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Battlecruisers were large warships in the first half of the 20th century that were first introduced by the British Royal Navy. The battlecruiser was developed as the successor to the armoured cruisers, but their evolution was more closely linked to that of the dreadnought battleships. The first such ship, the Invincible, was originally designated a "dreadnought cruiser".
Battlecruisers shared the very large main armament of battleships, and were generally as large and costly as battleships of the same generation. They traded off armour or firepower for higher speed, which was made possible by their powerful engines and slender hulls. The earliest battlecruisers carried significantly less armour than the equivalent battleship, meaning they were not intended to stand up against the guns they themselves carried.
The relationship between the battlecruiser to the battleship was never entirely clear cut. The invention of the battlecruiser in the Royal Navy was driven by Admiral Jackie Fisher, who envisaged them as a revolutionary new type of armoured cruiser which could replace the battleship as Britain's principal weapon at sea. Fisher's idea centred on battlecruisers operating for imperial defence, vectored in by a global information grid and central plotting in the Admiralty to destroy weaker vessels that would prey on merchant shipping in international waters, while engaging more powerful warships with accurate gunnery at greater ranges.
However, the battleship continued to dominate naval warfare through the First World War, and the battlecruiser was principally used to provide a fast and hard-hitting addition to a battleship fleet. Battlecruisers formed part of the navies of Britain, Germany and Japan in WWI and took part in many naval battles between Britain and Germany, including the Battle of Jutland. By the end of the war, there were very few differences between the design of a battlecruiser and that of a fast battleship. Britain, Japan and the United States all designed battlecruisers after the end of World War I which were as heavily armoured as a battleship, though faster and not so heavily armed. The Washington Naval Treaty, which limited capital ship construction from 1922 onwards, treated battleships and battlecruisers identically. The new generation of battlecruisers planned was scrapped under the terms of the treaty.
From the 1930s, only the Royal Navy continued to use 'battlecruiser' as a classification for warships . Nevertheless, the fast, light capital ships developed by Germany and France of the Scharnhorst and Dunkerque classes were and are often referred to as battlecruisers. These ships were armoured as well as many battleships but carried a lighter calibre of armament.
World War II saw battlecruisers in action again. However, no battlecruisers were begun during the war; battleship construction was cut back to provide resources for extra aircraft and aircraft carriers. Since the start of World War II, no battlecruisers have been built. However, a number of ships have been described thereafter as battlecruisers.
The battlecruiser was a dramatic evolution of the armoured cruiser and 'second-class battleship' designs of the 1890s, principally due to the British Admiral Jackie Fisher. At the turn of the century, the modern armoured cruiser was a fast and powerful vessel which was capable of threatening trade routes worldwide, or of working closely with a battleship fleet. The Royal Navy, and Fisher in particular, was concerned with the damage armoured cruisers (particularly those of the French Navy) might inflict on British trade worldwide in the event of war. Fisher envisaged British armoured cruisers becoming faster and more heavily-armed to deal with this threat. He was also very fond of the "second-class battleship" HMS Renown, a lighter, faster battleship. As early as 1901, there is confusion in Fisher's writing about whether he saw the battleship or the cruiser as the model for future developments.
In the period 1902-1904 the mainstream of British naval thinking was clearly in favour of heavily-armoured battleships, rather than the fast ships which Fisher favoured. However, a shift away from the mixed-calibre armament of the 1890s pre-dreadnought to an "all-big-gun" design was already on the cards. Preliminary designs circulated for battleships with all 12-inch or all 10-inch guns and armoured cruisers with all 9.2-inch guns.
In summer 1904, after Fisher's appointment as First Sea Lord, the decision was taken to use 12-inch guns for the next generation of battleships, because of their superior performance at long range. The armament of the next armoured cruiser was much more controversial. The size and cost of the next generation of armoured cruisers meant that it was very desirable that they should be able to play a role in a battleship action, and this meant 12-inch guns. This was the same logic which had led the Japanese to arm their latest cruisers with two 12-inch guns as their main armament. However, it is also quite possible that Fisher pushed for the cruiser to have the same armament as the battleship because he held out hope that the cruiser design would be the replacement for the battleship. The decision to give the next generation of armoured cruisers an 'all-big-gun' armament was the crucial moment in the development of the battlecruiser. If the ships had been armed with only 10-inch or 9.2-inch guns, they would merely have been better armoured cruisers.
The radical changes to shipbuilding policy which Fisher was making across the board meant that he appointed a Committee on Designs in December 1904. While the stated purpose of the Committee was to investigate and report on the requirements of future ships, the key decisions had already been taken by Fisher and his associates.. The terms of reference for the Committee were for a battleship capable of 21 knots with 12-inch guns and no intermediate calibres, capable of operating from existing docks; and a cruiser capable of 25.5 knots, also with 12inch guns and no intermediate armament, armoured like HMS Minotaur, the most recent armoured cruiser, and also capable or working from the existing docks. The battleship became the revolutionary battleship HMS Dreadnought, and the cruiser became the three ships of the Invincible class.
The three Invincibles were Inflexible, Invincible and Indomitable. Their construction was begun in 1906 and completed in 1908, delayed perhaps to allow their designs to learn from any problems with Dreadnought. The ships fulfilled the design requirement quite closely. The Invincibles had a displacement similar to that of the Dreadnought but twice the power to give a speed of . They had eight guns, compared to ten on Dreadnought. There was armour 6 or 7 inches (150 to 180 mm) thick along the side of the hull and over the gunhouses, whereas Dreadnought's armour was 11 inches (280 to 300 mm) at its thickest. The class had a very marked increase in speed, displacement and firepower compared to the most recent armoured cruisers, but no more armour.
The Invincibles were to have the same role as the armoured cruisers they succeeded, but the new ships were expected to be more effective all-round. Specifically their roles were:
Confusion about how to refer to these new battleship-size armoured cruisers set in almost immediately. Even in late 1905, before work was begun on the Invincibles, a Royal Navy memorandum refers to "large armoured ships" meaning both battleships and large cruisers. In October 1906, the Admiralty began to classify all post-Dreadnought battleships and armoured cruisers as "capital ships", while Fisher used the term "dreadnought" to refer either to his new battleships or the battleships and armoured cruisers together. At the same time, the Invincible class themselves were referred to as "cruiser-battleship", "dreadnought cruiser"; the term "battlecruiser" was first used by Fisher in 1908. Finally, in November 1911, Admiralty Weekly Order No. 351 laid down the decision that "All cruisers of the Invincible and later type are, for the future, to be described and classified as battlecruisers in order to distinguish them from armoured cruisers of the older type.
In the period from the launching of the Invincibles to just after the outbreak of the First World War, the battlecruiser played a junior role in the developing dreadnought arms race. The battlecruiser was never wholeheartedly adopted as the key weapon in British imperial defence, as Fisher had perhaps wished.
Britain's strategic circumstances had changed markedly between the conception of the battlecruiser and the commissioning of the first ships. While the prospective enemy for Britain had previously been a Franco-Russian alliance with many armoured cruisers, it was now clearly Germany. Diplomatically, Britain had entered the Entente cordiale in 1904 and the Anglo-Russian Entente. Furthermore neither France nor Russia posed a particular naval threat; the Russian navy had largely been sunk or captured in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, while the French were in no hurry to adopt the new dreadnought battleship technology. Britain also boasted very cordial relations with two of the significant new naval powers; Japan (bolstered by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, signed in 1902 and renewed in 1905), and the USA.
These changed strategic circumstances, and the great success of the Dreadnought, ensured that she rather than the Invincible became the new model capital ship. Nevertheless, battlecruiser construction played a major part in the renewed naval arms-race sparked by the Dreadnought.
For the first few years after their completion, the Invincibles entirely fulfilled Fisher's vision of being able to sink any ship fast enough to catch them, and run from any ship capable of sinking them. An Invincible would also in many circumstances, be able to take on an enemy pre-dreadnought battleship. The Invincibles were so far ahead of any enemy armoured cruiser that it was difficult to justify building more or bigger cruisers. This lead was extended by the surprise both Dreadnought and Invincible produced, which prompted most other navies to delay their building programmes while radically revising their designs. This was particularly true for cruisers, because the details of the Invincible class were kept secret for longer; this meant that the next German armoured cruiser, Blücher was armed with only 8.2-inch guns, and was obsolete before she was even launched.
The Royal Navy's early superiority in capital ships led to the rejection of a design of 1905-6 which would essentially have fused the battlecruiser and battleship concepts. The 'X4' design combined the full armour and armament of Dreadnought with the 25-knot speed of Invincible. However, the additional cost could not be justified given the existing British lead and the new Liberal government's need for economy; the slower and cheaper Bellerophon, a relatively close copy of Dreadnought, was adopted instead.
However, by 1911 Germany had built battlecruisers of her own, and the superiority of the British ships could no longer be assured. Von der Tann, begun in 1908 and completed in 1910, carried eight 11.1-inch guns but with 11.1-inch (280mm) armour was far better protected than the Invincibles. The two Moltkes were quite similar but carried ten 11.1-inch guns of an improved design. The German Navy did not share Fisher's view of what a battlecruiser should be; however, it was entitled to build armoured cruisers under the terms of the Navy Laws, and used this authority to match or better the British battlecruisers.
The next British battlecruisers were three of the Indefatigable class. These ships were slightly improved Invincibles, which corrected some flaws in the earlier ships but were built to fundamentally the same specification. The British were hampered on this occasion by the secrecy surrounding German battlecruiser construction and particularly about the heavy armour of Von der Tann. Political pressure to reduce costs also played a role in the selection of the Indefatigable design, and this class is widely seen as a mistake.
The next generation of British battlecruisers were markedly more powerful. By 1909-10 the political climate had changed; the desire for cost-cutting was now outweighed by a sense of national crisis about rivalry with Germany. A brief political crisis an naval panic resulted in the approval of a total of eight capital ships in 1909-10. Fisher pressed for all of them to be battlecruisers, but was unable to force his way, and had to settle for six battleships as well as two battlecruisers of the Lion class. These carried eight 13.5-inch guns; the standard armament of the British "super-dreadnought" battleships of the same period was ten 13.5-inch. Speed increased, to 27 knots. Lion also carried better armour than previous British battleships, with 9 inches on the armour belt and barbettes; nevertheless, protection was not as good as in German designs. The two Lions were followed by the very similar Queen Mary
In contrast to the British focus on increasing speed and firepower, Germany further improved the armour and staying power of their next battlecruiser. Seydlitz, designed in 1909 and finished in 1913, was a modified Moltke; speed increased by one knot to 26.5 knots, while armour was up to 12 inches thick, equivalent for the Helgoland class battleships of just one or two years earlier. Seydlitz was Germayn's last battlecruiser to be completed before World War I..
The next step in the battlecruiser design came from Japan. The Imperial Japanese Navy had been planning the Kongō class ships from 1909. The Japanese navy was determined that, since the Japanese economy could support relatively few ships, each ship would be more powerful than its likely competitors. Initially the class was planned with the Invincibles as the benchmark. However, on learning of the British plans for Lion, and the likelihood that new U.S. Navy battleships would be armed with 14-inch guns, the Japanese decided to radically revise their plans and go one better. A new plan was drawn up, carrying eight 14-inch guns, and capable of 27.5 knots, thus marginally having the edge over the British Lions in speed and firepower. The heavy guns were also better-positioned, being superfiring both fore and aft with no turret amidships. The armour scheme was also marginally improved over the Lions with 9 inches of armour on the turrets and 8 inches on the barbettes. The first ship in the class was built in Britain, and a further three constructed in Japan.
The next British battlecruiser, Tiger, was broadly on the model of Lion but also influenced by the design of the Japanese ships. She retained the eight 13.5-inch guns of her predecessors, though these were positioned for better fields of fire. She was faster (making 29 knots on trials), and carried a heavier secondary armament. Tiger was also more heavily-armoured on the whole; while the maximum thickness of armour was the same at 9 inches, the height of the main armour belt was increased.
1912 saw work begin on three more German battlecruisers of the Derfflinger class, the first German battlecruisers to mount 12-inch guns. These ships, like the Tiger and the Kongō, had their guns arranged in superfiring turrets for greater efficiency. Their armour and speed was similar to the previous Seydlitz class.
In 1913, the Russian Empire also began the construction of the four-ship Borodino class, which were designed for service in the Baltic Sea. These ships were designed to carry twelve 14-inch guns, with armour up to 12 inches thick, and a speed of 26.6 knots. The heavy armour and relatively slow speed of these ships makes them more similar to German designs than to British ships; however, construction of the Borodinos was halted by the First World War and all were scrapped during the Russian Revolution.
By 1914, only Britain, Germany and Japan had battlecruisers, with Russia building some. On several occasions, it had already been possible to point to moments where the concepts of battlecruiser and battleship might be seen in the same vessel. This was true of the 1906 'X4' design, and the Russian Borodinos. However, it was even more true of the most recent British battleship design. The Queen Elizabeth class was designed to make 25 knots, as much as the first battlecruisers had achieved, while carrying eight 15-inch guns and armour up to 15 inches thick.. The Queen Elizabeths were the first true fast battleships, and could have brought the end of the development of the battlecruiser as an independent line. It was principally due to the influence of Jacky Fisher that the battlecruiser continued.
