in bed by 9:00.
As an added bonus, these cookies have chia seeds.
So we can basically call these healthy. Even though they're chocolate chip cookies.
I love sound reasoning.
Lined up and ready for consumption!
These cookies taste best on the day that they're made, but they'll keep pretty well in an air tight container for a few days.
Chia Cookies
from YummyMummyKitchen.com
1 1/2 cups rolled oats
1 tsp baking powder
1/2 cup all purpose flour
1 1/2 tbsp chia seeds
1/4 cup butter at room temperature
1/2 cup brown sugar
3/4 cup natural peanut butter
2 eggs
1 tsp vanilla
1/2 to 3/4 cup chocolate chips (I used dark chocolate chips with excellent results)
Preheat the oven to 350F.
Mix together the oats, baking powder, flour and chia seeds.
In a stand mixer or with a beater, beat the butter and brown sugar until fluffy. Add the peanut butter, eggs and vanilla, and mix until combined.
Add the oat mixture to the butter mixture, and add the desired amount of chocolate chips. Mix until well combined (with a wooden spoon or your hands).
Scoop dough onto stoneware pans or lined baking sheets. Bake for 12-15 minutes.
Serve warm with coffee (or grapefruit or peanut butter ;)) or milk.
So! What do you crave?


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Hello My Name Is...
Whitney Jackson Cunningham
I am so excited to begin my second year at Brew Tech! I am a native of Calhoun County where I spent a total of 8 years teaching at White Plains Middle, Oxford High, and Anniston High Schools. I attended college at Auburn University, but went on to earn my Bachelor of Arts and Master of Science degrees at Jacksonville State University. My family and I relocated to Montgomery last summer, and already love living in a bigger city.
The 2018-2019 school year is going to be amazing.
This year the Gatsby Soiree was absolutely amazing! Thank you so much parents for your support, donating items, and helping the kids with outfits and costumes. Pictures can be viewed by clicking the 2018 Great Gatsby Soiree Link on the left.
Wednesday Mornings
Tuesday and Thursday Afternoons
9th Grade students need copies of To Kill a Mockingbird and new composition notebooks by Monday January 14th!
10th Grade students will need new composition notebooks when we return on January 7th!
11th Grade Students will NOT need new composition notebooks until February.
Supply List 2018-2019
1. (4) Composition Notebooks-students will use one per nine weeks
2. (1) 2 pocket folder for test prep
3. Glue Sticks
4. Pens, pencils, and highlighters
Requested Items:
One ream of WHITE COPY PAPER or One Ream of Colored Copy Paper: Green (11th Grade), Canary Yellow (10th Grade), or Cherry (9th Grades)
Last Names A-M:Facial Tissue
N-R: Clorox Wipes
S-Z: Hand sanitizer
Donations: If at anytime you would like to donate microwave popcorn, Hugs Juices, CapriSuns, Kool-Aid Jammers, etc. it will be greatly appreciated. These items are used as rewards for the VIP section (see description on the complete list of classroom procedures posted in Google Classroom). I replenish them often but I give out 12-15 items per week so my snack cabinet gets depleted rapidly.


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Monday, November 30, 2009
look what I found in the leaves!
Posted by memakestuff at 1:51 PM
3 comments:
Hey! Those leaves look familiar.ReplyDelete
ps I love your 'getting real' post. Nice work.
Thank you for commenting H! I was feeling lonely out there with no comments...ReplyDelete
really? i'm going to rake our fall leaves and wait to see if a cute baby pops out! i hope its as cute as this one you found!!! love her!ReplyDelete
Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)


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Love Like You've Never Been Hurt [Part 2]
Are you ready for some good news?
It's possible to be so secure in Christ that you can love as if you've never been hurt.
Today's Text: "And God sent me before you to preserve for you a remnant on earth, and to keep alive for you many survivors. So it was not you who sent me here, but God. He has made me a father to Pharaoh, and lord of all his house and ruler over all the land of Egypt." (Genesis 45:7–8, ESV)
Joseph prefigured Christ in manifold ways. Perhaps, the most Christlike dimension of Joseph's noble life was this: he loved those who hurt him.
It's hard to love those that hurt you. Here are a few obstacles to loving those who don't deserve it:
Love is risky, daring and intimidating.
Ever notice that James Bond never really loves the woman? He might share an adventure, a cocktail or a bed with her – but he doesn't share true love. Why? Love makes you vulnerable. That's why Bond doesn't cry over the love of a woman. Clint Eastwood never gunned down someone and then had his heart broken for the lack of a woman's love.
God's love is powerful beyond measure. When you dare to love, you are actually moving in the power of God. But most people are afraid to take the risk.
We remember pain and want to avoid it in the future.
If you touch a hot stove, your mind remembers the pain so you won't touch it again. If you have experienced emotional pain in relationships, your soul remembers it and doesn't want to touch it again. God's grace can melt the heart of stone and bring about a new way of thinking.
The law of sowing and reaping predisposes us to repay sin with punishment.
Part of the reason that it's hard to love someone who has hurt you is that the unkindness they have sown toward you is "demanding" a response in like kind. Everything in this world reproduces after its own kind - - except the grace of God. The grace of God doesn't return hatred with hatred; instead, God's grace returns love to those who hate.
Joseph's brothers despised him, rejected him and abused him. In return, Joseph loved the brothers, accepted them and blessed them. That's the power of Christ. And that's the Gospel!
For more information please visit SharingtheLight.org.


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You can scroll the shelf using ← and → keys
You can scroll the shelf using ← and → keys
Miss Year 8: "Hey Ms Kwok, I went op-shop shopping over the weekend and Mum + I found this, so we got for you!"
My goodness! 😍
In absolute honesty, it's not COMPLETELY me, but the fact that a one Miss Year 8 spent her hard earned dollars on something stupidly colourful in the most thoughtful + spontaneous way on behalf of me?!
That got me completely. Thank you, gorgeous kidlet. 😊


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INNOPERFORM® GmbH
Alte Dorfstraße 18 - 24
02694 Malschwitz
Phone: +49(0)35932.3592-0
Fax: +49(0)35932.3592-92
INNOPERFORM® Ltd. is a medium-sized family-owned company. We are a young, motivated team and have specialized in innovative window technology. Since 1996, we supply window experts with modern components, which we are convinced of as they definitely provide true added value. Together with our partners we especially push innovative solutions.
arimeo – the new generation of window rebate vents
Requirements for home ventilation according to DIN 1946-6 have increased and the future of discreet ventilation solutions lies in precise technology and compact design. A new era begins: arimeo window rebate vents ensure the minimum air change, when the windows are closed - invisibly, self-adjusting and independent from any window hardware. In addition to cross ventilation, arimeo can be used as fresh air supply for exhaust air systems or gas boilers. arimeo can be installed in new windows or retrofitted in existing windows by saving 50 % installation time. Just click into - ready.
