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Date: 19.8.2016
The figures for vaccinations are growing – but does this make us healthier? This question has been discussed time and again, and not just in the last few years. When mandatory smallpox vaccinations were introduced for children by the "Reichsimpfgesetz" (Vaccination Act) of 1874, the debate was fierce, and critics started up journals such as "Der Impfgegner" (the vaccination objector) to create a platform for their arguments. Today, too, the debate often revolves around vaccinating children. People ask whether the jabs do children more harm than good. Are vaccinations dangerous or superfluous? What part does the pharmaceutical industry with its profit motive play?
One thing is clear: vaccinations are different from other medical interventions. For one thing, they do not only seek to benefit the individual but to protect the wider population. For another, they are given to healthy subjects. It is quite justified to demand special care when it comes to vaccinations and to discuss controversial issues critically – not least because vaccinations are one of the most common medical procedures of all. In Germany in 2011, for example, about 35 million doses of vaccine were reimbursed by the statutory health insurance providers. Around 40 per cent of these were the annual flu jab, whilst child vaccinations accounted for another major proportion.
In 2012, more than 95 per cent of children starting school had been vaccinated against diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, polio and had received at least one measles, mumps and rubella vaccination. Approximately 85 per cent had also been vaccinated against hepatitis B, which has been recommended for infants since the mid-nineties.
Germany does not have mandatory vaccinations. Everyone can refuse vaccinations, both for themselves and their children, without stating their reasons. And many of those who describe themselves as vaccination objectors or vaccination critics do precisely this.
The most frequent objections to vaccinations are listed here. The answers provide information around the issues raised in order to allow an informed and balanced view of the benefits of vaccination. The document was jointly prepared by the Robert Koch-Institute and the Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, the Federal Institute for Vaccines and Biomedicines, in 2007. This is an updated version.
According to current pharmaceutical legislation, a vaccine is only licensed when it has been proven that it is effective and well-tolerated. The manufacturer must provide this proof by conducting pre-clinical tests and clinical trials. The results are checked at EU level by the European Medicines Agency (EMA). Within Germany, the Paul-Ehrlich-Institut carries responsibility in its role as Federal Institute for Vaccines and Biomedicines.
Moreover, once a vaccine has been licensed, further ongoing studies are conducted to monitor its effectiveness and safety. These studies are often undertaken by the manufacturers but also by independent scientists at universities and research institutes. Consequently, the effectiveness and safety of vaccines that have been in use for decades, such as measles vaccines, have been demonstrated on millions of people. The fact that it has been possible to successfully reduce the occurrence of measles worldwide and avoid deaths is just one of the ways in which this effectiveness expresses itself.
Another well-known example is the introduction of oral polio vaccination at the beginning of the 1960s. Whilst in Germany in 1961, nearly 4,700 children suffered from polio, by 1965, the figure was down to fewer than 50. Since 1990, there have been no further cases of the disease caused by wild polio viruses (see also answer to Objection 17).
A similar impact was achieved by vaccinating against Haemophilus influenzae (Type B) bacterium which can cause meningitis in babies and toddlers. In the former German Democratic Republic (GDR), where all infection figures were registered very precisely, roughly 100 to 120 cases of meningitis occurred every year prior to 1990. After the introduction of Haemophilus vaccination throughout Germany in 1990, the annual number of cases in the eastern German federal states rapidly fell to fewer than ten annually.
No pathogen, no vaccination – this is one of the unwritten laws of microbiology. Vaccinations are extracted from weakened or inactive pathogens or their components. In some cases, closely related strains are used to produce vaccines. So without specific information about the pathogen it would not have been possible to systematically develop a vaccine. By using this knowledge to develop a vaccine, it becomes possible to prepare the body's immune system so that it is ready, should it ever encounter the actual pathogen.
The fundamental methods in bacteriology were pioneered by Robert Koch. These included the development of solid culture media for bacteria and the introduction of microphotography. These techniques contributed significantly to growth in the scientific field of bacteriological research. In 1876, whilst working as a district physician, he discovered that anthrax spores were the dormant form of anthrax pathogens and thus explained how the infection was transmitted and why the bacterium had such a high resistance to environmental factors, which had not previously been understood. In doing so, Robert Koch became the first person to prove the connection between a microorganism and the cause of a disease. Taking images of viruses on the other hand was not possible for a very long time because they are too small to be captured by an optical microscope. It wasn't until the introduction of electron microscopy in the 20th century, that detailed images of the viruses became possible.
Moreover, in many cases it is now possible to identify the genetic code of pathogens. One of the ways in which this knowledge has been used is to genetically engineer the hepatitis B vaccine in yeast cells. The vaccine's effect is mediated purely by a specific surface molecule of the hepatitis virus, known as the HBs antigen. The production of many flu vaccines, by contrast, is much more traditional: the flu viruses are proliferated in chickens' eggs. The viruses are subsequently killed and processed into highly-purified vaccines.
Whether vaccination has to be repeated or not depends on the vaccine. If, for example, a child has received two doses of the combined measles, mumps, rubella vaccine in the context of basic immunisation, it can be assumed that immunity to measles and rubella will last a lifetime.
This is not true of tetanus, diphtheria, polio and whooping cough. Vaccinations against these diseases last for five to ten years – then they have to be repeated. Flu vaccinations are effective for a much shorter period of time: people in at-risk groups need a booster every year. This is because the influenza pathogen changes incredibly quickly and the influenza vaccine needs to be adapted to remain effective.
The need for repeated vaccination does not mean that it is less effective. In chronically ill or older people, an annual flu vaccination can reduce the risk of the disease becoming life threatening. And an injection every ten years seems a small price to pay for immunisation against tetanus, which can be fatal.
Furthermore, it should be remembered that even people who have survived a certain infectious disease are not immune to this disease for ever. You can contract tetanus, diphtheria and whooping cough more than once. There have even been several cases documented of people who have caught measles twice.
There is no vaccination that is guaranteed to work without exception for every single individual, just as there is no drug that is effective on all patients. However, vaccinations can significantly reduce the probability of contracting a specific infection.
Imagine the following scenario: a measles epidemic breaks out in a primary school. Half of the children have been vaccinated, the other half have not. Statistically, approximately 97 to 98 per cent of the unvaccinated children will catch the disease compared to two to three per cent of those vaccinated. The flu vaccine, however, is not as effective. Depending on age and health status, it protects roughly 40 to 75 per cent of those vaccinated, working least well in older people.
Furthermore, vaccinations may be less effective if boosters are not given on time or immunity has not yet been completely achieved. The routine childhood vaccinations, for example, initially have to be repeated according to a fixed timetable in order to achieve reliable, sustained protection.
In addition to this, there are some vaccinations which primarily prevent particularly serious manifestations of a disease. This is true of the BCG vaccine against tuberculosis that was part of standard immunisation routine for babies in Germany up until the late nineties. The vaccine did not protect children from becoming infected with tuberculosis but it did protect them from the most serious forms of the disease affecting the brain or the whole body. It has now been taken out of the routine vaccination programme because of the comparatively low likelihood of catching the disease.
Sometimes parents report that their children make developmental leaps when they have got over an infectious disease. They infer that infectious diseases are important for children's normal development and that vaccinations delay it. There isn't a plausible biological explanation for this and to date, scientific studies have never demonstrated that unvaccinated children develop either mentally or physically better than vaccinated children. Existing vaccines only target approximately a dozen particularly frequent or dangerous pathogens - the immune system has to deal with hundreds of other pathogens on a daily basis.
The vaccination itself stimulates the immune system. Consequently, it would be extremely surprising if vaccinated children were generally constitutionally weaker or had poorer immune defences long-term. Even where a positive change may be attributed to an illness as described above, it is undisputed that infections usually hinder children's development and can lead to health complications and even death. With the help of vaccinations these consequences can be avoided.
It is true that many infections can be overcome without consequences. Even so-called childhood diseases, however, can sometimes take a dramatic course. At the end of the 1940s, before vaccines were available, several thousand people died of typical childhood diseases like diphtheria, whooping cough and polio every year in Germany. In 1949, in the Federal Republic of Germany alone, 1,100 deaths were recorded as a result of diphtheria.
The term childhood disease does not mean that an illness is harmless but that for many years, it tended to occur during childhood. The best example is measles: roughly one child in a thousand that catches measles develops a specific inflammation of the brain, known as measles encephalitis. This often causes permanent brain damage and can be fatal. The measles virus has also been proven to weaken the sufferer's immune system, increasing the risk of bacterial cross-infections such as pneumonia and middle-ear infection.
