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Circular 1248 UF/IFAS Extension Soil Testing Laboratory (ESTL) Analytical Procedures and Training Manual1Rao S. Mylavarapu2 1. This document is Circular 1248, one of a series of the Soil and Water Science Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Original publication date August 2002. Revised February 2009. Reviewed July 2012. Visit the EDIS website at http://edis.ifas.u.edu 2. Rao S. Mylavarapu, assistant professor, Nutrient Management Specialist and Director, UF/IFAS Extension Soil Testing Laboratory, Department of Soil and Water Science, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611.The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function with non-discrimination with respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or aliations. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A&M University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Millie Ferrer-Chancy, Interim DeanContentsExtension Soil Testing Laboratory: Mission and Purpose Description of Oered Tests Sample Submission How to Submit Samples Sample Submission Forms Supplies Sample Preparation Analytical Procedures for Soil Soil Scooping Soil pH (1:2 V/V) Adams-Evans Buer pH Mehlich-1 Extractable P, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Mn, and Zn Organic Matter Walkley-Black Method Loss-on-Ignition Electrical Conductivity Analytical Procedures for Container Media Extraction Procedure pH Electrical Conductivity (EC) NO3Water-Extractable P, K, Ca, Mg Analytical Procedures for Calcareous Soils AB-DTPA Extractable P Analytical Procedures for Water pH Electrical Conductivity (EC) Metals Chloride (Cl-) Carbonate Equivalent Suspended Solids Analytical Procedures for Plants Standard Determination of Ca, Mg, P, K, Na, Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn, and B in Plant Tissue Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) in Plant Tissue Quality Control Laboratory Safety References AcknowledgementsExtension Soil Testing Laboratory: Mission and Purposee University of Florida (UF), Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), Extension Soil Testing Laboratory (ESTL) was established to serve the people of
2 Florida with their soil, plant, and water testing needs for ensuring economically and environmentally sustainable crop production. e ESTL clientele receive accurate agricultural test results, interpretations, and recommendations regarding appropriate rates, use of nutrients and nutrient management techniques developed for Florida.Mission Statemente mission of the UF/IFAS Extension Soil Testing Laboratory is: to serve the citizens of Florida, by providing appropriately selected soil, plant and water testing, interpretation and recommendations as an educational service through the Cooperative Extension Service to guide management decisions aecting lime and fertilizer use eciency. e ESTL provides chemical analyses of inorganic soils, container media, diagnostic plant tissue nutrients, and irrigation and household water samples for all Florida residents. Testing is restricted to samples originating from the state of Florida only. Requests for testing of animal manures should be sent to UF/IFAS Livestock Waste Testing Laboratory at the North Florida Research and Education Center Suwannee in Live Oak, FL. Testing of materials such as drinking water, sewage sludges, wastewater euent, sludges from water-treatment facilities, hazardous chemical or biological tests of water or soil, or limestone are referred to other governmental or private laboratories.Purpose of This Manual and Intended Audienceis Circular consists of revised portions from the IFAS Extension Soil Testing Laboratory Chemical Procedures and Training Manual (CIR 812), authored by Hanlon, Gonzalez and Bartos, which has been withdrawn. e procedures described in this manual reect the current methodologies for agricultural testing oered by the UF/IFAS ESTL. is Circular replaces previous information that is contained in other IFAS publications. e ESTL services are oered as a part of the Nutrient Management Extension Program in fulllment of the public service mandate of the landgrant university mission. Only tests that have been shown through research/experience to assist in crop-management decisions are oered by the ESTL to Florida residents. It is the intention of the Cooperative Extension Service to oer only analytical procedures whose results can be interpreted, and thus render assistance with management decisions involving water, plants, soils, and nutrients. A small number of diagnostic samples submitted by county or state-wide Extension IFAS faculty may be tested free of charge. A limited number of similar services may be extended to IFAS researchers if needed, to assist researchers in making nutrient management decisions when establishing eld research plots. Superscripted numbers throughout the text below denote the corresponding publication in the References section.Description of Tests OeredCommercial Crop Production on Mineral Soils (Agronomic, Vegetable, Ornamental, and Fruit Crops)e ESTL uses Mehlich-1 extraction procedure for extracting soil samples in preparation for further soilfertility analyses. e Mehlich-1 extraction solution, also referred to as the dilute double acid extractant (0.05M HCl + 0.0125M H2SO4), is intended for use in extracting weathered soils that have cation exchange capacities of less than 10 cmol kg-1 and whose soil pH is less than 7.0. e Mehlich-1 extraction method is not suitable for the extraction of alkaline soils.21 For alkaline soils, recommended extractant in Florida is ammonium bicarbonate-DTPA (AB-DTPA). e ESTL oers a standard soil-fertility test for noncalcareous inorganic soils. e standard test includes analyses for soil pH and macronutrients phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) levels in the soil. e ESTL does not test for soil nitrogen (N) as there is no reliable soil test for predicting N availability to the plants. If a crop code is included on the analysis request form, a test for Buer pH may be determined using Adams-Evans Buer solution (pH 8.00) if the soil pH obtained is lower than the Target pH of the crop specied. e Target pH for a crop is that soil pH at which optimal crop performance and yield is achieved and is therefore specic to the crop. Buer pH will not be determined if no crop is specied on the sample submission form or if the dierence between the soil pH and the target pH is less than 0.2 pH units or if the soil pH exceeds the target pH. Subsequent to the Buer pH determination, lime requirement is calculated using the amount of exchangeable (potential) acidity in the soil. Currently, the ESTL does not provide information concerning methods of lowering soil pH. Results from the above soil tests are interpreted for crop response based on Table 1. e interpretation values are determined from several long-term eld calibration
3 studies conducted for various crops and soils in Florida and thus form the basis for lime, nutrient and management recommendations detailed on the soil test report sent to the clients. e ESTL Soil Test Report will specify the recommended quantities of macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) to be applied to the soil in order to increase the supply of these nutrients to the levels needed for optimum yield and/or quality for the crops requested. Quantities are reported in either pounds per acre, pounds per 100 linear bed feet, pounds per 1000 square feet, or pounds per 100 square feet, depending on the crop.5 e P and K recommendations are both reported as the oxide forms (P2O5 and K2O) in order to comply with current fertilizer-label requirements. Recommended quantities of N, Ca and Mg are reported as the elemental form. e report also will indicate the amount of lime needed, if any, to be added to the soil in order to raise the soil pH to that of the Target pH of the crop requested. It should be noted that recommendations for N are not based on soil testing. e ESTL does not currently test for N in soil due to lack of a meaningful soil test method through which N availability to meet plant needs can be predicted. e recommendations for N shown on the soil test report form are instead based on research studies that measured the response of the indicated crop to various levels of applied N fertilizers. e results of these studies are then used to determine the correct amount of N needed for optimum crop response. If part of the soil N requirements will be met through nutrient release from organic sources such as crop residue or organic soil amendments, the N fertilizer recommendation should be lowered appropriately by estimating the N availability of the amendment material. An integral part of the recommendations are the footnotes. e footnotes included in the report elaborate on many aspects of fertilization and cultural management for the specied crop(s). It is strongly recommended that the producers consider the information contained in these footnotes when making management decisions for ecient fertilizer use. e ESTL also oers a micronutrient test for Mehlich-1 extractable Cu, Mn, and Zn. e primary value of the micronutrient soil test is to determine if adequate levels of micronutrients already exist in the soil. e interpretation of the soil micronutrient test results and proper micronutrient fertilization is included with the report. Micronutrient fertilizers should be used with discretion since it is possible to build up toxic levels of these elements in a soil. Use of the shotgun approach (i.e., addition of micronutrients as insurance) should be avoided. It should also be noted that pesticide formulations frequently contain one or more of these micronutrients. erefore, if pesticides are applied, additional application of micronutrient fertilizer is oen unnecessary.Tests to Choose FromL ANDSCAPE L A WN, AND VEGETABLE GARDEN TEST13e UF/IFAS ESTL oers two soil testing options for the homeowner or home gardener. e rst soil test option is for soil pH and lime requirement determination. No other nutrient analysis or fertilizer recommendation is provided under this option. e measured soil pH is compared to the Target pH for the crop specied by the homeowner or gardener and a lime requirement, if any, is determined using the Adams-Evans Buer pH Index. Both the soil pH and the recommended lime application rate for the specied crop are included in the soil test report. General fertilizer recommendations for landscape, lawns, and vegetable gardens can then be found in a variety of IFAS extension publications by visiting http://edis.ifas.u.edu or the local County Extension Agency. It should be noted that general recommendations do not account for nutrients supplied to the plant from sources already within the soil. Instead, all nutrition is assumed to come only from the fertilizer added to the soil. e second option includes tests for soil pH and lime requirement alongwith macronutrients (Mehlich-1 extractable P, K, Ca and Mg). is information is then used to calculate specic lime and fertilizer recommendations for the crop of interest and is included in the soil test report along with the appropriate footnotes. is allows the homeowner or gardener to develop their fertilization program according to the specic fertilizer needs of the crop they are growing. Recommendations are made for a variety of crops including landscaping plants, ornamentals, vegetable gardens, and lawn grasses (bahia, bermuda, centipede, St Augustine, Table 1. Current interpretation for Mehlich-1 soil test results for agronomic and vegetable crops. Very Low Low Medium High Very High ------------------------------ppm--------------------------------P <10 10-15 16-30 31-60 >60 K <20 20-35 36-60 61-125 >125 Mg -<15 15-30 >30