Continuous air flow paths are absolutely necessary for an operational overall concept, i.e. in line with a ventilation measure the interior doors need to be designed air-permeable. The INNOPERFORM® air flow gasket (USD) convinces as simple and cost-efficient solution, which is optically unobtrusive and pleasant.
With regard to a correct ventilation using window vents, we are absolute experts, especially when it comes to meet the reqirements of standards or realize the planning of ventilation concepts. We advise intensively and appropriately. Due to our long-term experience and the support for dimensioning window vents for thousands of objects, INNOPERFORM® is a partner, window suppliers and planners can rely on.
Another key aspect of our work – besides home ventilation – is window fastening. In addition, since 2016 we support innovative development by operating a company-owned ift-test rig and cooperating with numerous partners.
INNOPERFORM® GmbH offers you products from these product groups:
- Hardware, fixing and safety equipment (364)
- Shading and ventilation (150)


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|Peripatus Home Page Evolution >> Major Events in the Evolution of Life
|Updated: 22-May-2019
This page provides a high level review of some of the main threads of the evolution of plants and animals, from the origin of life to the present day.
Keywords: evolution, metazoan radiation, Ediacaran, Cambrian, Embryophyta, tetrapods, Permian, extinction, dinosaurs, angiosperms, mammals, humans
Life on earth has a long and rich history – dating back almost to the time when the Earth's crust solidified. This was a time when the planet was unrecognisable; when catastrophic bombardment by meteors likely wiped out the first microbes to evolve, again and again.
Much of this earliest life was microscopic and, microscopic or not, virtually unknown until the 1960s. Prior to then, as far as was widely known – even among the scientific community – the fossil record sprang into existence in the Cambrian, already exhibiting a high degree of development and marvellous diversity: the so-called Cambrian Explosion. Whether the "explosion" was real or an artifact of preservation, by the end of the Cambrian all readily fossilisable modern animal phyla except the bryozoans (Entoprocta + Ectoprocta) were represented in the fossil record.
Plants had existed since the earliest fossils were formed, but did not achieve a high degree of organisation until vascular plants evolved on land, perhaps around the Silurian. There, they modified the environment, promoted the formation of true soils, and established new ecological niches without which animal life on land could scarcely have flourished. In the Mesozoic, possibly as early as the Triassic, the angiosperms (flowering plants) diverged from the Gnetales, or possibly the Bennettitales, leading to an enormous radiation of this group beginning in the mid-Cretaceous. The angiosperms are the most diverse group of land plants living today.
The chordates appear to have been present from at least the mid Cambrian, and diversified throughout the early Paleozoic, giving rise to fishes and, later, to the tetrapods which began to invade the land in the Devonian and Carboniferous. The first of these creatures were amphibians, tied to the water, but the evolution of the amniote egg allowed subsequent groups to become truly terrestrial. By the close of the Paleozoic, reptiles, dinosaurs, and mammal-like reptiles had taken possession of the land.
The Mesozoic was famously the "age of dinosaurs", although their early days were perhaps more tentative than previously thought (Brusatte 2018). An exotic collection of specialised reptiles, including the giant aquatic reptiles and the pterosaurs, also dominated their respective environments at this time. At some time prior to the late Jurassic, the earliest birds diverged – according to the most widely held view – from theropod dinosaur stock.
Mammals also became established and diversified throughout the Mesozoic, but their great radiation, and the establishment of the modern families would not occur until the Paleocene. Of particular interest to us, human ancestry can be tentatively traced back into the late Miocene, although the lineages remain rather unclear until at least the Pliocene.
Origins and Early Development
As recently as the 1960s, as far as was widely known, the fossil record sprang into existence in the Cambrian, already exhibiting a high degree of development and diversity. Indeed, Charles Darwin (Origin of Species – 2nd ed. Chapter IX) recognised that the sudden appearance of animal fossils in the Cambrian posed a problem for his theory of natural selection. He suggested that "before the lowest [Cambrian] stratum was deposited, long periods elapsed, as long as, or probably far longer than, the whole interval from the [Cambrian] age to the present day; and that during these vast, yet quite unknown, periods of time, the world swarmed with living creatures."
He was quite correct, on both counts.
The oldest rocks known are those of the Isua Supracrustal Group of south western Greenland, surviving from around 3700 Ma. These rocks are strongly metamorphosed although some sequences have been demonstrated to be of sedimentary origin (e.g. Bolhar et al. 2005), possibly even soils (Retallack & Noffke 2019). Unfortunately, no fossils are preserved in the Isua rocks. Any that once contained fossils have been so altered by heat and pressure as to have destroyed them.
Isotopic signatures of carbon recovered from these and similarly aged rocks provides indirect evidence that life may have existed in these remote times (Rosing 1999, Brack 2001, Ueno et al. 2006). It should, however, be noted that a number of less enthusiastic commentators advise approaching this interpretation with extreme care (e.g. van Zuilen et al. 2002).
Life may have evolved quite soon after the formation and cooling of a solid crust with liquid water, after the worst of the planet-forming bombardment from space had ceased. It has been suggested that life possibly originated more than once, but was wiped out by heavy bombardment which melted the crust again. It seems unlikely that we can ever know about that.
"Several authors have suggested that comets or carbonaceous asteroids contributed large amounts of organic matter to the primitive Earth, and thus possibly played a vital role in the origin of life. But organic matter cannot survive the extremely high temperatures (>104 K) reached on impact, which atomize the projectile and break all chemical bonds. Only fragments small enough to be gently decelerated by the atmosphere – principally meteors of 10-12–10-6 g – can deliver their organic matter intact. The amount of such 'soft-landed' organic carbon can be estimated from data for the infall rate of meteoritic matter. At present rates, only ~0.006 g cm-2 intact organic carbon would accumulate in 108 yr, but at the higher rates of ~4 x 109 yr ago, about 20 g cm-2 may have accumulated in the few hundred million years between the last cataclysmic impact and the beginning of life. It may have included some biologically important compounds that did not form by abiotic synthesis on Earth" (from Anders 1989, Abstract).