Much the same is true of childhood diseases such as mumps and rubella. Mumps in young men can cause inflammation of the testicles and potential fertility problems. Vaccination can usually prevent this complication. In the case of pregnant women who are not immune to rubella, the disease can result in serious deformities in the unborn child. Two doses of rubella vaccine almost completely protect against this possible consequence of the disease.
Years ago, it was impossible to protect oneself against a whole host of diseases by vaccination, just as there were no seat belts in cars and no helmets for motorcyclists and cyclists. Today, we do have all these means of protection – and we use them.
It is certainly true that pregnant women transfer antibodies that protect against certain infections via the blood circulation to their unborn child. The new-born baby may also receive additional antibodies through the breast milk. However, this maternal passive immunity only supports the child's immunity during the first months of life while it is developing its own immune system – and it only extends to certain infectious diseases.
A mother can only transfer antibodies against diseases she herself has had or has been immunised against, and only when the concentration of antibodies against the respective pathogen in her own body is high enough.
For example, whooping cough: because the antibodies that develop after a whooping cough infection or vaccination start decreasing after just a few years, most mothers can't transfer enough (or any) whooping cough antibodies to their babies. If a mother is vaccinated during pregnancy, however, and develops antibodies, this can generate sufficient maternal passive immunity to protect the infant from whooping cough for a period of time after birth. This does not replace vaccinating the infant which can be done from the age of two months.
Measles is a different matter: the child of a mother who is immune to measles is only protected against measles for at most six months after birth. Duration of protection in children whose mothers have been vaccinated is in general shorter than that of those whose mothers have had a measles infection themselves. Breastfeeding does not induce immunity to measles in infancy. Young women should, therefore, be sure that they are immune to measles before becoming pregnant so that they can transfer antibodies to their unborn child. It is not possible to vaccinate during pregnancy. Furthermore immunity in the family builds a firewall against measles which can protect the infant after maternal passive immunity comes to an end and until the child can be vaccinated.
As maternal antibodies are only gradually transferred to the unborn baby via the placenta, passive immunity is often reduced in premature babies. Particularly these children benefit from vaccinations being administered to both them (unless contra-indicated) and their families.
Quite apart from this, maternal passive immunity and vaccinations are not mutually exclusive; they can complement each other. Swedish paediatricians have shown that children who have been breastfed are less likely to suffer from serious meningitis caused by the Haemophilus influenzae (Type B) (Hib) bacterium and also develop more antibodies against the pathogen after a Hib vaccination. Only when a complete course of vaccines has been administered is it usually possible to avoid meningitis altogether.
This has been proven with regard to measles, mumps and rubella. Vaccination against these diseases stimulates the mother's immune system less than a wild virus infection. Thus, by comparison, the antibody level of infants of vaccinated mothers is lower than that of infants of mothers who have had measles, and it also drops faster. This does not, however, mean that it would be better to forgo the vaccination altogether. All three diseases can take a dramatic turn both in children and adults and cause major complications. The vaccine protects against these diseases and has saved millions of lives since it was introduced worldwide.
It is also important to note that a mother does not transfer antibodies against all infectious diseases to her baby. An example of this is whooping cough infection in the mother, where the antibodies produced fall rapidly after the infection is over, meaning that a new-born baby is rarely covered by maternal passive immunity. It is now known that adults can catch whooping cough several times in their lives and infect their children without realising. A study in the United States in 2007 revealed that parents and close relatives are by far the most frequent source of infection in infants with whooping cough. The German Standing Committee on Vaccination therefore recommends that all those in immediate contact with babies should be vaccinated before the infants are born.
For other infections such as tetanus and diphtheria, infants whose mothers have been immunised are protected through maternal passive immunity. However, such protection has not been proven with regard to infants whose mothers have had the infection.
Some infections affect infants much more than older children – and this is one of the main reasons why babies are vaccinated against a range of diseases at just eight weeks after birth.
Classic examples include Haemophilus influenzae infections and whooping cough. If children contract whooping cough under the age of six months, in approximately 25 per cent of cases they develop complications like pneumonia and respiratory arrest. Above this age, this figure drops to roughly five per cent. So infants, in particular, benefit from whooping cough vaccinations. Even after the first dose at eight weeks, the probability that the child will have to be hospitalised due to whooping cough drops by about two-thirds. The subsequent doses during the first year of life complete the whooping cough immunisation schedule.
The assumption that infants in general are less tolerant of vaccinations than older children has not been proven. Very premature babies, born before the 32nd week of pregnancy, should be given special checks of their hearts and lungs after certain vaccinations to ensure that any complications associated with the vaccination are recognised promptly, but premature babies are also more susceptible to infections. Here again, the risk-benefit ratio is in favour of vaccination.
Not all vaccines are administered to infants however. Children are not immunised against measles, mumps and rubella as well as certain meningitis pathogens, known as meningococci, until after their first birthday.
The fact is that, today, children are vaccinated against more infections than they used to be. But the number of antigens transferred in each vaccine has dropped significantly. The old whooping cough vaccine, for example, included the entire bacterium with 3,000 different antigens. By contrast, all the vaccinations used today only contain 150 different antigens in total. The reason for this is that modern vaccines are highly purified and usually only contain a single constituent of the pathogen. In reality, a child's immune system, which is highly fit for purpose, deals with a far larger number of antigens every day than occur in vaccines.
Moreover, there is no evidence to suggest that multivalent vaccines overburden the immune system. However, it is true that certain sub-constituents of combined vaccines stimulate the immune system less than when they are administered separately. This is why a vaccine may need to be administered over four doses (or part doses) instead of three. In the end though, the number of jabs required overall can be reduced significantly by using multivalent vaccines.
Nowadays, up to six vaccines – against tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough, Haemophilus influenzae, polio und hepatitis B – can be combined into one single vaccine. One of the criticisms frequently levelled against the hexavalent vaccination is that hepatitis B is essentially – though by no means exclusively – transmitted by sexual intercourse and thus the likelihood that an infant will contract the disease is very low. Nonetheless, in infants who do contract hepatitis B, it is almost always extremely serious and in 90 per cent of cases becomes chronic.
In addition to this, there are practical considerations involved in vaccinating infants against hepatitis. We know that vaccination rates amongst young people are low whilst an infection with hepatitis B can lead to very serious illness and even cause cancer of the liver if it becomes chronic. Both the German Standing Committee on Vaccination and the World Health Organisation (WHO) therefore recommend vaccinating children against hepatitis B. On the basis of current knowledge, in a large proportion of those vaccinated this can mean long-term or even life-long protection.
Very few vaccines contain attenuated pathogens that are still alive. This can indeed induce symptoms similar to the disease itself, but these symptoms almost never develop into a full-blown disease. "Vaccine-induced measles" is a well-known example. Because the measles vaccine contains a weakened measles virus which is still able to reproduce, in about five per cent of those inoculated it causes a measles-like rash and fever about a week later. These symptoms usually indicate that a high level of immunity is developing. Full-scale measles and its serious complications such as middle-ear infections or pneumonia do not occur. Even the much-feared swelling of the brain, measles encephalitis, only occurs in exceptional cases after measles immunisation. Individual occurrences have been reported, in particular in people with contraindications to the measles vaccination (e.g. diseases of the immune system). It is almost never seen in healthy people.
Unfortunately, during the period when oral vaccinations were administered for polio, there were cases of polio being caused by the vaccination itself. The live vaccine, which was highly successful in helping to suppress polio, did cause a few infections every year. For this reason, live vaccinations are no longer used. Since January 1998, the German Standing Committee on Vaccination has consequently recommended the use of inactivated vaccines administered by injection which cannot trigger the disease.
Most vaccines contain inactivated pathogens or, as in the case of flu vaccines, just selected parts of the pathogen. Such vaccines are unable to cause disease. Irrespective of the type of vaccine, fever, nausea or drowsiness may occur after vaccination, and the injection site may swell up or become red. This is partly due to an appropriate reaction by the immune system to the vaccine and usually indicates that future immunity to the disease will be good.
One thing is certain: today there are more vaccinations – and more allergies. Whether there is a link between the two, however, has not been proven. Admittedly, a few years ago, Swedish doctors demonstrated that children from anthroposophical families (who are vaccinated less often) were less likely to suffer from eczema. However, they were also given fewer antibiotics, had a different diet and their parents smoked less. In another study, American allergists discovered that parents who reject vaccinations observe fewer cases of asthma and hay fever amongst their children. But this study, too, failed to determine whether there was really a causal link between not vaccinating and the occurrence of asthma or hay fever.
