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One of the biggest draws at Chartres Cathedral has long been Our Lady of the Pillar. One of the hundreds of Vierges Noires, or Black Madonnas, of France, she has been the object of veneration of countless millions of devotees. Every morning, businessman with their briefcases come to spend time with her before heading off for the office. Grandmothers bring her flowers, children shyly kiss the pillar and look for acorns carved under her skirts. One of my most surreal memories is of the year that I fell asleep for a nap, and awoke to find the entire town swarming with thousands of Indians, bedecked in colorful saris and sparkling jewels, chicken tikka and samosa carts wafting the tantalizing smell of curry throughout the crowded streets. It was the Tamil pilgrimage to the Black Madonna, and the priests were chanting in Sanskrit as the pilgrims carried a copy of her around the town in a flower covered palanquin.
So imagine my shock when I returned to the chapel of Our Lady of the Pillar and found this statue gazing back at me instead. Not the ebony Queen of Heaven, but a rosy cheeked, blue eyed blonde. I must confess that my first reactions were horror and disappointment . I felt that in their efforts to return the Cathedral to a 19th century vision, the state was betraying an older, deeper legacy.
But using the lens of alchemy, I can offer another perspective, one that is bit more hopeful.
In the Medieval world, psychospiritual development was understood to follow a fourfold path. The first step towards spiritual maturity is called the Negredo, or blackening. This is the place where everything falls apart. All is chaos and disintegration. Its symbols are darkness, the color black and even excrement. In our vernacular, we would say, this is the point where everything is simply shitty! The step out of this is called Albedo, the whitening. It is a time of deep emotions, a time of purification. The symbols are water, the moon, silver and tears. It is the time of the deep feminine, a time of profound healing and cleansing. The third stage, citrinitis, is symbolized by the color gold and the sun. It is a time of the dawning of new consciousness, and the awakened masculine. Finally at the end of the cycle is the rubedo, or reddening : the culmination of the spiritual journey where the tension of the opposites is transcended and the divine self is born.
I have studied on and lectured about this material for years. Knowing about the great tradition of alchemy from Pythagoras through Nicholas Flammel to Jung and the Gnostics, and even Mozart and The Wizard of Oz, has enabled me to hold what is happening at the cathedral in a symbolic, with a fragment of hope.
Perhaps we are collectively moving out of the stage of Negredo (spiritual darkness, emptiness , violence and despair) into a time of deep emotional catharsis. Maybe the whitening of the cathedral and the Madonna is not some governmental mechanism of controlling the populace and raping mystery (as I heard one irate pilgrim opine), but a symbol that we are heading towards the deep currents of what will nurture and heal our wounded hearts. Perhaps it will be a time of immersing ourselves in the purifying streams of beauty and tenderness. A time of slowing down, a time of dreaming by the light of the moon, a time of collectively washing ourselves clean of corruption, despair and cynicism to embrace- all of us- the feminine within that will eventually led to new awareness and rebirth. May it be so. It can't come too soon.
Lôvélÿ, powerful Post! This summer, artist Shiloh Sophia McCloud and a group of her students are painting in Paris! BéÂüTïFüL, amazing Paris....
Valentina Annerino
9/6/2017 11:56:12 am
Kayleen, This is not just a beautiful re-frame,more importantly, your view connects us to the larger, alchemical and universal story of greater unfolding. I truly appreciate your deeper and larger interpretation. Some years ago, something spoke to me and I was moved to look for information about the Black Madonna. At that time, before internet, I could only find one book about her in Sicily. The gist of the book was that many of these sites were buried and that Catholic churches were built on top. Maybe, I heard of her when I was doing my thesis, some 25 years ago, in Elinor Gadon's book, THE ONCE AND FUTURE GODDESS. Anyway thank you for your perspective.
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September 2020


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All dental teams need to have time for team building. A time to step away from the office and continue to build personal relationships with each other. Here is a list of 25 Team Building Activities to try with your team.
25 Team Building Activities You Should Do With Your Team
1. Scavenger Hunt
2. What's My Name?
3. Cook-off
4. Sneak a Peek
5. Board Game Tournament
6. Office Trivia
7. Improv Workshop
8. Two Truths and a Lie
9. Karaoke Night
10. The "suddenly" Story
11. Go-Kart Racing
12. Concentration (marketing addition)
13. Professional Development Workshop
14. Jigsaw Puzzle Race
15. Room Escape Games
16. The Egg Drop Challenge
17. Laser Tag
18. Catch Phrase
19. Volunteer
20. Mystery Dinner
21. Kayaking/Canoeing
22. Trampoline Park
23. Something Touristy
24. Painting Class
25. Cooking Class

subset: commoncrawl


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Local restaurants pass/fail personal loyalty test
As I've written before on this site, if a retailer wants my loyalty, they need to earn it. Two recent experiences at local restaurants presented a particular challenge. My visits could have resulted in the short-term loss of revenue for both, but the respective reactions of the restaurant staff means one has earned my business going forward and the other has lost it.
Let's start with the negative so we can end on a high note. Last month, our youngest child had her "stepping up" ceremony as recognition of having completed kindergarten. Her graduation, as she called it, was a big deal to her, but having landed on the same day as her big sister's birthday and near her brother's graduation from high school, she felt it was a little underplayed by the family.
Being a "tell it like she sees it" kid, she told us she would like a family dinner to celebrate her achievement and she would like to help bake a cake to commemorate the occasion. We thought her request reasonable, so we set aside a weekend day for the cake baking and decided it would be nice to have the family dinner out at a local restaurant.
When we arrived at a local brick oven pizza place, we were informed we would be charged $3 per person if we ate the cake in the restaurant. Even after explaining the nature of our celebration and how the cake came to be baked, we were told there were no exceptions and our choice was to pay $21 to eat our own cake.