Martin & Sousa 2016, p. 9, "embrace" what they believe to be "about the surest thing we can say about early evolution, namely, that it occurred in the absence of molecular oxygen. If some molecular oxygen arose in the atmosphere through photolysis of water or other means, there was so little of it that it was irrelevant for microbial physiology and evolution, which was not occurring in the atmosphere anyway. In early evolution, O2 can be neglected. Early microbial evolution was the age of anaerobes."
"The early Archean record tells us that life was present at least 3500 Ma ago. Microbial ecosystems were driven by autotrophy, most likely photoautotrophy, and oxygenic cyanobacteria may already have appeared. Heterotrophs included prokaryotes and, possibly, primitive amitochondrial eukaryotes capable of feeding by phagocytosis. Depending on the amount of O2 available, the biota could also have included aerobic prokaryotes and mitochondrion bearing eukaryotic heterotrophs (but perhaps not eukaryotic algae; see ... Knoll & Holland 1995). Although impossible to test empirically, the possibility that early communities included organisms unlike anything represented in the modern biota cannot be excluded. Clearly, early Archean ecosystems remain poorly understood" (Knoll 1996, p. 55).
The oldest fossils known to date, derive from the Apex Chert, a formation of the Pilbara Supergroup occuring in northwestern Western Australia, and dated at 3,465 Ma (± 5 Ma, see Schopf 1999, pp. 88-89). However, the fossils occur in fragments of rock within the chert; thus they are even older, though by how much, is unknown. The organisms themselves are filamentous, composed of distinct, organic walled cells occurring as a uniserial string, and are interpreted as cyanobacteria.
Also occurring in the Pilbara Craton of western Australia, the Strelley Pool Chert (SPC) includes structures interpreted as stromatolites. A 2006 study of these concludes that the evidence "strongly indicates that organisms flourished on a broad peritidal platform 3.43 Gyr ago in the Pilbara, rapidly taking hold and creating a reef-like build-up in shallow waters as surfaces became submerged. The variety of stromatolites present indicates that the SPC may contain not only some of Earth's earliest fossils but also a diverse fossil 'ecosystem', sustained by shallow seawater free of terrigenous influx – ideal conditions for phototrophism" (Allwood et al. 2006, p. 717-718).
Another ancient cyanobacteria occurrence is reported from the Nauga Formation, Prieska, South Africa, between 2,588 ± 6 and 2,549 ± 7 Ma (Kazmierczak & Altermann 2002).
The occurrence of cyanobacteria of this age is consistent with the belief that aerobic metabolism evolved independently in all three lineages, after the diversification of the superkindoms, yet prior to the widespread introduction of molecular oxygen into the anaerobic biosphere at approximately 2.2 Ga. "The fact that enzyme distribution in aerobic pathways was largely incongruent with organismal speciation suggests that adaptation to molecular oxygen occurred after the major prokaryotic divergences on the tree of life. This is supported by data from geological and molecular evolutionary analyses, showing that all three domains of life, and many phyla within these domains, had appeared by the time that oxygen became widely available.... The relatively late onset of atmospheric oxidation argues against the invention of O2-dependent enzymes or pathways in the last common ancestor of modern organisms, suggesting that adaptation to molecular oxygen took place independently in organisms from diverse lineages exposed to O2" (Raymond & Segrè 2006).
At 2,000 Ma we find possible eukaryotes, and by 1,750 Ma we are confident of this identification. The current "standard" view of the origin of eukaryotes, revolutionary in its time, is Margulis' endosymbiont hypothesis, which describes how eukaryotes improved their metabolic capacity by engulfing certain prokaryotes and converting them into intracellular organelles, principally mitochondria and chloroplasts.
"The bacterial endosymbiosis which led to the development of the mitochondria probably occurred very early in eukaryotic evolution. Phylogenetic analyses using different molecular markers place at the base of eukaryotes various protist lineages (the archamoeboe, metamonads, microsporidia and parabasalia) known as the Archezoa. The Archezoa are not a true clade of organisms but rather a collection of species united by their lack of mitochondria, anaerobic metabolism, simple cell morphology and bacteria-like ribosomes" (Brown 2001).
"An increasingly well resolved Proterozoic fossil record documents the late Mesoproterozoic to early Neoproterozoic presence of most of the major clades (kingdoms) of eukaryotes, including the rhodophytes, stramenopiles, alveolates and green plants. A coincident rise in acritarch diversity, combined with molecular phylogenetic evidence for rapid cladogenesis, points to a major radiation of eukaryote groups at this time, sometimes referred to as the 'big bang' of eukaryotic evolution. Bangiomorpha pubescens, from the 1200 Ma Hunting Formation, arctic Canada, is the earliest taxonomically resolved eukaryote on record. More importantly, it is the earliest known example of both sexual reproduction and complex multicellularity. The introduction of differentiated multicellular organisms would have had profound implications for contemporaneous ecology (e.g. with its differentiated basal holdfast Bangiomorpha was able to anchor itself in the substrate and orient itself vertically – the first instance of eukaryotic tiering – which would in turn have induced new environments and evolutionary opportunities). Buss (1987) has presented compelling arguments for why sex is a necessary prerequisite to complex multicellularity (by enabling the expulsion of somatic cell parasites), and it is clear that complex multicellularity is the source of almost all organismal morphology. I suggest that the principal significance of the evolution of sex was the 'invention' of organismal morphology, and thereby the directional, escalatory and 'progressive' evolution of a biological environment. The modern eukaryotic kingdoms would appear to be the consequence of that first indulgence" (Butterfield 1999a).
By 1,100 Ma we find a rapid diversification of planktonic eukaryote assemblages, followed by an inexplicable decline in both abundance and diversity, between 900 and 675 Ma.
Around 605 to 590 Ma, the Varanger glaciation occurred; possibly the most profound planet-wide glaciation in our history. During the event, the earth biota suffered its first "mass extinction" – primarily of acritarchs.
First Metazoans
There can be little doubt, on the basis of trace evidence alone, that bilaterian metazoans existed from early in the Ediacaran. Although some traces are simple, rather featureless, winding trails, "others display transverse rugae and contain pellets that can be interpreted as of fecal origin. The bilaterian nature of these traces is not in dispute. Furthermore, such traces must have been made by worms, some of which had lengths measured in centimetres, with through guts, which were capable of displacing sediment during some form of peristaltic locomotion, implying a system of body wall muscles antagonized by a hydrostatic skeleton. Such worms are more complex than flatworms, which cannot create such trails and do not leave fecal strings" (Valentine 1995, p. 90). Sets of paired hypichnial ridges strongly hint at an arthropod s.l. presence.