Many other studies speak against a connection of this kind. An analysis by doctors in Rotterdam, for example, who reviewed the scientific literature published on the subject between 1966 and 2003, concluded that especially the methodologically sound studies did not show an increased risk of allergies. On the contrary, it emerged that vaccinations could reduce the risk of allergies developing.
Experience in this country points in the same direction: in the German Democratic Republic (GDR), where vaccinations were mandatory and nearly all children were vaccinated, allergies were not an issue. They only started to increase in East Germany after reunification whilst the vaccination rates dropped.
There has been an ongoing debate in recent years whether autism, diabetes and even multiple sclerosis could be triggered by vaccinations. To date, there is no evidence for this and there are numerous studies that suggest that there is no link between vaccinations and these diseases.
At the end of the 1990s, a British doctor, Andrew Wakefield, conducted a very small-scale study (twelve children) and came up with the hypothesis that the measles-mumps-rubella vaccination could damage the intestines and allow uptake of neurotoxic substances. He claimed this affected intellectual development and could potentially lead to autism. Major studies were carried out to verify this hypothesis but none of them confirmed this association. It then emerged that Wakefield had received payment from lawyers representing the parents of autistic children who were searching for a link between autism and vaccinations in order to sue the manufacturers. In 2004, ten of the 13 authors of the original study officially retracted their interpretation. In 2010, the doctor responsible was accused of unethical behaviour and lost his licence to practice medicine.
This notwithstanding, it is undisputed that vaccines can have side effects. One of the main difficulties is to determine the level of risk associated with a vaccine as nearly all children are vaccinated. It therefore comes as no surprise that health issues and diseases that occur frequently in childhood happen to be noticed around the same time as vaccinations. But this does not necessarily mean that there is a causal connection with the vaccination. Some years ago, for example, it was suggested that vaccinations could be responsible for facilitating cot death because a number of babies died shortly after having been vaccinated. Since then, studies have indicated that the opposite is actually true. Medical researchers at the University of Magdeburg, for instance, conducted an extensive study of more than 300 cot deaths and ascertained that fewer of these babies had been vaccinated, or only at a later stage, than is usually the case.
The German Protection against Infection Act and other regulations stipulate that suspected cases of vaccination complications must be reported to the Paul-Ehrlich-Institut. The institute investigates whether there is a causal connection between these reports and the vaccination in order to determine potential risks of very rare side effects at an early stage and be able to take the necessary measures. This ensures that the vaccines are subject to continuous safety monitoring even after they have been licensed.
Some vaccines contain formaldehyde, aluminium, or phenol – but only in extremely low concentrations (well below the known toxicological limits). These substances serve specific purposes such as killing the vaccine virus (formaldehyde), boosting the immune response (aluminium hydroxide) and conserving the vaccine (phenol).
Some years ago, two American physicians launched the theory that the increase in cases of autism registered in the United States was linked to the preservative "thimerosal" which contains ethylmercury, an organic mercury compound, and has been used in inactivated vaccines. In the interim, however, both the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the American "Institute of Medicine" as well as the European Medicines Agency (EMA) have independently reached the conclusion that existing studies speak against a connection of this kind. Nonetheless, the pharmaceutical industry responded to the heated debate accordingly: nowadays, no vaccine contains "thimerosal", except pandemic influenza vaccines which are not formulated in single syringes.
It is true that serum taken from calves, for example, is used as a growth medium in the cell cultures for cultivating certain vaccine viruses. But the only products that are allowed are those from countries that are certified BSE-free, like New Zealand.
Controls are similarly strict with regard to certain protein constituents like the so-called human albumin that is extracted from human blood plasma. These proteins are sometimes used to help to stabilise and conserve live vaccines. In order to prevent the transmission of viruses like HIV or hepatitis, plasma products are systematically tested for pathogens. Moreover, in the further course of manufacture, additional procedures ensure that the products are generally germ-free. It is impossible for cancer to be caused by using cells taken from tumour tissue to produce vaccines containing influenza viruses. These cells are used because they can multiply without limit, but the cell constituents themselves are not contained within the vaccine.
Serious production errors, which – just as in any manufacturing process – can lead to disaster, have not occurred in the immediate past. In the 1950s, shortly after the routine introduction of the inactive polio vaccine in the United States, the vaccine was accidentally contaminated by active polio viruses. Several hundred thousand children were infected, 50 suffered permanent paralysis and five died. This serious event is known as the "Cutter Incident" after the manufacturer, Cutter Laboratories.
The control mechanisms used in drug safety are updated regularly using recent scientific advances. Thanks to a novel testing method, a vaccine against the rota virus was discovered to be contaminated with the Porcine Circovirus 1, or PCV1, in 2011. With the help of other specific detection methods, scientists at the Paul-Ehrlich-Institut and the Robert Koch Institute, amongst others, determined that the vaccine did indeed contain large amounts of PCV1 particles but that they were not infectious and hence not a health risk.
Only very few doctors are wholeheartedly against vaccinations. There are, however, some who have a critical attitude to certain individual vaccinations. This does not mean that there are good scientific reasons for their stance. Personal experience, religious or philosophical convictions play a big role in such attitudes.
A preference for alternative medicine does not necessarily collide with the idea of vaccination. Some years ago, researchers in Freiburg conducted a survey of more than 200 homeopathic doctors and ascertained that they administered "classic" vaccinations against tetanus, diphtheria and polio almost as often as their colleagues in conventional medicine. A change in thinking is occurring with regard to measles vaccinations, too. Many naturopathic and homeopathic doctors now explicitly recommend this vaccination. In a statement published in 2002, the German Homeopathic Association (DZVhÄ) emphasised that the debate about the advantages and disadvantages of vaccinations was completely legitimate and that every individual had to decide for themselves. At the same time, the DZVhÄ endorsed the importance of the German Standing Committee on Vaccination. It claimed the latter's recommendations were 'carefully considered and take account of the state of knowledge with the fundamental aim of preventing the occurrence of infectious diseases.'
Some infections like polio have not occurred in Germany for many years or, like diphtheria, have become a rarity. This in itself is, however, the result of vaccination programmes. When vaccination levels drop, the risk of new epidemics re-emerges. This is illustrated by polio outbreaks in some religious communities in the Netherlands, which reject vaccination on principle, in 1978 and 1992. 110 people contracted polio during the first epidemic, 71 during the second. Even after the World Health Organisation (WHO) had declared the WHO region Europe to be polio-free in 2002, wild polio viruses were reintroduced to the region. In Tajikistan, more than 600 cases of acute flaccid paralysis were reported in 2010. In 334 of them, a wild polio virus was detected. Of the confirmed cases, 14 ended in death. The virus, which had originated in India, spread from Tajikistan to Russia despite safety precautions (travel ban, import ban on foodstuff) and caused several further cases there, too.
Far more dramatic even than these polio outbreaks were the diphtheria outbreaks which hit Russia and other countries of the former Soviet Union in the 1990s. Due to falling vaccination rates, over 150,000 people caught diphtheria and more than 6,000 died. In the wake of such epidemics, international travel could also lead to the introduction of infections into Germany.
Undoubtedly, treatment options today are better than they used to be. Right up to the present, however, there are no medicines that can deal with viruses as effectively as antibiotics can treat bacteria. Faced with viruses, antibiotics are ineffective.
But antimicrobial resistance is increasingly limiting the options for treating bacterial diseases. In addition, in the last few decades, very few new antibiotics have reached the market. So in 2014, the World Health Organisation warned that unless many of those involved urgently coordinated activities, the world would face a post-antibiotic era. One aspect of this is that there is less need for antibiotics if bacterial infections are prevented by vaccinations and improved hygiene.
Some bacterial diseases are very difficult to treat. Tetanus infections, bacterial meningitis and whooping cough, for instance, can prove fatal even under modern treatment regimes.
On top of this, vaccinations and therapy are not contradictory alternatives but part of the same safety chain. Whilst the vaccination may not prevent an infection in all cases, it can still reduce the severity of the illness.
One thing is clear: prosperity and hygiene play a major role in preventing infectious diseases. A supply of clean drinking water and regular hand hygiene, for example, are essential for preventing hepatitis A, typhoid and cholera. Many infections were already on the decline prior to the introduction of vaccinations as a result of improved hygiene and better nutrition. It is not to be expected, however, that improved hygienic conditions will lead to such a clear drop in the occurrence of infections as vaccinations. Some pathogens like measles, hepatitis B and polio viruses are hosted exclusively in the human body and passed from person to person by sexual contact or coughing.
Whilst it is true that measles, for example, often take a more serious course in undernourished children, nearly everyone who has not been vaccinated and catches the virus does develop the disease. The larger the number of people in the environment who are vaccinated against measles, the less the chance of encountering the virus becomes – because chains of infection are broken (herd immunity). If more than 95 per cent of the population are immunised against measles, measles can be completely eradicated.