For most of the combatants, capital ship construction was very limited during the War. Germany finished the Derfflinger class and began work on the Mackensen class. The Mackensens were a development of the Derfflinger class, with 14-inch guns and a broadly similar armour scheme, deigned for 27 knots.
In Britain, Jackie Fisher returned to the office of First Sea Lord in October 1914. His enthusiasm for big, fast ships was unabated, and he set design staff to producing a design for a battlecruiser with 15-inch guns. Because Fisher expected the next German battlecruiser to steam at 28 knots, he required the new British design to be capable of 32 knots. He planned to convert two Royal Sovereign class battleships, which were at an early stage of construction and on which work had been suspended because it was felt that the war would be over before the ships were finished. Fisher finally received approval for this project on 28 December 1914 and they became the Renown class. With six 15-inch guns but only 6-inch armour they were a further step forward from Tiger in firepower and speed but were even less well-protected.
At the same time, Fisher resorted to subterfuge to obtain another three fast, lightly-armoured ships which could make use of the several spare 15-inch gun turrets left over from battleship construction. These ships were essentially light battlecruisers, and Fisher can occasionally be found referring to them as such, but were officially classified as "large light cruisers". This unusual designation was required because construction of new capital ships had been placed on hold, while there were no limits on light cruiser construction. They became the Courageous class, and there was a bizarre imbalance between their main armament of 15-inch (or 18-inch in Glorious) guns and their armour, which at 3 inches thickness was on the scale of a light cruiser. The design was generally regarded as a bizarre failure, though the later conversion of the ships to aircraft carriers was very successful. Fisher also speculated about a new mammoth but lightly-built battlecruiser which would carry 20-inch guns, which he termed HMS Incomparable; however, this never got beyond the concept stage.
It is often held that the Renown and Courageous classes were designed for Fisher's plan to land troops (possibly Russian) on the German Baltic coast. Specifically, they were designed with a shallow draught, which might be important in the shallow Baltic. Howevever, this is not clear-cut evidence that the ships were designed for the Baltic: it was considered that earlier ships had too much draught and not enough freeboard under operational conditions. Roberts argues that the focus on the Baltic was probably unimportant at the time the ships were designed, but was inflated later, after the disastrous Dardanelles Campaign.
The final British battlecruiser design of the war was the Admiral class, which was born from a requirement for an improved version of the Queen Elizabeth battleship. The project began at the end of 1915, after Fisher's final departure from the Admiralty. While initially envisaged as a battleship, senior sea officers felt that Britain had enough battleships, but that new battlecruisers might be required to combat German ships being built (the British overestimated German progress on the Mackensen class as well as their likely capabilities). A battlecruiser design with eight 15-inch guns, 8 inches of armour and capable of 32 knots was decided on. However, the experience of battlecruisers at the Battle of Jutland meant that the design was radically revised and transformed again into a fast battleship concept with armour up to 12 inches thick but still capable of 31.5 knots. The first ship in the class, Hood, went ahead according to this design. The plans for her three sisters, on which little work had been done, were revised once more later in 1916 and in 1917 to improve protection..
The Admiral class would have been the only British ships capable of taking on the German Mackensen type; however, German shipbuilding was drastically slowed by the war, and while two Mackensens were launched, none were ever completed. Work on the three additional Admirals was suspended in March 1917 to enable more escorts and merchant ships to be built to deal with the new threat from U-boats to trade. They were finally cancelled in February 1919.
The German battlecruiser Goeben was perhaps the ship which made the most impact early in the War. Stationed in the Mediterranean, she and her escorting cruiser evaded British and French ships on the outbreak of war, and steamed to Constantinople with two British battlecruisers in hot pursuit. Goeben was handed over to the Turkish Navy, and this was instrumental in bringing Turkey into the war on the German side. Goeben herself, renamed Yavuz Sultan Selim, saw engagements against the Russian Navy in the Black Sea and against the British in the Aegean.
The original battlecruiser concept proved successful in December 1914 at the Battle of the Falkland Islands. The British battlecruisers Inflexible and Invincible did precisely the job they were intended for when they chased down and annihilated a German cruiser squadron, centered on the armoured cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, along with three light cruisers, commanded by Admiral Maximilian Graf Von Spee in the South Atlantic Ocean. Prior to the battle the Australian battlecruiser HMAS Australia had unsuccessfully searched for the German ships in the Pacific.
During the Battle of Dogger Bank, the after turret of the German flagship Seydlitz was pierced by a British 13.5 inch shell from HMS Lion which detonated in the working chamber. The charges being hoisted upwards were detonated, and the explosion flashed up into the turret and down into the magazine, setting fire to charges in the process of being handled. The gun crew tried to escape into the next turret, allowing the flash to spread, destroying both turrets internally. Seydlitz was saved from near-certain destruction only by emergency flooding of her after magazines. This near-disaster was due to the way that ammunition handling was arranged and was common to both German and British battleships and battlecruisers, but the lighter protection on the latter made them more vulnerable to the turret or barbette being pierced. The "working chamber" had been introduced in HMS Formidable (1898) and was intended to prevent such a dangerous flash, but instead made such an event more likely. The Germans learned from investigating the damaged Seydlitz and instituted improved measures to ensure ammunition handling was flash tight. The British remained unaware of the weakness, to their great misfortune at the Battle of Jutland.
Apart from the cordite handling, the battle was mostly inconclusive, though both Lion and Seydlitz were severely damaged. The British flagship Lion's lost speed causing her to fall behind the rest of the battleline and Admiral Beatty was unable to effectively command for the remainder of the engagement. A British signalling error allowed the German battlecruisers to withdraw, as most of Beatty's squadron mistakenly concentrated on the crippled armoured cruiser Blücher, sinking her with great loss of life. Blücher herself was obsolete, out of all the ships in the battle, and so she had proved to be a liability to the rest of the German squadron, which was otherwise an all battlecruiser squadron.
At the Battle of Jutland 18 months later, both British and German battlecruisers were employed as fleet units. The British battlecruisers became engaged with both their German counterparts, the battlecruisers, and then German battleships before the arrival of the battleships of the British Grand Fleet. The result was a disaster for the Royal Navy's battlecruiser squadrons: Invincible, Queen Mary and Indefatigable exploded with the loss of all but a handful of their crews. This was due to the vulnerability of the working chamber which the Germans had discovered after the near-loss of Seydlitz at Dogger Bank and had taken preventative measures against. The British ships not only had lighter armour but also lacked flash tight ammunition handling arrangements, due in part to lack of awareness and experience, and also as it would improve their rate of fire to compensate for poor accuracy. Each was lost to a single salvo penetrating the turret and detonating in the working chamber. Beatty's flagship Lion herself was almost lost in a similar manner, save for the heroic actions of Major Harvey.
The better armoured and flash tight German battlecruisers fared better, in part due to poor performance of British fuzes (their shells exploded on impact with the ships armour instead of penetrating the armour before exploding thus causing more damage). Lützow for instance only had 117 killed despite receiving more than thirty hits, though she had sufficient flooding that she was scuttled. The other German battlecruisers, Moltke, Von der Tann, Seydlitz, Derfflinger were all heavily damaged and required extensive repairs after the battle, Seydlitz barely making it home, for they had been in the very centre of enemy fire for much of the battle. No British or German battleship was sunk during the battle with the exception of the old German pre-dreadnought Pommern, the victim of torpedoes from British destroyers.
Through the 1920s and early 1930s only Britain and Japan retained battlecruisers, often modified and rebuilt from their original World War I designs. The line between the battlecruiser and the modern fast battleship became blurred; indeed, the Japanese Kongō class were formally redesignated as battleships.
Hood was the largest ship in the Royal Navy when completed; thanks to her great displacement, she seemed to combine the firepower and armour of a battleship with the speed of a battlecruiser, causing some to refer to her as a fast battleship.
The navies of Japan and the USA, seeing a threat from Hood, laid down battlecruisers to rival her. The Imperial Japanese Navy began four Amagi class battlecruisers. These vessels would have been of unprecedented size and power, being as fast and well armoured as HMS Hood whilst carrying a main battery of ten 16" guns - the most powerful armament ever proposed for a battlecruiser. The United States Navy responded with the Lexington class battlecruisers, which if completed as planned would have been exceptionally fast and well armed, but would have carried armour little better than that of the very first battlecruisers. The final stage in the post-war battlecruiser race came with the British response to the Amagi and Lexington types: four 48,000 ton G3 battlecruisers, vessels of comparable size, power and speed to the Second World War Iowa class battleships.
The Washington Naval Treaty meant that none of these designs came to fruition. Those ships which had been started were either broken up on the slipway or converted into aircraft carriers.
In Japan, Amagi and Akagi were taken in hand for conversion into aircraft carriers. In 1923 the Amagi was damaged beyond repair by an earthquake and was broken up on the slips, the hull of one of the proposed Tosa class battleships, Kaga, being converted in her stead.
In Britain, Fisher's "large light cruisers" were converted to carriers. Furious had already been converted to an aircraft carrier during the war and Glorious and Courageous, which had no place in the post-Treaty navy, were similarly converted.
The United States Navy also re-tasked two battlecruiser hulls as aircraft carriers in the wake of the Washington Treaty: USS Lexington and Saratoga were both designed as battlecruisers (the hull designations were originally CC-1 and CC-3) but converted part-way through construction, although this was only considered marginally preferable to scrapping the hulls outright (the remaining four: Constellation, Ranger, Constitution and United States were indeed scrapped).
In total, nine battlecruisers survived the Washington Naval Treaty. Most of these ships were significantly updated before World War II, although the Royal Navy sold HMS Tiger for scrap in 1932 on the grounds that she was worn out, and in addition, the Turks did not have the means to upgrade the Sultan Yavuz Selim (ex Goeben of the Imperial German Navy).
The other two Royal Navy WW I battlecruisers retained, the HMS Renown and the Repulse were modernized significantly in a series of refits between 1920 and 1939. Like several other elderly British capital ships, the Renown underwent a total reconstruction between 1937 and 1939 to make her suitable for acting as a fast heavy escort warship for aircraft carriers. Similar rebuildings planned for the Repulse and the Hood were cancelled by the events of WW II.
Unable to pursue new construction, the Imperial Japanese Navy also chose to improve its existing battlecruisers of the Kongō class (the Hiei, the Haruna, the Kirishima, and the Kongō) by increasing the elevation of their guns to 40 degrees, adding anti-torpedo bulges and additional armor, and building on a "pagoda" mast. The 3,800 tons of additional armor slowed their speeds, but between 1933 and 1940, replacement of heavy equipment and an increase in the length of the hull by 26 ft (8.0 m) allowed them to reach up to once again. They were reclassified as "fast battleships" and their high speed made them suitable as aircraft carrier escorts, although their armor and guns still fell short compared to surviving World War I-era battleships in the American or the British navies.
Superficially, their distinctive battleship-like masts (especially in the Scheer and the Graf Spee) and larger scaled armament, compared to contemporary cruisers, earned them the name "pocket battleships" by friend and foe alike. They attained fairly high speeds of 26 knots (52 km/h), and reasonable protection, while (allegedly!) staying close to the displacement limit, by using welded rather than riveted construction, just two main turrets, and replacing the normal steam turbine power with a pair of massive nine-cylinder diesel engines driving each propeller shaft (a reversion from turbine to reciprocating engines). After the loss of the Graf Spee, the remaining two ships were reclassified as so-called "heavy cruisers", having heavier guns and thicker armor than standard heavy cruisers, but at the cost of speed (they in fact had basic cruiser armor, except for their heavy turrets). When the "pocket battleships" were commissioned, they were hypothetically outclassed by British WW I-era true battlecruisers in speed, weaponry, and protection, but the Kriegsmarine supposedly hoped for a temporary advantage. The pocket battleships also had the advantage of superior cruising range, and being smaller, they were harder to hit.
Two more German heavy ships were built later in the 1930s, the Scharnhorst and the Gneisenau, which were considerably more powerful than pocket battleships - with nine heavy guns rather than just six, and they were classified as true capital ships. At 38,900 tons fully-loaded, they were somewhat larger than the French Dunkerque class. The two ships of the Gneisenau class were fast and well-armored, though their armament was relatively light-weight when compared with a battleship, consisting of three triple 280 mm (11-inch) gun turrets. At the time, guns that were 305 mm (12 inches) or larger could only be produced at the rate of one per year regarding treaty restrictions, and because the Germans did not want to alarm the Allies, this led to the ships being equipped with 28.0 cm guns. Their barbettes, nonetheless, were designed to accept twin 380 mm (15 inch) turrets (six guns total) when enough became available. However, circumstances and the fates of the two ships - the Battle of North Cape where the Scharnhorst was badly damaged by shellfire and sunk by torpedo, and the Gneisenau, heavily damaged by bombs and her repair sacrificed to higher priorities - meant that this plan was abandoned. The Royal Navy categorized them as battlecruisers since they followed the Imperial German Navy design lineage of trading off gun-size for protection and speed. The German Navy nonetheless categorised them as battleships. The follow-up to the Gneisenau class was not a battlecruiser, but rather the Bismarck and the Tirpitz, each of which had an additional turret and was armed with eight 38.0 cm guns installed at the onset, making them fully fast battleships.
