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U.S. Men's National Team Drops First Hexagonal Match 2-1 to Honduras
- Clint Dempsey Scores 31st Career Goal and 11th Career World Cup Qualifying Tally in 36th Minute for 1-0 Lead
- Honduras Rallies as Jerry Bengtson Notches Game-Winner in 79th Minute
- U.S. MNT Resumes Final Round of 2014 FIFA World Cup Qualifying on March 22 Against Costa Rica at Dick's Sporting Goods Park in Commerce City, Colo.
- Game goes live at 8 p.m. MT Kickoff; Live Broadcast on ESPN, WatchESPN and Univision Networks
SAN PEDRO SULA, Honduras (Feb. 6, 2013) – The U.S. Men's National Team garnered a first-half lead, but Honduras rallied for a 2-1 victory in Estadio Olimpico Metropolitano in the teams' opener of the Final Round of 2014 FIFA World Cup Qualifying.
Clint Dempsey scored the USA's goal, only to see Honduras get goals from Juan Garcia and Jerry Bengtson to take all three points.
On the winning Honduras tally, the ball was played to the edge of the box with Honduras midfielder Oscar Garcia, U.S. defender Geoff Cameron and goalkeeper Tim Howard all having an opportunity to get to the ball. Cameron noticeably held back on his run and Garcia took advantage, passing the ball to Bengtson who lost U.S. center back Omar Gonzalez and slotted the ball into the net for the victory.
Next up for the U.S., which is celebrating its Centennial throughout the 2013 campaign, is a home World Cup qualifier on March 22 against Costa Rica at Dick's Sporting Goods Park in Commerce City, Colo. The game kicks off at 8 p.m. MT and will be broadcast live on ESPN, WatchESPN and Univision Networks. Fans can also follow the game online via ussoccer.com's MatchTracker and on Twitter @ussoccer.
The USA and Honduras played the day's early match among the final six CONCACAF teams looking to qualify for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil. Panama hosts Costa Rica and Mexico hosts Jamaica in their Final Round openers Wednesday night.
After a sluggish start for both teams through much of the first half, the U.S. got on the score sheet first in the 36th minute when Jermaine Jones lofted the ball over the Honduras defense to Dempsey in the box. Dempsey struck the ball solidly with his right foot, driving his volley past Honduras goalkeeper Noel Valladares for the 1-0 lead.
Dempsey's goal was the 31st of his career, his 11th in World Cup qualifying matches and the sixth goal in this current World Cup qualifying cycle to lead the USA. He moves into sole possession of second place in qualifying goals ahead of Eddie Johnson and Brian McBride. Dempsey also moved into sole possession of third all-time in career goals ahead of McBride (30 career goals).
The U.S. lead only lasted a few minutes as Garcia equalized with a highlight-reel bicycle kick in the 40th minute. The sequence began with a corner kick from the left side that went over everyone in the box, but Victor Bernardez tracked down the ball in the right corner and swung the ball back in to Maynor Figueroa who chested the pass to Garcia. With his back to the goal, Garcia without hesitation uncorked an overhead kick and the shot was no match for Howard.
In the 56th minute, Honduras appeared to take the lead when Carlo Costly hit a shot that went into the left side of the net, but referee Walter Quesada acknowledged his linesman's offside flag.
U.S. head coach Jurgen Klinsmann made his three substitutions early in the second half. Maurice Edu was brought in for Williams in the 58th minute, Sacha Kljestan replaced Johnson in the 59th minute and Graham Zusi was brought in for Jones in the 67th minute.
Bengtson would score the winner 12 minutes later and Honduras took the early lead in the Hexagonal.
Additional Notes:
- With his start in Wednesday's game, German-born defender Timmy Chandler officially became cap-tied to the United States as he started at right back, paired with Cameron and Gonzalez and left back Fabian Johnson. Chandler and Gonzalez made their World Cup qualifying debuts.
- U.S. goalkeeper Tim Howard had three saves in the match, including a clutch punch on Mario Martinez's left-footed shot in the 33rd minute to keep the match scoreless at the time.
- The USA saw its unbeaten streak (3-0-2) dating back to last year come to a close and moved to 12-4-3 all-time against Honduras in a series that dates back to 1965.
- The U.S. is now 3-2-1 in games played in Honduras and 3-1-0 in San Pedro Sula.
- Since 2002, the U.S. is 9-1-1 against Honduras.
- In World Cup qualifying matches, the U.S. is now 4-2-1 all-time against Honduras.
- In the past five openers of the Final Round of FIFA World Cup Qualifying, the U.S. is now 3-1-1.
- The U.S. has qualified for six straight FIFA World Cup tournaments, which is the seventh-best active streak behind Brazil (19), Germany (15), Italy (13), Argentina (10), Spain (9) and Republic of Korea (7), and ahead of eighth-place CONCACAF rival Mexico (5).
- Five USA players are currently carrying yellow cards in World Cup qualifying: Michael Bradley, Clint Dempsey, Maurice Edu, Fabian Johnson and Graham Zusi. Their next caution will result in a one-match suspension.
-- U.S. Men's National Team Game Report --
Match: USA vs. Honduras
Date: Feb. 6, 2013
Competition: FIFA World Cup Qualifier – Final Round
Venue: Estadio Olimpico Metropolitano
Kickoff: 3 p.m. CT
Attendance: 37,000
Weather: 84 degrees, humid
Scoring Summary: 1 2 F
USA – Clint Dempsey (Jermaine Jones) 36th minute
HON – Juan Carlos Garcia (Maynor Figueroa) 40
HON – Jerry Bengtson (Oscar Garcia) 79
USA: 1-Tim Howard (capt.); 2-Timmy Chandler, 5-Omar Gonzalez, 20-Geoff Cameron, 23-Fabian Johnson; 14-Danny Williams (7-Maurice Edu, 58), 13-Jermaine Jones (19-Graham Zusi, 67), 4-Michael Bradley, 18-Eddie Johnson (16-Sacha Kljestan, 59); 8-Clint Dempsey, 17-Jozy Altidore
Subs not used: 3-Carlos Bocanegra, 6-Michael Parkhurst, 9-Herculez Gomez, 10-Jose Torres, 11-Brad Davis, 12-Brad Guzan, 15-Edgar Castillo, 21-Brad Evans, 22-Sean Johnson
Head Coach: Jurgen Klinsmann
HON: 18-Noel Valladares , 5-Víctor Bernárdez, 3-Maynor Figueroa, 6-Juan Carlos García, 8-Arnold Peralta, 15-Roger Espinoza, 14-Oscar Boniek García, 19-Luis Garrido, 10-Mario Martínez, 11-Jerry Bengtson (20-Jorge Claros, 84), 13-Carlo Costly(9-Georgie Welcome, 90+3)
Subs not used: 22-Donis Escobar, 1-José Mendoza, 17-Brayan Beckeles, 2-Osman Chávez, 4-Juan Pablo Montes, 12-Orlin Peralta, 16-Alex López, 23-Aldo Oviedo, 7-Christian Altamirano, 21-Roger Rojas
Head coach: Luis Suarez
Stats Summary: HON / USA
Shots: 12 / 11
Shots on Goal: 5 / 2
Saves: 1 / 3
Corner Kicks: 4 / 7
Fouls: 10 / 9
Offside: 5 / 0
Misconduct Summary:
Referee: Walter Quesada (CRC)
Assistant Referee 1: Leonel Leal (CRC)
Assistant Referee 2: Octavio Jara (CRC)
Fourth Official: Jeffrey Solis (CRC)
Budweiser Man of the Match: Clint Dempsey


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During this latest round of arguing over the inclusion of Amazon search results in the Unity Dash, Alan Bell pointed out the fact that while the default scopes shipped in Ubuntu were made to check the new privacy settings, we didn't do a very good job of telling third-party developers how to do it.
(Update: I was told a better way of doing this, be sure to read the bottom of the post before implementing it in your own code)
Since I am also a third-party lens developer, I decided to add it to my come of my own code and share how to do it with other lens/scope developers. It turns out, it's remarkably easy to do.
Since the privacy setting is stored in DConf, which we can access via the Gio library, we need to include that in our GObject Introspection imports:
from gi.repository import GLib, Unity, Gio
Then, before performing a search, we need to fetch the Unity Lens settings:
lens_settings = Gio.Settings('com.canonical.Unity.Lenses')
The key we are interested in is 'remote-content-search', and it can have one of two value, 'all' or 'none'. Since my locoteams-scope performs only remote searches, by calling the API on http://loco.ubuntu.com, if the user has asked that no remote searches be made, this scope will return without doing anything.
And that's it! That's all you need to do in order to make your lens or scope follow the user's privacy settings.
Now, before we get to the comments, I'd like to kindly point out that this post is about how to check the privacy setting in your lens or scope. It is not about whether or not we should be doing remote searches in the dash, or how you would rather the feature be implemented. If you want to pile on to those argument some more, there are dozens of open threads all over the internet where you can do that. Please don't do it here.