North and South America are an example. As a result of a rigorous vaccination programme, the continent is effectively measles-free and, since 2015, also rubella-free. In some African countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa as well as in India and Southeast Asia on the other hand, measles is still one of the frequent causes of death. In 2014, some 115,000 children still died of measles in these countries. The WHO estimates, however, that since vaccinations were introduced in 2000, some 17 million deaths have been prevented. In the long term, the WHO aims to eliminate measles worldwide. Germany is working towards this goal.
Private companies in all sectors have a legitimate interest in making a profit with their products and the pharmaceutical industry is no exception. However, one should be aware that there is a huge financial difference between the business of medicines and that of vaccines. Of the nearly 194 billion euro spent by statutory health insurance providers in 2014, 33 billion (17%) went on medicines and only just over one billion (0.65%) on vaccines. One of the reasons for this is that many medicines have to be taken e.g. by chronically-ill patients during their entire lifetime whilst vaccines are usually only administered a few times.
From the point of view of the pharmaceutical industry, the vaccine business is therefore less attractive because it is far more complex and expensive to produce vaccines than medicines. There are ever fewer vaccine manufacturers across the world, which may be a consequence of economic considerations. On the other hand, it is also important to remember that vaccinations obviate the necessity for expensive therapies and also avoid much suffering on the part of patients. This has been calculated in many evaluations of health care costs.
Date: 09.01.2019


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The Learning Curve of Living Green
It's a simple concept—one-stop shopping for the consumer. A truck pulls up to the house with everything inside to help the homeowners achieve greater energy efficiency.
The experts do a quick assessment. They check the efficiency of the furnace, the A/C unit, and the water heater. They check the doors and windows for leaks. They make recommendations, and the homeowners choose which energy efficiency items to implement. They swap out incandescent bulbs with CFLs, installs a programmable thermostat, add a few faucet aerators, and install door weather stripping to keep the cool air in during summer and warm air in during winter.
It' s called the Home Energy Squad, and Minneapolis-based Xcel Energy launched it last fall, along with CenterPoint Energy (see "Home Energy Squad at a Glance"). Xcel Energy provides electric service to customers of the program, and Xcel Energy and CenterPoint Energy provide gas depending on service territory. The program is designed to help homeowners make snap, yet sound, decisions when it comes to saving energy.
The Home Energy Squad program has caught on quickly in Minnesota. More than 8,000 people have used it since it was introduced in January 2010. The goal for the whole program in 2011 is to save 3 million kWh of electricity and 28,000 dekatherms (Dth) of gas. That' s roughly enough savings to supply more than 1,000 homes with their energy needs for a year. For the results to date, see Table 1.
In just two hours, the experts have made the changes, leaving the homeowners feeling good about reducing their energy bills and their impact on the environment -- and about the fact that they got a great deal, since they pay only for the materials, not for the labor.
But maybe the best part is the education they receive during the visit.
Now You Get It
"We have to educate people with meaningful and relevant information," says Kelly Frankenfeld of Energy Resources, a marketing firm that promotes this program and others like it. "Energy experts are the perfect people to connect with the consumer to explain in simple terms what the changes are and why they matter. That not only makes them feel better about the work they've contracted, but it makes them advocates, and that translates to more business for the expert."
The other necessary component is motivation. No one wants to spend money without knowing what the return on investment will be. The Home Energy Squad provides motivation in three ways. First, the experts do all the work in a single visit, so it' s easy for the homeowner. Second, it costs less to get several efficiency measures done at once than it would cost to have them done separately. Finally, lower energy bills translate to cost savings each month.
"A program like this makes it easy for the consumer to make informed choices and to gain confidence, because the expert is right there giving advice specific to their home," says Frankenfeld. She adds that the homeowners want to have control over the decisions, and this approach allows for that.
One Homeowner' s Story
Rene Blaeser suspected that her house was losing energy. And a lot of it.
"I had leaky windows, and there were areas in my basement that were always cold," says Blaeser. "I knew I needed to do something, but I wasn't sure where to start."
Her mom offered to buy her a visit from the Home Energy Squad to help her figure it out.
"They did a lot of stuff," says Blaeser. "They changed all of my bulbs to CFLs, checked the water heater and the temperature in the fridge, and installed some doorjambs to stop leaks." Blaeser appreciated the work and the education that came with these improvements. "They taught me how to program the thermostat and showed me things I could be doing myself that I wasn't aware of," she says. "And they really went the extra mile by doing things like cleaning my entryway light when they were up there changing the bulbs."
learn more
For more information about the Home Energy Squad, visit www.homeenergysquad.net.
One-on-One Approach
"People like the collaborative effort with the energy experts as to what items pay off best to install, and the Home Energy Squad visit removes any confusion about which items to purchase at various retailers," says program manager Jean Hammer. "Plus, you can usually save enough money during the first year after a squad visit to more than pay for the initial cost of the items. This service proves that through the installation of smaller measures, the energy savings are significant." (See Table 2 for Rene Blaeser's savings.)
Frankenfeld adds that a key component of the program is the one-on-one approach for more productive conversations.
"I'm really happy I did it," says Blaeser. "I'm already seeing a difference on my bills, my home is more comfortable, and now I'm looking into what else I can do to save more."
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subset: commoncrawl


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(By AP)
"What differentiates family from non-family enterprises is the significant influence of family in business and focus on the long term. They work not only for the current generation of the family but also the future,"
If you want to go into business during tough economic times, you might want to do it with family.
At Sokol Blosser winery in Dayton, Oregon, siblings Alex and Alison Sokol Blosser took over as co-presidents of their parents' business just as the economy went downhill in 2008.
They had been selling most of their high-end wine in restaurants but when the recession hit, people stopped eating out as much. So they had to shift a lot of their business to retail, which took a lot of time and effort. Revenue and profitability took a hit.
"We had to spend a lot more money in marketing and sales, so we just poured money into that so profitability was what really got squeezed," said Alex Sokol Blosser.
Working as Stewards
What kept them going is that the siblings see themselves as stewards, rather than owners, of the business that their parents started in the 1970s and that now produces Pinot Noirs, Pinot Gris and blended wines.
"We're looking to make it a better business," said Alex Sokol Blosser.
They have short-term goals that they want to meet, but they are looking at the business as one they want to pass on to their own children, if they're interested.
"This is a marathon, not a sprint," he said. "When the times got tough we realized, you know, it's ok if we take a hit to profitability because we know we're going to come back."
Focus on Long Term
Some family businesses are more resilient during downturns because of that focus on the long term as well as a commitment to their customers, and employees and careful spending, said Pramodita Sharma, a University of Vermont business school professor, and editor of the Family Business Review, a scholarly business journal.
"What differentiates family from non-family enterprises is the significant influence of family in business and focus on the long term. They work not only for the current generation of the family but also the future," Sharma said.
According to the Family Business Institute, 90 percent of U.S. businesses are family-owned. Some giants got their start as family businesses including retailer Wal-Mart and automaker Ford.
Maple Landmark, a wooden toy company in Vermont started by Michael Rainville, now employs his sister, his wife, his mother and his 93-year-old grandmother, as well as his sons when they're not in school.
Rainville, whose business grew out of a hobby he had as a kid making game boards from scrap wood, is willing to work extremely long hours and do whatever it takes to keep the business going.
"I don't have grand expectations. I don't have a Volvo payment before I pay my payroll. This is what we do. It's my sandbox, I enjoy it, I don't want to see it go away," he said of the company that last year won an award from the University of Vermont School of Business Administration for its long-lasting success.
Competition from imports is a constant struggle for the company, which makes wooden trains, jigsaw puzzles, blocks, and cribbage and checkers boards.
When business softened after 2001, they bought a similar Vermont company so they could offer a broader array of toys. But between 2002 and 2007 they were lucky if they grew at all each year and ended up smaller at the end of the period by about 15 percent. Rainville said he didn't have any more tricks to pull out his bag so they focused on being more efficient.
Be a 'Frugal Yankee'
"We're pretty frugal Yankees but you find ways to be sure that you're not spending more than you need to. You just shop for things harder, you watch your expenses more," he said.
Working with family is ingrained in Rainville. The family helped out with his grandparents' dairy farm and, as a teenager, he pumped gas after school and on weekends at his parents' general store.
"And so it was kind of a natural, this is now the focus of the family," he said. "The cows are gone, the store is long sold and this is where we all gather now."