As a response to the German pocket battleships the French decided to build the Dunkerque class in the 1930s. They were labelled "fast battleships", being considered scaled down but still balanced versions of that type of ship, and were armed with 330 mm (13 inch) guns arranged in two quadruple turrets located forward. Considered to be true capital ships, they were considerably larger, faster and more powerfully armed than the German pocket battleships they were designed to hunt. This last design illustrated inter-war technological developments. The ultimate limit on ship speed was drag from the water displaced (which increases as a cube of speed) rather than weight, so heavier armour slowed World War II battleships by only a couple of knots (4 km/h) over their more lightly armoured brethren. Heavy guns mounted on fast and well armoured fast battleships invalidated the concept of the battlecruiser as a ship class in its own right.
Admiral Graf Spee had been at sea at the start of WWII and engaged in a successful commerce raiding spree. Off the coast of South America, Admiral Graf Spee encountered the British heavy cruiser Exeter and light cruisers Achilles and Ajax. Admiral Graf Spee inflicted heavy damage on Exeter but in turn suffered considerable topside damage from the light cruisers. The pocket battleship's armour mostly held, but she sustained several critical hits which would have made the ship unseaworthy for returning to Germany, and she was forced to retire to neutral Uruguay. Unable to stay in port any longer without internment, and led to believe by the nature of British radio transmissions that aircraft carriers and gunned battlecruisers were too close to evade, her captain elected to scuttle his ship, and then accepted responsibility for its destruction by committing suicide.
Allied battlecruisers such as Renown, Repulse, Dunkerque and Strasbourg were employed on operations to hunt down the commerce raiding German battlecruisers, but they rarely got close to their targets, Renown enjoying a brief clash against the German 11-inch battlecruisers, scoring three non-critical hits on Gniesenau but being unable to keep up in bad weather. The one stand-up fight was when the Bismarck was sent out as a raider and was intercepted by HMS Hood and the battleship Prince of Wales in May 1941. However, the elderly British battlecruiser was not match for the brand new German battleship and the Bismarck's 15 inch shells caused a magazine explosion in Hood reminiscent of the Battle of Jutland. Only three men survived.
Gneisenau and Scharnhorst hunted together and were initially successful at commerce raiding, sinking the British armed merchant cruiser Rawalpindi in 1939. Following repairs from damage during the Norwegian campaign, the two battlecruisers set out commerce raiding once again in 1941 and sank 22 merchant ships. They returned to Brest in northern France but found this port was vulnerable to Royal Air Force attacks and were obliged to return to Germany. They did so in the Channel Dash, a daring and successful run up the English Channel. However, they were both damaged by mines and although Scharnhorst was repaired, Gneisenau was damaged again in RAF bombing raids and was eventually disarmed and sunk as a blockship. Scharnhorst was employed once more to attack commerce and attempted to raid the Arctic convoys in December 1943. However, she was surprised by the battleship HMS Duke of York with the cruisers Jamaica, Norfolk and Belfast at the Battle of North Cape and sunk on 26 December 1943. gunfire from Duke of York crippled her turrets and engine room, then the attendant British cruisers and destroyers closed in and finished her off with torpedoes.
The use of battlecruisers as commerce raiders was curtailed following an attack by the Admiral Scheer on a convoy guarded by the HMS Jervis Bay, an armed merchant cruiser. It persuaded the British Admiralty that convoys had to be guarded by battleships or battlecruisers. The older R-class battleships and the un-upgraded Queen Elizabeths (Malaya and Barham) were used for this task, for which they were quite adequate despite their age, and subsequently the smaller German ships were forced away from their quarry. Additionally, the air gap over the North Atlantic closed, Huff-Duff (radio triangulation equipment) improved, airborne centimetric radar was introduced and convoys received escort carrier protection. The results of some of these developments were illustrated by the successful defence of convoys at the Battle of the Barents Sea and the Battle of the North Cape.
The Royal Navy and the Kriegsmarine both deployed battlecruisers during the Norwegian campaign in April 1940. The Gneisenau and the Scharnhorst were engaged by HMS Renown in appalling weather and although they had stronger armor than their counterpart, the British ship could hit them harder and at a longer range due to the German ships having difficulty with their radars. They disengaged after Gneisenau sustained damage. One of Renown's 15-inch shells passed through Gneisenau's director tower without exploding, severing electrical and communication cables as it went. The debris caused by the passing shell killed one officer and five enlisted men, and destroyed the optical rangefinder for the forward 150mm turrets. Main battery fire control had to be shifted aft due to the loss of electrical power to the director tower. The second shell from Renown struck the aft turret of Gneisenau, knocking it out of action.
Later in the campaign they returned and sank the light aircraft carrier HMS Glorious (a converted battlecruiser herself) and her destroyer escort. One of the destroyers (HMS Acasta) succeeded in damaging the Scharnhorst with a torpedo, and later a submarine did the same to Gneisenau, forcing both ships to spend several months in repair. The pocket battleship Lützow was similarly damaged by HMS Spearfish during the campaign.
The Japanese Kongō class battlecruisers were significantly upgraded and re-rated as "fast battleships", and they were used extensively as carrier escorts for most of their wartime career due to their high speed. However their WW I-era armament was weaker and their upgraded armour scheme was still not up to contemporary dreadnought standards. During the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on 12 November the Hiei was sent out to bombard US positions. She suffered extensive topside damage from gunfire of US cruisers and destroyers, with her engine room being penetrated at close range by an 8-inch shell from San Francisco. The next day, Hiei was attacked by waves of aircraft from Guadalcanal's American held airfield (Henderson Field), which eventually made salvage impossible, and so she was left to sink north of Savo Island. A few days later on 15 November 1942 Kirishima, engaged the U.S. battleships South Dakota and Washington, and was scuttled following mortal damage from nine 16-inch hits inflicted by the Washington, which disabled her turrets and holed her below the waterline. In contrast South Dakota survived 42 hits (including only one 14-inch hit, but many 8-in. heavy cruiser shells), all to her superstructure, and was back in operation four months later. The Kongō survived the Battle of Leyte Gulf, but she was sunk on 21 November 1944 in the Formosa Strait by three torpedoes from the U.S. Navy submarine USS Sealion (SS-315). The Haruna was involved in bombardment operations at Guadalcanal, the Battle of the Philippine Sea, and the Battle of Leyte Gulf. She was attacked by American carrier aircraft of Task Force 38 and USAAF B-24 Liberator bombers while at Kure IJN naval base on 28 July 1945 and sank at her moorings.
On the eve of World War II, there was a late renaissance in popularity of ships between battleships and cruisers. While some considered them battlecruisers, they were never classified as capital ships, and they were variously described as "super-cruisers," "large cruisers" or even "unrestricted cruisers." They were optimised as cruiser-killers, fleet scouts and commerce raiders. The Dutch, Japanese, Soviets and Americans all planned new classes specifically to counter the large heavy cruisers being built by their naval rivals - especially the Japanese Mogami class cruisers. The Germans also designed a class of lightly protected battlecruisers.
The first such battlecruisers were of the Dutch "1047" design. Never officially assigned names, the Dutch wanted them to protect their East Indies Colonies. They designed these vessels with the assistance of the Germans and Italians; at the time the Netherlands planned to stay neutral in World War II. They broadly resembled the German Scharnhorst Class and had the same main battery, but would have been considerably lighter and only protected against gun fire. Although the design was completed, work on the vessels never commenced as the Germans overran the Netherlands in May of 1940, while the first ship would have been laid down in June of that year.
The Germans planned to build three battlecruisers as part of their Z Plan for the expansion of the Navy. With six 15 inch (38 cm) guns, high speed, excellent range but very thin armor, they were intended as commerce raiders. Only one of these was ordered shortly before World War II broke out and no work was ever done on it. No names were assigned, and they were known as O, P, and Q. The new class was not universally welcomed in the Kriegsmarine, their abnormally light protection gaining the class the derogatory nickname Ohne Panzer Quatsch (without armour nonsense) within certain circles of the Navy.
The only class of these late battlecruisers to be laid down were the United States Navy's three Alaska class "large cruisers", Alaska, Guam and Hawaii - of which only Alaska and Guam were completed. The Alaskas were classified as "large cruisers" instead of battlecruisers, and their status as non-capital ships is evidenced by the fact that they were named for territories or protectorates (as opposed to battleships, which were named after states, or cruisers, which were commonly named after cities). But with a main armament of nine twelve-inch (305 mm) guns in three triple turrets and a displacement of 27,000 tons, the Alaskas were twice the size of the preceding Baltimore class cruisers and had guns some 50% larger in diameter - . However, they lacked the thick armoured belt and torpedo defense system of true capital ships and, unlike most battlecruisers, they were considered a balanced design (according to cruiser standards) as their protection could withstand fire from their own caliber of gun, albeit only in a very narrow range band. They were designed to hunt down Japanese heavy cruisers, though by the time they entered service most Japanese cruisers had been sunk by American aircraft or submarines. Like the contemporary Iowa-class fast battleships, their speed ultimately made them more useful as carrier escorts and bombardment ships than as the sea combatants they were developed to be. Hawaii was approximately 90% complete when hostilities ceased, and was laid up for years while various plans were debated to convert her large hull into a missile ship or a command vessel; she would eventually be scrapped incomplete. Three additional hulls, to be named Philippines, Puerto Rico and Samoa, were cancelled outright.
The Japanese started designing the B64 class, which were similar to the Alaska but with guns. News of the Alaskas led them to upgrade the design, creating the B65. Armed with guns, the B65's would have been the best armed of the new breed of battlecruisers, but they still would have had only sufficient protection to keep out 8-inch shells. Much like the Dutch battlecruisers, the Japanese got as far as completing the design for the B65s, but never laid them down. By the time the designs were ready the Japanese Navy recognised that they had little use for the vessels and that their priority for construction should lie with aircraft carriers. Like the Alaskas, the Japanese did not call these ships battlecruisers, referring to them instead as supersized heavy cruisers.
The fruits of this program were the project 82 (Stalingrad) cruisers, with 36,500 tons standard load (42,300 tons full load), 9 guns 305 mm and a speed of . Three ships were laid in 1951–52, but after Stalin's death they were canceled in April 1953. Apart from high costs, the main reason was that gun-armed ships became obsolete with an advent of guided missiles. Only a central armoured hull section of the first cruiser Stalingrad was launched in 1954 and then used as a target for rockets.
The Soviet Kirov class of Raketny Kreyser (Missile Cruiser), displacing approximately 26,000 tons, is classified as a battlecruiser in the 1996–7 edition of Jane's Fighting Ships, even though in actuality they are very large missile cruisers. Their classification as battlecruisers arises from their displacement, which is roughly equal to that of a World War I battleship, and the fact that they possess more firepower than nearly every other surface ship. However, the Kirov-class lacks the heavy armour that distinguishes battlecruisers from regular cruisers and they are classified as "heavy missile cruisers" in Russia. There were four members of the class completed, Kirov, Frunze, Kalinin, and Yuri Andropov. As the ships were named after Communist personalities, after the fall of the USSR they were given traditional names of the Imperial Russian Navy, respectively Admiral Ushakov, Admiral Lazarev, Admiral Nakhimov, and Petr Velikiy. Due to budget constraints two members of this class have been decommissioned, although Petr Velikiy and Admiral Nakhimov are in active service and funds are being gathered for possible repair of Admiral Lazarev. Nakhimov was returned to service early, at the beginning of 2006, possibly due to increasing tensions in the Middle East and potential Russian naval involvement therein.
In most cases, the temptation to add extra big guns to the main fleet proved hard to resist. As a result, battlecruiser squadrons were added to the line of battle. — a role for which they were not designed and one that exposed them to great risk.. The armour on a battlecruiser remained that of (or slightly more than) a normal cruiser. Thus the ships could dish out a lot more punishment than they could absorb. Any advantage they had in speed was lost when locked into formation at the speed of the slowest battleship in the line of battle. Heavy shells from opposing capital ships could easily penetrate their thinner armour. During Jutland, both British and German battlecruisers scored hits on each other. The British ships came off poorly, where the German ships' fared better due to better internal protection and poor performance of the British shells.
Some have often cited the weaker armour on British battlecruisers, compared to their German counterparts, as responsible for their loss. The Lion's closest contemporary was perhaps the Seydlitz. Both were similar in displacement and speed. German battlecruisers did sacrifice gun calibre for thicker armour but they were not significant such that they made the difference in battle, since both Lion and Seydlitz had their magazine armour penetrated at some point during their careers. Rather, it was the cordite handling procedures; the near destruction of the Seydlitz at the Battle of Dogger Bank had convinced the Germans that they had to take more precautions. After this battle, some of the British battlecruiser force ships began to store too many cordite charges outside the magazine, while leaving open the flash-protection doors, in the pursuit of a tactical doctrine popular in the BCF after Dogger Bank involving rapidity of fire. This practice of taking "rate of fire" ideas to excess was not practiced in the Grand Fleet.
During World War II large-scale close range fleet actions did not occur. Battlecruisers were paired with battleships in roles such as raiding (German), convoy escort, or as part of task forces. In operations where battlecruisers did fight battleships, such as Hood and Bismarck, Scharnhorst and Duke of York, Kirishima and Washington, the battlecruiser was destroyed by gunfire. They were equally vulnerable to aircraft, as many World War I designs lacked the torpedo protection system developed for World War II capital ships, and during World War II several were lost in this way.