Despite my urging otherwise, we sat down to eat since it was a busy weekend evening. When it came time for dessert, we did not ask for plates for our daughter's cake. We all got a good laugh when the waiter asked if we'd like to see the dessert menu. I won't speak for the other family members, but this restaurant, which I patronized four to six times a year before this incident, will not be getting any more of my business.
Now to the other story: About a week after the birthday cake incident, I was out running errands around town and ran into my wife and daughter who had just come from getting a drink following a dance class. It was getting near lunch and my wife suggested we get a bite to eat. Our daughter asked if we could visit a nearby café that specialized in crepes.
Here we were, with their two almost full drinks in hand, walking into another restaurant. Instead of giving us a hard time about the drinks, which were clearly labeled as being from another business, the owner said it was no problem. People in our town, she said, walk around and go in and out of shops and restaurants. It was normal to see patrons walk in with a drink from a deli or coffee shop. Should she get upset when they could be walking into other shops with her drinks to go? It made sense to me as does a return visit to Paris Café in Cranford, NJ.
Do most retailers and other businesses grasp that emotional loyalty is key to deeper customer engagement? Why do you think many businesses, as in one case here, take a short-term view of their relationship with customers?
Join the Discussion!
24 Comments on "Local restaurants pass/fail personal loyalty test"
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Sorry, I'm not sure the one being unreasonable was the restaurant, George. You wanted them to do it your way and, when there was a price attached to it, you balked. Most restaurants have a corkage fee, this is not much different. You could have gotten what you wanted and just paid the fee, or called ahead to check.
This is such a rare and isolated case, I can't see the practical implications for the restaurant.
I'd like to turn the question around, why do you think a customer takes a short-term view of a restaurant and expects any request outside of stated policy, not "free equals death to their loyalty?"
Most retailers do make a strong attempt to connect emotionally and build loyalty with their customers. Where they get challenged in their busy worlds is in properly discussing and training their associates about customer relations. In the hospitality business it can be especially challenging, as the turn-over rate of associates can be as high as 300 percent per-year.
Nevertheless, the manager of the first restaurant wasn't quite at the top of his/her game. Instead of providing an added $21 "service charge," the manager should have asked George's young "graduate" if she would like some ice cream, on the house, for her cake.
One of the primary reasons that consumers choose a particular restaurant is the knowledgeable, friendly staff. This is the hospitality business with which we all interact on an ongoing basis.
Common sense, alas, is not often common enough.
I have to disagree with Bob on this one. The restaurant may have a "policy," but how often does this sort of situation arise requiring a policy in the first place? Not often, I'm guessing. And isn't there room for exceptions to such hard-and-fast rules in the first place? The larger point is that any service provider needs to be especially careful not to be penny-wise and pound-foolish, at risk of chasing away regular customers like George.
No—most small businesses do not understand loyalty or why they are deserving of their customers. They seem to hit a certain level of success and the business kind of goes into autopilot and they lose site of who and what keeps the doors open for them.
Often a lone employee can be the problem, but I believe in any business big or small, management sets the tone and it trickles down until it hits the customers. In the case of the homemade cake, this was complete blindness and lack of consideration for the customer, unless George's daughter is opening a bakery on the same block.
I can see both sides in George's pizza restaurant experience. It was a special occasion and the family wanted to celebrate with the homemade cake. The restaurant, in George's opinion, should have not levied a surcharge for a customer bringing in a cake. Yet, restaurants regularly charge corkage fees for customers bringing in their own wine, and the family was told upfront that there would be a fee for bringing in the cake. Where does a restauranteur draw the line? Perhaps a call to the restaurant beforehand would have been in order.
Emotional loyalty does not necessarily mean giving a customer everything he wants. It's a fine balance.
Welcome to the world of "for profit" in any way, even at the expense of future business. I have experienced the same "cake" type incident when out with family and friends. We made a similar decision and have stuck with it. That restaurant has not noticed, but we have not been back.
See, here is the problem. The restaurant does not know that you have not been back. So, to them, they have not seen a loss. It is only when the incident gets publicized on social media and it gets back to them. Then we might see changes.
A big part of true customer loyalty is the customer's expectation of a positive experience. I know that every trip to Trader Joe's will be a happy experience, and that keeps me coming back. And I know that when I go to the grocery chain closer to my house, there will be only one checker, and a long line. Loyalty isn't about apps or coupons; it's about high expectations which are then met.
Knowing the pizza restaurant George refers to negatively—he and I had lunch there a few years ago—I can confidently write that there are other reasons why my family doesn't eat there. The food is just average and the service is uneven at best.
Looking at the issue more broadly than downtown Cranford, I've seen a mixed bag in terms of customer engagement over the last decade, but a trend toward more intimacy and one-on-one marketing during the past year or two. I attribute this to training and the importance placed on attracting and retaining customers by management.
To Bob: Restaurants in our town, many of whom operate without a liquor license, make a point of letting patrons know they can bring their own bottle of wine to offset any competitive disadvantage with the establishments that serve alcohol. There is no corkage fee attached, because they know it would result in lost sales.
The first restaurant was very foolish indeed, as they usually should welcome this occasion as a chance to make the young girl feel special. Instead they acted like idiots, even after the folks spent plenty of money on pizza. What if the girl had a gluten allergy or was a diabetic, and needed something safe to share with her family. I have brought special diabetic desserts to restaurants several times, and actually made extra for the chef and the staff. We were treated well, and everyone had a great time, not to mention an extra tip for the effort.
The other incident was handled perfectly, and I applaud the fact that there are still businesses that use common sense, because in the long run, you will win.