I wasn't aware, but there is a PreferencesManager class in Unity 6 (Ubuntu 12.10) that lets you access the same settings:
You should use this API instead of going directly to GSettings/DConf.Read more

subset: commoncrawl


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Sources: Debra Ring, 785-532-3700, email@example.com;
Nancy Bolsen, 785-565-8720, email@example.com;
Renee Fehr, 785-556-6914, email@example.com;
and Bernard Pitts, 785-532-6591, firstname.lastname@example.com
Tuesday, Nov. 30, 2010
MANHATTAN -- The move is complete and Kansas State University's Center for Child Development is now in its new home at the east end of Jardine Drive on the K-State campus.
The doors to the early care and education facility opened officially Nov. 29, after faculty and administrative staff moved in during the week of Nov. 22-26. The $3.5 million facility is 32,000 square feet, more than double the size of its former location in K-State's Jardine Apartment Complex.
The center serves the children of families from the K-State, Manhattan and Fort Riley communities. Children using the center also come from all over the world, as many of K-State's international student parents use the service.
K-State's new Center for Child Development was designed using current research on what is best for children and early childhood education teachers, said Debra Ring, executive director.
"A focus is on connecting the indoors and outdoors, with every classroom having a door directly out to their playground," Ring said. "Natural sunlight floods the building to eliminate -- or on cloudy days, reduce -- the use of fluorescent lighting."
The building also promotes the center's philosophy of parent partnerships and parent involvement, Ring said, by offering spaces created to welcome and foster communication and relationships. These special spaces include areas for staff and families to meet.
"Natural colors, fabrics and light give children a relaxed place to be," Ring said. "The building was designed to increase children's sense of wonder. Our philosophy is to bring nature in and take the curriculum outside. A wall of windows in each classroom looks out on beautiful nature-based outdoor play spaces, designed to connect children to the many wonders of nature and inspire them to be future stewards of our natural environments."
Security also is enhanced in the new facility.
"Only parents and staff are given a code which, when entered at the front door, gives access to the building," Ring said. "Security cameras are located throughout the building and on the playgrounds, with closed-circuit monitors in the main office. The facility has a direct link to campus police and a sophisticated intercom system."
The infant-toddler wing features a more residential feel with specially named communities. Each community -- the Pillsbury Crossing community, the Flint Hills community and the Konza Prairie community -- has an infant room, a toddler room and a room for 2- to 3-year olds.
"Our staffing provides continuity of care from infant through 3 years of age," Ring said. "In each community the teachers, children and parents will know each other, much like an extended family."
Ring said the new center encourages movement and supports comfort. Each classroom has an open area with vaulted ceilings for more action-oriented activities and movement between indoors and outdoors. The other half of each room has lowered ceilings for more structured and quiet activities
"We substantially increased the number of infant and toddler spaces because of the huge need in the community for infant and toddler child care," said Cassie Brown, assistant director of the center. "We now have 200 children from ages 6 weeks to 5 years, and will soon be adding a before- and after-school program, as well as an exciting summer school-age camp program."


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Home Accidents
Home is a place where one feels safe and secure, but unfortunately it is also the place where one is most likely to have an accident which requires medical treatment.
Some Facts:
The biggest single cause of accidents is human error !
More people are injured in their homes than anywhere else.
The kitchen, stairs and bathrooms are all potentially very dangerous places.
Many accidents occur in the home from everyday activities such as children playing, preparing food, simply moving about the house and during household repairs.
Accidents involving children often occur in the presence of an adult.
With forethought many accidents could be prevented !
What sorts of accidents happen at home?
It includes also being hurt by falling objects and general "bumping into" type accidents.
The elderly are particularly at risk from falls of any kind.
Heat Accidents: In our country, fire accidents are common especially in the rural areas where poor people use oil stoves for cooking.
There are places where sui gas supply has not been provided and people use gas cylinders for cooking. These are potential sources of serious fire accidents and most of the time there is hardly any time available for the victim's life to be saved Foreign Body Accidents:
Objects in the eye/ear/nose.
Choking can occur if a solid or liquid blocks the respiratory passage ! Electricity Hazards
Children are especially vulnerable here as they are likely to put all manner of objects in their mouths !
House Hold Safety Precautions:
Room by room descriptions of common sense measures, can make your home a safer place - starting today !
Keep sharp knives in a safe drawer.
Keep hot oil utensils away from the reach of children after cooking.
Wipe up any spills immediately.
Never leave children unattended near a bathtub that has water in it.
Install handles along the wall of the tub or shower and beside the toilet, particularly if there are old people in the household.
Lock up medication, razors, cleaning products.
Do not place furniture that children can climb on, in front of a window.
Choose stable pieces of furniture that will not tip over. Wall-mounted lamps cannot tip over.
Never smoke in bed.
Sometimes the simplest precaution
protects you from the greatest harm !
Using And Storing Household Products:
Buy potentially poisonous substances in safety containers, and buy only as much as you need.
Store all household products safely immediately after use.
Use products that give off fumes - including ammonia, bleach, petroleum products, and paints - only in well- ventilated areas.
Make sure you have adequate ventilation around any fuel burning appliances and be sure they are working correctly. When they are operating, these appliances release poisonous carbon monoxide gas that needs to be dispersed into the air.
Store all household products out of the reach of children, preferably in a locked cabinet.
Never store household products, particularly aerosols, near a source of heat or flame such as furnace or hot water heater.
Use Medications Safely!
Medicines, both prescribed and over the counter use can be extremely dangerous if they are used incorrectly.
Never take or administer any medication that has no label or that is out of date, that has begun to crumble, or that has changed color, odor, or consistency.
Don't give prescription medication to anyone other than the person to whom it was prescribed.
Always be sure you understand what a drug is, how it works, when and how to take it, and what the potential side effects are.
Home Accidents
Started by arunsingh, Dec 05 2002 06:36 PM
4 replies to this topic
Posted 05 December 2002 - 06:36 PM
Mobile No-0092-345-4040675
Mobile No-0092-345-4040675
Posted 07 December 2002 - 11:56 AM
Yes, it is. We have to take care at home generally from like these instruments. Finally, everything is dangerious if that goes to careless use. Take care friends.
Thank you Arun ji. It was nice advice.
Thank you Arun ji. It was nice advice.
Saima Ansari
Look at once before you move !!
Saima Ansari
Look at once before you move !!
Posted 15 December 2002 - 12:33 PM
It was very good lesson. We have to take care in the home too. Do not careless into any work if that is samall or big. Sometimes, a atom of dust also will be very dangerious. Please! take care all the time in the home.
Posted 21 July 2009 - 07:22 AM
Hi Friend's
There are quality care homes for the elderly in Manchester and Wales that aim to provide your loved ones with all the care and comfort of a home. You will get a comfortable and caring environment in a home from home atmosphere. Log on to http://www.caringuk.com for more about these respite homes.
There are quality care homes for the elderly in Manchester and Wales that aim to provide your loved ones with all the care and comfort of a home. You will get a comfortable and caring environment in a home from home atmosphere. Log on to http://www.caringuk.com for more about these respite homes.
Posted 21 November 2009 - 01:39 AM
Nice topic here. Injuries are a global preventable public health problem and my doctoral thesis is on Injuries prevention and Safety promotion. I can share my findings here if people are interested.
Sunil Kumar Joshi
WNSO - Nepal, Kathmandu
Visit My Website
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WNSO - Nepal, Kathmandu
Visit My Website
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Visit My Academia.edu
Visit My Album
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Indian religions
Indian religions are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent; namely Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism.[web 1][note 1] These religions are also classified as Eastern religions. Although Indian religions are connected through the history of India, they constitute a wide range of religious communities, and are not confined to the Indian subcontinent.[web 1]
Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings. The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE (mature period, 2600–1900 BCE), was an early urbanised culture which predates the Vedic religion. The Dravidian peoples and Dravidian languages of South India also predate the Vedic religion.[note 2]
The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Iranians, which were collected and later redacted into the Vedas. The period of the composition, redaction and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period, which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE.[2] This religion was closely related to early Zoroastrianism and its liturgical language, Vedic Sanskrit, was intelligible with Avestan.
The Reform Period between 800–200 BCE marks a "turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".[3] The Shramana movement, an ancient Indian religious movement parallel to but separate from Vedic tradition, gave rise to Jainism[4] and Buddhism,[5] and was responsible for the related concepts of Yoga,[6] saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle).[7] This period also saw the writing of the Upanishads and the rise of Vedanta.
The Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE) and Early Medieval period (500–1100 CE) gave rise to new configurations of Hinduism, especially bhakti and Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smarta and much smaller groups like the conservative Shrauta.
The early Islamic period (1100–1500 CE) also gave rise to new movements. Sikhism was founded in the 15th century on the teachings of Guru Nanak and the nine successive Sikh Gurus in Northern India.[web 2] The vast majority of its adherents originate in the Punjab region.
With the colonial dominance of the British a reinterpretation and synthesis of Hinduism arose, which aided the Indian independence movement.