4 etc) and are reported as either pounds of nutrient per 100 square feet or per 1000 square feet.PINE NURSERY SOIL TEST17Soil samples from a pine nursery should be obtained from the 0to 6-soil depth only, and will be analyzed for soil pH, organic matter, and Mehlich-1 extractable P, K, Ca, and Mg.C ONTAINER MEDIA TEST15e ESTL Container Media Test is used to measure the levels of water-soluble nutrients in soilless media (e.g., mixtures of materials such as perlite, expanded plastics, vermiculite, peat, pine bark, wood shavings, compost, and sand). Analyses include pH, electrical conductivity, nitrate-N, P, K, Ca, and Mg, all of which are measured in a saturated water extract from the soilless media. is test is recommended as a diagnostic tool for fertilizer management in commercial container-plant production as a means of monitoring nutrients in the media throughout the growing season. e test report also provides the fact sheet12 that assists in the interpretation of the results. Test interpretations are meaningful only in commercial nursery situations. Unlike the other soil tests oered by the ESTL, container-media samples should NOT be dried prior to their delivery to the laboratory. Drying these types of media can adversely aect the results of the test by changing the amounts of nutrients extracted from the media. PLANT TISSUE TEST18In addition to soil testing, the ESTL also oers a Plant Tissue Test. is test is oered specically to commercial growers of blueberries and pecans and to IFAS county extension faculty for use as a diagnostic tool. Test results from samples submitted by commercial growers are forwarded to an Extension blueberry or pecan specialist, who evaluates the data and provides a report to the grower. Results from diagnostic samples are provided to the submitting agent or specialist only. e agent/specialist is responsible for interpreting the data for the client.WATER TEST16e ESTL oers testing of both household and other water supplies used for irrigation/microirrigation for mineral determinations only. All health-related and drinking water quality inquiries should be directed to the nearest county Health Department. Additionally, questions concerning municipal water supplies should be referred to the Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services as that agency is responsible for monitoring the quality of municipal water sources. e ESTL Water Test Report includes values for pH, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Na, Cl, hardness, total carbonates, and electrical conductivity. e irrigation water test includes all of the above, as well as a test for suspended solids. e report provides tables assisting with the interpretation of results.3, 4In Florida, many irrigation-water sources originate from limestone aquifers, resulting in high-pH waters. Crops that are pH-sensitive, such as blueberries or pine seedlings, may benet considerably by pretreating such water with acid to destroy carbonates and concurrently lower the pH.10 Results from the total carbonates test can be used to determine the amount of acid required to reduce this high-pH condition. Sample SubmissionHow to Submit Samples to the ESTLA Sample Submission Form and full payment for the requested services should accompany the samples. Sample Submission Forms can be printed directly from the ESTL website (http://soilslab.ifas.u.edu) or can be picked up from the local county Extension oce. Samples may be sent directly to the ESTL via the U.S. Postal Service or express delivery companies. Instructions for collection of a representative sample, proper sample amount, mailing address and other vital information needed for proper sample processing are printed on the forms (described below). Mailing boxes for shipping samples to the ESTL are also available from the county Extension oce. Samples may also be personally delivered directly to the laboratory in order to avoid shipping/mailing delays. Sample analysis generally requires an average of ve working days from the time the sample is received at the ESTL. Results are e-mailed or mailed directly to the address provided on the submission form. Additionally, a copy of these results is sent to the county Extension oce. All county Extension oces have the capacity to receive test results via electronic mail. Clients are encouraged to contact their county Extension oce when seeking further assistance. Clients may also request to receive a copy of their results via fax.Sample SubmissionRelevant sample submission form(s) needs to be lled out completely and accompany all samples submitted for testing. e following forms correspond to the tests and testing options described above and can be downloaded and printed by the clients by from the following links. ese and other information can also be accessed by visiting the
5 ESTL website (http://soilslab.ifas.u.edu). e forms are also available from the nearest county Extension oce. Producer Soil Test Information Sheet (Fact Sheet SL-135). is form has been designed for use by commercial producers. e information sheet is self-explanatory and provides pertinent information for samples submitted to the ESTL. Landscape and Vegetable Garden Soil Test Information Form (Fact Sheet SL-136). Both private and commercial clients fertilizing plants in the landscape, primarily home horticulture, should use this form. Container Media Test Information Form (Fact Sheet SL134). is form is designed for use by commercial growers using soilless media for container-plant production. Pine Nursery Soil Test Information Sheet (Fact Sheet SL-132). Commercial operators of pine plantations and pine nurseries should use this form. Plant Tissue Analysis Information Sheet (Fact Sheet SL-131). is form is used for submission of plant tissue samples. Only blueberry and pecan leaf samples are tested under this option. All other plant tissue samples must be sent with the consent of an extension agent or state specialist. e agent or specialist assumes the responsibility for interpretation of the plant tissue report. Water Test Information Sheet (Fact Sheet SL-133). is form should be used for analysis of irrigation water or household well water (not municipal or drinking water). Other supplies related to testing and sampling that can also be obtained at the county extension oce include: 1) Soil sample bags. 2) A self-addressed cardboard mailer.Sample PreparationSoil Samples Soil samples should be air-dried before shipment to the ESTL. Drying is best accomplished by spreading a thin layer of soil on clean wrapping paper or newspaper and placing it in a dry shaded area for at least 24 hours. Drying samples in direct sunlight or using a household oven is NOT recommended. Container Media Samples Container media samples should NOT be dried before shipment to the ESTL. Drying media samples will adversely aect the test results decreasing the usefulness of the test. Plant Samples e quality of the tissue samples submitted for analysis is of importance in ensuring proper processing and interpretation of the results. Tissue samples should not be contaminated with soil or sprays. If the tissue is dusty or contaminated, the sample should be gently washed with owing distilled water and allowed to dry overnight prior to shipping. Do not sample diseased or damaged plant materials. Consult the local Extension agent to determine the proper plant part and the proper time to sample. Always place the tissue samples in paper bags only. Plastic bags are NOT recommended. Water Samples e container in which a water sample is sent to the ESTL can inuence results greatly. For example, residual soap from a plastic dish soap container will contaminate the water sample. e container should be clean to avoid contamination of the sample. e sample should be taken several minutes aer the water source has been owing from the spigot or irrigation pump. e container should be ushed thoroughly several times with the owing water. e container should be lled completely with no airspace at the container top. Entrapped air in the container may aect well-water samples due to shis in carbon dioxide, potentially aecting its pH.Analytical Procedures for SoilSoil Scooping Technique8Soil scooping technique is employed to draw an estimated weight of soil sample for testing from the soil sample submitted/prepared. e soil-scooping technique requires practice, despite its unsophisticated appearance. e technique depends upon uniform actions by the technician from sample to sample to produce consistent packing of soil into the scoop. To check scooping consistency, repeatedly scoop soil from one sample and check the weight of each scoop. If the procedure is being carried out properly, the weights should be uniform. e average weights for various scoop volumes are given in Table 2. Scoop weights will vary from soil to soil depending on dierences in soil texture. Procedure 1. Dip the scoop into the center of the soil sample and ll the scoop with a twisting motion so that extra soil is
6 mounded above the rim of the scoop. Do not press the scoop or force the soil against the side of the container.8 2. Strike the handle near the scoop three times with a plastic rod to settle soil particles. 3. Level the scoop with the plastic rod. Strike o all excess soil above the rim of the scoop in a single stroke so that the soil is not compacted into the scoop.Soil pH (1:2 v/v)is procedure uses a 20-cm3 soil scoop and 40 mL of pure water to obtain a 1:2 soil-to-water ratio. Sample pH may be aected by contaminated water, by microbial activity or by changes in solution chemistry if samples are allowed to sit longer than recommended prior to ananlyisis. Other common errors associated with this method include improper scooping technique and improper electrode use. e pH meter should be calibrated on a daily basis using commercially available buer solutions. Fresh aliquots of buer solution must be used each day. Standard Solutions Obtain commercially available standard buer solutions of pH 4.00, 7.00, and 10.00. Procedure 1. Standardize pH meter according to manufacturers directions. 2. Scoop 20-cm3 of soil and pour into a 90-mL (3-oz) plastic cup. 3. Add 40 mL of pure water to each cup using an automatic pipette. Stir with a glass rod and let the sample stand for 30 min, but not more than 2 hours. Stir sample again just prior to analysis. 4. Continue stirring sample and measure soil pH. 5. Record pH to the nearest 0.1 pH unit (XX.X).Adams-Evans Buer pH1is procedure uses a 15-cm3 soil scoop and 30 mL of Adams-Evans Buer solution for a soil to solution ratio of 1:2. Errors associated with this method include improper standardization of the Adams-Evans buer solution, improper use of the electrode, and delays in analysis beyond the recommended equilibration period. Reagents Reagents used in this procedure are listed in Table 3. Solutions e Adams-Evans Buer solution is prepared as follows: 1. Weigh 180 g of the p-Nitrophenol into a 6-L Erlenmeyer ask containing about 4 L of pure water. Add 135 g of the Boric Acid and dissolve. Use low heat to dissolve, if necessary. 2. Dissolve 95 g of the Potassium Hydroxide in approximately 200 mL of pure water contained in a 500-mL beaker. 3. Using a 20-L carboy calibrated at 18-L volume, add 6 L of pure water. Weigh 666 g of the Potassium Chloride and transfer to the carboy. 4. Combine all solutions by quantitatively transferring the p-Nitrophenol/Boric Acid solution, followed by the Potassium Hydroxide solution, to the carboy containing the Potassium Chloride solution. Bring to 18-L nal volume with pure water. Adjust the solution pH to 8.00 0.02 with small amounts of Potassium Hydroxide (for raising pH) or Hydrochloric Acid (for lowering pH), as needed. Let stand overnight and check pH.Table 2. Applications for scoops used at the Extension Soil Testing Laboratory. Scoop Volume (cm3) Approx. soil weight (g) Application 4 5 Mehlich-1 extraction 15 20 Adams-Evans Buer pH 20 25 Soil pH and electrical conductivity Note: Soil for the AB-DTPA extraction procedure is weighed only.Table 3. List of reagents used in Adams-Evans Buer pH procedure. Name Formula F.W .* p-Nitrophenol NO2C6H4OH 139.11 Boric Acid H3BO361.8 Potassium Hydroxide KOH 56.1 Potassium Chloride KCl 74.6 Formula weight in grams.