Everybody understands corking fees, and I don't think any of us would bring in a bottle to a restaurant with wine on the menu. We also know not to bring a tuna sandwich from home and expect to sit down in a restaurant and eat it. This was a little kid's graduation party, for crying out loud. It wasn't going to set a precedent, and even if it did, you could create/enforce rules if it actually became a problem. Roger is spot-on; the restaurant should have given the kid a scoop of ice cream, on the house, and wished her congratulations. Sheesh!
So George, your town holds restaurants hostage if they charge corkage? Sorry, sounds like a fairly entitled enclave.
Bringing food into a restaurant is just plane rude. Even if the owners say its OK, it's still rude. This has nothing to do with loyalty or building a relationship, and more to do with whining because someone wanted to get away with something for nothing.
Think Cheers; you want to go to a place where everyone knows your name (or if they don't, they fake it really well). Knowing a customer's name or at least recognizing them creates a bond that is stronger than just the items the retailer is selling.
As the article points out, these emotional bonds come into play when making a buying decision. In this case I doubt if the staff at the first restaurant knew George's name and they certainly didn't know how to fake it.
It also shows the danger in having hard-and-fast policies. While they are easier to teach than the use of good judgment, they can result in losing business. That being said I created the following customer service equation: "Empowerment before education equals chaos." I use it as a cautionary statement for those retailers who don't teach their employees what it means to deliver good/great customer service.
Most retailers don't care about much beyond the immediate transaction.
Why not?
Can't really say, except that somewhere along the last 25 years or so finance became more critical than marketing in many retail organizations and financial rules don't bend—well—at least not in the customers favor.
No, my experience has been that restaurants in particular have devalued the role that loyalty plays in their business model, often choosing to be "penny-wise and pound-foolish" by following policies strictly. The ones that value their customers so stand out that we change our patterns to favor them almost immediately.
On the other hand, many smaller retailers outside of the restaurant industry seem to understand the connection between loyalty and success. I have experienced outstanding service and care from smaller shops and coffeehouses, and am pleased to recommend them whenever possible.
OMG—this is a pizza restaurant, not a five-star known for its desserts.
This reminds me of the days of the opening of first Barnes & Noble big stores. In Westport, Connecticut, there was a very nice local book shop. I forget the name. It was cute and everyone knew it. I am in there one day and the owner is complaining about the Barnes & Noble opening less than one mile away. "I will never be able to beat their prices," she lamented.
Meanwhile, there was another patron in the stacks, reading a book. The owner excused herself from our conversation and called to the other patron, "Either buy it or put it back, this is not a library."
The store, which had been in business for over 20 years, was closed within a year.
The pizza restaurant not only lost more business from George, but it also hurt its long-range future. George's little daughter probably will not patronize the place herself when she grows older. But wait: with such a lack of customer service and smarts, the restaurant won't be around when she is older.
Whenever (not if) there is a problem with a customer, the goal is to do more than just fix or resolve the problem. The goal is to also restore confidence. The question to ask is, "Is what I'm doing now going to get the customer to want to come back next time?" That's a start. In conflict remember that you're not trying to win the argument. You're trying to win the customer.
Successful retailers are flexible. Guidelines are softer than hard rules. Customer-focused attitudes and cultures win.
Ridiculous. This is precisely why some retail outlets fail. I would have left and not even given the pizza place my business that day either (of course I would have also let everyone I know hear about it on social media too). And since this is a "rare and isolated case," the pizza place could have made an exception! Short term thinking and lack of emotional intelligence = lost business.
Creating positive customer experiences is hit or miss across retailers, restaurants, and hotels. Organizations get the employee behavior they reward. Service quality is not easily measured, not often monitored, and not as valued as financial results for most organizations.
If you want employees to drive customer loyalty, then you need to give them the wheel.
Unfortunately, formal employee training programs are designed to solidly ensure company performance and typically lack the flexibility to accept employee input or troubleshooting.
Forward-thinking companies like Zappos, Caesars, USAA and (my company) Air Miles, liberate front-line employees so that thy can become spontaneous customer advocates.
This is a case of judgement by the store/restaurant management. The customer is always right, however, there has to be a limit to what the customer can receive. It's good business to make a personal offer to the customer when ever possible, especially in stores that cannot afford labor to service the customer traffic as well as they would like. When a one-on-one customer situation does arise, regardless of location format (QSR, full-service, etc.) the staff needs to be trained to be ready with a consistent response to inquiries.
Courtesy, proper manners and reasonable expectations are qualities without rules and or reference for retailers in the good ole' USA, making the topic we have here highly subjective from any and all perspectives. I see customers all day and the anticipations they arrive with are always changing in new directions. These new expectations are sometimes seen as appalling to retailers that are unable to embrace change that serves a customers need with no detriment to the business or its patrons and vendors.
When management arrives at its highest level of tolerance for social behavioral evolution, the time to consider stepping aside for the benefit of the business is at hand and needs immediate action. This is not about the consumer, it is about the business and its growth, stability and future.


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Stroke of Jeanius
Allow us a moment of sappiness and sentimentality for just a second. Seeing as we're in the business of pure, unadulterated closet voyeurism, we've come to regard the pieces that make up one's wardrobe as a second family of sorts. They're just things, sure, but they're your things, they're the pieces you live your life in, and you make memories around them. The sequin dress you made, ahem, liberal alterations to (read: slashed to show more than a little leg) and subsequently wore to shreds? The schlubby grey sweatshirt you've been working to wear out to a supreme degree of softness? We actually defy you to tell us you're without a single piece in your own closet that holds similar significance.