History 1
- Periodisation 1.1
Prevedic religions (before c. 1750 BCE) 1.2
- Prehistory 1.2.1
- Indus Valley Civilisation 1.2.2
- Dravidian culture 1.2.3
Vedic period (1750 BCE-800 BCE) 1.3
- Early Vedic period – early Vedic compositions (c. 1750–1200 BCE) 1.3.1
- Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–850 BCE) 1.3.2
- Late Vedic period (from 850 BCE) 1.3.3
- Sanskritization 1.4
Shramanic period (c. 800–200 BCE) 1.5
- Late Vedic period – Brahmanas and Upanishads – Vedanta (850–500 BCE) 1.5.1
Rise of Shramanic tradition (7th to 5th centuries BCE) 1.5.2
- Jainism 188.8.131.52
- Buddhism 188.8.131.52
- Spread of Jainism and Buddhism (500–200 BCE) 1.5.3
Epic and Early Puranic Period (200 BCE-500 CE) 1.6
- Smriti 1.6.1
- Vedanta – Brahma sutras (200 BCE) 1.6.2
- Indian philosophy 1.6.3
- Hindu literature 1.6.4
- Jainism and Buddhism 1.6.5
- Tantra 1.6.6
Medieval and Late Puranic Period (500–1500 CE) 1.7
Late-Classical Period (c. 650–1100 CE) 1.7.1
- Vedanta 18.104.22.168
- Buddhism 22.214.171.124
- Bhakti 188.8.131.52
Early Islamic rule (c. 1100–1500 CE) 1.7.2
- Bhakti movement 188.8.131.52
- Lingayathism 184.108.40.206
- Unifying Hinduism 22.214.171.124
- Sikhism (15th century) 188.8.131.52
- Late-Classical Period (c. 650–1100 CE) 1.7.1
Modern period (1500 – present) 1.8
- Early modern period 1.8.1
Modern India (after 1800) 1.8.2
- Hinduism 126.96.36.199
- Jainism 18.104.22.168
- Buddhism 184.108.40.206
Similarities and differences 2
Similarities 2.1
- Soteriology 2.1.1
- Ritual 2.1.2
- Mythology 2.1.3
Differences 2.2
- Dharma 2.2.1
- Mythology 2.2.2
- Similarities 2.1
- Āstika and nāstika categorisation 3
- "Dharmic religions" 4
- Status of non-Hindus in the Republic of India 5
- See also 6
- Notes 7
- References 8
Sources 9
- Printed sources 9.1
- Web-sources 9.2
- Further reading 10
- External links 11
Part of a series on the
|Ancient India
|Medieval India
|Modern India
James Mill (1773–1836), in his The History of British India (1817),[8] distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations.[8][9] This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to.[10] Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods".[11] Smart[12] and Michaels[13] seem to follow Mill's periodisation,[note 3], while Flood[14] and Muesse[16][17] follow the "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods" periodisation.[18]
Indus Valley Civilisation and Vedic period
(c. 3000–1000 BCE)
Prevedic religions
(until c. 1750 BCE)[13]
Prevedic religions
(until c. 1750 BCE)[13]
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilisation
(c. 2500 to 1500 BCE)
Vedic religion
(c. 1750–500 BCE)
Early Vedic Period
(c. 1750–1200 BCE)
Vedic Period
Vedic period
(c. 1500–500 BCE)
Middle Vedic Period
(from 1200 BCE)
Pre-classical period
(c. 1000 BCE – 100 CE)
Late Vedic period
(from 850 BCE)
Classical Period
Ascetic reformism
(c. 500–200 BCE)
Ascetic reformism
(c. 500–200 BCE)
Epic and Puranic period
(c. 500 BCE to 500 CE)
Classical Hinduism
(c. 200 BCE – 1100 CE)[3]
Preclassical Hinduism
(c. 200 BCE – 300 CE)[21]
Epic and Puranic period
Classical period
(c. 100 – 1000 CE)
"Golden Age" (Gupta Empire)
(c. 320–650 CE)[22]
Late-Classical Hinduism
(c. 650–1100 CE)[23]
Medieval and Late Puranic Period
Medieval and Late Puranic Period
Hindu-Islamic civilisation
(c. 1000–1750 CE)
Islamic rule and "Sects of Hinduism"
(c. 1100–1850 CE)[24]
Islamic rule and "Sects of Hinduism"
(c. 1100–1850 CE)[24]
Modern Age
Modern period
(c. 1500 CE to present)
Modern period
(c. 1750 CE – present)
Modern Hinduism
(from c. 1850)[25]
Modern Hinduism
(from c. 1850)[25]
Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism":
- Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE "pre-classical". It's the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism[note 4], Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the "classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE, and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism" and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India.[27]
- For Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "Ascetic reformism"[28], whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".[3]
- Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period". According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal enlightenment and transformation", which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time.[29]
Prevedic religions (before c. 1750 BCE)
Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka, depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.[30] Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.[web 3]
Indus Valley Civilisation
The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE (mature period, 2600–1900 BCE) and was centered on the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility,[31] a concept that has recently been challenged.[32] Excavations of Indus Valley Civilisation sites show small tablets with animals and altars, indicating rituals associated with animal sacrifice. Figures of nude male deities excavated at Indus Valley civilization are interpreted as Jain yogi.[33] Various seals from Indus Valley Civilization bear resemblance to Rishabha and extensive use of the symbol of Bull might show the prevalence of Jainism in Indus Valley Civilization. The presence of Jainism in ancient India is supported by scholars like Dr. Radha Kumud Mookerji, Gustav Roth, Prof. A. Chakravarti, Prof. Ram Prasad Chanda, T. N. Ramchandran, I. Mahadevan and Kamta Prasad Jain.[34] Recently, Acarya Vidyanadji tried to prove the prevalence of Jainism in ancient India through detailed research on various artifacts, seals and other relics from Indus Valley Civilization.[34]Ram Prasad Chanda, who supervised Indus Valley Civilisation excavations, states[35] that,[36]
Not only the seated deities on some of the Indus seals are in Yoga posture and bear witness to the prevalence of Yoga in the Indus Valley Civilisation in that remote age, the standing deities on the seals also show Kayotsarga (a standing or sitting posture of meditation) position. The Kayotsarga posture is peculiarly Jain. It is a posture not of sitting but of standing. In the Adi Purana Book XV III, the Kayotsarga posture is described in connection with the penance of Rsabha, also known as Vrsabha.
The archeological evidence are, however, problematic and can have multiple interpretations.[37] The standing posture is too generic to be affirmatively associated with a yogic posture or any religion. The evidence is not enough to say with full conformity that Jainism existed in the Indus Valley Civilization.
Dravidian culture
According to Zimmer,
[T]he history of Indian philosophy has been characterised largely by a series of crises of interaction between the invasic Vedic-Aryan and the non-Aryan, earlier, Dravidian styles of thought and spiritual experience.[1]
Dravidian religion refers to a broad range of deities and belief systems nowadays still found in South India, South West India and some parts of East India. They differ from Brahminism and Puranic Hindusim in that they were either historically or are at present non-Agamic (which is not being granted the sanction of the Vedas). Scholars like Arumuka Navalar worked to subsume native deities in the Vedic pantheon. The Dravidian worship of village deities is recognised as a survival of the pre-Brahmanic Dravidian religion.[38] A large portion of these deities continue to be worshipped in the Village deities of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka, and their subsequent influence in South-east Asia examples of which include the Mariamman temples in Singapore and Vietnam. Worship of anthills, snakes and other forms of guardian deities and heroes are still worshiped in the Konkan coast, Maharashtra proper and a few other parts of India including North India which traces its origins to ancient Dravidian religion which has been influencing formation of mainstream Hinduism for thousands of years.
Vedic period (1750 BCE-800 BCE)
The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryans, which were collected and later redacted into the Samhitas (usually known as the Vedas), four canonical collections of hymns or mantras composed in archaic Sanskrit. These texts are the central shruti (revealed) texts of Hinduism. The period of the composition, redaction and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period, which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE.[2]
The Vedic Period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads (both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important canonical texts of Hinduism, and are the codification of much of what developed into the core beliefs of Hinduism.[39]
Some modern Hindu scholars use the "Vedic religion" synonymously with "Hinduism."[40] According to Sundararajan, Hinduism is also known as the Vedic religion.[41] Other authors state that the Vedas contain "the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma"[42] which is called "the modern version of the ancient Vedic Dharma"[43] The Arya Samajis recognize the Vedic religion as true Hinduism.[44] Nevertheless, according to Jamison and Witzel,
... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."[39][note 5]
Early Vedic period – early Vedic compositions (c. 1750–1200 BCE)
The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets and seers.[note 6]
The mode of worship was the performance of Yajna, sacrifices which involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire, accompanied by the singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of Yajus, the sacrificial mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña) and charity (dána).[46] An essential element was the sacrificial fire – the divine Agni – into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God.