7 Alternately, a commercially prepared Adams-Evans buer solution can be purchased and prepared as per the manufactures instructions. Procedure 1. Standardize the pH meter according to the manufacturers directions. 2. Measure the pH of the Adams-Evans Buer Solution to insure that the solution reads 8.00 0.02. 3. Scoop a 15-cm3 volume of soil into a 50-mL beaker. 4. Add 30 mL of the buer solution using an automatic pipette. 5. Stir for 4 min on a mechanical stirrer. Timing of this test is critical. e reaction starts when the buer solution is added to the sample. 6. Immediately aer stirring, measure the solution pH. Excessive delays will result in low bias in the buer-pH readings. 7. Record pH to the nearest 0.01 pH unit (XX.XX).Mehlich-1 Extractable P, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Mn, and Zn21is procedure uses a 4-cm3 scoop (approximately 5 g of mineral soil) and 20 mL of the Mehlich-1 extraction solution to provide a soil to solution ratio of 1:4. Once the extraction is complete, the sample is ltered through Whatman 42 lter paper or its equivalent. e ltered solution should be analyzed as soon as possible following the extraction procedure. If refrigeration is not available, the sample must be analyzed the same day as it is extracted. With refrigeration, samples should be analyzed within ve days. Common errors associated with this method include mistakes in sample shake time, delayed ltration, and reagent, lter paper or cup contamination. Reagents A list of reagents is found in Table 4. Solutions Mehlich-1 Extracting Solution (0.0125M H2SO4 and 0.05M HCl) Pour approximately 16 L of pure water into a 20-L plastic carboy. Slowly add 13.9 mL of concentrated Sulfuric acid and 83 mL of concentrated Hydrochloric Acid. Dilute to 20-L nal volume with pure water and mix. Procedure 1. Scoop 4 cm3 of mineral soil and transfer into a 50-mL extracting bottle. 2. Dispense 20 mL of Mehlich-1 extracting solution into each extracting bottle using an automatic pipette. 3. Shake each sample for 5 min on a reciprocating shaker and then lter through lter paper (11 cm Rogers Custom Lab 620, Whatman No. 42 or equivalent) into a plastic cup. 4. Transfer the ltrate to an appropriate vial for analysis. If samples are not to be analyzed immediately, they should be capped or otherwise covered. Sample solutions are stable for 5 days, if refrigerated. 5. e ltrate may be analyzed for nutrients using either ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometer, EPA Method 200.7) or AAS (Atomic Absorption/ame emission Spectrophotometer, EPA Method 200.0) in combination with colorimetric analysis for phosphorus determination (EPA Method 365.2). 6. Instrument readings are recorded in mg L-1 solution concentration. Final results are reported in mg kg-1 -dry weight (ppm) calculated as follows: Soil Organic MatterA. WALKLEYBLACK METHOD19e Walkley Black (WB) method used for determining Soil Organic Matter (SOM) involves a known volume of acidic dichromate solution reacting with an aliquot of soil in order to oxidize the SOM. e oxidation step is then followed by titration of the excess dichromate solution with ferrous sulfate. e SOM is calculated using the dierence between the total volume of dichromate added and the volume titrated aer reaction. Problems associated with this procedure include excessive organic matter in the soil (the limit for this procedure is approximately 6%) and dicult end point determination (dark-colored soil Figure 1. Table 4. List of reagents used in Mehlich-1 Extractable P, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Mn, and Zn procedure. Name Formula Conc. Sulfuric Acid H2SO418M Hydrochloric Acid HCl 12.1M
8 solution). e use of a lighted stir plate can be of assistance in the end-point determination. e WB procedure also results in production of chromate, which is categorized as a hazardous chemical. Studies are currently ongoing to develop an alternative method to WB to avoid production any hazardous waste. Reagents Reagents used in this procedure are listed in Table 5. Solutions 0.16M Potassium dichromate Dissolve 98.08 g of oven-dry/desiccated Potassium dichromate in approximately 1500 mL of pure water and dilute to 2 L. Aer preparation of this solution, transfer to a clean glass bottle for use with a repipetter. Do not mix old Potassium dichromate solution with the new solution. 1.0M Ferrous Sulfate Dissolve 556.04 g of Ferrous Sulfate in approximately 1500 mL of pure water. Carefully add 30 mL of concentrated Sulfuric Acid, mix, cool, and dilute to 2 L. Aer preparation, this solution may be transferred to a clean 8-L plastic carboy. Do not mix old Ferrous Sulfate solution with the new solution. e tubing, stopcock, and attachments to the burette should be rinsed three times with new Ferrous Sulfate solution before titrating any blanks or samples. Prepare a new solution every 30 days. Procedure 1. Weigh 1.0 g of mineral soil into a 250-mL wide mouth graduated Erlenmeyer ask. 2. Titrate two blank samples (no soil) before proceeding with any unknown samples in order to standardize the Ferrous Sulfate solution. If the dierence between the two blanks is not within 0.2 mL of Ferrous Sulfate solution, clean the burette and associated tubing. Reanalyze two more blanks to determine if the problem has been eliminated. 3. Pipet 10.0 mL of the Potassium dichromate solution into each ask containing unknown soil and mix by carefully rotating the ask to wet all of the soil. 4. Under a fume hood, carefully add 20 mL of concentrated Sulfuric Acid to each ask and mix gently. 5. Allow asks to stand for 5 min under the fume hood. 6. Add pure water to each ask such that the nal volume is approximately 125-mL. Mix by swirling gently. 7. Add 5 or 6 drops of Phenanthroline complex and immediately titrate with the Ferrous Sulfate solution. As the titration proceeds, the solution will take on a green color that will change abruptly to reddish-brown when the endpoint of the titration is reached. 8. Record each volumetric reading to the nearest X.X mL. 9. e % OM is calculated as follows: (1 S / B) x 10 x 0.68 = organic matter (%) of sample where: S = Volume of Ferrous Sulfate solution required to titrate the sample, in mL. B = Average Volume of Ferrous Sulfate solution required to titrate the two blanks, in mL. 10 = conversion factor for units. 0.68 = a factor derived from the conversion of % organic carbon to % organic matter (1.724), the fraction of Organic Carbon oxidized to CO2 (0.76) and the milliequivalent weight of carbon (0.003 g).B L OSSONIGNITION METHOD11e Loss-on-Ignition (LOI) organic matter determination is used for analyzing soil samples in which the organic matter content is greater than 6%. is procedure involves exposing the soil sample to high temperatures in an oxygen atmosphere in order to convert any organic carbon compounds to carbon dioxide, which is then lost to the atmosphere. e dierence between the soil dry weight and the weight of the sample aer ignition is then used to calculate the amount of organic matter in the sample. is Table 5. List of reagents used in the Walkley-Black Method. Name Formula F.W ./Conc.* Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7294.19 Ferrous Sulfate FeSO4 7H2O 278.02 Sulfuric Acid H2SO418M 1, 10-Phenanthroline Ferrous Sulfate complex Formula weights in grams or concentration in Molarity.
9 procedure has been reported to be consistent with even lower SOM levels (<6%) such as sandy soils in Florida. Studies are on-going to determine the suitability and for possible replacement method for WB procedure. Procedure 1. Label and accurately weigh (to 4 decimal places) an oven dried 50 mL Pyrex beaker. 2. Add approximately 5-6 g of soil to the beaker. 3. Place sample in the oven at a constant temperature of 105C and allow sample to dry for a minimum of 2 hrs. 4. Remove sample from the oven at the end of two hours and place immediately into a dessicator to cool. Allow sample to cool to room temperature (approximately 30 minutes) and then accurately weigh sample and beaker 5. Aer weighing, place sample into a mue furnace and heat at 350C for a minimum of 2 hours. Do not exceed this temperature as CaCO3 may be converted to CO2 and cause erroneous results. 6. At the end of the heating period, allow samples to cool slightly and then transfer immediately to a dessicator. Allow samples to cool to room temperature in the dessicator. 7. Aer samples reach room temperature, remove from the dessicator and accurately weigh sample and beaker. 8. e % OM is calculated as follows:Electrical Conductivity (1:2 Soil:W ater)e ESTL oers a test for soil Electrical Conductivity (EC) by which a value for the Soluble Salts in the soil content can be estimated. In this test, 20 cm3 of a mineral soil are mixed with 40 mL of pure water resulting in a soil to water ratio of 1:2. e resultant suspension is allowed to equilibrate for 4 hours in order to allow slowly-soluble constituents to approach solution equilibrium. e suspension is then ltered and the electrical conductivity is immediately determined. Sources of error include improper instrument calibration and incorrect equilibration times. Standards A solution of 0.005M KCl has an electrical conductivity of 720 deciSiemens per meter (dS/m) at 25C. Alternately, a commercially available NIST traceable reference solution of the appropriate concentration and conductivity may be used. Procedure 1. Weigh 20 g of soil and transfer to a plastic 90-mL (3-oz.) cup. 2. Add 40 mL of pure water to each cup. Stir and allow the suspension to stand for 4 hours. 3. At the end of 4 hours, stir the suspension to create slurry. Immediately lter through an 11 cm lter paper (Rogers Custom Lab 620, Whatman No. 42 or equivalent). Collect the ltrate in a 90-mL (3-oz.) plastic cup. 4. Using the reference standard, calibrate the Electrical Conductivity Meter according to manufacturers directions. Measure the EC of the solution and report results to one decimal place in dS/m. While the ESTL reports all electrical conductivity measurements in dS/m, many clients are accustomed to values given in ppm soluble salts. e calculation to convert EC to soluble salts is given below along with the formula for conversion of EC to salt index. ere are many inaccurate assumptions included in these conversions and clients are encouraged to adapt to the more precise and widelyaccepted terminology of EC in dS/m. EC in dS/cm x 700 = soluble salts in ppm Salt index = EC (as direct 2:1 reading) x 8Analytical Procedures for Container MediaW ater-Extractable P, K, Ca, Mg, NO-N, pH, and Electrical Conductivitye entire sample (or that portion of the sample that nearly lls a 600-mL plastic beaker) is used for this diagnostic test.15 De-ionized distilled water is added to the sample to the point of saturation. e sample is then ltered under Figure 2.