Which brings us to the matter of all things denim—or more specifically, not the Canadian tuxedo, but jeans. In our circles, there are few things that inspire dread quite like the idea of shopping for them, and so when your one perfect pair fails to fit—or shrinks several sizes as result of a freak dryer accident—it can often feel like there's been a death in the family. Similarly, we can all likely come to the consensus that finding that aforementioned perfect pair is a near-impossible-task, right up there with attempting to replicate that ombre lip or chalkboard paint kitchen wall set-up you found on Pinterest.
Enter Madewell's denim line, which, in their words, does "life-altering things to the rear view", and is indeed a most-accurate description. In need of a more literal translation? They will make your ass look completely fantastic. They also simultaneously have stretch while still managing to never sag or bag out. Need even further proof that our endorsement is, in fact, genuine? They pretty much had our hearts from the moment we learned the team designs from the shoe up—with different lengths and fits tailor made to wear with everything from classic Manolo pumps to chunky Acne ankle booties. There's also over a month's worth of work into each and every pair and only work on around two a day, each embroided with an itty-bitty 'M' on the back pocket.—it's the closest thing to demi-couture denim, if you're able to do away with the Ed Hardy-like visions that phrase likely puts in your head.
Oh, and if you weren't entirely sold just yet? You'll likely love their nod to our home and native land—the brand is also expanding into overalls, jumpsuits, jacket and more, for all of your Canadian tuxedo-outfitting needs.


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Professional Education
Bachelor of Technology, Unlisted School (2012)
Doctor of Philosophy, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (2018)
The Hsp90 chaperone has become the attractive pharmacological target to inhibit tumor cell proliferation. However, tumor cells can evolve with mechanisms to overcome Hsp90 inhibition. Using human neuroblastoma, we have investigated one such limitation. Here, we demonstrate that neuroblastoma cells overcome the interference of tumor suppressor p16INK4a in cell proliferation, which is due to its latent interaction with CDK4 and CDK6. Cells also displayed impedance to the pharmacological inhibition of cancer chaperone Hsp90 inhibition with respect to induced cytotoxicity. However, the p16INK4a knockdown has triggered the activation of cyclin-CDK6 axis and enhanced the cell proliferation. These cells are eventually sensitized to Hsp90 inhibition by activating the DNA damage response mediated through p53-p21WAF-1 axis and G1 cell cycle exit. While both CDK4 and CDK6 have exhibited low affinity to p16INK4a , CDK6 has exhibited high affinity to Hsp90. Destabilizing the CDK6 interaction with Hsp90 has prolonged G2/M cell cycle arrest fostering to premature cellular senescence. The senescence driven cells exhibited compromised metastatic potential both in vitro as well as in mice xenografts. Our study unravels that cancer cells can be adapted to the constitutive expression of tumor suppressors to overcome therapeutic interventions. Our findings display potential implication of Hsp90 inhibitors to overcome such adaptations.
View details for DOI 10.1002/jcb.29493
View details for PubMedID 31692039
Adult stem cells are essential for tissue homeostasis. In skeletal muscle, muscle stem cells (MuSCs) reside in a quiescent state, but little is known about the mechanisms that control homeostatic turnover. Here we show that, in mice, the variation in MuSC activation rate among different muscles (for example, limb versus diaphragm muscles) is determined by the levels of the transcription factor Pax3. We further show that Pax3 levels are controlled by alternative polyadenylation of its transcript, which is regulated by the small nucleolar RNA U1. Isoforms of the Pax3 messenger RNA that differ in their 3' untranslated regions are differentially susceptible to regulation by microRNA miR206, which results in varying levels of the Pax3 protein in vivo. These findings highlight a previously unrecognized mechanism of the homeostatic regulation of stem cell fate by multiple RNA species.
View details for DOI 10.1126/science.aax1694
View details for PubMedID 31699935


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A groundbreaking examination of stress and its effects on health and disease. Cardiologis….
Tag Archives: Stress
x6 NIVEA Stress Protect Roll On 50ml
- NIVEA Stress Protect Roll On provides 48h effective anti-perspirant protection and gentle NIVEA® care
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- Without alcohol or colourants
- 50ml
Product details NIVEA Stress Protect Roll On provides 48h effective anti-perspirant protection and gentle NIVEA® care With StressProtect actives and Zinc complex Skin tolerance dermatologically approved Without alcohol or colourants
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- Made from soft, silicone rubber
- Keep him on your desk or hide him in your pocket for emergencies!
- Measures 6cm x 3.5cm x 8cm
Stress. The very word conjures-up visions of grown men crying into their JD and Coke and women running to the nearest spa for a colonic, a botox and a right royal bitchfest. How we loathe stress and go to pains to avoid it, get round it and cope with it. Stress is a little short of a modern evil; a latter-day curse intimately connected with the speed and intensity of life… not to mention the horror-show that is the 21st century workplace. It would be a grand claim to assert that with a single stressball called Paul that one could soothe-away the worries of the day. So we won't. Instead, we will say that the ever-so-clever chaps at the colourfully-entitled Suck UK have been at it again, producing a Little Magenta Man who can be squished, squeezed and generally mangled in the name of stress reduction. And venting one's spleen on Paul will do more for your career prospects than venting anything over, in or near poor Maureen from Accounts. (Don't blame her, by the way, blame the system). So vent away and watch in awe as Stressball Paul returns to his original shape, bent double, head in hands, weight of the world on his tiny magenta shoulders. Stressball Paul invites us all in stark and very visual terms, to think that, my golly, if we've got it bad, imagine how it must feel for him. And that makes one feel better already. Spiffing.


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By Team Redwitch, Aug 31 2017 12:29PM
Vardy took his 4th CC at SKC, whilst Viva was 1st in Open Bitch.
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By Team Redwitch, Aug 31 2017 11:14AM
Vardy scores twice in Wales!!!!