Central concepts in the Vedas are Satya and Rta. Satya is derived from Sat, the present participle of the verbal root as, "to be, to exist, to live".[47] Sat means "that which really exists [...] the really existent truth; the Good",[47] and Sat-ya means "is-ness".[48] Rta, "that which is properly joined; order, rule; truth", is the principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.[49] "Satya (truth as being) and rita (truth as law) are the primary principles of Reality and its manifestation is the background of the canons of dharma, or a life of righteousness."[50] "Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute, rita is its application and function as the rule and order operating in the universe."[51] Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Panikkar remarks:
Ṛta is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. [...] It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...."[52]
The term rta is inherited from the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples prior to the earliest Vedic (Indo-Aryan) and Zoroastrian (Iranian) scriptures. "Asha" is the Avestan language term (corresponding to Vedic language ṛta) for a concept of cardinal importance[53] to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine. The term "dharma" was already used in Brahmanical thought, were it was conceived as an aspect of Rta.[54]
Major philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana, Kanva, Rishaba, Vamadeva, and Angiras.[55]
Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–850 BCE)
During the Middle Vedic period Rgveda X, the mantras of the Yajurveda and the older Brahmana texts were composed.[56] The Brahmans became powerful intermediairies.[57]
Late Vedic period (from 850 BCE)
The Vedic religion evolved into Hinduism and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman. This post-Vedic systems of thought, along with the Upanishads and later texts like epics (namely Gita of Mahabharat), is a major component of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Śrauta tradition.
Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms", a process sometimes called Sanskritization.[58] It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.[58]
Shramanic period (c. 800–200 BCE)
During the time of the shramanic reform movements "many elements of the Vedic religion were lost".[3] According to Michaels, "it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".[3]
Late Vedic period – Brahmanas and Upanishads – Vedanta (850–500 BCE)
The late Vedic period (9th to 6th centuries BCE) marks the beginning of the Upanisadic or Vedantic period.[web 4][note 7][59][note 8] This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the Upanishads,[60]:183 later the Sanskrit epics, still later followed by the Puranas.
Upanishads form the speculative-philosophical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).[61] The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.[62]
Scholars believe that Parsva, the 23rd Jain tirthankara lived during this period in the 9th century BCE.[63]
Rise of Shramanic tradition (7th to 5th centuries BCE)
Jainism and Buddhism belong to the sramana tradition. These religions rose into prominence in 700–500 BCE [4][5][6] in the Magadha kingdom., reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India",[64] and were responsible for the related concepts of saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle).[7][note 9]
The shramana movements challenged the orthodoxy of the rituals.[65] The shramanas were wandering ascetics distinct from Vedism.[66][67][note 10][68][note 11][69][note 12] Mahavira, proponent of Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement.
Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation.[70][note 13][71][note 14][72][note 15][note 16] The influence of Upanishads on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars. While Radhakrishnan, Oldenberg and Neumann were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon, Eliot and Thomas highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads.[74] Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies.[75] In Buddhist texts Buddha is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as "pernicious views".[76]
Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with Parsva (9th century BCE) and Mahavira (6th century BCE).[77][note 17]
The 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, Mahavira, stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing) and aparigraha (non-attachment). Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshva, accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shramana movement.[78][note 18]
Buddhism was historically founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a Kshatriya prince-turned-ascetic, and was spread beyond India through missionaries. It later experienced a decline in India, but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka, and remains more widespread in Southeast and East Asia.
Gautama Buddha, who was called an "awakened one" (Buddha), was born into the Shakya clan living at Kapilavastu and Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal. The Buddha was born at Lumbini, as emperor Ashoka's Lumbini pillar records, just before the kingdom of Magadha (which traditionally is said to have lasted from c. 546–324 BCE) rose to power. The Shakyas claimed Angirasa and Gautama Maharishi lineage,[79] via descent from the royal lineage of Ayodhya.
Buddhism emphasises enlightenment (nibbana, nirvana) and liberation from the rounds of rebirth. This objective is pursued through two schools, Theravada, the Way of the Elders (practised in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, SE Asia, etc.) and Mahayana, the Greater Way (practised in Tibet, China, Japan etc.). There may be some differences in the practice between the two schools in reaching the objective. In the Theravada practice this is pursued in seven stages of purification (visuddhi); viz. physical purification by taking precepts (sila visiddhi), mental purification by insight meditation (citta visuddhi), followed by purification of views and concepts (ditthi visuddhi), purification by overcoming of doubts (kinkha vitarana vishuddhi), purification by acquiring knowledge and wisdom of the right path (maggarmagga-nanadasana visuddhi), attaining knowledge and wisdom through the course of practice (patipada-nanadasana visuddhi), and purification by attaining knowledge and insight wisdom (nanadasana visuddhi) (ref: The Progress of Insight Visuddhinana katha. Ven Mahasi sayadaw, translated by Nyanaponika Thera. 1994. ISBN 955-24-0090-2)
Spread of Jainism and Buddhism (500–200 BCE)
Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India during the period of the Magadha empire.
Buddhism in India spread during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.[80] Jainism began its golden period during the reign of Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga in the 2nd century BCE.
Epic and Early Puranic Period (200 BCE-500 CE)
Flood and Muesse take the period between 200 BCE and 500 BCE as a separate period,[14][17] in which the epics and the first puranas were being written.[17] Michaels takes a greater timespan, namely the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE,[3] which saw the rise of so-called "Classical Hinduism",[3] with its "golden age"[22] during the Gupta Empire.[22]
According to Hiltebeitel, a period of consolidation in the development of Hinduism took place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishad (c. 500 BCE) and the period of the rise of the Guptas (c. 320–467 CE), which he calls the "Hindus synthesis", "Brahmanic synthesis", or "orthodox synthesis".[82] It develops in interaction with other religions and peoples:
The emerging self-definitions of Hinduism were forged in the context of continuous interaction with heterodox religions (Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas) throughout this whole period, and with foreign people (Yavanas, or Greeks; Sakas, or Scythians; Pahlavas, or Parthians; and Kusanas, or Kushans) from the third phase on [between the Mauryan empire and the rise of the Guptas].[82]
The end of the Vedantic period around the 2nd century CE spawned a number of branches that furthered Vedantic philosophy, and which ended up being seminaries in their own right. Prominent amongst these developers were Yoga, Dvaita, Advaita and the medieval Bhakti movement.
The Hinduist smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE-100 CE proclaim the authority of the Vedas, and acceptance of the Vedas becomes a central criterium for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas.[82] Of the six Hindu darsanas, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta "are rooted primarily in the Vedic sruti tradition and are sometimes called smarta schools in the sense that they develop smarta orthodox current of thoughts that are based, like smriti, directly on sruti.[82] According to Hiltebeitel, "the consolidation of Hinduism takes place under the sign of bhakti".[82] It is the Bhagavadgita that seals this achievement.[82] The result is an "universal achievement" that may be called smarta.[82] It views Shiva and Vishnu as "complementary in their functions but ontologically identical".[82]
Vedanta – Brahma sutras (200 BCE)
In earlier writings, Sanskrit 'Vedānta' simply referred to the Upanishads, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads. Traditional Vedānta considers scriptural evidence, or shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or pratyaksa, and logical inference, or anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid).[83][84]
The systematisation of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by Badarāyana in the Brahma Sutras which was composed around 200 BCE.[85] The cryptic aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations. This resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.
Indian philosophy
After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimāṃsā and Advaita Vedanta.[86] Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also tolerated atheistic schools. The thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Cārvāka school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a nāstika ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.[87] Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.[88] Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Samkhya and Mimāṃsā.
Hindu literature
Two of Hinduism's most revered epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana were compositions of this period. Devotion to particular deities was reflected from the composition of texts composed to their worship. For example the Ganapati Purana was written for devotion to Ganapati (or Ganesh). Popular deities of this era were Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, Surya, Skanda, and Ganesh (including the forms/incarnations of these deities.)
In the latter Vedantic period, several texts were also composed as summaries/attachments to the Upanishads. These texts collectively called as Puranas allowed for a divine and mythical interpretation of the world, not unlike the ancient Hellenic or Roman religions. Legends and epics with a multitude of gods and goddesses with human-like characteristics were composed.
Jainism and Buddhism
The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. Buddhism continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century.
There were several Buddhistic kings who worshiped Vishnu, such as the Gupta Empire, Pala Empire, Malla Empire, Somavanshi, and Sattvahana.[89] Buddhism survived followed by Hindus. National Geographic[90][note 19]
Tantrism originated in the early centuries CE and developed into a fully articulated tradition by the end of the Gupta period. According to Michaels this was the "Golden Age of Hinduism"[91] (c. 320–650 CE[91]), which flourished during the Gupta Empire[22] (320 to 550 CE) until the fall of the Harsha Empire[22] (606 to 647 CE). During this period, power was centralised, along with a growth of far distance trade, standardizarion of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy.[22] Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but the orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty.[92] The position of the Brahmans was reinforced,[22] and the first Hindu temples emerged during the late Gupta age.[22]
Medieval and Late Puranic Period (500–1500 CE)
Late-Classical Period (c. 650–1100 CE)
- See also Late-Classical Age and Hinduism Middle Ages
After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states".[23][note 20] The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",[93] as reflected in the Tantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.[94]
The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.[95][note 21] Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"[95] was diminished.[95] Rural and devotional movements arose, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra,[95] though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development".[95] Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords.[95] Buddhism lost its position, and began to disappear in India.[95]
In the same period Vedanta changed, incorporating Buddhist thought and its emphasis on consciousness and the working of the mind.[97] Buddhism, which was supported by the ancient Indian urban civilisation lost influence to the traditional religions, which were rooted in the countryside.[98] In Bengal, Buddhism was even prosecuted. But at the same time, Buddhism was incorporated into Hinduism, when Gaudapada used Buddhist philosophy to reinterpret the Upanishads.[97] This also marked a shift from Atman and Brahman as a "living substance"[99] to "maya-vada"[note 22], where Atman and Brahman are seen as "pure knowledge-consciousness".[100] According to Scheepers, it is this "maya-vada" view which has come to dominate Indian thought.[98]
Between 400 CE and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued.[101] Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.