10 vacuum and the ltrate is analyzed. Underor overestimating the point of sample saturation will introduce some error. If possible, the analysis of the ltrate should be completed on the same day that the extract is prepared. If unable to complete the analysis on the same day, the sample may be refrigerated but analysis must be completed within 48 hours or the sample must be re-extracted. Extraction Procedure 1. Place the entire sample (or a representative sample aliquot) into a 600-mL plastic beaker and conservatively add pure water to the point of complete saturation. At this point, the surface of the mix should glisten, but no water should puddle on the surface. Mix well with a spatula, and let stand for 2 hours. 2. Place a 9-cm, Whatman No.1 lter paper into a large Buchner funnel. Wet the lter paper with approximately 2 mL of pure water and transfer the saturated media onto the lter. 3. Place the funnel under a vacuum and leave until sucient solution is extracted from media to complete the necessary tests. Transfer the ltrate to an appropriate container for analysis. pH Standardize the pH meter according to manufacturers directions and then determine the pH of an aliquot of the ltrate. Results are reported to one decimal place. EC Standardize the EC meter according to manufacturers directions and then determine the electrical conductivity of an aliquot of the ltrate. Report results to one decimal place in dS/m. NO3-N e ESTL uses semi-automated colorimetric analysis (EPA Method 353.2) to determine NO3-N in the media extract. e instrument (Technicon II Auto-Analyzer or equivalent) is set up and calibrated as per manufacturers directions. Instrument results are reported to one decimal place as mg L-1 NO3-N. Water-Extractable P, K, Ca, Mg 1. e ltrate may be analyzed for all other nutrients using either ICP or AAS in combination with colorimetric analysis for phosphorus determination. 2. Results for P, K, Ca, and Mg are reported in mg L-1 (ppm). Analytical Procedures for Calcareous SoilsAmmonium Bicarbonate-DTPA (AB -DTPA) Extractable Pe AB-DTPA extractant works well on soils with high and neutral pH.6, 20 It is being calibrated for the marl and Rockdale soils of southern Florida. Previous studies in Florida have shown that this procedure can be interpreted only for P test results. erefore, results for other nutrients are included in the report. It is not suitable for determination of Ca or Mg. is extraction procedure is used only on soils that have a pH of 7.4 and above. Solutions AB-DTPA Extracting Solution Prepare this solution under a fume hood to avoid possible contact with vapors. Add approximately 700 mL of pure water into a 1-L volumetric ask. Add 0.5 mL (10 drops) of concentrated Ammonium Hydroxide. Dissolve 1.97 g of DTPA in this solution. is dissolution may take several hours. Aer the DTPA has been dissolved, add 79.06 g of Ammonium Bicarbonate, mix, and dilute to 1 L. Adjust to pH 7.6 using concentrated Hydrochloric Acid (for lowering pH) or Ammonium Hydroxide (for raising pH). Prepare this solution daily, as it is pH unstable. Reagents Reagents used in this procedure are listed in Table 6.Table 6. List of Reagents used in Ammonium BircarbonateDTPA (AB-DTPA) Extractable P. Name Formula F.W ./Conc.* Ammonium Hydroxide, concentrated NH4OH 14.8M DPTA (Baker Cat. E 376-.07) C14H23N3O10393.35 Ammonium Bicarbonate NH4HCO379.06 Hydrochloric Acid, concentrated HCl 12.1M Nitric Acid, concentrated HNO315.8M Formula weights in grams or concentration in Molarity.
11 Analytical Procedures for W ater22e following procedure lists the various subsections that deal with water analyses. To preclude errors introduced by microbial activity, water samples should be analyzed as soon as possible aer sampling. Sample containers should be lled completely with no headspace above the sample surface and should only be opened immediately prior to analysis, since exposure to air can cause changes in the chemical equilibrium of the sample. pH Standardize the pH meter according to manufacturers directions and then determine the pH of an aliquot of the sample. Results are reported to one decimal place. EC Standardize the EC meter according to manufacturers directions and then determine the electrical conductivity of an aliquot of the sample. Report results to one decimal place in dS m-1. Metals Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and Na may be analyzed by either ICP (EPA Method 200.7) or AAS (EPA Method 200.0). Cl-e ESTL uses semi-automated colorimetric analysis (EPA Method 325.2) to determine chloride in waters. e instrument (Alpkem Auto-Analyzer) is set up and calibrated as per manufacturers directions. Instrument results are reported to one decimal place as mg L-1 of Clconcentration. Carbonate Equivalent A 50-mL aliquot of water sample is titrated against a standardized hydrochloric acid solution to a pH of 4.0. e volume of acid required is then used to calculate the car bonate and bicarbonate equivalence of the sample. While very low levels of bicarbonates may be present in solution below pH 7.0, these levels are assumed to pose no problems agriculturally. e volume of acid required to titrate the sample to the desired pH is assumed to be entirely due to the neutralization of carbonates and bicarbonates. e most common error associated with this method is degradation of the THAM buer solution. e THAM titrant should be replaced at least once every week. Only newly-opened water samples should be analyzed since changes in carbonate and bicarbonate levels can occur upon exposure to the air. Reagents Reagents used in this procedure are listed in Table 7.Analytical Procedures for PlantsDigestion Procedure for the Determination of Ca, Mg, P, K, Na, Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn, and B in Plant Tissueis digestion procedure has been developed with a suciently large dilution factor to allow accurate determination of macronutrients and secondary nutrients that are oen in relatively high concentrations within the plant. is procedure may not be suitable for certain micronutrient or heavy metal analyses because of the selected dilution factor. If the expected micronutrient concentration in the plant is less than 5 mg kg-1, the element may be diluted below the detection limit of the method. Selection of mue furnace temperature and its control directly aect the analytical results of this process.7 e use of borosilicate glassware can be a source of B and Si contamination. Reagents Reagents used in this procedure are listed in Table 8. Solutions 6.0M Hydrochloric Acid Add approximately 4 L of pure water into a plastic carboy calibrated at 8-L. Under a fume hood, slowly bring to 8-L volume with concentrated Hydrochloric Acid, and mix using a magnetic stir bar with stirrer. Alternately, any repipette container to which equal volumes of pure water Table 7. Reagents used in water analysis procedure. Name Formula F.W/Conc.* THAM C4H11NO3121.14 Hydrochloric Acid HCl 12.1 M Formula weight in grams or concentration in Molarity.Table 8. Reagents used in digestion procedure. Name Formula Conc.* Hydrochloric Acid HCl 12.1 Concentration in Molarity.
12 and concentrated Hydrochloric Acid have been added is sucient. Procedure 1) Weigh 1.00 g of oven-dry, ground plant tissue into a 50-mL beaker and place in a mue furnance. If boron is requested, use high-form, glazed, porcelain crucibles. a) Duplicate every 20th sample to measure the precision of the test. b) Digest at least one external or internal plant tissue standard sample with each digestion. 2) Place samples in mue furnace. Ensure temperature controls are set to 500C and turn the furnace on. 3) Once the internal temperature of the oven reaches 500C, allow samples to ash for a minimum of 5 hours (ashing time should never exceed 16 hours). Shut oven o and allow oven to cool. 4) Once the furnace temperature is below 200C, carefully open the furnace door to expedite the cooling process. CAUTION: e internal temperature of the mue furnace should be below 200C before opening the furnace door so that the samples are not ignited or disturbed by the rapid inux of air. 5) Once samples reach room temperature, remove them from the oven and moisten the ash by adding approximately 5 drops of pure water using an eyedropper followed by the addition of 5 mL of 6 M Hydrochloric Acid. Let this suspension stand for at least 30 minutes before proceeding. 6) With the aid of a funnel, quantitatively transfer the solution containing the ash to a 50-mL volumetric ask. Rinse beaker with pure water and transfer the rinsate to the ask also. Repeat the rinse steps a second time and then bring to volume with pure water. Mix thoroughly. 7) Transfer an aliquot of the sample to an appropriate container for analysis. If ltration is required, use a Rogers Custom Lab 620 (Whatman No. 42 equivalent) lter paper. 8) e sample solution may be analyzed using either ICP or AAS in combination with colorimetric analysis for P determination. 9) Sample results are reported in mg kg-1 -plant dry weight for B, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn and in %-plant dry weight for P, K, Ca and Mg.Total Kjeldahl N itrogen (TKN) in Plant Tissuee TKN method is used to analyze for nitrogen in organic materials. Most organically-bound nitrogen (such as that found amines, proteins, etc.) as well as any nitrogen in the form of ammonium ion can be determined using this method. In general, nitrates, nitrites, and some cyclic nitrogenous compounds resistant to digestion are not determined using this method.9 e Kjeldahl digestion process produces a highly acidic solution and is therefore not recommended for nitrate analysis, as it will cause damage to the instrument. Reagents Reagents used in this procedure are listed in Table 9. Digestion Procedure for Plant Samples 1) Weigh 0.200 +/0.005 g of plant tissue onto a nitrogenfree weighing paper. Carefully fold the paper containing the sample and place into a TKN digestion tube (25 mm x 200 mm; Fisher cat. No. 14-960 F). a) Duplicate every 20th sample to measure the precision of the test. b) Digest at least one external or internal plant tissue standard sample with each digestion. 2) Scoop approximately 2.0 g of Kjeldahl digestion mixture (this mixture may be obtained from Pope Inc., Dallas, TX 75221) and transfer to the bottom of the digestion tube with the aid of a long stem funnel. 3) Carefully add 5 mL of concentrated Sulfuric Acid to each tube. 4) Start the digestion by placing samples in a 250C preheated aluminum block digester for 1 hour.Table 9. Reagents used in TKN procedure. Name Formula F.W ./ Conc.* Kjeldahl mixture No. 2 (10 g K2SO4 + 0.30 g CuSO4) Sulfuric Acid H2SO418M Formula weight in grams or concentration in Molarity or percent.