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Springfield police probe suspected meth labBy Susan Smallheer
Staff Writer | November 16,2013Photo by Len Emery
Police searched this home at 17 Poplar St. in Springfield on Friday and said they found items that could be used in drug activity.SPRINGFIELD A local woman, concerned that her housemates were involved with illegal drugs, brought police components of what officers described as a meth lab in the trunk of her car.
Springfield Police Chief Douglas Johnston said Friday the case was still under investigation and no one had been arrested. Police declined to identify the woman.
But Johnston said that based on those suspected components of a methamphetamine lab, police executed a search warrant of the womans home Friday and confiscated additional items believed to be used for drug activity.
The home was identified as 17 Poplar St., a short, dead-end street located off Cherry Hill, where the large historic homes of Springfields historic machine tool owners are located.
The two-story home appeared neat and well-kept Friday afternoon, with a late-model car in the driveway. Poplar Street is in one of Springfields nicer neighborhoods, a short distance from The Commons, one of the towns parks and playgrounds.
Springfield Police said in a press release that the woman showed police the suspected drug paraphernalia which she had placed in the trunk of her car, prompting local police to call in the Vermont State Police and its clandestine lab, as well as the state Hazardous Materials Response Team.
Police said the home on Poplar Street was deemed safe after Fridays search and there were no hazards to either the home or the neighborhood.
Police said the woman was concerned about the activities of people who were staying with her, although police would not say what that relationship was.
email@example.com IN Southern VermontBENNINGTON — Ask author and Bennington College graduate Charlotte Silver if the title of... Full StoryPresident Calvin Coolidge was remembered in all sorts of ways Saturday on the 143rd anniversary... Full StoryPresident Calvin Coolidge was remembered in all sorts of ways Saturday on the 143rd anniversary... Full Story
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- RICHARD'S POOR ALMANACK: On this day 1739, 'Richard Palmer' identified in prison at York Castle as the notorious outlaw DICK TURPIN; IN 1836, Battle of the Alamo begins near San Antonio de Bexar, Texas; 1896, the Tootsie Roll invented by LEO HIRSCHFELD.
- RICHARD'S POOR ALMANACK: On this day in 1472, Orkney, Shetland islands put up as collateral by Norway to Scotland in lieu of dowry for MARGARET OF DENMARK on her marriage with JAMES III, king of Scotland; 1962, JOHN GLENN first American to orbit Earth.
- TOMORROW'S HEADLINES TODAY: City mayoral candidates debate campaign issues; Hartford, Conn., woman still missing; Neal Goswami reports attempts to legislate suicide; local woman loses 100 pounds through TOPS program.
- RICHARD'S POOR ALMANACK: On this day in 1878, JOHN TUNSTALL murdered near Lincoln, New Mexico, by the outlaw JESSE EVANS; in 1930, ELM FARM OLLIE first cow to fly in aircraft, first to be milked airborne; 1955, nuke test WASP; '79, snow in Sahara.
- TOMORROW'S HEADLINES TODAY: Rutland Herald News Editor Alan J. Keays and staff writer Gordon Dritschilo discuss stories planned for the February 18, 2015, edition of the newspaper: Winter budgets maxed, legal marijuana, Springfield bank job, USPS slowdown
- RICHARD'S POOR ALMANACK: On this day in 1249 AD, ANDRE of LONGJUMEAU is dispatched by LOUIS IX of France to meet the KHAGAN, ruler of the Mongol Empire; in 1804, during 1st Barbary War, STEPHEN DECATUR scuttles the pirate-held USS Philadelphia in Tripoli.