Redwitch Back Of The Net was on top form yesterday, winning his 3rd and crowning CC and BOB at The Welsh KC Champ Show. He then followed this with BIS at the Akita Club of Wales Open Show. Many thanks to top all rounder Elina Haapaniemi & breed specialist Ricci Morgan for thinking so highly of our boy.
Redwitch Viva La Diva also had a great day winning the Reserve Bitch CC at WKC & Res Best Bitch at the Club Show. Huge well done to all the other winners and many thanks for all the support and congratulations.
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By Team Redwitch, Aug 11 2017 2:10PM
Redwitch do the double at Paignton Champ Show under top all rounder, Mr Tom Johnston!!!
Redwitch Back Of The Net (Vardy) took his 2nd CC and BOB, accompanied by kennel mate Redwitch Viva La Diva (Viva) who was awarded her 1st CC on her 1st outing in 12 months.
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By Team Redwitch, Jul 24 2017 10:33AM
Fabulous day at Leeds Champ Show yesterday. After 6 Reserve CC's from the Puppy and Junior classes, and at just 18 months old, Redwitch Let The Games Begin (Katniss) won a strong Limit Bitch class, then her 1st Bitch CC and BOS. So thrilled with this super win!! Huge thanks to judge Robert Dunlop and congratulations to all the other winners.
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By Team Redwitch, Jul 24 2017 10:29AM
Blackpool saw Ch Redwitch Will I Am take his 37th CC and Redwitch Let The Games Begin (Katniss) won Junior Bitch and was Best Junior in Breed.
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VHP leader Ashok Singhal dead
VHP leader Ashok Singhal, who played a key role in the mass campaign that led to the razing of the Babri mosque in 1992, died in Gurgaon on Tuesday, doctors said
Gurgaon: VHP leader Ashok Singhal, who played a key role in the mass campaign that led to the razing of the Babri mosque in 1992, died in Gurgaon on Tuesday, doctors said.
Singhal (89), who was admitted to Medanta Medicity hospital on Saturday last with complaints of acute breathlessness and other problems, died at 2.24 PM following cardio-vascular failure and septicaemia, VHP International President Pravin Togadia said.
Singhal breathed his last at 2.20 p.m. at Medanta-The Medicity hospital, doctor Yatin Mehta said.
"Ashok Singhal is dead," the doctor said. "He passed away at 2.20 despite our best efforts."
Also Read: VHP leader Singhal's condition remains critical
A bachelor and an RSS pracharak all his life, Singhal, adopted an aggressive style in the 'kar sewak' campaign in the build up to the demolition of the Babri Masjid in December, 1992.
A metallurgy engineering graduate from Banaras Hindu University, he pitchforked the organisation in the Ayodhya Ram temple movement and sought to internationalise it by recruiting supporters and organising branches world wide. The overseas supporters contributed immensely to the VHP campaign.
Singh was in the Intensive Care Unit under treatment in the hospital after he was diagnosed with right lower Lobe Pneumonia. He was on ventilator from November 14 evening. A team of specialists comprising Critical Care, Respiratory, Cardiology, Endocrinology, Neurology and Nephrology had attended on Singh, the hospital had said on Monday.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi condoled the death of Singh. "The demise of Ashok Singhalji is a deep personal loss. He was an institution in himself, whose life was centred around serving the nation," he tweeted. He said he was always fortunate to receive Ashokji's blessings and guidance. "My condolences to his family and countless supporters," he said.
The Prime Minister noted that Ashok Singhal was the force behind several noble deeds and social work, which benefited the poor. "He is an inspiration for generations,"
Singhal's body will be brought to the RSS office in Jandewalan in Central Delhi in the night. It will be kept there till 3 PM tomorrow for public to pay homage after which it will be cremated in the Nigambodh ghat here, Togadia said.
Born in Agra on October 2 in 1926, Singhal has a Bachelor's degree in Metallurgical Engineering from Banaras Hindu University Institute of Technology in 1950. Having been associated with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) since 1942, he became a full-time pracharak after his graduation. He worked in various locations around Uttar Pradesh, becoming a prant pracharak for Delhi and Haryana.
In 1980, he was deputed to VHP and became its Joint General Secretary. In 1984, he became its General Secretary and later elevated to the post of its working President, a role in which he continued till December 2011.
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Tour one of the busiest ports in the world aboard the Port of Houston Authority's free public tour boat. The 45-minute Sam Houston Boat Tour requires reservations, which are available on a first-come, first-serve basis at least 24 hours in advance.


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Make The World Better Tiny Block Keepsake
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These sweet Tiny Block Keepsakes feature original Natural Life art and inspiring quotes! This perfect little gift holds a message from the heart that she can display anywhere in her home!
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The Guild of Property Professionals is launching a marketing campaign to promote the benefits of the No Sale, No Fee estate agency business model to consumers.
The campaign aims to educate the public about the benefits of No Sale, No Fee, highlighting that their agent will want the same thing as the owner - to sell the property.
Agents with a commission-based fee structure aren't paid until they get results, meaning their priority is the same as the homeowners.
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In a wider marketing campaign next year, the Guild will explain the pricing structure of the DIY model, where fees are usually paid up-front, regardless of sale. It will then outline the No Sale, No Fee option favoured by high-street estate agents, including Guild members, where money is only exchanged after a successful sale.
The organisation will provide its member agents with new tools to promote the concept next year; in the meantime it has created this video which it is promoting online.


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Science - Kindergarten
Standard 4 Objective 1
Students will use their prediction, observation, and recording skills to learn about animal growth.
One per class:
One per student:
Becoming Butterflies by Anne Rockwell
Instant Insects (capsules), Wal-Mart
Select books about animals in your environment. These books should include information about animal growth. The students should also have knowledge of how to use nonstandard measurement tools.