13 5) Aer 1 hour at 250C, place glass funnels on all tubes and increase the digestion temperature to 365C. Digest samples for an additional 2.5 to 3.0 hours. 6) Aer digestion is complete, allow block to cool. When tubes are cool enough to handle, remove from the digestion block and place into a wire rack to cool to room temperature. 7) Using a wash bottle, add 5 to 10 mL of pure water washing the sides of each tube. Mix using a Vortex mixer. 8) With the aid of a funnel, transfer the contents of the tube into a 100-mL volumetric ask. Rinse the digestion tube several times with water and add the rinsates to the volumetric ask. Dilute to volume and mix well. 9) Allow ask to cool, dilute to volume, cover with paralm, and mix thoroughly. 10) Transfer an aliquot of the sample to an appropriate container for analysis. If ltration is required to remove particulates, use a Rogers Custom Lab 720 (Whatman No. 2 equivalent) lter paper. 11) e ESTL uses semi-automated colorimetric analysis (EPA Method 351.2) to determine nitrogen in TKN digestates. e instrument (Alpkem autoanalyzer) is set up and calibrated as per manufacturers directions. Instrument calibration standards and quality control samples should be digested in the same manner as the samples. Instrument results are reported to one decimal in mg L-1. Final results are reported as %N-plant dry weight and are converted from mg L-1 using the following equation: Observed value in mg L-1 x (100 mL/0.2 g)/10,000 = % TKNQuality ControlOperations within an analytical laboratory must address quality control in order to maintain both accuracy and precision. is dedication to quality control must begin with detailed procedures and address all steps in which inaccuracies can be introduced. Eorts to control inaccuracies are directed at three levels: quantitative chemical techniques, instrument monitoring, and managerial process inspection. e ESTLs Quality Control Plan addresses each of these areas assuring that the laboratory produces high quality and reliable data. Details concerning the ESTLs Quality control procedures can be obtained by contacting the laboratory director or the manager.Laboratory Safetye following is a general list of safety requirements that should be followed by any person handling laboratory chemicals or working in a chemical laboratory: 1. Always wear an acid/base resistant laboratory coat. 2. Always wear goggles/eyeglasses as minimum eye protection. 3. Always wear appropriate gloves when handling chemicals. 4. Never work alone in a chemical laboratory. 5. Never eat or drink in the laboratory area. 6. Do not store food in chemical refrigerators. 7. If working with an unfamiliar chemical, always read the label and check the MSDS before proceeding. 8. Always transport concentrated acids/bases or other dangerous chemicals in a rubberized safety bucket. 9. Know where the nearest re extinguisher and eye wash station are located. 10. Know the location of the nearest phone and how to reach 911 or the local emergency number. 11. Do not pipet chemicals by mouth. 12. Wear appropriate laboratory clothing including closedtoe shoes and long pants. Tie back long hair. References1. Adams, F., and C.E. Evans. 1962. A rapid method for measuring lime requirement of red-yellow podzolic soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 26:355-357. 2. Allison, L.E. 1965. Organic carbon. In C.A. Black, D.D. Evans, L.E. Ensminger, J.L. White, and F.E. Clark (ed). Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2. pp. 1367-1378. 3. Haman, D.Z., and D.B. Bottcher. 1986. Home water quality and safety. Circ 703, UF/IFAS Coop. Extn. Ser., pp. 12. 4. Haman, D.Z., G.A. Clark, and A.G. Smajstrla. 1989. Irrigation of lawns and gardens. Circ. 825, UF/UFAS Coop. Extn. Ser., pp. 28.
14 5. Hochmuth, G.J. and E.A. Hanlon. 1998. Calculating fertilizer rates for vegetable crops grown in raised-bed cultural systems in Florida. Fact Sheet HS743, UF/ IFAS, Coop. Extn. Ser., pp. 4. 6. Hanlon, E.A., and G.V. Johnson. 1984. Bray/Kurtz, Mehlich III, AB/D and ammonium acetate extractions of P, K and Mg in four Oklahoma Soils. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 15(3):277-294. 7. Isaac, R.A., and J.B. Jones, Jr. 1972. Eects of various dry ashing temperatures on the determination of 13 nutrient elements in ve plant tissues. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 3:261-269. 8. Jones, Jr., J.B. (ed.). 1992. Handbook on reference methods for soil testing. Council on Soil Testing and Plant Analysis, Athens, GA. 9. Jones, J.B., Jr., and V.W. Case. 1991. Sampling, handling, and analyzing plant tissue samples. pp. 389-415. In R.L. Westerman (ed.) Soil testing and plant analysis. 3rd edition. Book Series No. 3. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer., Madison, WI. 10. Kidder, G., and E.A. Hanlon. 1998. Neutralizing excess bicarbonates from irrigation water. Soil & Water Science Fact Sheet 142, Coop. Ext. Serv., UF/IFAS, pp.6. 11. Magdo, F.R., M.A. Tabatabai, and E.D. Hanlon. 1996. Soil Organic Matter: Analysis and Interpretation. Soil Sci. Spec. Pub. No. 46:21-31. 12. Mylavarapu, R., T. Yeager and J.M. Bartos. 2001. UF/IFAS Nutrient Management Series: Container Media Nutrient Test Interpretations. SL 180, Soil & Water Science, Coop. Extension Service, pp3. 13. Mylavarapu, Rao S., J.M. Bartos. 1999. Landscape and Vegetable Garden Test Information Sheet. SL-136, Soil & Water Science, Cooperative Extension Service, IFAS. pp3. 14. Mylavarapu, Rao S., J.M. Bartos. 1999. Producer Soil Test Information Sheet. SL-135, Soil & Water Science, Cooperative Extension Service, IFAS. pp3. 15. Mylavarapu, Rao S., J.M. Bartos. 1999. Container Media Test Information Sheet. SL-134, Soil & Water Science, Cooperative Extension Service, IFAS. pp3. 16. Mylavarapu, Rao S., J.M. Bartos. 1999. Water Test Information Sheet. SL-133, Soil & Water Science, Cooperative Extension Service, IFAS. pp3. 17. Mylavarapu, Rao S., J.M. Bartos. 1999. Pine Nursery Soil Test Information Sheet. SL-132, Soil & Water Science, Cooperative Extension Service, IFAS. p2. 18. Mylavarapu, Rao S., J.M. Bartos. 1999. Plant Tissue Test Information Sheet. SL-131, Soil & Water Science, Cooperative Extension Service, IFAS. p2. 19. Nelson, D.W., and L.E. Sommers. 1982. Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. pp. 539579. In A.L. Page, R.H. Miller, and D.R. Keeney (ed.). Methods of soil analysis: Part 2. 2nd. Edition. Book Series No. 9. Amer. Soc. Agron. Madison, WI. 20. Soltanpour, P.N. 1991. Determination of nutrient availability and elemental toxicity by AB-DTPA soil and ICPS. In B.A. Stewart (ed.) Advances in Soil Science. 16:165-190. 21. Southern Region Information and Exchange Group on Soil Testing and Plant Analyses (SRIEG 18). 1983. Reference soil test methods for the Southern region of the United States. Southern Cooperative Series Bull. 289. Univ. of Georgia, Athens, GA. 22. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1984. Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes, March, EPA600/4-79-020, Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Oce of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH 45286.Acknowledgementse authors would like to express their appreciation to the following people for their technical assistance in the preparation of this manual: J. DeVore, L. Moon, P. Reynolds, S. Robinson, C. Simmons, P.Straub, A. Tyer, and B. Welch.


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HOUSTON, Dec. 1 (UPI) -- Patrick Patterson, Chandler Parsons and Jeremy Lin led a balanced attack Saturday that lifted the Houston Rockets to a 124-116 decision over Utah.
Patterson scored 20 points, while Parsons and Lin added 19 apiece as the Rockets recorded a victory for the fourth time in five contests.
Omer Asik provided a double-double of 14 points and 12 rebounds, and Carlos Delfino and Greg Smith each came off the bench to record 13 points for Houston.
The Jazz couldn't avoid a second consecutive loss despite Gordon Hayward's team-high 21 points, along with 20 points apiece from Randy Foye and Al Jefferson.

subset: commoncrawl


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The utility is meeting with Texas officials to satisfy concerns.
Is a policy analyst for TCAP, a coalition of cities and other political subdivisions that purchase electricity in the deregulated market for their own governmental use. Because high energy costs can impact municipal budgets and the ability to fund essential services, TCAP, as part of its mission, actively promotes affordable energy policies. High energy prices also place a burden on local businesses and home consumers.


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BAYFIELD – Police deputies will be placed at Bayfield schools this week after officials learned of "generic gun comments" made in connection with the Mayan calendar.
The Bayfield Marshal's Office learned of the threats Wednesday, and parents were notified of the investigation on Friday – partly in response to a school shooting in Newtown, Conn., which left 27 people dead, including 20 children.
"We were going to communicate anyway," said Superintendent Troy Zabel. "We were wanting to get more investigation possibly done, but that elevated our feeling of getting word out to parents because of stuff online."
School officials have been vague about the nature of the threats. They called the threats "unsubstantiated."
Bayfield Marshal Joe McIntyre said comments were made about the Mayan calender in addition to "a threat of a gun being brought to school."
Friday marks the end of the Mayan calendar, and some conspiracy theorists have predicted cataclysmic events or even the end of the world.
Placing deputies at the schools helps raise awareness and reassures parents that safety is being provided.
"It's just a matter of caution," said Wayne Walters," who is dealing with public information matters on the incident. "There is no credible evidence that there has been any threat to the elementary, junior high or senior high schools."