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1 Modern Circle™ Melody® Doll
Release Date: 4/1/2003
Product Code: B5186
1 Modern Circle™ Melody® is sassy and stylish in an iridescent teal taffeta gown, short dark teal hair with an aqua streak and is ready to rock.
Production doll may vary from the photo shown above. Mattel reserves the right to modify the fashion/fabrics, sculpt, hair color/style, and accessories. Doll cannot stand alone as shown.
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Fedora 19 Nixing MySQL in Favor of MariaDB 116 116
Posted by Unknown Lamer
from the take-that-mr-ellison dept.
from the take-that-mr-ellison dept.
An anonymous reader writes "Red Hat developers are planning to replace MySQL with MariaDB in Fedora 19. For the next Fedora update, the MariaDB fork would replace MySQL and the official MySQL package would be discontinued after some time. The reasoning for this move is the uncertainty about Oracle's support of MySQL as an open-source project and moves to make the database more closed." Update: 01/22 13:47 GMT by T : Note: "Nixing" may be a bit strong; this move has been proposed, but is not yet officially decided.


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The Prime official match ball for the 2013 MLS season. Designed to improve accuracy, consistency and performance. The Prime will be used by all 19 clubs beginning in 2012.Cover:TPU with new panel design for accuracy and true flight. Matte finish for grip and improved sealing for performance in all weather conditions.Bladder: Latex.FIFA approved.90/10 TPU/PU injection molded
Soccerplus first opened in 1994. We were one of the first soccer websites to hit the webView more
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PetStay Resort rooms feature the style and comfort of a Deluxe room plus an additional 110 sq. feet with Carpeted Bathrooms, His & Her sinks, and Executive Workstation. Our PetStay Resort rooms come with a welcome treat and a dog food/water bowl. Guests traveling with their dog will be asked to fill out a waiver accepting responsibility for any damage and/or cleaning charges that may be incurred. Up to 2 dogs per room are permitted and each dog must weigh less than 50 pounds. Stay connected with enhanced Wi-Fi across all Caesars Entertainment Las Vegas hotels.
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Workspace : Executive Workstation
Furniture : Sofa, Coffee Table
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A gland is an organ in an animal's body that synthesizes a substance for release such as hormones or breast milk, often into the bloodstream (endocrine gland) or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface (exocrine gland).
Glands can be divided into two groups:
The type of secretory product of an Exocrine gland may also be one of three categories:
As growth proceeds, the column of cells may divide or give off offshoots, in which case a compound gland is formed. In many glands the number of branches is limited, in others (salivary, pancreas) a very large structure is finally formed by repeated growth and sub-division. As a rule, the branches do not unite with one another, but in one instance, the liver, this does occur when a reticulated compound gland is produced. In compound glands the more typical or secretory epithelium is found forming the terminal portion of each branch, and the uniting portions form ducts and are lined with a less modified type of epithelial cell.
Glands are classified according to their shape.
A list of human endocrine glands is available here.