But Alex Sokol Blosser, never dreamed he'd end up working for the family's vineyard, started by his parents who planted the first vineyard on the land about 30 miles southwest of Portland, Oregon, in 1971. Now the 87-acre estate in the Dundee Hills produces Pinot Noirs ranging from about $40 to $80, as well as an $15 Evolution Red, and a line of white wines.
He saw how hard his parents worked. But after college, he missed the farm and realized, "Hey, that's not so bad. That's good living."
He worked in neighboring vineyards and with a Portland wine wholesaler before joining the family business full time in 1998 while earning an MBA degree. His younger sister also earned an MBA and went on to work in public relations before returning to the family business in 2004 as director of marketing.
Today, Alex oversees production as winemaker and grape grower. Alison handles sales and marketing.
Familiarity's Drawbacks
But the familiarity of family can also have drawbacks. Any drama or tension among siblings or parents needs to be checked at the door, which is something they learned from a business coach and from family business counseling from the Austin Family Business Program at Oregon State University.
"Without our business coach and family business counseling we couldn't have made the transition" from one generation to the next, he said.
Like the Sokol Blossers, brothers Charles and Arthur Anton also grew up in the family business, Anton Cleaners, based in Tewksbury, Mass. Their grandfather started the business nearly 100 years ago.
When the economy soured, people were dry-cleaning their clothes less often, he said. But like the Rainvilles and Sokol Blossers they didn't resort to laying off employees. They cut back hours.
They strategize constantly about where they want to be and their five-year plan, said Arthur Anton, Jr., chief operating officer.
"I think a lot of people in our business don't look at that, he said. "They're just day-to-day operators who don't look to the big picture or the future."
(Source: CNBC)
"Opinion pieces of this sort published on RISE Networks are those of the original authors and do not in anyway represent the thoughts, beliefs and ideas of RISE Networks."


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Filters: Author is Huang, Wenyu [Clear All Filters]
Conference Proceedings
Optically detected coherent picosecond lattice oscillations in two dimensional arrays of gold nanocrystals of different sizes and shapes induced by femtosecond laser pulses. Proceedings of SPIE [Internet]. 2005 ;5927:592701. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.620501.
Journal Article
Coherent vibrational oscillation in gold prismatic monolayer periodic nanoparticle arrays. Nano Letters. 2004 ;4:1741-1747..
The effect of plasmon field on the coherent lattice phonon oscillation in electron-beam fabricated gold nanoparticle pairs. Nano Letters. 2007 ;7:3227-3234..
Effect of the lattice crystallinity on the electron-phonon relaxation rates in gold nanoparticles. Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2007 ;111:10751-10757..
Gigahertz optical modulation resulting from coherent lattice oscillations induced by femtosecond laser pumping of 2D photonic crystals of gold-capped polystyrene microspheres. Advanced Materials. 2008 ;20:733-+..
Gold nanoparticles propulsion from surface fueled by absorption of femtosecond laser pulse at their surface plasmon resonance. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2006 ;128:13330-13331..
The Optically Detected Coherent Lattice Oscillations in Silver and Gold Monolayer Periodic Nanoprism Arrays: The Effect of Interparticle Coupling. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B [Internet]. 2005 ;109(40):18881 - 18888. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp0526647.
Photothermal reshaping of prismatic Au nanoparticles in periodic monolayer arrays by femtosecond laser pulses. Journal of Applied Physics. 2005 ;98..
Photothermally excited coherent lattice phonon oscillations in plasmonic nanoparticles. European Physical Journal-Special Topics. 2008 ;153:325-333..
Pulsed laser photothermal annealing and ablation of plasmonic nanoparticles. European Physical Journal-Special Topics. 2008 ;153:223-230..
Time-resolved investigation of the acoustic vibration of a single gold nanoprism pair. Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2008 ;112:11231-11235..
On the universal scaling behavior of the distance decay of plasmon coupling in metal nanoparticle pairs: A plasmon ruler equation. Nano Letters. 2007 ;7:2080-2088..
Using silica films and powders modified with benzophenone to photoreduce silver nanoparticles. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology a-Chemistry. 2006 ;181:385-393..


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Robert Hass's Time and Materials, winner of the 2007 National Book Award for poetry, deals with an unusually wide range of subjects for an 88-page collection — trees, a mother's alcoholism, the war in Iraq. One of its best poems is "State of the Planet," which marks the 50th anniversary of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University. It includes this memorable sixain:
"It must be a gift of evolution that humans
Can't sustain wonder. We'd never have gotten up
From our knees if we could. But soon enough
We'd have fashioned sexy little earrings from the feathers,
Highlighted our cheekbone by rubbings from the rock,
And made a spear from the sinewey wood of the tree."
From Robert Hass's "State of the Planet" in Time and Materials: Poems 1997–2005 (HarperCollins/Ecco, $22.95) www.eccobooks.com and www.nationalbook.org.


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I'll admit that I didn't get the excitement about the Moto X when it launched. A so-called "Google phone" was something that people have speculated about since Google's purchase of Motorola closed last year. And yet, much of the breathless pre-release coverage (and several early reviews of the phone) seemed to treat the phone as special because Google was saying it was special, not because it was earth-shattering hardware in and of itself.
We're now about two weeks out from our first hands-on session with the phone. After living with it for a while, I get it—at least a little. There are still things about the phone that I don't understand, but I can see why people would walk into a store and walk out with the Moto X instead of a Galaxy S 4 or an HTC One or even an iPhone 5. It's the rare flagship Android handset that's greater than the sum of its specifications, even if in the end it's still just another Android phone with a couple useful extra features stacked on top.
But the Moto X doesn't need to melt anyone's face or sweep Samsung under the rug. The Moto X doesn't need to redefine the way we think about smartphones or show us Google's grand vision for Android's future. The Moto X just needs to reverse Motorola's decline, stop the bleeding, and show that Motorola and its parent company can put their heads together and put out a desirable smartphone.
|Specs at a glance: Google/Motorola Moto X
|1280×720 4.7-inch (313 PPI) RGB AMOLED
|Android 4.2.2
|"Motorola X8 Computing System" (Dual-core 1.7GHz Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 with co-processors)
|Qualcomm Adreno 320
|16 or 32 GB NAND flash
|802.11a/b/g/n/ac, Bluetooth 4.0, NFC, LTE (bands are variable depending on carrier)
|Micro-USB, headphones
|10MP rear camera, 2MP front camera
|5.09" × 2.57" × 0.22-0.41" (129.4 × 65.3 × 5.7-10.4 mm)
|4.59 oz. (130 g)
|2200 mAh
|Starting price
|$199 with two-year Verizon, AT&T, Sprint, or T-Mobile contract
Body and build quality
The short version: Finally, a flagship phone that feels great to hold. Where the Nexus 4, Galaxy S 4, HTC One, and others are all a little uncomfortable for one reason or another, the Moto X gives you a phone you can use one-handed, without ripping out all of the desirable features.
The long version: There are a few phones I've used—the HTC 8X, the BlackBerry Z10—that have earned my esteem specifically because they are really nice to hold. Both Windows Phone and BlackBerry 10 are still missing too many things for me to use either of those devices as a primary real-life handset for longer than a week or two (the amount of time I like to spend with review hardware, at a minimum), but in both cases I wished I could get phones exactly like them with stock Android installed instead. The Moto X comes very close to being that phone.
The Moto X's 4.7-inch screen belies its size—the phone is actually very similar in width to the Z10 and the HTC 8X, even though those phones have smaller 4.2 and 4.3-inch displays. Compared to other Android phones with similar screens like the 4.65-inch display of the Galaxy Nexus, the 4.7-inch screens of last year's Droid Razr HD phones, or the 4.8-inch screen on the Galaxy S III, the Moto X is both narrower and shorter. It's still larger than an iPhone 5 by a fair margin, and it's thicker than some of its high-end Android competitors (0.41 inches at its thickest point, compared to 0.36 inches for the S 4 and 0.37 for the HTC One). Still, the phone's width and height combined with the curve of its non-removable back makes it one of the most comfortable-to-hold Android flagships you can buy right now.
Of the competing flagship phones, the One and its 4.7-inch 1080p display come the closest to matching the width of the Moto X (at 2.69 inches, compared to 2.57 inches), but the One's height and its top-mounted power button are less-than-friendly to one-handed users. Some Android phone screens are creeping up above six inches, and frankly it's nice to get something fast that doesn't include a warning about team lifting.
The build quality of the phone's all-plastic body is decent but not exceptional. It feels sturdy in the hand and doesn't creak or flex like Samsung's phones can, but small imperfections keep it from playing in the same league as the HTC One or iPhone 5. The power and volume buttons feel just a bit too loose, the SIM card tray sticks out from the side of the phone just a bit too much, and the phone (at least in white, the color of our review unit) looks cheaper than it feels.