Students said they heard a school shooting was being planned.
As of 5:30 p.m. Monday, no arrests or school suspensions had occurred as a result of the threats, McIntyre said.
Jay Larson, who has four children in the Bayfield School District, said his children were visibly upset by the rumors Thursday.
"The kids were all concerned about it, so I had to sit them down and talk to them about being aware of their surroundings," he said Monday outside the high school.
Several parents said they will keep their children home on Friday.
Stacey Belmear, parent of a daughter in the eighth grade, said the school district has been "incredibly vague" about the nature of the threats.
"Based on that, I'm like, 'Eh, (my daughter) doesn't need to be here.' And I imagine a lot of parents will do that. It's the last day of school (before winter break). It's just not worth it."
Zabel said school and classes will be conducted as usual. But he said the school district will work with parents, and if they feel it is prudent to keep their children home Friday, that is their decision.
"I'm not waiving the day, but we will work with parents," he said. "I think we're a flexible school district. We would encourage that they have kids there. We feel like we're working with law enforcement and have safety plans in place and feel like we've investigated this."
More students were absent Monday than typical, he said.
In addition to placing deputies at the schools, the doors were locked to outsiders Monday at Bayfield Middle School, and students were moved between classes via different routes.
Bayfield High School planned to have finals on Friday, but they were moved to Wednesday and Thursday in response to the threats, said Principal Scott Story.
Several parents expressed frustration at the school district's lack of communication.
Starla Gettman said she checked the school district's website all day Monday, but no information was posted about the threats. Instead, she received bits of information on Facebook.
"I wish there was a little more communication," she said. "It would be nice to have some kind of a meeting for any of us who want to help anyway we can. I definitely want more information."
The Bayfield Marshal's Office and the school district held a joint news conference Monday night. Zabel said he planned to update the district's website Monday night, but no update had occurred as of 8 p.m.
Gettman questioned the timing of when the school district learned of the threats and when it notified teachers and parents. She heard the school district learned of the threats on Dec. 10 but didn't inform teachers until mid-week and didn't notify parents until Friday.
The letter sent to parents was vague.
"Over the last couple of days there have been reports of possible incidents at Bayfield schools that are planned for 12/21/2012, or as so dubbed 'End of the World Day,'" the letter read.
It went on to say: "We are currently working with law enforcement to follow any credible leads that we uncover in the investigation and add extra security measures as a precaution," the letter says. "We will have more information available as our investigation continues. For now, we want everyone to understand we are working diligently to make certain all students and staff at Bayfield schools are safe."
The threats in the school district adds stress to a community already feeling uneasy about the disappearance of 13-year-old Dylan Redwine, who has been missing since mid-November. Authorities are unsure if the boy was abducted or something else happened, but they suspect foul play.
Jarrett Cook, who has two children in the school district, said he was glad to see deputies at the schools Monday.
"The town's a little stressed," he said. "I think the whole area is on heightened alert."


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Piippu Milk Jug / 39 eur
Designed by Wesley Walters & Salla Luhtasela
Bring a little piece of Scandinavian minimalism into your home with this petite milk jug. The half-circled spout resembles the design from the pot in the same series – inspired by industrial cylinders, pipes and joints. The porcelain is matte on the outside and glazed on the inside. Dishwasher-safe.
- Details
- Porcelain
LxWxH: 8x7x8 cm
175 ml
Item no. 1506412
- Packaging
- WxDxH: 10x9x10 cm
Weight: 0,22 kg
- Material and care
Proper usage and maintenance
Proper usage and maintenance is vital for getting the most out of the valuable resources we have. Our designs are made to last for generations, but just like everything else, they need a little care to get there.
Porcelain is an elegant yet hard material which offers great resistance toward scratches and heat. This ensures a high food safety and beautiful servings. On top of that, porcelain is easy to clean and oven-proof.
Cleaning and maintenance
Use hot water and a mild dish soap. The porcelain is also dishwasher-safe.
Cool down the porcelain slowly after having used it in the oven. Porcelain might crack if you put it directly under cold water or in the refrigerator when still heated from the oven. The porcelain should not go into the freezer.
About the designer / Wesley Walters & Salla Luhtasela
Wesley Walters & Salla Luhtasela also known as Studio Kaksikko are indeed a hybrid design constellation, where Nordic and American and Asian inspiration and traditions come together to give rise to new products and furniture. The duo met at the Aalto University in Helsinki. Before that, Salla studied to be a confectioner, and Wesley studied East Asian languages and worked as a Japanese interpreter on film sets. It was here, surrounded by architecture and set designs, that Wesley's fascination with design was lit.
After teaming up at the university in Helsinki they established a joint studio in Finland, creating objects and furniture in a minimalist expression that is both new and old. New because of their mixed international background and eye for modern details, and old because of their fascination with and interest in traditions, techniques and old crafts, where they derive hands-on experience from 1:1 mock-ups that gives them a broad, eye-opening and concrete grasp of tactility, materials and functionality.


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Atlanta 6 Drawer CD / DVD Cabinet
The Atlanta Oak Media Cabinet is made from 100% Solid North American Oak throughout, and has been finished with a light lacquer seal which helps protect the Oak Wood. This range has a hand finished and rustic look which makes it ideal for any home, traditional or modern. There are over 80 other items in our Atlanta Furniture Range, making it easy to find another piece of Oak Furniture to match perfectly.
We have something in this range for every room. Our Atlanta Oak Furniture collection includes: TV Units, Bookcases, Sideboards, Coffee Tables and Dining Tables.
This item comes ready assembled and is free of MDF and plywood. The driver will unwrap and place in the room of your choice, he will also take the packaging away. Delivery is within 15 working days.
All additional items are delivered free.
Dimensions: W67 x H93.5 x D40cm
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Maybe we're slightly cat obsessed (see: cat-of-the-day desk calender and Instagram feeds), but we aren't the only ones. Cat-inspired pieces have been popping up everywhere these days – even Karl Lagerfeld got a kitten named Choupette.
Here are a few items we found particularly purr-fect.
For their Spring 2012 collection, Paul & Joe Beaute released Meow!, which consists of the Collection Sparkles and Kitten Collection. They describe Meow! as "a 'cat-astic' collection of colours, textures, and tones influenced by the legendary, iconic 'sex-kitten' of French cinema and beloved, whimsical feline prints cherished by Paul & Joe creator and designer Sophie Albou." You can find Paul & Joe Beauty at Jacob & Sebastian on Queen West and various online retailers like ASOS.
Image source.
Each year, Toronto's own Fieldguided puts out a Dreamcats calendar. Inspired by the Dreamcats Tumblr, this beautifully designed screenprint is guaranteed to bring a smile even in the depths of winter. Best news? The calendar is currently on sale in their Etsy shop – $20, marked down from $30. Get 'em while they're hot.
Image source.
Love her or hate her, you can't deny that Lana Del Rey rocks a mean cat eye. The winged eyeliner look is a great statement look for a night out.
Image source.


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The Epistle to the Corinthians presents very different subjects from those
which occupied us in the one addressed to the Romans. We find in it moral
details, and the interior order of an assembly, with regard to which the
Spirit of God here displays His wisdom in a direct way. There is no mention
of elders or of other functionaries of the assembly. Through the labours of
the apostle a numerous assembly had been formed (for God had much people in
that city) in the midst of a very corrupt population, where riches and
luxury were united with a moral disorder which had made the city a proverb.
At the same time, here as elsewhere, false teachers (in general, Jews)
sought to undermine the influence of the apostle. The spirit of philosophy
did not fail also to exercise its baneful influence, although Corinth was
not, like Athens, its principal seat. Morality and the authority of the
apostle were compromised together; and the state of things was most
critical. The Epistle was written from Ephesus, where the tidings of the
sad state of the flock at Corinth had reached the apostle, almost at the
moment when he had determined to visit them on his way into Macedonia
(instead of passing along the coast of Asia Minor as he did), then
returning to pay them a second visit on his way back. These tidings
prevented his doing so, and, instead of visiting them to pour out his heart
among them, he wrote this letter. The second epistle was written in
Macedonia, when Titus had brought him word of the happy effect of the
The subjects of this first epistle are very easily divided into their
natural order. In the first place, before he blames the Christians at
Corinth to whom he writes, the apostle acknowledges all the grace which God
had already bestowed on them, and would still impart. Chapter 1:1-9. From
verse 10 to chapter 4:21 the subject of divisions, schools of doctrine and
human wisdom, is spoken of in contrast with revelation and divine wisdom.
Chapter 5, the corruption of morals, and discipline, whether by power, or
in the responsibility of the assembly. Chapter 6, temporal affairs,
law-suits; and again the subject of fornication, which was of primary
importance for the Christians of this city. Chapter 7, marriage is
considered. Ought people to marry? The obligation of those who had already
married; and the case of a converted husband or of a converted wife, whose
wife or whose husband was not converted. Chapter 8, should they eat things
offered to idols? Chapter 9, his apostleship. Chapter 10, their condition
in general, their danger of being seduced, whether by fornication, or by
idolatry, and idolatrous feasts, with the principles relating thereto,
which introduces the Lord's supper. Chapter 11, questions connected with
their behaviour in religious matters individually or (v. 17) in the
assembly. Afterwards, chapter 12, the exercise of gifts, and their true
value, and the object of their use, magnifying (chap. 13) the comparative
value of charity; to the end of chapter 14, ordering the exercise of gifts
also, with which it is compared. Chapter 15, the resurrection, which some
denied, and specially that of the saints; and chapter 16, the collections
for the poor in Judea, with some salutations, and the principles of
subordination to those whom God has raised up for service, even where there
were no elders. It is of great value to have these directions immediately
from the Lord, independent of a formal organisation, so that individual
conscience and that of the body as a whole should be engaged.
But there are some other considerations as to the character and structure
of the epistle which I must not pass by.