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Terra Kids Catamaran
Our Terra Kids Catamaran is perfect for little builders interested in the outdoors. This catamaran comes with over 50 pieces and a leaflet that guides your builder with easy step by step instructions on how to build his very own catamaran. Once built, the catamaran is ready for water! Let it float with the current, pull it against the current, or use the rubber motor to propel it. This boat is made of strong water-proof 0.5 inch thick plywood. We love this toy as it fosters technical knowledge and craftsmanship while encouraging the exploration of the great outdoors! his toy was designed by our friends at Haba.
- Recommended For Kids 6 Years And Older
- Includes 50+ pieces to glue together, 2 plastic swimming elements, 3 plastic blushings, 5 propulsion rubbers. Water resistant glue not included.
- Measures 18.75 x 11.5 x 9.5 inches
- Made of strong waterproof plywood (0.5 inches thick)
- Lovingly Designed In Germany By Our Talented Friends At Haba
- Made in China
- CHOKING HAZARD--Small Parts. Not For Children Under 3 Years.


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Sunderland winger Adam Johnson claims experience has taught him that young players have little chance of breaking into the Manchester City team.
Johnson spent two-and-a-half seasons at the Etihad Stadium before leaving in the summer after his first-team opportunities became limited to substitute appearances.
"Now, if I was a young lad, I wouldn't go to City," he told several morning newspapers. "It is excellent when a club like City come for you. Hard to turn down. But you don't actually play for the champions - you're a squad member, which is totally different."
Copyright (c) PA Sport 2012, All Rights Reserved.


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Dover Point Dress Shirt in Sword Stretch Cotton$125.00
Complimentary shipping and returns.
This modern dress shirt is a solid addition to a workweek wardrobe. Made in our solid stretch cotton poplin.
Style #: B0004501
Fabric: SWORD
- 95.5% cotton, 4.5% free-fit
- point collar
- modern shape
- dry clean only


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This Flat Bar on Bar Towel Rail, with a high quality chrome finish, produces a heat output of 623 Watts (2,125BTUs), enough to keep your towels warm and heat a small bathroom or cloakroom. Supplied complete with a fixing pack for wall mounting, this minimalist towel rail has 28 projecting rungs, which allow you to hang towels and small items of clothing more easily. As well as being functional, the bar-on-bar towel rail is makes a striking focal point for any modern bathroom, en-suite or cloakroom. Suitable for all household heating systems, the 65" x 23.6" Hudson Reed Heated Towel Rail connects to your heating system via the radiator valves included. Flat Chrome Bar on Bar Towel Rail 65" x 23.6" Details
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Is everyone ready for a new Kickstart? COUNTDOWN starts today!!!!!!
Not doing it this go round. I won't be able to shop in time, so I am going to do it Nov to correspond with the changing season. But I will still count down! ha!
I love this lifestyle.
I feel satisfied knowing I am no longer contributing to the suffering of animals.
I feel empowered knowing I no longer believe the food pyramid which was not based on nutrition but on promoting the dairy and cattle industry.
I feel content knowing I am reducing my carbon footprint and through my actions encourage others awareness.
I want to encourage everyone to participate even if it is not for the complete 21 days. Even one vegan day is better than no vegan days.
yes I am so ready to begin again.
I'm ready to get back on track. Not eating meat but have gotten off track while going back and forth to the hospital with a family member hospitalized. We've been eating out most of the time and not always making great choices. A 21 day kickstart is probably just what I need!
Hi Folks, Newbie here. I am so excited to get started. I have already been eating as much vegan as possible over the past week. I watched Forks Over Knives and immediately wanted to clear out the fridge.Does anyone have any tips for giving up yogurt? That is the only thing I think I may struggle with. I have it every morning. I like the almond yogurt but the way I would eat, it would be very expensive.Thank, Jayter
I miss my yogurt in the morning too. Have not been able to find any vegan yogurt in my area, so, I just do without. Had to find a whole new routine. I still miss it tho. Anyone with any suggestions?
Still working on making almond milk yogurt. Can't use commercial almond milk - it is designed to not separate or anything so it didn't 'take' to the cultures well. Homemade almond milk worked but we didn't drain the milk enough so it was a bit grittier than we liked. Someone suggested using almond butter and water to make almond milk and avoid the grit so that's next on the agenda.
There are also soy and coconut based yogurts that you might try (the soy yogurts are about the same price range as good quality dairy yogurts). I don't do large quantities of soy and the coconut yogurt was too, hmm, "coconutty" for me (flavor and texture).
With all that said, I've made yogurt into more of a treat than a daily thing. Just as we've made So Delicious coconut or almond based ice cream a treat instead of half gallons of dairy ice cream. I make homemade granola and put that plus some good (often locally made) jam into the yogurt and really savored each spoonful instead of 'just' eating a yogurt.
Where do you get the cultures to make your own yogurt? I think I'd like to experiment...muahahaha
Thanks DebR, some good ideas. I think I will try the soy yogurt but will most definitely cut back as I too do not like to eat too much soy.
Does you (or anyone else) have a go to quick breakfast the sticks to your ribs?
Quick breakfast? Oatmeal. If you don't have time to cook it in the morning, put the rolled oats plus liquid (plant milk or water) in the fridge, covered, overnight. Then eat it cold or warm it quickly however you want. Add cinnamon, dried fruit, whatever. (My hubby has a bowl of oatmeal with a spoonful of peanut butter and a sprinkle of raisins and vegan chocolate chips every morning)
Whole grain/multi grain toast with peanut butter
Cold cereal with plant milk
My son likes leftover brown rice warmed in some plant milk on the stove top with a sprinkle of cinnamon and a drizzle of agave. Almost but not quite rice pudding.
As far as the yogurt starter, I get it at a local place that stocks all sorts of starters for beer, wine, cheese, etc. Disclaimer: the yogurt bacteria were cultured on dairy. Once I get a good handle on it, I can use the almond yogurt to be the starter for the next batch so it'll get diluted along the way to eventually negligible. Or, I'll find a non-dairy starter (still looking for that one).
Making yogurt is pretty easy - you can even do 'direct set' by using a cup of the live active yogurt made with soy or other plant milks as the starter.
Thanks Bugsmom Some good suggestions there. I tried the Soy yougurt, not bad but would definitely not eat it as much as the Greek Yougurt I was eating.
Anyone have a good source for quick weeknight meals. I'm cooking for a family of 4 with 2 of the four not being so adventerous with new food.
Try draining the soy yogurt a bit through a bit of cheesecloth or clean, new, knee high hose (get the 'sandal foot' style, it works better lol). That will remove some of the whey and make it thicker and creamier, more like Greek style dairy yogurt. Look for yogurts that are just the plant milk and cultures basically - if it's got pectin or any kind of 'gum' it won't release the whey as easily (which is by design, BTW).
Jayter wrote:
Quick Meal Plans from Happy Herbivore
And just her general recipe page which are all easy, delicious, and most are quick.
For quick weeknight meals, with a mix of eating styles, the "Garanimals" approach is good (remember them? mix'n'match kids' clothing line) Rather than cooking pasta and mixing in meat sauce, cook pasta, marinara, and meat separately then each person can fix a plate as they choose. Tex-mex stuff like burritos, nachos, tacos, chili also work well like this. Stir fry works - cook the meat (chicken or whatever) separately and let folks add it or not. To make it fast, cook up a bunch of ingredients ahead of time, for instance, bake up 4 chicken breasts and cut up or shred the meat and store in the fridge. Cook up ground meat (taco filling meat) and likewise store it. Cook a batch of beans and store, rice and pasta ditto. Then grab a bit of A, some of B, and a bunch of C (fresh and frozen veggies) and you've got dinner.
dollgirl wrote:
I actually don't necessarily feel that you have to start exactly on Day 1. I can't start today, but I'm starting tomorrow. I'll simply extend the kickstart for me to Day 22 since I started a day late. I figure, it's better for me to start late than never . Since I make my own menu plans using the guidelines, I guess it matters less to me if I start one day late or not.
But I totally understand the thinking behind delaying starting because you can't start on time.
I just realized that the September countdown begins TODAY. I've not shopped for it but think I have enough here for a few days to get by. And I can also mine the lovely garden that some friends have planted.
Life does not always come at us fully prepared and perfect so this should be an interesting 21 days.
Whoo Hoooo, day two today. I so enjoyed day one, cannot wait for what's in store for day two. I had to modify a bit as I was away and trying to pack every possible ingredient was a little tough with limited room but everything worked out. The only thing I did not have was vegan tortillas. Anyone know of a good recipe to make your own. The cost to buy them is very prohibitive where I live. $9.00 for 4. I hope everyone has a very happy vegan day two.
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This is the fight I've been wanting to see. This is the only fight I wanted eddie to have before going to the ufc.
This is the fight I've been wanting to see. This is the only fight I wanted eddie to have before going to the ufc.
Mo looked terrible tonight, but retrospectively, I don't think he's ever been the same fighter than after the Feijao fight where he blew his knees out and just kept getting really janky injuries. Newton is at best, a journeyman mid 20 ranked LHW and was throwing ridiculous shit at Mo, who had nothing to respond with.
I really hope the Eddie/BFC court judge is watching this PPV tonight.
This is the best fighter Chandler has faced since he upset Eddie. This is going to be awesome!!
I wonder who the commentators want to win lol???
I'm sure Bjorn want chandler to win lol. Eddie has a problem with getting caught. He's really trying to avoid getting clipped in this one
I like it though. One of those fights where you don't know if it'll be a KO out of nowhere, or a back and forth for the full 5.
Chandler is really just hoping to land a big ko or a rear naked choke. I think I'd have to say Eddie's taken rds 2 and 3
Eddie looks a helluva lot fresher, that eye on Chandler looks like it is a few more shots to getting stopped by docs….
And just like that the momentum can shift
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Find a wide selection of tops and cardigans with long sleeves. Read more
VILA offers you everything from feminine lace tops to sweatshirts in a casual look. There's also an assortment of festive cardigans with sequins, simple and patterned tops and much more – all in the season's colours, designs and qualities. The selection of long-sleeved tops at VILA is characterised by diversity and is suitable for the feminine as well as the trendy, fashion-conscious woman.