The Bhakti movement began with the emphasis on the worship of God, regardless of one's status – whether priestly or laypeople, men or women, higher social status or lower social status. The movements were mainly centered on the forms of Vishnu (Rama and Krishna) and Shiva. There were however popular devotees of this era of Durga. The best-known devotees are the Nayanars from southern India. The most popular Shaiva teacher of the south was Basava, while of the north it was Gorakhnath. Female saints include figures like Akkamadevi, Lalleshvari and Molla.
The "alwar" or "azhwars" (Tamil: ஆழ்வார்கள், āzvārkaḷ , those immersed in god) were Tamil poet-saints of south India who lived between the 6th and 9th centuries CE and espoused "emotional devotion" or bhakti to Visnu-Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service.[102] The most popular Vaishnava teacher of the south was Ramanuja, while of the north it was Ramananda.
Several important icons were women. For example, within the Mahanubhava sect, the women outnumbered the men,[103] and administration was many times composed mainly of women.[104] Mirabai is the most popular female saint in India.
Sri Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531) is a very important figure from this era. He founded the Shuddha Advaita (Pure Non-dualism) school of Vedanta thought.
According to The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training,
Vaishanava bhakti literature was an all-India phenomenon, which started in the 6th–7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions [web 8]
Early Islamic rule (c. 1100–1500 CE)
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings.[105] The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire, while the Khilji dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing.
Bhakti movement
During the 14th to 17th centuries, a great Bhakti movement swept through central and northern India, initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or sants. Ramananda, Ravidas, Srimanta Sankardeva, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vallabhacharya, Surdas, Meera Bai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Namdev, Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram and other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the North while Annamacharya, Bhadrachala Ramadas, Tyagaraja among others propagated Bhakti in the South. They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste, and the subtle complexities of philosophy, and simply express their overwhelming love for God. This period was also characterized by a spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces.
Lingayatism is a distinct Shaivite tradition in India, established in the 12th century by the philosopher and social reformer Basavanna. The adherents of this tradition are known as Lingayats. The term is derived from Lingavantha in Kannada, meaning 'one who wears Ishtalinga on their body' (Ishtalinga is the representation of the God). In Lingayat theology, Ishtalinga is an oval-shaped emblem symbolising Parasiva, the absolute reality. Contemporary Lingayatism follows a progressive reform–based theology propounded, which has great influence in South India, especially in the state of Karnataka.[106]
Unifying Hinduism
According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and 16th century,
... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophival teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy.[107]
The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.[108] Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,[109] and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",[110] which started well before 1800.[111] Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers.[112]
Sikhism (15th century)
Sikhism originated in 15th-century Northern India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū— represented by the sacred symbol of ēk ōaṅkār [meaning one god]. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples) and number over 27 million across the world.
Modern period (1500 – present)
Early modern period
According to Gavin Flood, the modern period in India begins with the first contacts with western nations around 1500.[14][17] The period of Mughal rule in India[24] saw the rise of new forms of religiosity.[113]
Modern India (after 1800)
In the 19th century, under influence of the colonial forces, a synthetic vision of Hinduism was formulated by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi.[116] These thinkers have tended to take an inclusive view of India's religious history, emphasising the similarities between the various Indian religions.[116]
The modern era has given rise to dozens of Hindu saints with international influence.[19] For example, Swaminarayan founded the Swaminarayan Sampraday. Anandamurti, founder of the Ananda Marga, has also influenced many worldwide. Through the international influence of all of these new Hindu denominations, many Hindu practices such as yoga, meditation, mantra, divination, and vegetarianism have been adopted by new converts.
Jainism continues to be an influential religion and Jain communities live in Indian states Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Jains authored several classical books in different Indian languages for a considerable period of time.
The Dalit Buddhist movement (dubbed as Navayana by certain Ambedkerites)[117] is a 19th- and 20th-century Buddhist revival movement in India. It received its most substantial impetus from B. R. Ambedkar's call for the conversion of Dalits to Buddhism, to escape a caste-based society that considered them to be the lowest in the hierarchy.[118]
Similarities and differences
According to Tilak, the religions of India can be interpreted "differentially" or "integrally",[119] that is by either highlighting the differences or the similarities.[119] According to Sherma and Sarma, western Indologists have tended to emphasise the differences, while Indian Indologists have tended to emphasise the similarities.[120]
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals.[120] Until the 19th century, adherents of those various religions did not tend to label themselves as in opposition to each other, but "perceived themselves as belonging to the same extended cultural family."[121]
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share the concept of moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth.[122] They differ however on the exact nature of this liberation.[122]
Common traits can also be observed in ritual. The head-anointing ritual of abhiseka is of importance in three of these distinct traditions, excluding Sikhism (in Buddhism it is found within Vajrayana). Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals. In literature, many classical narratives and purana have Hindu, Buddhist or Jain versions.[web 9] All four traditions have notions of karma, dharma, samsara, moksha and various forms of Yoga.
Rama is a heroic figure in all of these religions. In Hinduism he is the God-incarnate in the form of a princely king; in Buddhism, he is a Bodhisattva-incarnate; in Jainism, he is the perfect human being. Among the Buddhist Ramayanas are: Vessantarajataka,[123] Reamker, Ramakien, Phra Lak Phra Lam, Hikayat Seri Rama etc. There also exists the Khamti Ramayana among the Khamti tribe of Asom wherein Rama is an Avatar of a Bodhisattva who incarnates to punish the demon king Ravana (B.Datta 1993). The Tai Ramayana is another book retelling the divine story in Asom.
Critics point out that there exist vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions.[124][125] All major religions are composed of innumerable sects and subsects.[126]
For a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is righteousness, his conduct. For a Buddhist, dharma is usually taken to be the Buddha's teachings.
Indian mythology also reflects the competition between the various Indian religions. A popular story tells how Vajrapani kills Mahesvara, a manifestation of Shiva depicted as an evil being.[127][128] The story occurs in several scriptures, most notably the Sarvatathagatatattvasamgraha and the Vajrapany-abhiseka-mahatantra.[129][note 23] According to Kalupahana, the story "echoes" the story of the conversion of Ambattha.[128] It is to be understood in the context of the competition between Buddhist institutions and Shaivism.[133]
Āstika and nāstika categorisation
Āstika and nāstika are variously defined terms sometimes used to categorise Indian religions. The traditional definition, followed by Adi Shankara, classifies religions and persons as āstika and nāstika according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas, as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as āstika schools, while Charvaka is classified as a nāstika school. Buddhism and Jainism are also thus classified as nāstika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.
Another set of definitions—notably distinct from the usage of Hindu philosophy—loosely characterise āstika as "theist" and nāstika as "atheist". By these definitions, Sāṃkhya can be considered a nāstika philosophy, though it is traditionally classed among the Vedic āstika schools. From this point of view, Buddhism and Jainism remain nāstika religions.
Buddhists and Jains have disagreed that they are nastika and have redefined the phrases āstika and nāstika in their own view. Jains assign the term nastika to one who is ignorant of the meaning of the religious texts,[134] or those who deny the existence of the soul was well known to the Jainas.[135]
"Dharmic religions"
Frawley and Malhotra use the term "Dharmic traditions" to highlight the similarities between the various Indian religions.[136][137][note 24] According to Frawley, "all religions in India have been called the Dharma",[136] and can be
...put under the greater umbrella of "Dharmic traditions" which we can see as Hinduism or the spiritual traditions of India in the broadest sense.[136]
According to Paul Hacker, as described by Halbfass, the term "dharma"
...assumed a fundamentally new meaning and function in modern Indian thought, beginning with Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in the nineteenth century. This process, in which dharma was presented as an equivalent of, but also a response to, the western notion of "religion", reflects a fundamental change in the Hindu sense of identity and in the attitude toward other religious and cultural traditions. The foreign tools of "religion" and "nation" became tools of self-definition, and a new and precarious sense of the "unity of Hinduism" and of national as well as religious identity took root.[139]
The emphasis on the similarities and integral unity of the dharmic faiths has been criticised for neglecting the vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions and traditions.[124][125] According to Richard E. King it is typical of the "inclusivist appropriation of other traditions"[116] of Neo-Vedanta:
The inclusivist appropriation of other traditions, so characteristic of neo-Vedanta ideology, appears on three basic levels. First, it is apparent in the suggestion that the (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy of Sankara (c. eighth century CE) constitutes the central philosophy of Hinduism. Second, in an Indian context, neo-Vedanta philosophy subsumes Buddhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedantic ideology. The Buddha becomes a member of the Vedanta tradition, merely attempting to reform it from within. Finally, at a global level, neo-Vedanta colonizes the religious traditions of the world by arguing for the centrality of a non-dualistic position as the philosophia perennis underlying all cultural differences.[116]
Status of non-Hindus in the Republic of India
The inclusion of Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs within Hinduism is part of the Indian legal system. The 1955 Hindu Marriage Act "[defines] as Hindus all Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and anyone who is not a Christian, Muslim, Parsee or Jew".[140] And the Indian Constitution says that "reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jaina or Buddhist religion".[140]
In a judicial reminder, the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects or special faiths within the larger Hindu fold,[web 10][web 11] and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold.[web 12][note 25] Although the government of British India counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873, after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities.[web 13][note 26] In 2005 the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court however left it to the respective states to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.[141][web 14][note 27]
However, some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs are religious minorities or not, by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation. One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declared Jainism to be indisputably distinct from Hinduism, but mentioned that, "The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate.[142] However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held Jainism to be a distinct religion.