The difference between the Moto X and something like the HTC One is akin to the difference between the old white polycarbonate MacBook and the aluminum unibody MacBook Pros. Both feel like solid, well-made devices, but one is definitely made from superior materials.
The screen: Not all AMOLEDs are created equal
The short version: You'll notice the Moto X's AMOLED display before you'll notice its 720p resolution. At least it isn't PenTile.
The long version: That 4.7-inch screen has a resolution of 1280×720, a spec that was much more common in flagship phones a year ago. The screen has a still-respectable 313 PPI, which pales in comparison to the 469 PPI of the One or the 441 PPI of the Galaxy S 4 but is nevertheless crisp and readable. The difference between a 720p smartphone screen and a 1080p smartphone screen is not the legibility of tiny text, but the crispness of that tiny text. By the time letters are too small to discern on the 720p display, you're going to want to zoom in for a closer look anyway. We'll use some pictures from our look at HTC's Droid DNA, the first 1080p smartphone screen we encountered, to demonstrate.
The display's quality is ultimately more germane to this discussion than its resolution. The Moto X uses an AMOLED display, which suffers and benefits from most of the same things that most other AMOLED displays suffer and benefit from. On the one hand, the screen offers deep blacks and vibrant colors; on the other, those colors are inaccurate and sometimes too harsh. Whites and grays often take on a greenish or purplish cast. Outdoor visibility also suffers, and the Moto X's display looks washed out, even in indirect sunlight.
Where the Moto X differs from phones like the Galaxy Nexus and Galaxy S III is that its AMOLED screen doesn't use the problematic PenTile subpixel arrangement. The negative effects of PenTile are more visible at lower resolutions (and are basically gone once you move to a 1080p display like the Galaxy S 4's), but even at 720p you may notice slightly jagged text and uneven-looking images (see below).
The non-PenTile screen on the Moto X enables crisper text and more even colors. Note particularly the flat, uninterrupted white of the Google Play icon that looks almost rough on the Galaxy S III's PenTile display. At 306 PPI, the S III's screen is pretty close to the Moto X's in density, but the subpixel arrangement makes for a screen that's a little harder on the eyes after an extended period.
As with the build quality, the Moto X's screen is a little deficient compared to phones from other companies at the same price point. Still, Motorola and Google have chosen a screen that is good enough that Joe Smartphone probably won't be bothered by it. I would like to see more AMOLED displays come with color profiles like those included on the TouchWiz versions of the Galaxy S 4—research has shown that using that phone's display in Samsung's Movie or Photo modes will take the edge off of AMOLED's harsh colors, eliminating one of my biggest gripes about the display tech. Neither stock Android nor the near-stock version of Android on the Moto X includes such profiles, a situation we'd like Google to rectify.


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Submitted by braswell on October 3, 2013 – 12:07pm
POPLARVILLE – Planning is well underway for the 2014 Pearl River Community College Women's Health Symposium in partnership with the Lower Pearl River Valley Foundation.
The foundation presented a grant of $17,000 to PRCC President William Lewis for the symposium, set for Jan. 25 on PRCC's Poplarville campus.
"The Women's Health Symposium has grown to be a most significant event for Pearl River Community College," Lewis said. "The participation that we have experienced for the past few years from the community has greatly enhanced our enthusiasm for promoting healthy lifestyles. Without the continuing support of the Lower Pearl River Valley Foundation, this event would not be possible.
"We're most grateful for their continuing assistance."
Approximately 400 women have attended previous symposiums, which feature free health screenings and panel discussions by health professionals.
"For the past few years, the symposium has been one of the best-attended events at the college," said Dr. Ted Alexander, chief executive officer of the foundation. "We think it's great that women have an opportunity to have some basic health information made available to them as well as the other events associated with the symposium. The foundation is pleased to partner with the college to assist in this annual event."
Keynote speaker for the eighth annual symposium is Jean Gatz, a motivational speaker who blends humor with her life experiences as a wife, mother, grandmother, daughter, sister and friend. The day will also include an art walk, entertainment and information booths.
"The LPRVF funds will help to provide greatly needed health services and information to the symposium participants, a majority of whom are from the Pearl River County area," said Dr. Becky Askew, chair of the Symposium Steering Committee. "By providing free health screenings, having informative sessions and providing opportunities for those attending to ask questions of health professionals, it is hoped that the participants will make changes to their lifestyles, leading to healthier and more productive lives."
Dr. Ted Alexander, chief executive officer of the Lower Pearl River Valley Foundation, presents a grant to Dr. William Lewis, Pearl River College president, and Dr. Becky Askew, chair of the Women's Health Symposium, to help fund the Jan. 25 symposium.
PRCC Public Relations photo


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The Pretense of Colorblindness
Posted by The Situationist Staff on February 24, 2012
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From Working Knowledge:
In trying to prevent discrimination and prejudice, many companies adopt a strategy of "colorblindness"—actively trying to ignore racial differences when enacting policies and making organizational decisions. The logic is simple: if we don't even notice race, then we can't act in a racist manner.
The problem is that most of us naturally do notice each other's racial differences, regardless of our employer's policy.
"It's so appealing on the surface to think that the best way to approach race is to pretend that it doesn't exist," says behavioral psychologist Michael I. Norton, an associate professor at Harvard Business School. "But research shows that it simply doesn't work. We do notice race, and there's no way of getting around this fact."
Several studies by Norton and his colleagues show that attempting to overcome prejudice by ignoring race is an ineffective strategy that—in many cases—only serves to perpetuate bias. In short, bending over backward to ignore race can exacerbate rather than solve issues of race in the workplace.
"Umm, he has pants"
In efforts to be politically correct, people often avoid mentioning race when describing a person, even if that person's race is the most obvious descriptor. (Comedian Stephen Colbert often pokes fun of this tendency on his TV show, The Colbert Report, claiming that he doesn't "see color.") If a manager, for example, is asked which guy Fred is, he or she may be loath to say, "Fred's Asian," even if Fred is the only Asian person in the company.
"Instead, it's, 'He's that nice man who works in operations, and, umm, he has hair, and, umm, he has pants,' " Norton says. "And it keeps going on until finally someone comes out and asks, 'Oh, is he Asian?'"
Norton and several colleagues documented this phenomenon in a study that they described in an article for the journal Psychological Science, Color Blindness and Interracial Interaction. The researchers conducted an experiment in which white participants engaged in a two-person guessing game designed—unbeknownst to them—to measure their tendencies toward attempted racial colorblindness.
Each participant was given a stack of photographs, which included 32 different faces. A partner sat across from the participant, looking at one picture that matched a picture from the participant's stack. The participants were told that the goal of the game was to determine which photo the partner was holding by asking as few yes/no questions as possible—for example, "Is the person bald?"
Half the faces on the cards were black, and the other half white, so asking a yes/no question about skin color was a very efficient way to narrow down the identity of the photo on the partner's card. But the researchers found that many of the participants completely avoided asking their partners about the skin color of the person in the photograph—especially when paired with a black partner. Some 93 percent of participants with white partners mentioned race during the guessing game, as opposed to just 64 percent who were playing the game with black partners.
Backfiring results
Two independent coders were hired to watch videos of the sessions on mute, rating the perceived friendliness of the white participants based on nonverbal cues. Alas, the participants who attempted colorblindness came across as especially unfriendly, often avoiding eye contact with their black partners. And when interviewed after the experiment, black partners reported perceiving the most racial bias among those participants who avoided mentioning race.
"The impression was that if you're being so weird about not mentioning race, you probably have something to hide," Norton says.
The researchers repeated the experiment on a group of elementary school children. The third graders often scored higher on the guessing game than grown-ups because, Norton says, they weren't afraid to ask if the person in the photo was black or white. But many of the fourth and fifth graders avoided mentioning race during the game. As it turns out, racial colorblindness is a social convention that many Americans start to internalize by as young as age 10. "Very early on kids get the message that they are not supposed to acknowledge that they notice people's race—often the result of a horrified reaction from a parent when they do," Norton says.
A zero-sum game?
In addition to an ineffective strategy at managing interracial interactions, racial colorblindness has evolved into an argument against affirmative action policies, an issue Norton addresses in a recent working paper, Racial Colorblindness: Emergence, Practice, and Implications, cowritten with Evan P. Apfelbaum of MIT and Samuel R. Sommers of Tufts University.