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Choosing your zombie makeup is mindless this Halloween, just pick up the Zombie Stack for all your makeup needs. These 5 color pods features all the colors you need to create the grimiest and most haunting looks you could ever imagine.
Warn your guests with the Zombie Banner. This 65-inch wide banner features chained doors with reaching zombie hands and snarling faces along with the words "Don't Open" written on the doors.
Cock-a-doodle- spook! The Zombie Rooster is the perfect lawn or garden ornament for you Halloween landscape this holiday. Features a zombified rooster.
Regular people decorate with pink flamingoes - when you are a zombie it just makes sense to decorate with a flock of Zombie flamingos! The scary-looking Zombie Flamingo decoration has blood-red eyes, an exposed skull and metal legs so you can perch it indoors or out.
When the dead walk the Earth, not even your pets are safe! This Zombie Cat decoration is a prime example of what zombies can do to your favorite feline friend. Beware!
Create an earthy, fresh from the grave Zombie skin complexion with this Zombie Dust makeup!
When zombies take over, nothing will ever be the same--even your pets will turn into vicious flesh eaters. Guard your house and try to blend in when you decorate your house with this Zombie Dog decoration. The zombified dog features sharp teeth and a pivot head.
Give your guests the chills this Halloween when you decorate using the Lurching Zombie. This grotesque decoration features a decomposed face, tattered and blood-spattered clothing and one shoe. With motion activation, this decoration will scare your visitors when they least expect it.
Create earthly, freshly risen from the grave Zombie Skin with this tube of Zombie Flesh makeup - four out of five zombies recommend it!
Zombies have really bad teeth if they even have any teeth left at all between ripping though all that flesh and bone. Bone up for Halloween and get your zombie costume down pat with these snap-in plastic rotting Zombie Teeth.
Need a quick costume - hide your identity when you slip into these spooky Zombie Glasses and dine on brains, or not.
Need a real terrifying decoration? Look no further when you find this incredibly bloodied Berzerker Zombie! This creepy character features a severely bloody shirt along with a disgustingly rotten face and familiar undead posture. Careful, don't get too close!
Chew on some flesh wearing these Zombie Decay Teeth. Kiss your pearly whites goodbye because there are no dentists post zombie apocalypse.
Get zombified with the Zombie Doll Makeup Kit. This makeup kit features everything you need to become the scariest zombie around. Kit includes scary, stitched mouth tattoos, doll lashes and pink colored makeup.
You'll be fully prepared for the zombie Apocalypse with the Zombie Hunter Kit. This kit includes axe, machete, bullets, dog tags and a belt to hold everything.
Don't expect anyone to tell you your zipper's down when you use this Zombie Zipper Kit to complete your zombifreak costume. Set includes attachable zipper, rotten dentures, bloody scab, black and white makeup, brush, sponges and remover.
Be prepared when zombie roam the streets and have your disguise ready with this Street Zombie boys costume. The one-piece hoodie and coat features a hooded sweaT-Shirt front and comes complete with fingerless gloves and a creepy zombie mask.
You'll be about six feet under the law on Halloween when you decide to wear this Zombie Sheriff Child Costume. The tan, blood spattered and tattered jumpsuit comes complete with a matching hat, holster, zombie gloves and mask.
You're ready for any zombie who comes your way in the Zombie Hunter Girls Costume. You'll be prepared in style in this khaki colored dress with grommet belt, fingerless gloves and cool head sash.
Top off your wicked zombie costume when you wear the Undead Zombie Mask. This gruesome mask features a blood-covered scalp with icy eyes and snarling teeth details.
This zombie is double trouble! The Swamp Zombie Mask has an extra scare factor. This mask features a creepy skull face and gross, swampy strands.
Aim for the head in this killer cool Zombie Hunter child costume. The tan, 100% polyester duster features jagged trim, zombie hunter T-Shirt, oversized axe, bandolier-style bullet belt and an outback hat. Slay the undead!
Walk like a zombie through the neighborhood or the party in this distressed Zombie Skeleton teen costume. The beige tattered shirt of this zombie costume features an exposed skeletal chest and comes complete with matching pants, black and white skeleton gloves along with an intricately detailed…
Be prepared to knock them dead in this Zombie Hunter boys costume. The blood-spattered tan coat of this zombie hunter costume comes complete with a green T-Shirt and a matching hat so you are properly equipped for the rigors of serious zombie pursuit and capture.


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It's always nice to find low prices on quality resin garden statues, but it's even better to get those sculptures and other quality decor delivered to the front door free of charge. For just today and tomorrow, anything ordered from the Design Toscano site gets shipped free of charge! To get that free shipping, it doesn't matter if you order a life size Bigfoot Statue or a the smallest of garden fairies. You don't have to order items for the backyard either. Buy heirloom quality furniture for the interior of home or the office and it also gets delivered free of charge.
This includes furniture like the amazing Warwickshire Dragon Glass-topped Coffee table. The masterpiece of a dragon sculpture that makes up the base of this table is so detailed that you may be tempted to remove the glass top to just put the dragon on display! Use it to serve coffee to all of your guests in Gothic-themed splendor.
Egyptian decorations are also shipped free of charge when ordered today or tomorrow. Get a Queen Nefertiti Sculptural Floor Lamp or the stunning Egyptian revival Isis Table Lamp to give your place some serious Egyptian flair.
Order these and other unique decor and objets d'art from Design Toscano today or tomorrow and pay nothing for shipping!


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The Hand Center is dedicated to reconstruction and rehabilitation of the hand, wrist and upper extremity. Our clinical staff has achieved national and international recognition for their efforts in clinical care, research and education - both in hand surgery and hand therapy. Our focus is on restoration of function of the hand and return to normal activity.
To request a referral or to make an appointment, call the Physician Referral Line.
For questions regarding the information shown on this page, contact our Physician Liaison.


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Ask real questions like:
"How can I check my application status?"
Admission to NIU as a transfer student is based on the cumulative grade point average (GPA) from all colleges/universities attended and on the amount of hours a student has completed at the time of application.
Attempted up to and including 12 semester hours of credit will be evaluated as freshmen for admission purposes and must meet the current freshman admission requirements. The GPA earned for the attempted 12 hours or less will not affect the admission decision.
Attempted more than 12 semester hours but who have earned fewer than 24 semester hours of transferable credit at the time of application must:
Earned 24 -59 semester hours -OR- Earned 60 or more semester hours of transferable credit at the time of application will be considered for admission if the student:
Contact the Transfer Center with questions about transfer admission requirements!
All transfer applicants to Northern Illinois University who have attempted more than 12 semester hours, but completed fewer than 60 semester hours (90 quarter hours) at the time of application will be held to the competitive transfer grade point average (GPA). Currently, the established competitive transfer GPA is 2.50 (on a 4.00 scale). Students who meet the competitive GPA have a strong chance of being admitted to NIU. Students who are above a 2.00 GPA (on a 4.00 scale) but do not meet the competitive GPA will typically be waitlisted and asked to write a personal statement.
A graduate of an Illinois public community college who has not previously attended Northern and has completed a baccalaureate A.A., A.S., or approved A.A.T. degree will be admitted to NIU as long as there is space available. The student will enter with junior standing and all NIU general education requirements will be considered complete if the student has met the following qualifications prior to enrolling at NIU: An A.A., an A.S. or an approved A.A.T. degree from an Illinois public community college; At least a C average (2.0 on a 4.0 scale) as calculated by the community college; At least 60 semester hours of credit; Good standing at the last college attended.
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Does anyone listen to the audio books?
I have several of Stephen Briggs audiobooks on my iPod. I've got a couple of the Nigel Planer ones, but for some reason Nigel can't hold my interest for very long, and his voices aren't quite as animated as Stephen Briggs. Unfortunately there's not a lot of Stephen Briggs available to the US market right now from my limited observations.