Unfortunately, it is equally true that the relatively few body fossils known from the late Precambrian do not shed much light on the sequence of evolutionary advances that led to the famously diverse Cambrian taxa. There are a few sign-posts, however:
Mineralised skeletons of uncertain affinity – the 'small shelly fauna' – appear just before the beginning of the Cambrian, ~550 Ma, increasing in numbers and diversity towards the Tommotian. The most common skeletal materials are calcium carbonate (aragonite or calcite) and varieties of calcium phosphate. Many of the latter may originally have been carbonates, phosphatized during preservation.
Cambrian Radiation
Life on earth has a long and rich history – predating the beginning of the Cambrian by a factor of six or seven. However, much of this early life was microscopic and, microscopic or not, virtually unknown until the 1960s. Prior to then, as far as was widely known even among the scientific community, the fossil record sprang into existence in the Cambrian, already exhibiting a high degree of development and marvellous diversity: the so-called "Cambrian Explosion."
Charles Darwin (Origin of Species – 2nd ed. Chapter IX) recognised that the sudden appearance of animal fossils in the Cambrian posed a problem for his theory of natural selection, "and may be truly urged as a valid argument against the views here entertained." He suggested that "before the lowest [Cambrian] stratum was deposited, long periods elapsed, as long as, or probably far longer than, the whole interval from the [Cambrian] age to the present day; and that during these vast, yet quite unknown, periods of time, the world swarmed with living creatures."
Today, although the fossil record now extends back 3,465 Ma (± 5 Ma, to the Apex Chert, see Schopf 1999, p. 100) and diverse precursors to the Cambrian biotas are gradually becoming understood, it still appears as if a genuinely rapid diversification of form did occur among the Metazoa ("animals") during the Cambrian. During this time, most extant body plans are suddenly found in the fossil record. "Definitive representatives of all readily fossilizable animal phyla (with the exception of bryozoans) have been found in Cambrian rocks, as have representatives of several soft-bodied phyla (Valentine et al. 1991)" (Wray et al. 1996). By way of contrast, "it appears that no [new] phylum-level body plans have arisen in the animal kingdom in the last 500 million years" (Arthur 1997, p. 7).
When this radiation began, and how rapidly it unfolded, is still the subject of on-going research, yet much has become clear since Darwin's day.
Understanding of Cambrian fossils, and their evolutionary significance, has been hugely enhanced by the study of fossils from several famous lagerstätten (sing. Lagerstätte): fossil localities which are highly remarkable for for either their diversity or quality of preservation; sometimes both.
The most widely known of these is the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale. Although this fossil site has been known since the early 1900s, very detailed study would not be accorded these fossils until the mid 1970s. The definitive popular account of this research, together with a contentious interpretation, is to be found in Stephen J. Gould's book, Wonderful Life (Gould 1989). More recently, in the 1980s and '90s, significantly older Early Cambrian lagerst�tten have been located and studied at the Chengjiang and Sirius Passet localities in China and Greenland, respectively.
Sirius Passet: Located on the northern coast of Greenland, this lower Cambrian site has yielded a diverse though not spectacularly preserved fauna, including a Redlichiid trilobite, Buenellus higginsi, the halkieriid Halkieria evangelista, and the enigmatic lobopod Kerygmachela kierkegaardi. The age is around 515 to 520 Ma.
Chengjiang: Fossils from Chengjiang, near the city of Kunming in Yunnan Province, China, preserve a diverse biota of rather similar age to the Sirius Passet fauna; the differences between their fossil assemblages are attributed to environment and geography. The soft-bodied fossils include algae, medusiform metazoans, chondrophorines, sponges, chancelloriids, sea anemones, priapulid worms, hyoliths, possible ectoprocts, inarticulate brachiopods, annelid-like animals, lobopodians, trilobites and other arthropods, hemichordates, chordates as well as taxa that cannot definitely be assigned to any well established groups.
Emu Bay Shale (Kangaroo Island): The Early Cambrian Emu Bay Shale of Kangaroo Island, South Australia, has long been famous as a source of magnificent specimens of the trilobites Redlichia takooensis and Hsuaspis bilobata. It is additionally important as the only site in Australia so far to yield a Burgess Shale-type biota. As such it represents an important basis for comparison with other Burgess Shale-type assemblages, particularly Chengjiang, which is the closest paleogeographically, although somewhat older.
Burgess Shale: I may come up with my own material eventually; meanwhile, do take a look at The Burgess Shale Geoscience foundation.
Paleozoic Diversification
The base of the North American Whiterock Series coincides with the start of the great Ordovician radiations of articulate brachiopods, bryozoans, bivalves, echinoderms, and virgellinid graptoloids. Many other groups first appear in the fossil record at or near this horizon. This also marks the point of transition between dominance of Sepkoski's Cambrian Evolutionary Fauna, of which trilobites are the main component, and the rise of the Paleozoic Evolutionary Fauna composed of the radiating groups.
The Whiterock Fauna shows explosive and sustained radiation at exactly this point, conforming to the Paleozoic fauna diversity pattern, and indicating that trilobites were active participants in the Ordovician radiation.
"Cluster analysis grouped families according to their numbers of component genera in each of the four Ordovician stratigraphic series ... showing diversity histories of all families [fig. 1] indicate that the trilobites form two major clusters, termed faunas. The Ibex Fauna, named for the epoch during which it flourished, is characterized by Early Ordovician dominance followed by severe diversity reductions in the later Ordovician (conforming to a null hypothesis of cohort decay). The Whiterock Fauna, named for the epoch in which it radiated rapidly, displays a contrasting pattern of minimal Early Ordovician diversity, Middle Ordovician (Whiterock) radiation, and high Late Ordovician diversity. These alternate, disjunct patterns are pervasive and represent high-level macroevolutionary trends. Surviving Silurian families constitute a subgroup of the Whiterock Fauna, termed the Silurian Fauna. No member of the Ibex Fauna survived the end of the Ordovician. In contrast, nearly three-fourths of families (74%) of the Whiterock Fauna survived, and the Whiterock Fauna accounts for all post-Ordovician trilobites, with the exception of the unclustered harpetids." (Adrain et al. 1998).