Intended Learning Outcomes
5. Understand and use basic concepts and skills.
6. Communicate clearly in oral, artistic, written and nonverbal form.
Process Skills
Description, observation, prediction, data collection and interpretation
Invitation to Learn
Ask the students to recall information about different animals that they have seen. Share information about the growth of animals. Read and discuss your favorite books on how animals grow.
Instructional Procedures
Family Connections
Each child should go home and invite their family to help them look around their neighborhood for animals in various stages of development in their environment. Bring your written descriptions back to class and discuss what was learned.
Give each child a copy of the animal growth assessment page. Each child may choose an animal of their choice and draw the changes that happen during the life cycle of the animal. Each child may share their findings with other members of the class.


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Brazilian Journal of Biology
Print version ISSN 1519-6984
Braz. J. Biol. vol.72 no.3 supl.0 São Carlos Aug. 2012
Biogeochemical cycling in terrestrial ecosystems of the Caatinga Biome
Ciclagem biogeoquímica em ecossistemas terrestres do Bioma Caatinga
Menezes, RSC.I,*; Sampaio, EVSB.I; Giongo, V.II; Pérez-Marin, AMIII
IDepartamento de Energia Nuclear, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco - UFPE, Av. Prof. Luis Freire, 1000, CEP 50740-540, Recife, PE, Brasil
IIEmbrapa Semiárido, BR 428, Km 152, Zona Rural, CP 23, CEP 56302-970, Petrolina, PE, Brasil
IIIInstituto Nacional do Semiárido-MCTI, Centro de Ciências Agrárias - CCA, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco - UFPB, Av. Francisco de Almeida, s/n, Serrotão, CEP 58434-700, Campina Grande, PB, Brasil
The biogeochemical cycles of C, N, P and water, the impacts of land use in the stocks and flows of these elements and how they can affect the structure and functioning of Caatinga were reviewed. About half of this biome is still covered by native secondary vegetation. Soils are deficient in nutrients, especially N and P. Average concentrations of total soil P and C in the top layer (0-20 cm) are 196 mg kg-1 and 9.3 g kg-1, corresponding to C stocks around 23 Mg ha-1. Aboveground biomass of native vegetation varies from 30 to 50 Mg ha-1, and average root biomass from 3 to 12 Mg ha-1. Average annual productivities and biomass accumulation in different land use systems vary from 1 to 7 Mg ha-1 year-1. Biological atmospheric N2 fixation is estimated to vary from 3 to 11 kg N ha-1 year-1and 21 to 26 kg N ha-1 year-1 in mature and secondary Caatinga, respectively. The main processes responsible for nutrient and water losses are fire, soil erosion, runoff and harvest of crops and animal products. Projected climate changes in the future point to higher temperatures and rainfall decreases. In face of the high intrinsic variability, actions to increase sustainability should improve resilience and stability of the ecosystems. Land use systems based on perennial species, as opposed to annual species, may be more stable and resilient, thus more adequate to face future potential increases in climate variability. Long-term studies to investigate the potential of the native biodiversity or adapted exotic species to design sustainable land use systems should be encouraged.
Keywords: tropical dry forest, nutrient fluxes, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus.
Os ciclos biogeoquímicos de C, N, P e água, os impactos das mudanças do uso da terra nos estoques e fluxos destes elementos e como estas mudanças podem afetar a estrutura e o funcionamento da Caatinga foram revisados. Cerca da metade desse Bioma ainda é coberta por vegetação nativa secundária. Os solos são deficientes em nutrientes, principalmente N e P. A concentração média, na camada superficial (0-20 cm), de P total é 196 mg kg-1, e a de C é 9.3 g kg-1, correspondendo a estoques médios em torno de 23 Mg ha-1 de carbono. A biomassa aérea da vegetação varia entre 30 a 50 Mg ha-1, e a biomassa radicular entre 3 a 12 Mg ha-1. As produtividades e acumulações anuais de biomassa nos diferentes usos da terra variam de 1 a 7 Mg ha-1. A fixação biológica de N2 atmosférico é estimada em 3 a 11 kg N ha-1 ano-1 e 21 a 26 kg N ha-1 ano-1 em Caatinga madura e em regeneração, respectivamente. Os principais processos de perda de nutrientes e água são queimadas, erosão do solo, escoamento e colheita de cultivos e produtos animais. As mudanças climáticas projetadas indicam maiores temperaturas e menores precipitações. Considerando a alta variabilidade intrínseca, ações para aumentar a sustentabilidade deveriam melhorar a resiliência e a estabilidade dos ecossistemas. Sistemas de uso da terra baseados em espécies perenes, em contraposição a anuais, devem ser mais estáveis e resilientes, portanto mais adequados para enfrentar os potenciais aumentos na variabilidade climática. Estudos de longa duração para avaliar o potencial da biodiversidade nativa ou de exóticas adaptadas no delineamento de sistemas de uso sustentáveis deveriam ser encorajados.
Palavras-chave: floresta seca tropical, fluxo de nutrientes, carbono, nitrogênio, fósforo.
1. General aspects of the caatinga biome
The Caatinga biome covers a large area in Northeast Brazil, about one million square kilometers, mostly overlapping with the semiarid region. Most of the area of the biome presents average annual rainfall lower than 1000 mm. However, the temporal and spatial variability of rainfall is a marked characteristic of the region (Reddy, 1983), rendering averages of little value. In a simplified picture, 20% of the annual rainfall occurs in a single day and 60% in a single month (Sampaio, 1995). Average annual temperatures, on the other hand, are high (23 to 27 ºC) and relative humidity usually below 50%. As a consequence, the potential evapotranspiration is high, usually above 1500 mm year-1, resulting in negative water balances along 7 to 11 months every year.