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Autumn House Bed and Breakfast in Cambridge.
Looking for top quality accommodation in Cambridge? Choose Autumn House guest house in Cambridge: the perfect place to stay in Cambridge.
Autumn House offers excellent guest house holiday accommodation.Make the most of your stay in Cambridge: contact us here at Autumn House Guest House.
Autumn House B & B is located to the
east of the historical City of Cambridge, just
1.3 miles from the hub of Cambridge City
centre and close to several Business Parks and
the Science Park with easy access to the M11
and A14 North, and only a stone throw from the
city's airport.
Autumn House B n B is an extended modern contemporary house, offering stylish, luxurious accommodation with a high standard of cleanliness where a warm and comfortable stay is guaranteed. We have been award 4 stars from Visit Britain plus the silver award for "exceptional quality in all areas but in particular in service and hospitality" and 5 stars by environment health services.
Conveniently situated from Cambridge city centre, from here you can explore the Historical City with its many interesting College and University Buildings as well as many pubs, restaurants and cafes catering to a wide range of tastes. Cambridge's nightlife is all that you would expect with nightclubs, theatres, and multiplex cinemas. At Autumn House B & B Cambridge you will find comfortable friendly surroundings to relax in.


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Minerva worked tirelessly on behalf of desert plant life, holding exhibits and founding conservation societies. Ultimately, she felt the best way to truly preserve desert plants was through a large park. In 1936, with the help of President Roosevelt, a presidential proclamation established the grand desert park now known as Joshua Tree National Park.
Joshua Tree is a dichotomy of the most brutal and yet fragile terrain. The park, famous for its wildflowers, is an immense 800,000 acres and encompasses some of the most breathtaking geological displays in all of the California deserts. Among the park's twisted rocks and desert landscape you'll find the colorful sand verbena, canterbury bells, brown-eyed primrose and the yucca brevifolia, or the Joshua tree. There are more than 700 species of vascular plants (plants with conducting tissues circulating water and nutrients internally) in Joshua Tree, which is renowned for its plant diversity.
Wildflower season typically begins in late February with the cream colored blooms of the Joshua trees, and by April, the cacti begin to bloom, producing brightly colored waxy flowers. Do note, however, the fall and winter precipitation greatly determines the spring blooming period and the wildflower blooms may vary greatly from one year to the next.
Luckily for residents of the Coachella Valley, Joshua Tree is a local treasure and only about an hour drive. Although there are three entrances to Joshua Tree National Park, the closest entrance for Valley residents is the south entrance at Cottonwood Spring, just 25 miles east of Indio (traveling east on Interstate 10, take the Cottonwood Road/Box Canyon Road exit, turn left and follow the signs). The other two entrances are located off of Highway 62 in Joshua Tree and in Twentynine Palms.
Joshua Tree National Park is always open and can be visited year round.
Joshua Tree National Park Visitor Center
74485 National Park Drive
Twentynine Palms, California 92277
Open 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. • Visitor Information: 760-367-5500
There is also the Oasis Visitor Center, located at the junction of Utah Trail and National Park Drive, open from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. Cottonwood Visitor Center is located eight miles north of Interstate 10 at Cottonwood Spring and is open from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m.
Web site: www.nps.gov/jotr


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During World War II, he spent more than three years in Europe and North Africa. He started as a First Lieutenant, and eventually rose to the rank of Colonel. He worked mostly in intelligence, decoding German messages.
Powell was a partner for over a quarter of a century at Hunton, Williams, Gay, Powell and Gibson, a large Virginia law firm, with its primary office in Richmond (now known as Hunton & Williams LLP). Powell practiced primarily in the areas of corporate law (especially in the field of mergers and acquisitions) and in railway litigation law.
In 1936, he married Josephine Pierce Rucker, with whom he had three daughters and one son. Powell's wife died in 1996.
Powell was involved in the development of Colonial Williamsburg, where he was both a trustee and general counsel. In 1971, he wrote the famous Powell Memo to a friend at the U.S. Chamber of Commerce. The memo called for corporate America to become more aggressive in molding politics and law in the U.S. and may have sparked the formation of one or more influential right-wing think tanks.
In an extraordinary prefiguring of the social goals of business that would be felt over the next three decades, Powell set his main goal: Changing how individuals and society think about the corporation, the government, the law, the culture, and the individual became, and would remain, a major goal of business.
He had been a board member of Philip Morris between 1964 until his appointment in 1971, and had acted as a contact point for the tobacco industry with the Virginia Commonwealth University. Through his law firm, Hunton Williams Gay Powell & Gibson (later just Hunton & Williams) he represented the Tobacco Institute and the various tobacco companies in numerous law cases.
He and William Rehnquist were nominated by President Nixon on the same day to serve on the Court. Powell took over the seat of Hugo Black. On the day of Powell's swearing-in, when Rehnquist's wife Nan asked Josephine Powell if this was the most exciting day of her life, Josephine reportedly said, "No, it is the worst day of my life. I am about to cry."
Lewis Powell served from January 7, 1972 until June 26, 1987, when he resigned.
Powell compiled a decidedly moderate record on the Court, cultivating a reputation as a swing vote with a penchant for compromise. (The most detailed account of Justice Powell's Supreme Court tenure is in John Jeffries's biography Lewis F. Powell).
For example, his opinion in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, (1978) joined by no other justice in full, represented a compromise between the opinions of Justice William J. Brennan, who, joined by three other justices, would have upheld affirmative action programs under a lenient judicial test, and the opinion of John Paul Stevens, also joined by three justices, who would have struck down the affirmative action program at issue in the case under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Powell's opinion striking down the law urged that "strict scrutiny" be applied to affirmative action programs, while hinting that some affirmative action programs might pass Constitutional muster. Powell, who dissented in the case of Furman v. Georgia (1972), striking down capital punishment statutes, was a key mover behind the Court's compromise opinion in Gregg v. Georgia (1976), which allowed the return of capital punishment but only with procedural safeguards.
In the notorious case of Snepp v. U.S. (1980), the Court issued a per curiam opinion imposing a constructive trust upon former CIA agent Frank Snepp and forcing him to preclear all his published writings with the CIA for the rest of his life. In 1997, Snepp gained access to the files of Justices Thurgood Marshall (who had already died) and William Brennan (who voluntarily granted Snepp access), and confirmed his suspicion that Powell had been the author of the per curiam opinion. Snepp later claimed Powell had never checked his own misstatements of the factual record against the actual case file and that the only Justice who even looked at the case file was John Paul Stevens, who relied upon it in composing his dissent.
In 1990, after his retirement from the Court, he said, "I think I made a mistake in the Hardwick case," marking one of the few times a justice expressed regret for one of his previous votes.
Powell also expressed post-retirement regret over his majority opinion in McCleskey v. Kemp, where he voted to uphold the death penalty against a study that demonstrated that - except as punishment for the most violent of crimes - people who killed whites were significantly more likely to receive the death penalty as punishment for their crimes than people who killed blacks.
Following his retirement from the high court, Powell sat regularly on various United States Courts of Appeals around the country, especially enjoying sitting on circuit courts venued in temperate climes during the winter months.
Justice Powell died at his home in the Windsor Farms area of Richmond, Virginia, of pneumonia, at 4:30 in the morning of August 25, 1998, at the age of 90. He is buried in Richmond's Hollywood Cemetery.
In her 2002 book, The Majesty of the Law, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor wrote, "For those who seek a model of human kindness, decency, exemplary behavior, and integrity, there will never be a better man."
Powell's personal and official papers were donated to Washington and Lee University Law School, where they are open for research subject to certain restrictions.
J. Harvie Wilkinson, currently a judge on Fourth Circuit, was a law clerk for Justice Powell. Wilkinson later wrote a book titled Serving Justice: A Supreme Court Clerk's View describing the experience.


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Customer Reviews
1 Item(s)
- Wonderful! Review by Kimmy
Quality Price Value
I am a ceramics artist and have dry skin to begin with, so the slay only makes the dryness worse. This hand cream so far has been the only cream to have worked for me. Before I would use only almond oil. The smell is very gentle and the rate it absorbs into the skin is very quick leaving my skin much softer and not cracked from being dry.
(Posted on 4/7/13)
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Find hotels in Silvercreek using the list and search tools below. Search for the cheapest discounted hotel and motel rates in or near Silvercreek, CO for your personal leisure or group travel. We list the best Silvercreek Colorado hotel/motel rooms. Review the Silvercreek hotel list below to find the perfect lodging. We also have a map of the Silvercreek hotels.The Silvercreek center is approximately 2 miles from Granby Amtrak Station and 8 miles from Winter Park/Fraser Amtrak Station.
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