The reader may remark a difference in the address in the Corinthians and
Ephesians. In the Corinthians, "To the church of God," etc., "with all that
in every place call on the name of the Lord Jesus." It is the professing
church, the members being assumed to be faithful, at any rate in character
such till put out, and with that, every one that owned Jesus as Lord,-the
house; hence chapter 10:1-5. In Ephesians it is "Holy and faithful
brethren," and we have the proper privileges of the body. This character of
the epistle, as embracing the professing church, and recognising a local
assembly as representing it in the locality, gives the epistle great
importance. Further, I think it will be found that the outward professing
assembly is dealt with to the middle of chapter 10 (and there the nature of
the Lord's supper introduces the one body of Christ, which is treated of as
to the gifts of the Spirit in chapter 12); comeliness in woman's activities
in the first verses of chapter 11; and afterwards from verse 17 what befits
the coming together in the assembly, and the Lord's supper, with the
government of God. Verses 1-16 do not apply to the assembly. Still, order
in the local assembly is everywhere the subject; only, from chapter 1 to
chapter 10:14, the professing multitude is in view, supposed however
sincere, but possibly not so. From chapter 10:15 to the end of chapter 12
the body is in view.
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Flights to Belgrade from Samara
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Seabold, G.K., Wang, P.Y., Chang, K., Wang, C.Y., Wang, Y.X., Petralia, R.S. and Wenthold, R.J.
Notes: To study the potential interactions among the five SALMs (synaptic adhesion-like molecules) family members, the cDNAs of the five SALMs were subcloned and then transiently transfected in various combinations of two to five SALMs into HEK293 cells. The cells were transfected using calcium phosphate precipitation with an equimolar amount of the pAdVAntage™ Vector to enhance protein production. Interactions of the expressed SALMs were analyzed by immunoprecipitation experiments. (3754)
Expand Full Notes »
pAdVAntage™ Vector
Redmond, W.L., Gough, M.J., Charbonneau, B., Ratliff, T.L. and Weinberg, A.D.
Notes: This study looked at how OX40, a member of the TNFR superfamily, affected the differentiation of CD8 T cells with an OX40 agonist. Recombinant lentiviruses were generated by cotransfection of a vector plasmid, virus-packaging plasmid, envelope plasmid and the helper pAdVAntage™ Vector into HEK 293 cells. The supernatant was collected and used to infect tumor cells which were injected into mice. (3753)
Sullivan, C., Postlethwait, J.H., Lage, C.R., Millard, P.J. and Kim, C.H.
Notes: The authors used reporter assays and coimmunoprecipitation experiments to compare the zebrafish (Danio rerio) Toll-IL-1R-containing adaptor molecule 1 (TICAM1) activation of NF-κB and zebrafish type I IFN to mammalian TICAM1 activation. 293H and ZFL (zebrafish liver) cells were cotransfected with 400 ng of TICAM1 construct (mouse, zebrafish or a deletion construct), 400 ng of a reporter construct (e.g., a zebrafish IFN promoter cloned into the pGL3-Basic Vector) and 10 ng of pRL-CMV Vector, an internal control to normalize data. After 24 hours for 293H cells and 48 hours for ZFL cells, the transfected cells were lysed, and luciferase activity was measured using the Dual-Luciferase® Reporter Assay System. For coimmunoprecipitation experiments, 293H cells were cotransfected with a total of 8µg of plasmids (3µg of zebrafish or mouse TICAM1 construct, 3µg of interacting protein construct, 1µg of the pAdVAntage™ Vector, and 1µg of antiapoptotic protein p35 construct). Forty-eight hours posttransfection, the cells were lysed, the protein bound to affinity resins and analyzed by Western blot. (3755)
Dual-Luciferase® Reporter Assay System
pGL3-Basic Vector
pRL-CMV Vector
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Solforosi, L., Bellon, A., Schaller, M., Cruite, J.T., Abalos, G.C. and Williamson, R.A.
Notes: To examine the interaction between endogenous cellular prion protein (PrPC) and misfolded, disease-associated (PrPSc), hybrid antibodies were created using domains from PrPC grafted onto the b12 protein. These antibodies were expressed using 30µg of plasmid to transiently transfect a suspension of 293 human embryonic kidney cells in a serum-free medium. To enhance antibody expression, 5µg of the pAdVAntage™ Vector was co-transfected. The cells were harvested 48–72 hours post-transfection, the supernatant centrifuged and the antibody purified over a protein A-Sepharose column. (3573)
Cavrois, M., Neidleman, J., Kreisberg, J.F., Fenard, D., Callebaut, C., and Greene, W.C.
Notes: To determine if fusion of the HIV virion to maturing dendritic cells (DCs) was the limiting step in HIV replication in DCs, β-lactamase-Vpr (BlaM-Vpr) chimeric virions were produced for use in a HIV virion fusion assay. To generate the virion chimeras, 293T cells were transfected with pNL4-3 or 81A proviral DNA, pCMV-BlaM-Vpr and pAdVAntage™ vectors. The virions were pseudotyped with various HIV env protein constructs. Forty-eight hours post-transfection, the virus-containing supernatant was harvested by centrifugation and normalized to p24 Gag content as measured by ELISA. (3495)
Dakappagari, N., Maruyama, T., Renshaw, M., Tacken, P., Figdor, C., Torensma, R., Wild, M.A., Wu, D., Bowdish, K. and Kretz-Rommel, A.
Notes: To produce peptide epitope-embedded antibodies, 1.2 × 107 293 EBNA cells were seeded in 150mM tissue culture plates. The following day, each dish was transfected using calcium chloride complexed with 16µg of the IgG expression plasmid along with 4µg of pAdVAntage™ Vector and 800ng of pEGFP-1. After 24 hours, the medium was changed to serum-free medium. After an additional 24 hours, 2.5 ml of 0.5 M HEPES/20% glucose was added. Cells were incubated 4 days, and the antibody in the medium supernatant was purified by protein A chromatography. (3494)
Bajgelman, M.C., Costanzi-Strauss, E. and Strauss,B.E
Notes: Researchers demonstrated an increase in reporter protein activity when the pAdVAntage™ Vector was cotransfected into NIH3T3 cells with pCLMFG, a viral vector, and pCL-Ampho, a packaging vector. A direct correlation was observed between reporter activity and increasing amounts of pAdVAntage™ Vector in transfections. (3015)
Salvatore, M., Basler, C.F., Parisien, J.P., Horvath, C.M., Bourmakina, S., Zheng, H., Muster, T., Palese, P. and Garcý´a-Sastre, A.
Notes: The pAdVAntage™ Vector was cotransfected with a pCAT-control vector into 293 cells. A CAT assay was performed 48 hours post-transfection and results were compared to those from cells cotransfected with a pCAT-control vector and an experimental vector expressing influenza A virus NS1 protein. In all transfections the total amount of DNA used was 2.5μg. (2753)
Lehming, N., Le Saux, A., Schüller, J., Ptashne, M.
Notes: The pAdVantage™ Vector was contransfected with CAT reporter vector, CMV-driven expression vector and a LacZ control vector to increase transient expression levels in HeLa cells (0822)
Cai, D. , Mulle, J. G. , Yue, D. T.
Notes: The pAdVAntage™ Vector was cotransfected with an expression vector containing the alpha-2 subunit of the calcium channel. The pAdVAntage™ Vector did not change the pharmacological characteristics of the alpha-2 subunit. (1378)
Misaka, T., Kusakabe, Y., Emori, Y., Gonoi, T., Arai, S. and Abe, K.
Notes: The pAdVAntage™ Vector was cotransfected with a green fluorescent protein construct into 293 cells. (1977)


text:
July 9, 2007
V5558 Sgr continues to brighten; recent reports from Neil Butterworth place this nova at V=6.5 or so. We recommend continued monitoring of this slow nova.
At V=6.5, this is an easy target for all observers, whether visual, PEP or CCD. The brightest comparison star on the current VSP chart is V=6.0, so given below is another, brighter, comparison star that we will add to the sequence in the next day or so:
label = 54 V=5.352 (B-V) = 0.050 (U-B) = -0.859
June 29, 2007
The slow nova V5558 Sgr appears to be close to orbrighter than m(vis) = 7.6, and brighter comparisonstars than the initial bright limit of the chartmay be required. If necessary, please use the two additional comparison stars for this object that may be obtained by plotting a 240-arcmin chart with VSP:
obsolete link: [http://www.aavso.org/observing/charts/vsp/]
2016 link: https://www.aavso.org/vsp
—Notes by Msgr. Ron Royer, with additional information compiled from the AAVSO Archives
The Ford Observatory and the AAVSO


text:
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If you continue to experience this error and would like assistance, please contact us and include the page URL for the resource you are trying to access; we'll be glad to help you out!
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http://mmajunkie.com MMAjunkie.com Radio today welcomes to the show Shane Del Rosario, who scored an impressive win over Lavar Johnson in a grand-prix reserve bout at Saturday's "Strikeforce: Fedor vs. Silva" event.
Additionally, veteran lightweight Jorge Masvidal, who fights Billy Evangelista next month at "Strikeforce: Feijao vs. Henderson," stops by the studio to discuss his promotional return.
MMAjunkie.com Radio airs from 12-2 p.m. ET (9-11 a.m. PT) live from the
Mandalay Bay Resort & Casino's Race & Sports Book. Listen to and
watch a video stream of the two-hour show at www.mmajunkie.com/radio.
MMAjunkie.com Radio listener guide:
- HOW TO LISTEN: Go to www.mmajunkie.com/radio and choose a streaming option (such as Windows Media Player or Quicktime) to listen to the show live. A countdown clock appears when the show is offline.
- HOW TO WATCH: Check out a live webcam of the studio while there. You can also listen to a live audio stream of the show when you activate the video feed.
- HOW TO CALL: MMAjunkie.com Radio takes phone calls from listeners throughout the show. Call into the MMAjunkie.com Radio hotline at (702) 736-9461 or (702) 736-9463.