Some short-lived Early Ordovician (Tremadocian) forms preceeded the principal Ordovician groups such as Seutelluina, Phacopida (Fig. 2) and Trinucleina. These principal forms were "all highly differentiated and diverse, most of them of crypogenic origin, and surviving for various periods thereafter. It is an interesting feature of trilobite evolution that after this great burst of constructional themes in the early Ordovician very few entirely new patterns of organisation arose; afterwards evolution in trilobites was largely a matter of [variations upon the Ordovician themes]" (Clarkson 1993, pp. 373-374).
The Ordovician trilobites were more successful at exploiting new environments, notably reefs, but they too suffered a crisis, during the mass extinction at the end of the Ordovician. Some distinctive and previously successful forms such as the Trinucleoidea and Agnostoidea became extinct.
Whiterock Fauna families, and in particular Silurian Fauna groups, can generally be traced only to the Early Ordovician, and in many cases they are entirely "cryptogenetic." These clades certainly had Cambrian forebears, but the fact that they have avoided detection is a strong indication that novel morphologies were being developed very rapidly. Of the Silurian Fauna genera present during the Llandovery epoch, 78% also originated in that epoch, which demonstrates that extinctions were followed by a rapid post-extinction "rebound." However, once this Llandovery rebound was completed, standing diversity returned to and was maintained at pre-extinction amounts. (After Adrain et al. 1998.)
Vertebrates underwent a major adaptive radiation during the Devonian, when jawed species (gnathostomes) and particularly placoderms (armoured fishes), became dominant. A Lochkovian peak of diversity is registered in various Lower Devonian series all around the Old Red Sandstone Continent and Siberia, for ostracoderms in general, and heterostracan pteraspidomorphs in particular. It occurs at different time slices in the Lochkovian, depending on the localities, and may be followed by another smaller peak in the Pragian" (Blieck 2017, Abstract).
Early Tetrapods
"The relationship of the three living groups of sarcopterygians or lobe-finned fish (tetrapods, lungfish and coelacanths) has been a matter of debate. Although opinions still differ, most recent phylogenies suggest that tetrapods are more closely related to lungfish than to coelacanths. However, no previously known fossil taxon exhibits a concrete character combination approximating the condition expected in the last common ancestor of tetrapods and lungfish�and it is still poorly understood how early sarcopterygians diverged into the tetrapod lineage (Tetrapodomorpha) and the lungfish lineage (Dipnomorpha)" (Zhu & Yu 2002, p. 767, Abstract).
Zhu & Yu (2002) describe a new fossil sarcopterygian fish, Styloichthys changae, that "possesses an eyestalk and which exhibits the character combination expected in a stem group close to the last common ancestor of tetrapods and lungfish. Styloichthys from the Lower Devonian of China bridges the morphological gap between stem-group sarcopterygians (Psarolepis and Achoania) and basal tetrapodomorphs/basal dipnomorphs. It provides information that will help in the study of the relationship of early sarcopterygians, and which will also help to resolve the tetrapod-lungfish divergence into a documented sequence of character acquisition" (Zhu & Yu 2002, p. 767, Abstract).
Colonisation of the Land
Plant life
succession of colonisation of the land by plants:
A bryophytic phase, from the Ordovician to the Early Devonian, evidenced by fossil spores and cuticles.
Kraft et al. 2019 envisage an "Initial Plant Diversification and Dispersal Event (IPDDE)" to be one of the key steps in global terrestrialization. This first significant diversification and dispersal episode of vascular plants, which occurred in the Pr�dol� (latest Silurian) in several paleoregions representing wide paleolatitude and paleoclimatic ranges, such as Avalonia, Laurentia, Baltica,
Gondwana, South and North China and Kazakhstania (e.g., Edwards & Wellman 2001, Wellman et al. 2013, and other references in Kraft et al. 2019) .
The first major diversification of land plant life, such as rhyniophytes, zosterophylls, drepanophycaleans, lycophytes, trimerophytes, and (in the southern hemisphere) Baragwanathia (Fig. 3, right), began as early as Late Ludlow (Late Silurian) in Australia through Gedinnian (Early Devonian) on Laurentia.
"The search for the oldest land plant (embryophyte) reflects an effort to prove a substantial step of terrestrialization. It is of importance for molecular biologists and (neo)botanists to calibrate the molecular clock and establish a starting point for phylogenetic studies of early vascular plants (e.g. Clarke et al. 2011; Kenrick et al. 2012; Gerrienne et al. 2016). The first appearance of such plants, based on macroscopic evidence, can be provisionally considered to have occurred in the Late Ordovician in Poland (Salamon et al. 2018). However, the earliest unequivocal record based on Cooksonia (the oldest accepted macrofossil land plant; Fig. 3, left) from almost coeval sites in Ireland (Edwards et al. 1983) and Bohemia (Libertin et al. 2003, 2018), points to the appearance of land plants in the Wenlock. On the other hand, fossil spores and isolated sporangia indicate a much older appearance of embryophytes, probably as early as in the Middle Ordovician (Clarke et al. 2011; Gerrienne et al. 2016; Vavrdova 1984), even if a coeval macrofossil record is missing" (Kraft et al. 2019, p. 144).
Fig. 3: Cooksonia cf. hemisphaerica, left, and Baragwanathia brevifolia; after Kraft et al. 2019, fig. 4.
A "rhyniophytoid phase" (small vascular plants with an axial organisation and terminal sporangia such as Cooksonia) beginning in the Late Silurian.
Next was the first major diversification of land plant life, such as rhyniophytes, zosterophylls, drepanophycaleans, lycophytes, trimerophytes, and (in the southern hemisphere) Baragwanathia, beginning as early as Late Ludlow (Late Silurian) in Australia through Gedinnian (Early Devonian) on Laurentia.
invasion of the land by vascular plants
In contrast to megascopic plants, which appear to have colonized the land only once, many animal groups made the transition to terrestrial existence independently and overcame the problems of water relations in different ways. Early evidence for terrestrial animals is sparse, but by the Early Devonian exquisitely preserved arthropod faunas are known from several localities in North America, Germany and the United kingdom. These faunas document the appearance of diverse arthropod communities including centipedes, millipedes, trigonotarbids and their living relatives spiders, pseudoscorpians, mites (orbatids and endeostigmatids), arthropleurids (extinct arthropods), archaeognathans (primitive wingless insects), collembolans and possibly bristletails. Available evidence indicates that these animals were mainly predators and detritivores and, until the appearance of vertebrate herbivores in the latest Palaeozoic, most energy flow into animal components of early terrestrial ecosystems was probably through the decomposer pathway rather than direct herbivory. Indirect evidence for herbivory comes from wound responses in the tissues of some fossil plants, and perhaps also from fossil faecal pellets containing abundant spores (abridged from Kenrick & Crane 1997, p. 38).