"Though once emblematic of the fight for equal opportunity among racial minorities marginalized by openly discriminatory practices, contemporary legal arguments for colorblindness have become increasingly geared toward combating race-conscious policies," they write. "If racial minority status confers an advantage in hiring and school admissions and in the selection of voting districts and government subcontractors—the argument goes—then Whites' right for equal protection may be violated."
In a related article, Whites See Racism as a Zero-Sum Game That They Are Now Losing, Norton and Sommers surveyed 100 white and 100 black respondents about their perceptions of racial bias in recent American history. They found that black respondents reported a large decrease in antiblack bias between the 1950s and the 2000s, but perceived virtually no antiwhite bias in that same period—ever. White respondents, on the other hand, perceived a large decrease in antiblack bias over time, but also a huge increase in antiwhite bias. In fact, on average, white respondents perceive more antiwhite bias than antiblack bias in the twenty-first century.
"It's very hard to find a metric that suggests that white people actually have a worse time of it than black people," Norton says. "But this perception is driving the current cultural discourse in race and affirmative action. It's not just that whites think blacks are getting some unfair breaks, it's that whites are thinking, 'I'm actually the victim of discrimination now.'"
Related Situationist posts:
- Colorblind? Really?
- Preference, Principle, & Casuistry
- Interview with Professor Eric Knowles
- Color Conscious Situation of Neighborhood Choice
- "The Legal and Procedural Situation of Segregation,"
- "Perceptual Segregation – Abstract,"
- "Blood & Race,"
- "Wages Are Only Skin Deep – Abstract."
- "Why Race May Influence Us Even When We "Know" It Doesn't,"
- "Wages Are Only Skin Deep – Abstract,"
- "Colorblinded Wages – Abstract," and
- "Shades of Fairness and the Marketing of Prejudice."


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This post was first published in March of 2007.
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Watching this year's tournament, it is difficult not to notice the profoundly passionate (mad?) fan base enjoyed by so many teams. We're not just talking about the "Go! Go! Rah! Rah! Siss Boom Bah!" of conventional cheering sections. We're talking about camping overnight (sometimes over two nights) on cold, wet sidewalks to queue up for pricey game tickets. We're talking about full-on body painting — face, hair, the works — to exhibit team spirit. And, in some cases, we're talking about taunts and jeers directed at the opposing team and their equally, um, "enthusiastic" supporters. Those familiar with the "Duke Sucks" refrain know what we are talking about. Of course, this is nothing new. And, for the fans of some teams, the devotion lasts all season.
Among "true fans" there seems to be a race to excess, as the images above of Duke, George Mason and Georgia fans indicate. These fans care. A lot. True, all those teams have been eliminated in this year's tournament, including the Blue Devils who were knocked out in the first round. Regardless, no one can say that these fans didn't do their part to will their teams to victory — blind faith, unlimited allegiance, and some fluorescent body paint, such is the stuff of deep fandom.
Few things feed the fires of madness quite like success. Otherwise ordinary (intoxicated) college students turn into "mobs" following an important team victory. To the left we see a photo of Maryland fans rioting after their team . . . won the NCAA title. "Yay us! I know, let's burn some furniture to celebrate."
So what is going on? How can teams do this to us? Why would John Q. Freshman and Jane Q. Sophomore go to such extremes, spending so much time, energy, money, even dignity, to root for their school? After-all, most college fans could as easily have gone to another college, even a rival college; and the students at Them University are often indistinguishable from those at Us University, except for their college affiliation and bumper stickers.
Still, to most of us, bumper-sticker distinctions are enough to justify our love for our team and our loathing for theirs. After all, Us U. accepted us, while Them U. accepted them. "It's Us against Them! Let's torch the sofa!"
There are many partial explanations for this strange behavior — which is rendered particularly puzzling in light of our more general self-conceptions as individuals living in an individualistic culture. Of course, we are not just individuals doing things our own way according to our own moral compass and preferences. Our own identities are largely wrapped in group associations that are no less random than, among countless other variables, where we are born or the the acceptance and rejection letters of college admissions committees. And once we have identified in-groups and out-groups, our attributions and understanding of the world is interpreted through those distorting lenses. Thus, as Situationist Contributor Susan Fiske has written with Shelley Taylor, the categories carry their own weight: "Simply categorizing people into groups minimizes within-group variability and maximizes between-group differences":
Categorization's effect of reducing perceived variability is even stronger when people are considering groups to which they do not belong. A group of outsiders (an outgroup) appears less variable than one's own group (ingroup) . . . . Minimizing the variability of members within an outgroup means that they are not being recognized as distinct individuals as much as they would be if they were perceived as ingroup members.
Social psychologists have also discovered that these groups give rise to various motivated attributions of causation, responsibility, and blame — including the "ultimate attribution error": In-group members tend to make internal (dispositional) attributions to positive in-group behavior and negative out-group behavior, as well as external (situational) attributions to negative in-group behavior and positive out-group behavior.
It may be tempting to conclude that such tendencies of individuals to coalesce into a highly regulated and constraining collective unit is limited to just drunken, hormonally hyper, college students. No doubt, that helps. But the madness of March runs much deeper than that. Need we say more than Boston Red Sox versus the New York Yankees? In case you answered "yes," consider the following two quotations from two baseball fans, who, we suspect, have much in common. First, the Yankees fan:
Down at St. Marks Ale House in the East Village, a 25-year old fan said: "The worst would be losing to Boston fans because they're such ignorant, bitter people. They're so used to losing, all they have is hate. There's no humility. That's what we want to see. We want to see humility."
Ok, now the Red Sox fan:
"We don't hate the Yankees because they suck at baseball, I think it's obvious they don't, we hate them because they are all stuck up jerks who are all over-paid just because all their fans are bad losers and they need to pay guys millions of dollars so they can win. Besides that, they are all drunken freaks on crack (well, a lot of them are)."
(As objective scholars, we think it important that we remain neutral by simply pointing out the obvious: the second quotation is credible while the first one is clearly the drunken rantings of Yankee crackpot.)
Speaking of drinking, although alcohol might exacerbate the team-oriented behaviors and prejudices, it occurs among the sober as well. Indeed, one of social psychology's best-known, classic experiments involved this phenomenon among kids at camp. Eliot Smith and Diane Mackie, two experts on group behavior, summarize the experiment in their Social Psychology Text as follows:
On June 19 1954, two groups of 11-year-old boys tumbled out of buses to start summer camp in the Sans Bois mountains near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Robbers Cave State Park, name for the hideout of he notorious outlaw Jesse James, offered a 200-acre site with fishing, swimming, canoeing, hiking, and the usual camp games and sports. The new arrivals were ordinary White, middle-class boys with no record of school, psychological, or behavioral problems. They had nothing on their minds except high hopes for a fun-filled 3-week vacation.
The camp was more than it seemed, however. Unknown to the boys, their parents had agreed to let them participate in a field study of intergroup conflict set up by Muzafer Sherif and his colleagues — a study that came to be known as the Robbers Cave experiment . . . . The boys did not know that the camp counselors and directors were social psychologists and research assistants. Nor, at first, did members of each group know that another group was sharing the campsite.
During the first week, as they took part in separate activities designed to promote group cohesion, each group developed norms and leaders. They gave themselves names, the Eagles and the Rattlers, and each group designed a flag. Toward the end of the week, the groups discovered each other. Seeing "those guys" using "our ball field" and "our hiking trails" sparked demands for a competition. The staff was only too pleased to arrange a 4-day tournament including baseball, tug-of-war, a treasure hunt, and other events. The experiments even promised the winners a fancy trophy, shiny badges, and four-bladed pocketknives. Both groups practiced hard, cheered their teammates, and roundly booed and insulted the competition. Hostilities escalated as the tournament progressed, culminating in a flag-burning when the Eagles lost the tug-of-war.
The Eagles ultimately won the tournament, collecting the trophy and the coveted pocketknives. But while they were taking a celebratory swim, the Rattlers raided their cabins and stole the prizes. The rivalry had turned into full-blown war, and the staff was kept buys silencing the name calling, breaking up fist fights, and cleaning up after cabin raids and food fights. The experiment had transformed 22 perfectly normal boys into to gangs of brawling troublemakers, full of hostility and intent on exacting revenge for every real or imagined slight.
In short, the subjects in the Robber's Cave experiment behaved very much like the subjects in the natural experiments in, among other places, college athletics. Randomly assigned and "normal" people can, with only the tiniest situational manipulations, readily form strong in-group alliances and robust out-group aversions.
One might be tempted to conclude that extreme "groupism" or "teamism" is limited to the irrelevant — that fans allow themselves to get swept up in, say, the NCAA tournament or the Eagles and Rattlers engaged in food fights and cabin raids solely because it's fun, and there's no real harm in it.