The average altitude is around 400-500 m but Caatinga reaches the sea in Rio Grande do Norte and Ceará and also covers large plateaus above 1000 m. About 37% of the area is composed of slopes with 4 to 12% inclination and 20% with slopes steeper than 12%, resulting in high erosion risks in cultivated areas (Leprun, 1983). Jacomine (1996) divided the area into three geological types, according to the formation material: 1) areas on top of the crystalline shield; 2) areas where the crystalline shield is covered with sandy material; and 3) areas of sedimentary deposits. Four dominant soil orders, out of a total of 15 orders, form a spatial mosaic covering 66% of the area (Latosols, 19%; Lithosols, 19%; Argisols, 15%; Luvisols, 13%). Over 80% of the area has some soil limitation in relation to agricultural use, which may be related to low fertility, shallow profile, poor drainage or high exchangeable Na (Silva, 2000).
All these climatic and soil variations result in a great diversity of environmental conditions and landscapes. The Caatinga biome spreads over 17 great landscape units, subdivided into 105 geo-environmental units out of a total of 172 for the whole Northeast (Silva et al., 1993). Within this complex region, lives a population of more than 20 million people, making it one of the most densely populated semi-arid regions in the whole world, with 20-30 inhabitants per km2. The land tenure system, in which 80% of farms are smaller than 10 ha, creates a condition of extreme vulnerability of the population to climate variability (Sampaio et al., 2009). Therefore, the frequent droughts that occur usually lead to severe negative impacts on the population, the economy and natural resources of the region.
1.1. Main land use systems in the Caatinga biome
The area annually occupied with agricultural fields comprises about 10% of the whole semiarid region (Sampaio and Menezes, 2002). Less than 2% are permanent crops and most of the annual crops are planted in the slash and burn system. Livestock, mainly cattle but also goats and sheep, are ubiquitous. Native pastures covered 13 × 106 ha, while planted pastures covered 6 × 106 ha (Sampaio and Salcedo, 1997). However, cattle also feed on the harvested agricultural fields and fallow vegetation and mature Caatinga areas. In the 1990's, fuel wood extraction was the main driver for the annual deforestation of about 1 × 106 ha, only in the states of CE, RN, PB and PE (Sampaio and Salcedo, 1997) and the area deforested due to wood extraction has been growing since then. At that time, most of the wood came from new agricultural fields but now it is mostly an independent activity. In the whole region, according to Araújo Filho and Barbosa (2000), the annual deforestation reaches 2.7% of the area and more than 80% of the native vegetation cover corresponds to pioneer and secondary vegetation stages.
1.2. Remaining area of native vegetation
In 1984, native Caatinga vegetation covered 68% of its original area, the rest being used for agriculture or greatly altered by anthropic activities (CNRBC, 2004). In 1990, an updated survey conducted by Sudene and Ibama indicated an expressive reduction of the native coverage, to 47%. In 2004, results from 'Projeto de Conservação e Utilização Sustentável da Diversidade Biológica Brasileira' (Probio) showed only a small decrease in this area (to 43%), corresponding to 363115 km2. Monitoring in 2008, performed using 111 orbital images from CBERS2B and 52 images from TM Landsat 5, estimated the coverage to be 53.6% (Figure 1). It is possible that most of the difference in the more recent survey resulted from a difference in the methodological approach and not from a real increase in coverage. In a complex mosaic of vegetation with distinct regeneration ages and growth potential due to different environmental characteristics it is difficult to determine the limits of native vegetation, but it is also possible that the area of native vegetation has had an increase due to the recent socio-economic changes that occurred in the region and in Brazil.
2. Structure and functioning of terrestrial ecosystems
Due to the high demographic density (20 to 30 inhabitants per km2) and the land tenure system, most of the semiarid region of NE Brazil has been subdivided into a large number of small properties, with less than 10 ha each. This high pressure pushed the region beyond its sustainability limit. Irrigation and high input systems are limited to at the most 3% of the area due to low water availability plus soil inadequacy (Sampaio et al., 2009). Therefore, low input systems, subjected to the high climatic variability and characterized by instability of their biogeochemical processes are the rule. Understanding the functioning of these systems requires knowledge of these processes, in order to identify practices capable of increasing regional sustainability.
Figure 2 shows a conceptual model of the main stocks and flows of carbon, water and nutrients in a typical agroecosystem in the Caatinga biome. The main objective of this paper is to present the available information on these stocks and flows. Flows are colored according to their impact on the balance of nutrients: blue are inputs and red are outputs from the system. To maintain productivity, inputs should be maximized and outputs minimized. Green flows indicate recycling and should be managed so as to increase productivity in a sustainable way. The uptake flow from deeper soil layers (dotted line) assumes that resources (water and nutrients) may be tapped in systems with trees or deep rooted perennial grasses and shrubs.
3. Carbon and nutrient stocks in soils and vegetation
3.1. Carbon and nutrient stocks in soils
Average total organic carbon (TOC) in the Ap horizon of soils under Caatinga vegetation are generally low, compared to other biomes of Brazil (Table 1). These low values are related primarily to the low organic residue inputs and to the low vegetal biomass formation, which is limited by water and also soil fertility deficiencies.
Table 2 presents more detailed soil data obtained from the surveys of all Northeastern states, except Maranhão and Piaui (Jacomine et al., 1971; 1972a, b; 1973; 1975 a, b; 1979). Among the soil orders that occur in the region, Vertisols and Cambisols have the highest TOC (12,3 g C kg-1) but occupy only 5% of the semiarid area. Luvisols and Lithosols occupy a larger area (32%), mainly on top of the crystalline shield and have TOC between 10.4 e 11.8 g kg-1. Latosols and Argisols follow in area (36%), the first ones mainly derived from sedimentary and the second ones from both crystalline and sedimentary material, and have TOC between 9.7 and 8.9 g kg-1.