- HOW TO CHAT: To chat with the show's hosts, guests and other MMAjunkie.com Radio listeners, launch the "Combat Chat" feature, which is available on the main radio page. You can discuss the show and even submit a question for the day's guests while there.
- HOW TO DISCUSS: The MMAjunkie.com MMA Forums has a new section devoted solely to MMAjunkie.com Radio. Stop by the MMAjunkie.com Radio forum to discuss the show, interact with the hosts, suggest future guests and catch up on the latest MMAjunkie.com Radio news.
- HOW TO VISIT THE SHOW: You can watch MMAjunkie.com Radio live and in person at the Mandalay Bay Resort & Casino on the world-famous Las Vegas Strip. The booth is located in the resort's Race & Sports Book next to the Mandalay Bay poker room. To plan a trip to Sin City and MMAjunkie.com Radio, go to www.mandalaybay.com.


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It's just me yo.
No, really. THIS is how I do it.I think about a lot of random stuff and I like to write it down. I believe in a lot of things and I think an equal amount of stuff is total crap. I am a cynical optimist. I am real. I like synchronicity and idiosyncrasy. My brain works quickly, which does not guarantee accuracy but is not A.D.D. Usually my mouth works even more quickly. I thought being really tall and living in Asia was pretty cool; but I am super glad to be back in California now. I want to be happy, bendy and satisfied... Because really, who wouldn't?
Fresh Produce
Tag Archives: Lollapalooza
"Wait… did we miss it?" Avoiding Fomo in Chicago.
Norah: Are you sad that we missed it? Nick: We didn't miss it. This *is* it. Live music has a very special appeal to me. Always has. As such it is very hard for me to pass up opportunities to … Continue reading
Posted in Friends, Life, Music, Photography, Silliness, Travel, true stories Tagged after parties, Arctic Monkeys, Atmosphere, B.A.D., bands, Beats Antique, Big Audio Dynamite, Black Lips, Bloody Beetroots, Bright Eyes, Chain Gang of 1974, Chicago, dance music, David Bowie, Deadmau5, decision making, deluge, Dom, Eddie Murphy "Singers", Eddie Murphy Delirious, Eminem, festivals, Fitz and the Tantrums, FOMO, Foo Fighters, food, Foster the People, Friends, Girl Talk, Illinios, Imelda May, indie music, Jerkules, Let's Dance, live music, Lolla Lounge, Lollapalooza, Lykke Li, making lemonade, Muse, Music, music festivals, Nick and Norah's Infinite Playlist, OkGo, parties, perks, Phantogram, port-a-potty, rock stars, shrinky-dinks, Simth Westerns, sold-out shows, Sony, stormy weather, The Cars, The Nakend and Famous, The Pains of Being Pure at Heart, The Vaccines, Tinie Tempeh, Titus Andronicus, Travel, VIP, W Lakeshore Chicago, weather, Ween 1 Comment


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Sterling Silver and gold etched delicate leaf design earrings with ruby garnets.
About the Artist:
Melodie Owens is dedicated to synthesizing techniques and materials in new ways. Being open to new ideas and techniques is what keeps her designs and process stimulating her work continually evolves.
She works with many metals and adds color using gems, crystals, fused glass, fibers, and found objects. Her work is handcrafted personally in her High Desert Albuquerque studio.
These gorgeous glass multicolor hand made with mixed metals earrings are a statement piece in themselves. With a leaf-shaped outline and teardrop, multi-faceted stone hangs loosely...View full product details
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These gorgeous multicolor hand made spiral detail earrings are made with mixed metals and have a set of gorgeous, teardrop, multi-faceted stone hangs loosely in...View full product details
This wire and glass necklace is hand made with mixed metals and is very much a statement piece. With multiple leaf-shaped designs and teardrop, multi-faceted stones...View full product details
These gorgeous flower hand made spiral earrings are made with manipulated metals. Each petal is nickel size. About the Artist: Melodie Owens is dedicated...View full product details


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Mark your calendars now for Mingle with Kris Kringle—the annual holiday tree lighting ceremony in Cedar Springs, where families gather to celebrate the beginning of the holiday season!
The event will be held on Friday, December 2, at the corner of Main and Ash Street in Cedar Springs. This year, the event is being organized by Cedar Springs Area Parks and Rec Director Amanda Gerhardt, and Pastor Craig Owens, pastor at Calvary Assembly of God.
There will be a living nativity beginning at 5 p.m. with actors and animals. They will be joined by actors from the upcoming play "A Christmas Carol," who will sing Christmas carols. The tree lighting will be at 6 p.m. when Santa arrives. Afterwards, children may stay and pet the animals as they wait for their turn to see Santa. Activities may also be set up in the United Methodist Church to keep little ones busy.
The details are still coming in, so watch next week's Post for the final details!


text:
This site is the archived OWASP Foundation Wiki and is no longer accepting Account Requests.
To view the new OWASP Foundation website, please visit https://owasp.org
Steps and Roles
From OWASP
OWASP Code Review Guide Table of Contents
Code reviews are carried out by personnel in four roles: author, moderator, reader, and scribe. There are typically reviewers who are simply inspectors, focused on finding defects in the code, who do not fit in any of the four roles. Depending on the size of your inspection team and the formality of your inspection process, some people may serve in multiple roles at the same time. However, if you have a large enough team, it is useful to assign each role to a different person so each can focus on their duties.
- Moderator: The Moderator is the key role in a code review. The moderator is responsible for selecting a team of reviewers, scheduling the code review meeting, conducting the meeting, and working with the author to ensure that necessary corrections are made to the reviewed document.
- Author: The Author wrote the code that is being reviewed. The author is responsible for starting the code review process by finding a Moderator. The role of Author must be separated from that of Moderator, Reader, or Recorder to ensure the objectivity and effectiveness of the code review. However, the Author serves an essential role in answering questions and making clarifications during the review and making corrections after the review.
- Reader: The Reader presents the code during the meeting by paraphrasing it in his own words. It is important to separate the role of Reader from Author, because it is too easy for an author to explain what he meant the code to do instead of explaining what it actually does. The reader's interpretation of the code can reveal ambiguities, hidden assumptions, poor documentation and style, and other errors that the Author would not be likely to catch on his own.
- Scribe: The Scribe records all issues raised during the code review. Separating the role of Scribe from the other roles allows the other reviewers to focus their entire attention on the code.
Code reviews consist of the following four steps:
- Initialization: The Author informs a Moderator that a deliverable will be ready for inspection in the near future. The Moderator selects a team of inspectors and assigns roles to them. The Author and the Moderator together prepare a review package consisting of the code to be reviewed, documentation, review checklists, coding rules, and other materials such as the output of static analysis tools. The Moderator will announce the time, place, and duration for the code review meeting.
- Preparation: After receiving the review package, the inspectors study the code individually to search for defects. Preparation should take about as long as the duration of the meeting. Some less formal code review techniques skip the preparation phase.
- Meeting: The Moderator initiates the meeting, then the Reader describes the code to the participants. After each segment of code is presented, reviewers will bring up any issues they found during Preparation or discovered during the meeting. The interaction between reviewers during the meeting will usually bring up issues that were not discovered during the Preparation step. The Scribe notes each defect with enough detail for the Author to address it afterwards. It is the responsibility of the Moderator to keep the meeting focused on defects, ensuring that the participants do not attempt to produce solutions during the meeting instead. Some less formal code review steps skip the meeting phase, choosing instead to e-mail the code to one or more reviewers who return comments without ever meeting as a group.
- Corrections: The Author addresses the defects recorded during the meeting, and the Moderator checks the corrections to ensure that all problems are resolved. If the number of defects raised was large, the Moderator may decide to schedule a review of the revised code.


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Not so fast: Differences in the first embryonic cell lineage decision of mammals
New research shows that all not mammals are created equal. In fact, this work shows that the animals most commonly used by scientists to study mammalian genetics -- mice -- develop unusually quickly and may not always be representative of embryonic development in other mammals. The study, published by Cell Press in the February 14 issue of the journal Developmental Cell, identifies significant differences in the timing of cell fate commitment during mouse and cattle embryonic development and raises important strategic implications for the generation of embryonic stem cells.
The placenta in mammals is formed from cells called trophectoderm that arise from the very first lineage decision made by the early embryo. Most trophectoderm research is performed on mice, as other mammals tend to be much harder to work with in a lab. In the mouse, the fate of trophoectoderm cells is sealed (committed) by the mid-blastocyst stage. This fate commitment is driven in part by repression of the stem cell factor Oct4.
"We were intrigued by previous observations that in mammals such as humans, cattle, pigs and rabbits Oct4 protein was not shut down in the trophoectoderm of late blastocyst embryos," explains senior author Dr. Peter L. Pfeffer from AgResearch Crown Research Institute in Hamilton, New Zealand. Using cattle as a non-rodent model system, Dr. Pfeffer and colleagues discovered that cattle trophoectoderm cells were committed to their fate much later than mouse cells, with Oct4 expression levels remaining strong for longer than in mice. In fact the authors identified the specific evolutionary changes in mouse DNA that make Oct4 behave differently in mice than in other mammals.
"Somewhat ironically, our studies in cattle led to new insight into Oct4 regulation in the mouse," explains Dr Pfeffer. "Such evolutionary differences in the regulation of the key stem cell gene Oct4 may explain the difficulty in embryonic stem cell derivation in mammals other than the mouse." Based on the fact that mouse embryos implant in the uterus at an earlier developmental stage than other mammals do, and therefore require earlier trophectoderm formation, the authors also speculate that the unusually rapid repression of Oct4 in mouse trophectoderm represented a key evolutionary step enabling early implantation.
"Establishing cattle as a second functional mammalian embryological model system challenges notions that mice are representative of either the earliest stages of mammalian development or of embryonic stem cell biology," concludes Dr. Pfeffer.
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