Another example is the Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill, that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism.[web 15] Ultimately on 31 July 2007, finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution, Governor Naval Kishore Sharma returned the Gujarat Freedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains[web 16] as well as Supreme Court's extrajudicial observation that Jainism is a "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court"[web 17]
See also
- ^ Adams: "Indian religions, including early Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and sometimes also Theravāda Buddhism and the Hindu- and Buddhist-inspired religions of South and Southeast Asia".
- ^ Heinrich Zimmer: "[T]he history of Indian philosophy has been characterised largely by a series of crises of interaction between the invasic Vedic-Aryan and the non-Aryan, earlier, Dravidian styles of thought and spiritual experience."[1]
- ^ Michaels mentions Flood 1996[14] as a source for "Prevedic Religions".[15]
- ^ Smart distinguishes "Brahmanism" from the Vedic religion, connecting "Brahmanism" with the Upanishads.[26]
- ^ Richard E. King notes: "Consequently, it remains an anachronism to project the notion of "Hinduism" as it is commonly understood into pre-colonial history."[45]
- ^ In post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda, Śrauta means "what is heard"
- ^ "Upanishads came to be composed already in the ninth and eighth century B.C.E. and continued to be composed well into the first centuries of the Common Era. The Brahmanas and Aranyakas are somewhat older, reaching back to the eleventh and even twelfth century BCE."[web 4]
- ^ Deussen: "these treatises are not the work of a single genius, but the total philosophical product of an entire epoch which extends [from] approximately 1000 or 800 BC, to c.500 BCE, but which is prolonged in its offshoots far beyond this last limit of time."[59] p. 51
- ^ Gavin Flood and Patrick Olivelle: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history....Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence....."[7]
- ^ Cromwell Crwaford: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic (self reliant) culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."[67]
- ^ Masih: "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."[68]
- ^ Jaini: "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism".[69]
- ^ Flood: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history....Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence....."[70]
- ^ Flood: "The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsara are obscure. These concepts were certainly circulating amongst sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions."[71] Page 86.
- ^ Padmanabh: "Yajnavalkya's reluctance and manner in expounding the doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka (a reluctance not shown on any other occasion) can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was, like that of the transmigration of soul, of non-brahmanical origin. In view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures, it is highly probable that it was derived from them."[72] Page 51.
- ^ Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski: "Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism."[73]
- ^ Oldmeadow: "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as Sramana Dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins."[77] Page 141
- ^ Fisher: "The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira."[78] Page 115
- ^ edition reads, "The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings."
- ^ In the east the Pala Empire[23] (770–1125 CE[23]), in the west and north the Gurjara-Pratihara[23] (7th–10th century[23]), in the southwest the Rashtrakuta Dynasty[23] (752–973[23]), in the Dekkhan the Chalukya dynasty[23] (7th–8th century[23]), and in the south the Pallava dynasty[23] (7th–9th century[23]) and the Chola dynasty[23] (9th century[23]).
- ^ This resembles the development of Chinese Chán during the An Lu-shan rebellion and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979), during which power became decentralised end new Chán-schools emerged.[96]
- ^ The term "maya-vada" is primarily being used by non-Advaitins. See [web 5][web 6][web 7]
- ^ The story begins with the transformation of the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra into Vajrapani by Vairocana, the cosmic Buddha, receiving a vajra and the name "Vajrapani".[130] Vairocana then requests Vajrapani to generate his adamantine family, to establish a mandala. Vajrapani refuses, because Mahesvara (Shiva) "is deluding beings with his deceitfull religious doctrines and engaging in all kinds of violent criminal conduct".[131] Mahesvara and his entourage are dragged to Mount Sumeru, and all but Mahesvara submit. Vajrapani and Mahesvara engage in a magical combat, which is won by Vajrapani. Mahesvara's retinue become part of Vairocana's mandala, except for Mahesvara, who is killed, and his life transferred to another realm where he becomes a buddha named Bhasmesvara-nirghosa, the "Soundless Lord of Ashes".[132]
- ^ Occasionally the term is also being used by other authors. David Westerlund: "...may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of 'dharmic' religions."[138]
- ^ The Supreme Court observed in a judgment pertaining to case of Bal Patil vs. Union of India: "Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."[web 12]
- ^ The so-called minority communities like Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities at the time of framing the Constitution.[web 13]
- ^ In an extra-judicial observation not forming part of the judgment the court observed :"Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."[web 14]
- ^ a b Zimmer 1989, p. 218-219.
- ^ a b Michaels 2004, p. 33.
- ^ a b c d e f g Michaels 2004, p. 38.
- ^ a b Jain 2008, p. 210.
- ^ a b Svarghese 2008, p. 259-60.
- ^ a b Mallinson 2007, p. 17-8, 32–33.
- ^ a b c Flood 2003, p. 273-4.
- ^ a b Khanna 2007, p. xvii.
- ^ Misra 2004, p. 194.
- ^ Kulke 2004, p. 7.
- ^ Flood 1996, p. 21.
- ^ a b Smart 2003, p. 52-53.
- ^ a b c Michaels 2004, p. 32.
- ^ a b c d Flood 1996.
- ^ Michaels 2004, p. 31, 348.
- ^ Muesse 2003.
- ^ a b c d e Muesse 2011.
- ^ Muesse 2011, p. 16.
- ^ a b c Michaels 2004.
- ^ Flood & 1996 21-22.
- ^ Michaels 2004, p. 39.
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- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Michaels 2004, p. 41.
- ^ a b c Michaels 2004, p. 43.
- ^ a b Michaels 2004, p. 45.
- ^ Smart 2003, p. 52, 83-86.
- ^ Smart 2003, p. 52.
- ^ Michaels 2004, p. 36.
- ^ Muesse 2003, p. 14.
- ^ Heehs 2002, p. 39.
- ^ Fowler 1997, p. 90.
- ^ Sharri R. Clark, The social lives of figurines : recontextualising the third millennium BCE terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan. PhD dissertation, Harvard 2007.
- ^ Shah 2004a, p. 9
- ^ a b Sangave 2001, p. 109
- ^ In his article "Mohen-jo-Daro: Sindh 5000 Years Ago" in Modern Review (August, 1932)
- ^ Patil, Bal In: Jaya Gommatesa, Hindi Granth Karyalay : Mumbai, 2006 ISBN 81-88769-10-X
- ^ Shah 2004a, p. 10
- ^ The Modern review: Volume 28; Volume 28, Prabasi Press Private, Ltd., 1920
- ^ a b Stephanie W. Jamison and Michael Witzel in Arvind Sharma, editor, The Study of Hinduism. University of South Carolina Press, 2003, page 65
- ^ History Of Ancient India (portraits Of A Nation), 1/e By Kamlesh Kapur
- ^ P. 382 Hindu Spirituality: Vedas Through Vedanta, Volume 1 edited by K. R. Sundararajan, Bithika Mukerji
- ^ Ashim Kumar Bhattacharyya declares that Vedas contain the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma; P. 6Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures And Theology By Ashim Kumar Bhattacharyya
- ^ P. 46 I Am Proud To Be A Hindu By J. Agarwal
- ^ P. 41 Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide By Roshen Dalal
- ^ King 1999, p. 176.
- ^ Nigal, S.G. Axiological Approach to the Vedas. Northern Book Centre, 1986. P. 81. ISBN 81-85119-18-x.
- ^ a b Zimmer 1989, p. 166.
- ^ Zimmer 1989, p. 167.
- ^ Holdrege (2004:215)
- ^ Krishnananda 1994, p. 17.
- ^ Krishnananda 1994, p. 24.
- ^ Panikkar 2001:350–351
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- ^ P. 285 Indian sociology through Ghurye, a dictionary By S. Devadas Pillai
- ^ Michaels 2004, p. 34.
- ^ Michaels 2004, p. 35.
- ^ a b .Other sources: the process of "Sanskritization"Encyclopedia Brittanica,
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- ^ Neusner, Jacob (2009), World Religions in America: An Introduction, Westminster John Knox Press,
- ^ Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin (2010), Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, ABC-CLIO, p. 1324,
- ^ Mahadevan, T. M. P (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, ed., History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, p. 57
- ^ Glasenapp 1999, p. 16.
- ^ Zimmer 1989, p. 217.
- ^ Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, p. 82,
- ^ Dr. Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur
- ^ a b S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972)
- ^ a b Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 81-208-0815-0 Page 18
- ^ a b P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169
- ^ a b Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden: Blackwell. pg. 273-4.