"The fossil record of early tetrapods has been increased recently by new finds from the Devonian period and mid–late Early Carboniferous period. Despite this, understanding of tetrapod evolution has been hampered by a 20-million-year gap ('Romer's Gap') that covers the crucial, early period when many key features of terrestrial tetrapods were acquired" (Clack 2002b, p. 72). "This period between the end Devonian and the mid-Vis�an represents the time when tetrapods underwent a major diversification and acquired true terrestriality" (Clack & Finney 1999).
"The first half of the Mississippian or Early Carboniferous (Tournaisian to mid-Viséan), an interval of about 20 million years, has become known as "Romer's Gap" because of its poor tetrapod record. Recent discoveries emphasise the differences between pre-"Gap" Devonian tetrapods, unambiguous stem-group members retaining numerous "fish" characteristics indicative of an at least partially aquatic lifestyle, and post-"Gap" Carboniferous tetrapods, which are far more diverse and include fully terrestrial representatives of the main crown-group lineages. It seems that "Romer's Gap" coincided with the cladogenetic events leading to the origin of the tetrapod crown group" (Chen et al. 2018, Abstract).
The only articulated skeleton of a tetrapod yet found from the Tournaisian epoch (354–344 Ma) is Pederpes, "the earliest-known tetrapod to show the beginnings of terrestrial locomotion and was at least functionally pentadactyl" (Clack 2002b, Abstract). With its later American sister-genus, Whatcheeria, it represents the next most primitive tetrapod clade after those of the Late Devonian, bridging the temporal, morphological and phylogenetic gaps that have hitherto separated Late Devonian and mid-Carboniferous tetrapod faunas" (Clack 2002b, p. 72).
Chen et al. (2018) describe a partial right jaw ramus of a new tetrapod, Tantallognathus woodi, from the late Tournaisian or early Viséan of Scotland. The large and robust jaw exhibits a distinctive combination of characters. A phylogenetic analysis places Tantallognathus in the upper part of the tetrapod stem group, above Pederpes and Whatcheeria.
Early tetrapods evolved the amniote egg, thereby becoming truly terrestrial (Palmer 1999, p. 81).
Close of the Paleozoic
Of all Phanerozoic mass extinctions, the event at the end of the Permian was by far the most profound. At this time something like 60% of all species (and perhaps 90% of all marine forms) went extinct. The last few trilobites disappeared during this event although, as a class, they were already a very impoverished group by then.
No clear explanation is available and it is possible that the extinction was an emergent consequence of many factors which, individually, may have been too subtle to leave much evidence. However, "[w]idespread basaltic volcanism occurred in the region of the West Siberian Basin in central Russia during Permo-Triassic times. New 40Ar/39Ar age determinations on plagioclase grains from deep boreholes in the basin reveal that the basalts were erupted 249.4 ± 0.5 million years ago. This is synchronous with the bulk of the Siberian Traps, erupted further east on the Siberian Platform. The age and geochemical data confirm that the West Siberian Basin basalts are part of the Siberian Traps and at least double the confirmed area of the volcanic province as a whole. The larger area of volcanism strengthens the link between the volcanism and the end-Permian mass extinction" (Reichow et al. 2002, p. 1846, Abstract).
"Fundamental to understanding its cause is determining the tempo and duration of the extinction. Uranium/lead zircon data from Late Permian and Early Triassic rocks from south China place the Permian-Triassic boundary at 251.4 ± 0.3 million years ago. Biostratigraphic controls from strata intercalated with ash beds below the boundary indicate that the Changhsingian pulse of the end-Permian extinction, corresponding to the disappearance of about 85 percent of marine species, lasted less than 1 million years. At Meishan, a negative excursion in d13C [see Fig. 4] at the boundary had a duration of 165,000 years or less, suggesting a catastrophic addition of light carbon" (Bowring et al. 1998, p. 1039).
"The marine sediments of Jameson Land, East Greenland, preserve a unique record of the Permian-Triassic extinction event. High rates of sedimentation, controlled by active faulting, have produced a greatly expanded succession compared to other sections worldwide. In addition, the sediments have suffered remarkably little burial and thermal alteration and contain well preserved marine organisms and terrestrially derived plant remains. For the first time, it is possible to compare the terrestrial and marine fossil records of this extinction event using the same samples from the same sections. These studies have importance for palaeoecology as well as for correlation between marine and terrestrial sections worldwide. Marine ecosystem collapse is signalled by a sharp reduction in bioturbation, a disappearance of Permian taxa, a sharp decrease in the 13C curve (interpreted as an indication of productivity collapse) and the appearance of widespread oxygen restriction. This all occurs within approx. 50 cm at the top of the Schuchert Dal Formation. During the same interval, there is also a turnover in the terrestrial ecosystem from gymnosperm to pteridosperm dominated floras. Studies of sections in northern Italy also suggest that a similar synchronicity exists in the timing of ecosystem recovery in both marine and terrestrial realms during the late Lower Triassic" (Looy & Twitchett 1999).
"There is a widespread belief that 'throughout their history fish have proved virtually immune to mass extinction events'" (Hallam & Wignall 1997, p. 71). During the Permian-Triassic extinction event fish diversity seems to have increased, whereas all other marine groups declined sharply. This presents an ecological problem: how can organisms at the top of a food chain survive a widespread collapse in productivity and biomass at lower trophic levels? Good Permian-Early Triassic fish faunas are known only from a few areas worldwide: Madagascar, East Greenland and Spitsbergen. One possibility is that in these areas the extinction was less severe than elsewhere and thus the food chain remained relatively intact. However, palaeoecological data from East Greenland show that conditions were just as bad here as elsewhere. Instead, it appears that fish were better preserved in the Lower Triassic than in the latest Permian. This is due to widespread benthic anoxia, high sedimentation rates and rapid concretion formation in the narrow, fault controlled basin of East Greenland. In contrast, benthic invertebrate groups show much worse preservation in the Lower Triassic than in the Late Permian (due to a dearth of silicified faunas). When the number of Lazarus taxa are taken into account, fish diversity shows a similar pattern through the Permian-Triassic interval as all other marine groups" (Twitchett 1999).