According to that account, people care so much about their teams in part because, in the grand scheme, their team's performance matters so little. With the premise, we wholeheartedly agree: It is hard to know why it matters who makes it to the Final Four. We say that, though, not as big-dance killjoys, but as hard-core fans who actually care a great deal — though for reasons that are beyond the grasp of our conscious minds. And so it is that we have serious doubts that about the argument that our concern with sports is simply all in fun. We think it more likely that the "all in good fun" rationalization is what we offer to make sense of the disproportionate role that sports play in our lives — something akin to an alcoholic announcing that he drinks because he enjoys drinking and not because he is addicted.
Regardless, there seem to be other situations in which our team-oriented tendencies do clearly matter — do pose meaningful risk of harm to others or ourselves. And in those moments, the dynamics seem strikingly familiar. The body paints and costumes of the bleachers have much in common with the body paints and uniforms of blood feuds and battlefields. Blind faith, unlimited allegiance, and some camouflaging body paint; that is the stuff of armed combat. Team affiliation — "us versus them" — is the stuff local violence and global wars. Teams identified by schools, clans, genders, races, regions, religions, languages, nations get swept up in the excesses of "us and them,"often in ways that can only be described as irrationally self-destructive. So it is, that, particularly in retrospect, we are befuddled by the spats, fights, battles, and wars that others have fought (or that we ourselves were embroiled in previously): "Why did it matter so much? What were they thinking? Were those people mad?"
Sports have long been understood as a powerful means of teaching and learning lessons about life — about winning and losing, hard work, competition, and teamwork. But sports have a lot to teach us about ourselves that we seem to want to ignore and might not want to admit. Sports reflect and exploit tendencies that have both good and bad effects. Why not dwell a little lesss on the former and focus a bit more on the latter?
March Madness for all its fun and irrelevance may be a symptom of a deeper tendency — a madness of sorts — that social psychologists have long seen at the heart of intergroup aggression and conflict. Parents, teachers, coaches, universities and the like should focus on that tendency and the questions it raises such as: How is it that largely random and often insignificant variations can determine who is "us" and who is "them"? Why do we so quickly, easily, unthinkingly fall into line behind the flag of the perceived "us," so ready to attack those who we perceive as "them." Why are we so stingy with our empathy and so generous with our self-righteousness toward out-group members?
Our aim in raising these issues is not to take the fun out of sports, which we love; rather, it is to suggest that we might better learn about ourselves from our sports so that we might take some of the fun out of needless agression, conflict, and war. Just as Sherif and his colleagues learned a great deal about human conflict in their Robber's Cave study, there is much that might be learned from the experiments taking place every day on the playing fields, tracks, courts, and diamonds of sports.
Those questions and topics are the focus of some of our ongoing work, and we hope to return to them in subsequent posts.
Oh, and in the meantime . . .
To read the comments from last year's version of this post, click here and scroll down. To read a sample of related Situationist posts, see "Race Attributions and Georgetown University Basketball," "Some (Interior) Situational Sources War – Part I," "Deindividuation and Seung Hui Cho," "The Origins of Sports Team Fandom," "Attributing Blame — from the Baseball Diamond to the War on Terror," and "Situationist Theories of Hate – Part II." (Next week we plan to post a summary of research neuroscientific research suggesting how our brains tend to see outgroups members differently from ingroup members.)


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Dogs name: Boozo
Owners Name: Sanjeev
They are so nice n freindly and very sweet with children too... feel sorry that they have been mis-understood...
Dogs name: Boozo
Owners Name: Sanjeev
They are so nice n freindly and very sweet with children too... feel sorry that they have been mis-understood...
Meredith May had had dogs before but was not prepared for life with Golden Retriever Edie. She discusses her book Loving Edie, which their shared journey. Nicola Jane Swinney loves dogs, so much so that she's written a book about 101 Dogs, giving a quirky insight into their characteristics. Listen during the dog walk, or cuddled up on the couch with your canine.
In this episode you can hear Mark Winik talk about his debut novel, The Dog Healers, and listen to Julia Robertson explain why she founded the charity War Dogs remembered. Plus there's the DogCast Radio News, and what Mischief the German Spitz puppy has been up to.
In this episode you can hear about Service Dogs UK, a fantastic charity which trains assistance dogs to support veterans of any service - military personnel, police, firefighters, paramedics and the coastguard - who develop Post Traumatic Stress Disorder due to their job. Also, listen to Dr Jody A Dean, a clinical psychologist talk about how her book, Roxie the Doxie finds her Forever Home, is helping children understand and talk about adoption and other family issues. Plus the DogCast Radio News and some thoughts on the alpha dog myth.
In this episode you can hear about Muffin's Halo for Blind Dogs, and what motivates people to enter their dog in a fun dog show. In the DogCast Radio News, listen to stories about the latest dog related research. Plus there's a new member of the DogCast Radio team!
In this episode you can hear trainer, behaviourist, writer, broadcaster and wolf expert Maxwell Muir talk about what wolves mean to him personally, their plight in a modern world, and his hopes for their future. Plus we have the DogCast Radio News.


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Some Known Questions About Golf Brands Available In-store – Golf & Ski Warehouse.
Mizuno have been forging irons in their Hiroshima plant in Japan since 1968 and the results are some really spectacular irons. The Mizuno irons are generally made for the better players in the game while the brand have also just released their new Pro range in Western markets for the first time (golf apparel).
They've done such a good job on these irons that even becomes with some consistency will be able to game them effectively. Overall Score: 97/100 Check Out More Reviews Here: Best Small Golf Club Brand – PXG Brand Persona: Disruptor History: A brand recently started by the owner of Go Daddy was thought of as a bit of a joke by the competition but by the time the premium quality golf clubs were rolling off the shelves, the joke was over.
Clubs They Do Well: Irons Drivers Hybrids Putters Standout Clubs PXG 0211 Irons For some time, PXG only made premium quality clubs for better players but last year that all changed with the PXG 0211's. golf clubs. The goal with the 0211's was to produce the same premium quality as you would expect with the forged irons in a cast iron body that is also affordable for the average golfer.
What Does Golf Equipment & Gear – Target Do?
Overall Score: 95/100 Check Out More Reviews Here: Best For Short Game – Cleveland Brand Persona: Outlier Cleveland History If Cleveland is known for anything, its got to be the quality and performance of their wedges. Or perhaps they are also known for their Hunnington Beach putters, named after the place where the company was founded in 1979.
Another reason for their epic success was giving multiple bounce options on the soles of their clubs and individually milling the faces. Well know for average players through to seasoned professionals, there is a Cleveland wedge ready to fit in any golfers bag (golf bag). Clubs They Do Well: Drivers Woods Wedges Putters Standout Clubs RTX Zipcore Wedges Well known as one of the best wedges in the game, the RTX zipcore offers the full package for golfers.
The RTX wedges are heat treated for durability and deliver exceptional performance on the course. In close competition with the CBX 2 wedges from the same brand. Overall Score: 98/100 Check Out More Reviews Here: Cleveland Golf HB Soft Premier The Huntington Beach HB soft putter is one of the best you can find in the game.


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DESTINATIONS netherlands
The Netherlands really is a land of windmills, tulips, and canals, while being a progressive 21st-century nation. The capital, Amsterdam, is famous for its waterways and its laid-back atmosphere. The Hague is home to the queen and a center for international diplomacy. And Delft and Haarlem are smaller, character-rich cities.


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Front Runners List: Click to see list completion progress by climbers that log their climbs using Peakbagger.com.
Compare Climbers: Click to compare ascents of up to 5 climbers working on this list.
This list is one of the rare ones that can not be officially completed if you have not started it yet. It is only for those who were lucky enough to have climbed Mount Saint Helens before May, 1980, when its elevation was 9677 feet. If you have done that, the remaining summits are all still the way they have been for some time, and you can grab this coveted pin, making you a real northwest climbing "old timer".
Currently, the Peakbagger.com database can only store the elevation of a summit as it is at the present time. There is no handling of historic peak elevations or list additions/deletions. So this list shows only the current Mount Saint Helens and is therefore not the true and correct list, which requires a climb of a peak that no longer exists.
There is a "provisional" Mount Saint Helens in the database at 9677 feet, and climbers who were there before 1980 can log an ascent of that peak, but for now it will not be promoted to the main database and will not appear on any lists. A possible future enhancement is finding a way to handle this in the database code.
= Peak with Rank #1 on List;   = Other Peaks
This page has been served 1444620 times since 2004-11-01.


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