- ^ a b Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University – Press : UK ISBN 0-521-43878-0
- ^ a b Padmanabh S. Jaini 2001 "Collected Paper on Buddhist Studies" Motilal Banarsidass Publ 576 pages ISBN 81-208-1776-1
- ^ P. 93 World Religions By Jeffrey Brodd, Gregory Sobolewski
- ^ Pratt, James Bissett (1996), The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage, Asian Educational Services, p. 90,
- ^ Upadhyaya, Kashi Nath (1998), Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgītā, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., pp. 103–104,
- ^ Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, page 139.
- ^ a b Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 1-933316-22-5
- ^ a b Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1-86064-148-2
- ^ The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, by Edward Joseph Thomas
- ^ Heehs 2002, p. 106.
- ^ "Discovery".
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- ^ Raju 1992.
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- ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi.
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- ^ Durga Prasad, P. 116, History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D.
- ^ January 2008, VOL. 213, #1
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- ^ michaels 2004, p. 41.
- ^ White 2000, pp. 25–28.
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- ^ a b Scheepers 2000.
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- ^ "The rise of Buddhism and Jainism". Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences. BBC. 26 July 2004. Retrieved 21 April 2007.
- ^ Andrea Nippard. "The Alvars". Retrieved 20 April 2013.
- ^ Ramaswamy, P. 204 Walking Naked
- ^ Ramaswamy, P. 210 Walking Naked
- ^ Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India
- ^ M. R. Sakhare, History and Philosophy of the Lingayat Religion, Prasaranga, Karnataka University, Dharwad
- ^ Ncholson 2010, p. 2.
- ^ Burley 2007, p. 34.
- ^ Lorenzen 2006, p. 24-33.
- ^ Lorenzen 2006, p. 27.
- ^ Lorenzen 2006, p. 26-27.
- ^ Nicholson 2010, p. 2.
- ^ Michaels 2004, p. 43-44.
- ^ "Mahamagam Festival". Retrieved 14 February 2014.
- ^ Madan Prasad Bezbaruah; Dr. Krishna Gopal; Phal S. Girota (2003), Fairs and Festivals of India, p. 326, retrieved 14 February 2014
- ^ a b c d King 1999.
- ^ Omvedt, Gail. Buddhism in India : Challenging Brahmanism and Caste. 3rd ed. London/New Delhi/Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2003. pages: 2, 3–7, 8, 14–15, 19, 240, 266, 271
- ^ Thomas Pantham, Vrajendra Raj Mehta, Vrajendra Raj Mehta, (2006), Political Ideas in Modern India: thematic explorations, Sage Publications,
- ^ a b Sharma 2008, p. 239.
- ^ a b Sherma 2008, p. 239.
- ^ Lipner 1998, p. 12.
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- ^ Pollock, P. 661 Literary Cultures in History:
- ^ a b Larson 2012, pp. 313–314.
- ^ a b Yelle 2012, pp. 338–339.
- ^ Rodriques 2008, p. 14.
- ^ Davidson 2004, pp. 148–153.
- ^ a b Kalupahana 1994, p. 220.
- ^ Davidson 2004, p. 148.
- ^ Davidson 2004, pp. 148–150.
- ^ Davidson 2004, p. 150.
- ^ Davidson 2004, p. 151.
- ^ Davidson 2004, p. 152.
- ^ Page i, Forms of Indian Philosophical Literature and Other Papers by V.S. Kambi
- ^ P. 163 Mahāvīra: His Life and Teachings by Bimala Churn Law
- ^ a b c Frawley 1990, p. 27.
- ^ Malhotra 2011.
- ^ Westerlund, David Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics page 16
- ^ Halbfass 1995, p. 10.
- ^ a b Cavanaugh 2009, p. 88.
- ^ Syed Shahabuddin. "Minority rights are indivisible".
- ^ (para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, U.P. v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21.08.2006, Supreme Court of India) [2]
Printed sources
- Burley, Mikel (2007), Classical Samkhya and Yoga: An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Taylor & Francis
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- Chatterjee, S; Datta, D (1984), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (8th ed.),
- Davidson, Ronald M. (2004), Indian Esoteric Buddhism: Social History of the Tantric Movement, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
- Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1963), "Heraclitus and Iran", History of Religions 3 (1): 34–49,
- Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press
- Flood, Gavin; Olivelle, Patrick (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Malden: Blackwell
- Fowler, JD (1997), Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press,
- Frawley, David (1990), From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age, Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press,
- Halbfass, Wilhelm (1995), Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedānta, SUNY Press
- Heehs, P (2002), Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience, New York: New York University Press,
- Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge,
- Jain, Arun (2008), Faith & philosophy of Jainism
- Kalupahana, David J. (1994), A history of Buddhist philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
- Khanna, Meenakshi (2007), Cultural History Of Medieval India, Berghahn Books
- Krishnananda (1994), A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life Society
- King, Richard (1999), Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East", Routledge
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- Larson, Gerald James (2012), "The Issue of Not Being Different Enough: Some Reflections on Rajiv Malhotra's Being Different", International Journal of Hindu Studies (Vol. 16, No. 3, December 2012) 16 (3): 311,
- Lipner, Julis (1998), Hindus: their religious beliefs and practices, Routledge
- Lorenzen, David N. (2006), Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press,
- Malhotra, Rajiv (2011), Being Different: An Indian Challenge to Western Universalism, HarperCollins Publishers India
- Mallinson, James (2007), The Khecarīvidyā of Ādinātha
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- Misra, Amalendu (2004), Identity and Religion: Foundations of Anti-Islamism in India, SAGE
- Muesse, Mark William (2003), Great World Religions: Hinduism
- Muesse, Mark W. (2011), The Hindu Traditions: A Concise Introduction, Fortress Press
- Nakamura, Hajime (2004), A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part Two, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
- Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press
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- Puligandla, Ramakrishna (1997), Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.
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- Rodriques, Hillary; Harding, John S. (2008), Introduction to the Study of Religion, Routledge
- Sherma, Rita D.; Sarma, Aravinda (2008), Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons, Springer
- Smart, Ninian (2003), Godsdiensten van de wereld (The World's religions), Kampen: Uitgeverij Kok
- Svarghese, Alexander P. (2008), India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World
- Sweetman, Will (2004), "The prehistory of Orientalism: Colonialism and the Textual Basis for Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg's Account of Hinduism", New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 6, 2 (December, 2004): 12–38
- Tiwari, K.N., Comparative Religion, Motilal Banarsidass
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- Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Philosophies of India, Princeton University Press
- ^ a b Adams, C. J., Classification of religions: Geographical, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Accessed: 15 July 2010
- ^ Adherents.com. "Religions by adherents" (PHP). Retrieved 9 February 2007.
- ^ "'"Ancient Indians made 'rock music.
- ^ a b Indiana University "India Studies Program" Passage to India, Module 10.
- ^ Mayavada Philosophy
- ^ The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada
- ^ Mayavada and Buddhism – Are They One and the Same?
- ^ Indian Literature Through the AgesThe Centre for Cultural Resources and Training,
- ^ c.f. Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"
- ^ a b Supreme Court observation, Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec 2005
- ^ In various codified customary laws like Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act and other laws of pre and post-Constitution period, the definition of 'Hindu' included all sects and sub-sects of Hindu religions including Sikhs and Jains[web 10]
- ^ a b Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005.
- ^ a b [Supreme Court observation, Bal Patil vs. Union of India, December 2005 http://www.judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098]
- ^ a b Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005.
- ^ Gujarat Freedom of religions Act, 2003
- ^ "Religious freedom Bill returned". The Indian Express. 31 July 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
- ^ The Times of India, 11 Mar, 2008 In his letter dated 27 July 2007 he had said Jainism has been regarded as "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court".
Further reading
- Heehs, Peter (2002), Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers,
- Kitagawa, Joseph (2002), The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture, Routledge,
- Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Philosophies of India (reprint 1989), Princeton University Press
External links
- Statistics
- "Census of India 2001: Data on religion". Government of India (Office of the Registrar General). Retrieved 28 May 2007.
- Constitution and law
- "Constitution of India". Government of India (Ministry of Law and Justice). Retrieved 28 May 2007.
- Reports
- "International Religious Freedom Report 2006: India". United States Department of State. Retrieved 28 May 2007.
- Use dmy dates from March 2013
- Use Indian English from June 2013
- All WorldHeritage articles written in Indian English
- WorldHeritage pages with incorrect protection templates
- All articles with unsourced statements
- Articles with unsourced statements from June 2013
- Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013
- Articles containing Tamil-language text
- Articles needing additional references from June 2013
- All articles needing additional references
- Articles with unsourced statements from May 2013
- Indian religions
- Religion in India
- Religious comparison


text:
NASSR 2004 in Colorado
Submitted by rc-admin on
We're happy to pass along this announcement from Jeff Cox about the upcoming NASSR conference in Boulder, CO.
I and the rest of the crew of Colorado Romanticists (David Ferris, Jill Heydt-Stevenson, and Jeffrey Robinson at Boulder, Brad Mudge in Denver, Susan Taylor in Colorado Springs, William Davis at Colorado College, Celestine Woo at Fort Lewis College and our graduate assistant, Terry Robinson) are looking forward to having everyone in Boulder next September for NASSR 2004, "Romantic Cosmopolitanism."