An analysis of "global Permian and Triassic plant data in a paleogeographic context show that the scale and timing of effects [on plants] varied markedly between regions" and that "the patterns are best explained by differences in geography, climate, and fossil preservation, not by catastrophic events" (Rees 2002, p. 827).
Fig. 4. Carbon isotope curve at Meishan section; from Bowring et al. 1998.
Mesozoic Developments
Plant Life
Appearance of the AngiospermsThe angiosperms (flowering plants) are the most diverse group of land plants living today, comprising some 270,000 described species, placed in about 380 families and 83 orders (Mayr 2001, p. 64).
The group may have evolved from either the Gnetales or possibly the Bennettitales (Willis & McElwain 2002, p. 184).
The enormous radiation of this group has largely occurred since the mid-Cretaceous, coevolving with a similar radiation of insects. However, the angiosperms must have arisen earlier: perhaps as early as the Triassic or even the late Carboniferous (Qui et al. 1999). Evidence supporting the earliest date estimates is mainly provided by calibrated genetic divergence studies, though fossil angiosperm-like pollen and leaves have been found dating back to the late Triassic. Several form-species of Crinopolles-type pollen possessing a tectate wall have been described, dating to perhaps 220 Ma. The oldest leaves are somewhat younger, perhaps 210 Ma, and include the problematic taxa Furcula and Sanmiguelia.
That being said, however, current orthodoxy is that the first true angiosperms evolved in the Early Cretaceous, probably in the Valanginian (~140 to ~133 Ma) or Hauterivian (~133 to ~129 Ma) ages. The oldest known angiosperm fossils are pollen grains, which first appear in the fossil record "during the Valanginian-Hauterivian; they spread out of the tropics in the Aptian and Albian [~125.0 to 100.5 Ma], and radiated in the Late Cretaceous" (Harris & Arens 2016, p. 640).
Some of the earliest "body" fossils are "small plants, possibly rooted aquatics or wetland herbs" (Wing 2004, p. 90).
Genetic evidence (Zanis et al. 2002) strongly suggests that the most 'primitive' (basal) living angiosperm is a little known shrub called Amborella trichopoda. Amborella is a small shrub with tiny greenish-yellow flowers and red fruit, native to the South Pacific island of New Caledonia. The Nymphaeales (waterlilies and their relatives) are also contenders for the distinction of being the most basal living angiosperms.
Perhaps the most basal fossil group yet to be well-delineated within the angiosperm clade is the Archaefructaceae, a family of herbaceous aquatic plants recovered from the Lower Cretaceous or possibly uppermost Jurassic Yixian Formation of western Liaoning, China. These plants had reproductive axes that lacked petals and sepals, and bore stamens in pairs below conduplicate (sharply folded together lengthwise) carpels. One combined morphological and molecular "total evidence" analysis places the Archaefructaceae as a sister group to all extant angiosperms, including Amborella and the Nymphaeales (Sun et al. 2002, p. 900).
Modern squamates (lizards, snakes and amphisbaenians) are the world's most diverse group of tetrapods along with birds and have a long evolutionary history, with the oldest known fossils dating from the Middle Jurassic period – 168 million years ago. Megachirella wachtleri is a lepidosaurian reptile from the Middle Triassic of the Italian Alps. Simoes et al. (2018) analysed X-ray computed tomography data to re-evaluate the diapsid phylogeny and present evidence that M. wachtleri is the oldest known stem squamate. Megachirella is 75 million years older than the previously known oldest squamate fossils, partially filling the fossil gap in the origin of lizards, and indicating a more gradual acquisition of squamatan features in diapsid evolution. Divergence time estimates using relaxed combined morphological and molecular clocks show that lepidosaurs and most other diapsids originated before the Permian/Triassic extinction event, indicating that the Triassic was a period of radiation, not origin, for several diapsid lineages.
Three possibilities for the origins of birds are still being credibly debated: The first is that they evolved from some unknown group of basal archosaurs, probably in the Triassic Period. Second, that they are a sister group to the Crocodylians, perhaps arising from within the sphenosuchian crocodylomorphs in the Early Jurassic. Certainly the most widely held view – though unfortunately misrepresented as the only credible modern view by the popular media – is for an ancestry among the theropod dinosaurs, specifically the Maniraptora, in the Middle to early Late Jurassic.
Despite intensive searching, the earliest known bird is still the famous Archaeopteryx, known from only seven skeletons and an isolated feather, all recovered from the Late Jurassic (Tithonian, ~152 to 145 Ma) Solnhofen Limestone of Germany. The small theropod dinosaur, Compsognathus, has also been recovered from the Solnhofen. This fossil record represents a difficult problem for advocates of the theropod hypothesis: birds (specifically Archaeopteryx) are supposed to be most closely related to the dromaeosaurids, which do not appear in the fossil record until Albian times (mid Cretaceous, about 110 Ma) yet Compsognathus, which is believed to have diverged from the theropod lineage long before the evolution of the dromaeosaurids, occurs alongside Archaeopteryx 40 million years earlier. At present, only the vagaries of the fossil record can be invoked to 'explain' the stratigraphic disjunction; our present understanding is unsatisfactory.
The first known beak and pygostyle (the "parsons-nose" which is all that remains in birds of the reptilian tail) occur in a Chinese fossil dated at 130 Ma. Feathers and bird bones have also been recovered from 110 Ma sediments in Victoria and Queensland.
Rahonavis is a primitive bird from 80 million-year-old rocks of Madagascar. Despite being more bird-like than Archaeopteryx, raven-sized Rahonavis retains some very distinctive theropod-like features. Other small primitive birds have been found elsewhere around the world. From Mongolia comes a large flightless bird, Mononykus, with wings replaced by a pair of single-digit hands that projected forwards. Another flightless bird is known from Patagonia. A sparrow-sized bird from Spain had a more modern shoulder joint than Archaeopteryx and a perching foot but it still had teeth.
Early mammals had a Pangean distribution, including Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia and the Americas. Mammals were presumeably abundant in the Mesozoic, though their fossil record is poor, probably due to their small size which makes the fossils fragile and difficult to find.