We have a great line-up of keynoters (Ann Birmingham, Angela Esterhammer, and David Simpson) and a wide range of special sessions that take up everything from "Cosmopolitan Byron" to "Theatre as Cosmopolis," from "Anglo-Hispanic Romanticism" to "Philosophy, Nationality, and the Foreign." There will be papers on poetry, music, philosophy, architecture, science, antiquities, theater, history, opera, "cosmobodies," and novels. We already have a cosmopolitan line-up of participants, including scholars from Italy, Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States. We are very excited about two distinctive features of this meeting. First, there will be two pre-conference day-long workshops, one on the editing of Romantic texts and one on Romantic drama and theater. Second, there will be one block of sessions during the conference devoted to workshops that will provide us all with an opportunity to discuss particular texts together. All that and a dance planned after the banquet. And, of course, the annual all-night party fondly known as "The Death March."
The conference will be held at the newly renovated Millenium Hotel, the grounds of which border on Boulder Creek. There are also a number of other hotel options, ranging from cheaper motels to the historic Boulderado Hotel downtown. Boulder and the surrounding mountains should be quite lovely in September, and we are relying upon our local walking expert, Jeffrey Robinson, to organize some informal hikes. In addition to the natural splendor, Boulder offers our beautiful campus, fine restaurants, a fun downtown shopping area, and an interesting local art scene; we are also less than 45 minutes from downtown Denver. Please be in touch if you have questions or suggestions; you can e-mail us at email@example.com.
Jeffrey Cox


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Baked Buffalo Chicken Wings
4 pounds chicken wings
3 tablespoons cooking oil
4 cloves garlic, chopped
1 3/4 teaspoons salt
1 1/2 teaspoons cayenne
2/3 cup mayonnaise
1/3 cup sour cream
1/4 pound blue cheese, crumbled (about 1 cup)
2 scallions including green tops, chopped
5 teaspoons vinegar
1/4 teaspoon fresh-ground black pepper
1/4 cup ketchup
1 tablespoon Tabasco sauce
8 ribs celery, cut into sticks
Heat the oven to 425 degrees F.
In a large bowl, combine the wings, oil, garlic, 1 1/2 teaspoons of the salt,
and the cayenne. Arrange the wings in a single layer on two large baking sheets.
Bake until just done, about 25 minutes.
Meanwhile, in a medium glass or stainless-steel bowl, combine the mayonnaise,
sour cream, blue cheese, scallions, 1 teaspoon of the vinegar, the remaining 1/4
teaspoon salt, and the black pepper.
In a large bowl, combine the ketchup, the remaining 4 teaspoons vinegar, and the
Tabasco sauce. Add the wings and toss to coat. Serve the wings with the celery
sticks and blue-cheese dressing alongside.
Back to Everyday
Cooking Home Razzle
Dazzle Recipes
Copyright ©2002-2006
That's My Home


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By choosing Equal Exchange, you've demonstrated that your coffee is very important to you. As you brew with care, you continue to honor the hard work of our small-scale farmer partners and join a community of Equal Exchange coffee lovers.
Interested in the brewing methods below? Download our Guide to Manual Brewing.
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How to Brew Coffee with a French Press
How to Brew Coffee with a Clever
How to Brew Coffee with an Aeropress
The 3 Basic Elements
Coffee is 99% water! Use only the cleanest, freshest water available. It's best not to use distilled water in which the natural minerals have been removed because coffee interacts with these minerals to naturally enhance the taste. Bottled spring water or filtered tap water is ideal.
Water Temperature
The perfect temperature to brew coffee is between 195˚ and 205˚F. Since many automatic drip brewers average only 850 watts of power, it's important to make sure that your brewer's capacity is at least 1,000 watts as this is required to bring the water temperature up to the proper range. When brewing manually with a French press or filter cone, remove your kettle of boiling water from its heat source and let it sit 2 minutes before pouring over your ground coffee.
When you purchase whole bean coffee, it's best to grind your coffee right before brewing, although it's perfectly acceptable to grind your coffee when you buy it. Your goal is to achieve the right grind for the right brewing method:
- coarse grind for French press brewing
- medium-coarse grind (aka. "regular') for automatic drip brewers
- medium grind for filter cone method
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You may also purchase Equal Exchange drip grind coffee that has been ground and vacuum-sealed to preserve freshness for automatic drip brewers and filter cones.
Coffee-to-Water ratio
Whatever method of brewing you use, the general standard is 1-2 Tbsp of coffee for every 6 oz of water. For the French press, use 2 Tbsp per 6 oz of water. Automatic drip brewers, on the other hand, tend to produce a desirable brew when using as little as 1 Tbsp per 6 oz of water. You'll want to experiment and adjust depending on whether you prefer a stronger or milder brew.
Brewing Time
Once your coffee finishes brewing, the flavor and quality begins to deteriorate. In the case of the French press, after it's brewed 3-5 minutes and the coffee grounds have been pushed down to the bottom of the glass vessel, we recommend that you transport the coffee into a thermos, or serve it immediately; if left in the press, the coffee will continue to brew and become bitter. In general, we recommend that you transfer coffee from any method of brewing into a stainless steel thermos or an insulated carafe to keep it hot for the next cup.
Storing Your Coffee
Storing your coffee in an airtight glass or ceramic canister is optimal. Properly stored coffee can stay fresh up to two weeks and should not be refrigerated, nor is it necessary to keep it in the freezer. For maximum freshness, we recommend purchasing only as much coffee as you will consume in a 1 1/2 to 2 week period.
Shop coffee.


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Nothing groundbreaking here, but I thought our W-L record was interesting when broken down outside of the Home/Away breakdowns we usually see.
I like to look at our record in 3 ways. First, how did we do in our division...the answer there is so far 1-3 with 2 games left. Makes it really hard to win your division when you start off 0-3
Second, I like to look at NFC games outside our division We have 6 of these games each year, and this year, we are 5-1, beating Dallas, Green Bay, Chicago, Minnesota & Carolina and only losing to Detroit. This speaks wonders because the teams we beat, 3 of them could be in the playoffs and possible future opponents.
Lastly, I like to look at how we do in the AFC. This year, we played the East and went 3-1. We beat the Patriots, Jets and Bills, only losing a close game to Miami.
So, to sum up, we are 8-2 outside our division. This is a number which I REALLY like to see going into the playoffs. This makes San Francisco the only team to have beaten us going into the playoffs this year. This is why I want this win on Sunday sooooooo badly. I want to go into the playoffs having won our last game against all the playoff teams we played this season.


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gallery events.
May 16, 2018 | 9 AM - 4:30 PM
Joy, Peace & Possibilities through Art
Curated by Erin O'Brien
Open W-F 9am-4:30pm | Th 9am-7pm | Sat & Sun 9am-4:30pm
Meet the Artists' Reception: April 12, 5-7pm
Through trauma, coping with life struggles or to reconnect to our true-self, Healing Arts explores the many different paths that can lead us to creativity. This exhibit features artists, instructors, and educators in the field of healing arts.
"As artists, we come from a place of healing through our art. Our intention is to bring light and hope to ourselves, the viewer, and the world." -Erin O'Brien
Participate in the arts at any of our workshops:
April 6th, 5-7Janet Carson GalleryExploring Color Through Sound and Mindfulness Jean KowalskiIn this workshop we will be exploring color through meditation, circle, conversation and sound.$15 per person at the door.
April 18th, 6-8Wearable ArtErin O'BrienThis is a workshop with friends and wine as you create your own painted scarf and learn a little bit about textile art. Erin will guide you through the creation of your very own wearable masterpiece. Everything you need is provided to create a work of art-and you take your wearable art home at the end of the night.$35 per person
April 19th, 5:30-7Zentangle WorkshopSandy WagnerIn this workshop Sandy Wagner will guide you through the creation of Zentangle.$15 per person at the door.
Annie Young's artwork has been described as a dance of color, composition and texture. "Offer an almost a magnetic invitation for the visitor to touch and experience a shared inner journey or memory." Other pieces, with less definition and topography, provide a space for dreaming. Erin O'Brien paints on silk and creates Yoga Energy Art. It is a self-described, "manifestation from trust, intuition and Universal flow. Art has taken me on a journey of discovery and connection to Spirit." Taken from Jean Kowalski's The Women Keepers of our Earth, Water and Sky, "Through shifts and changes, we as women are able to infuse the healing love, laughter and fun into all the changes that are happening on a personal and global level." Jean's work deals with feminine power and love.
Featured artists:
Annie Young, multi-media artist
Jean Kowalski, Reiki Master, Spiritual Healing Coach, inspirational artist
Erin O'Brien, energy art, textile artist
Sandra Marie Wagner, multi-media artist, zentangle
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Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,
and Friday: 9 am - 4:30 pm
Thursday: 9 am - 7 pm
The box office and Janet Carson Gallery are also open during main stage performances.
Admission is free to the Janet Carson Gallery.
Eau Claire Regional Arts Center
316 Eau Claire St • Get directions.