The earliest fossil mammals are early Mesozoic, the exact age being dependent upon which fossils one accepts as meeting the definition of 'mammal.' Conventionally, mammals are recognised by their jaw morphology: how the jaw articulates with the skull and incorporation of two small bones into the inner ear. In reptiles – including the mammalian ancestors – the jaw joint is hinged on two small bones; one (the quadrate) linked to the squamosal bone of the skull and the other (the articular) to the lower jaw itself (the dentary). In true mammals, the dentary is hinged directly to the squamosal; the quadrate and articular bones are incorporated into the mammals inner ear, becoming the incus and malleus respectively.
The Late Triassic morganucodontids exhibit an intermediate jaw morphology, neither completely reptilian nor yet fully mammalian: They had a jaw in which the dentary articulated with the squamosal but which still included articular and quadrate bones; these had not yet evolved to form the malleus and incus of the true mammalian inner ear. The morganucodontids are the oldest and most primitive of the triconodontans so are sometimes (e.g. Rich et al. 1996, p. 519) regarded as the first mammals.
"The Jurassic period is an important stage in early mammalian evolution, as it saw the first diversification of this group, leading to the stem lineages of monotremes and modern therian mammals. However, the fossil record of Jurassic mammals is extremely poor, particularly in the southern continents. Jurassic mammals from Gondwanaland are so far only known from Tanzania and Madagascar, and from trackway evidence from Argentina" (Rauhut et al. 2002, p. 165).
Throughout the early Mesozoic, mammals remained small, becoming more abundant, larger, and more diverse in the Cretaceous, which may have been a time of explosive radiation of Tribosphenida – early relatives of marsupials and placentals (Rougier 2002).
The Cenozoic
Whereas early placentals undoubtedly lived in the Mesozoic, the crown group radiation is thought to have occurred after the end of the Cretaceous (e.g., O'Leary et al. 2013, Halliday et al. 2017).
The earliest stem carnivorans, the group including cats, dogs, bears and others, are the genera Ravenictis and Pristinictis, known from the earliest Paleocene, and afrotherians (the group comprising elephants, dugongs, aardvarks, among others) from the Middle Paleocene. The first chiropteran (bat) fossils – already quite highly derived, capable of true flight although not echolocation – are known from the famous, Early Eocene Green River Formation of Wyoming. The earliest lagomorphs (rabbits, hares, etc.) are known from the mid Eocene of China. (After Halliday et al. 2017.)
"If the Cretaceous Indian genus Deccanolestes is, as some have suggested, closely related to purported euarchontans, such as nyctitheres ... or adapisoriculids ... then Deccanolestes would represent a Cretaceous occurrence of a euarchontan" (the group containing rodents and primates, among others; Halliday et al. 2017, p. 531, and references therein).
Notwithstanding, the primate record, generally, and the human record in particular, is very incomplete. The closest living relatives of primates may be the Dermoptera (colugos, arboreal gliding mammals native to Southeast Asia; suggested by genetic studies) or the clade of Dermoptera plus Chiroptera (bats; suggested by morphology). Any common ancestor to the three groups must have lived in the Cretaceous. Probable primate ancestors – genera such as Purgatorius, Plesiadapis and Phenacolemur – date from the earliest Paleogene, approximately 65 Ma. The oldest known true primates occur about 55 Ma (near the Paleocene/Eocene boundary).
Molecular evidence suggests that the evolutionary line of humans diverged from that of the other apes sometime between 10 and 5 million years ago. However, the discovery in Chad of a plausible human ancestor, Sahelanthropus tchadensis, in 6-7 million year old sediments suggests that the younger end of this range is unlikely and divergence between men and apes is older than indicated by most molecular studies. Moreover, the slightly younger Orrorin tugensis, discovered in ~6 Ma sediments from Kenya, hints at a diverse and perhaps geographically widespread homonid family tree living in the latest Miocene.
Human Origins
Molecular evidence suggests that the evolutionary line of humans diverged from that of the other apes sometime between 10 and 5 million years ago, but this timescale has been seriously challenged by discoveries of possible human ancestors in the older half of this range. Foremost among them are the 6-7 Ma Sahelanthropus tchadensis, discovered at Toros-Menalla in Chad, which is the oldest plausible human ancestor known to date, and, not much younger, the ~6 Ma Orrorin tugensis, discovered at Lukeino in Kenya. Together, the two fossil discoveries hint at a diverse and perhaps geographically widespread homonid ancestry, and an older divergence between men and apes than is indicated by most molecular studies.
The first recognisable apes had evolved by about 20 Ma ago with the appearance of Dryopithecus (formerly Proconsul) africanus, which may have been ancestral to humans. A great variety of forms appeared shortly after Dryopithecus, particularly in Africa, but with a few exceptions the fossil record becomes more than usually poor between about 14 and 4 Ma ago, and little is known from this period. Molecular evidence suggests that it was during this period, between 5 and 10 Ma ago, that the evolutionary line of humans diverged from that of the other apes.
The earliest fully bipedal human ancestor known is the 4 million year old Australopithecus afarensis, first recognised from the famous fossil known as Lucy. Subsequently, two main lines of pre-human evolution diverged: the australopithecines, which eventually became extinct, and those given the genus name Homo, beginning with an unnamed ~2.5 Ma old fossil, rapidly succeeded by Homo rudolfensis.
The earliest species assigned to Homo is the unnamed species appearing at the beginning of the Quaternary, approximately 2.5 million years ago. This species was rapidly succeeded by Homo rudolfensis. Then, two further species, Homo habilis and H. ergaster overlap through much of the interval 2 to 1.5 Ma; the latter seems more likely to have been the direct human ancestor.
Homo erectus is the only recognised representative of the genus between about 1.2 and 0.7 Ma; some interpretations place it on the direct ancestral line to modern humans, others consider H. ergaster to have been directly ancestral to H. heidelbergensis, which first appears about 0.6 Ma, and from there to modern H. sapiens. However, if H. erectus is not directly ancestral to H. heidelbergensis and modern man, we are left with a ~900,000 year gap in which the true intermediaries are unknown.
Anatomically modern H. sapiens first appears close to 200,000 years ago. The oldest well-dated fossils are the Omo I and Omo II fossils from Kibish, Ethiopia (McDougall et al. 2005).
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eCareDiary spoke to Renee Le Verrier, Founder of LIM Yoga and author of "Travels with Tommy: Stories of Life with a Service Dog" about how service dogs play an important role in assisting those diagnosed with Parkinson's.
"Yoga," according to B. K. S. Iyengar, one of the gurus who introduced the practice to the West, "teaches us to cure what need not be endured and to endure what cannot be cured." The words suffer and endure may be synonymous, but suffer seems more of
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