Menezes et al. (2005) compiled data from several soil surveys and reported that 90% of the soil samples of the main orders in the semiarid region of NE Brazil had medium to low extractable p levels. Total p is generally higher in Luvisols and Lithosols than in Latosols and Argisols (Table 2). In general, there is a close relation among TOC and total P (r = 0,89**) and TOC and clay content (r = 0,82**). The lowest TOC and total p values are those of Regolithic Neosols, which frequently receive manure additions when cultivated, due to the extremely low fertility.
Information regarding stocks and availabilities of N, P and other nutrients in soils of the Caatinga biome are relatively scarce, but the available studies are consistent in pointing N and P as the most limiting to plant growth. Cavalcanti et al. (1998) and Guimarães et al. (1998) published surveys of fertility analysis for soils of Pernambuco and Ceará, respectively. Sampaio et al. (1995) reviewed some of the earlier works, including the first approximation of Galvão and Cate Junior (1969) for Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, Pernambuco and Alagoas and the evaluation of Oliveira et al. (1988) for the whole Northeast region. They are based on thousands of soil samples and indicate a general deficiency of P and low need for liming, except for Piauí and, in a smaller scale, for Alagoas. This broad panorama confirms that N and P are limiting and that practices to raise soil fertility are needed in the region.
3.2. Aboveground biomass of perennial vegetation
The average aboveground biomass of Caatinga vegetation has been estimated to be in the interval between 30 and 50 Mg ha-1. A better approximation cannot be made because direct measurements are almost non-existent, indirect estimations reveal a very high spatial variability (2 to 156 Mg ha-1) and the sampled areas are few and chosen according to preferential criteria. Direct measurement (74 Mg ha-1) was made in a single site at Serra Talhada, Pernambuco (Kauffman et al., 1993). Estimates based on botanical surveys tend to fall in the upper part of the range because of the preference for undisturbed vegetation while estimates based on fuel wood production tend to fall in the lower part of the range because they include areas with repeated short cycle (10 to 15 years) clear cutting (Gariglio et al., 2010). Since most of the Caatinga corresponds to vegetation recovering from previous cutting, for fuel wood or part of the slash and burn agriculture system, the regional average must be in the lower third of the range. Of the total aboveground biomass, 5 to 10% (2 to 6 Mg ha-1) correspond to leaves (Table 3) and are renewed every year, contrasting with the biomass stocked in stems and branches (Silva, 1998). Most of this leaf biomass is consumed by the ubiquitous domestic herds, either directly from the plants or after falling to the ground (Schacht et al., 1989; Hardesty and Box, 1988).
Data for cultivated areas are fewer than for Caatinga. The area with perennial crops is proportionally small. The only available data is for five year old dwarf cashew plants (Table 3). Other perennial crops, like Prosopisjuliflora and Gliricidia sepium, probably have biomasses in the upper range of Caatinga, since they are usually planted in sites with more water availability. The aboveground biomass of annual crops is considered as production and it is eliminated every year, exported as agricultural product, consumed by animals, burned or incorporated to the soil.
4. Processes that promote carbon and nutrient inputs to ecosystems
4.1. Annual aboveground net primary productivity
Papers dealing with annual biomass productivity are scarcer in the literature than those that quantified biomass stocks in the Caatinga biome. The variation is very large due to the enormous variability of water availability, brought about by rainfall variation, topographic differences and different soil depth and water holding capacities (Menezes and Sampaio, 2000). Annual productivities and biomass accumulation are estimated to vary from 1 to 7 Mg ha-1 year-1 and all actual measurements fall in this range (Table 3). This capacity can be expressed as years necessary to rebuild the stocks. The sustainable cycle of fuel wood production has been estimated to vary from 10 to 15 years, with average of 13 years (Gariglio et al., 2010). The length of the fallow period allowing sufficient nutrient accumulation in the aboveground biomass and the re-initiation of the slash and burn cycle is in this same range. In Araripina, Pernambuco, the fallow period was 12 years (Tiessen et al., 1992). However, the large variability of climate, soil fertility and previous level of soil degradation renders general averages of little value.
Herb and small shrub biomass stocks and productions have similar values (2 to 6 Mg ha-1 year-1) because most of these plants have annual cycles. Bromelias and small cacti are exceptions. Production values are also similar to those of trees and large shrubs and are inversely related to the biomass stock of these large plants: areas of Caatinga vegetation with tall and dense canopies produce little biomass of small plants and the opposite occurs in areas of open Caatinga vegetation, except if they are in degraded or environmentally limited areas. Selective cutting of plants to reduce density and shading is a management technique used to increase pasture production. One single estimate was made of bromeliad biomass (1.4 Mg ha-1) which is very dense in some areas but absent in other ones (Table 3). Within fields of perennial crops, the biomass of weeds has the same variation as that in native vegetation, depending on size and density of the crop plants, except after weeding or herbicide application (Ribeiro et al., 2004).
Many publications refer to annual crops, largely dominant in the semiarid, but most have data only about the commercial products (fruits, foliage, etc) and very few include data on total biomass, in spite of the importance of crop residues as animal fodder. Productions vary greatly (0.2 to 6 Mg ha-1 year-1) but, except in irrigated areas, are similar to those of native plants or even smaller, under similar environmental conditions, due to their inferior adaptability, lower biodiversity and shorter life cycle.
4.2. Litter deposition
Data about litter deposition and decomposition in areas of Caatinga vegetation are still scarce in the literature (Sampaio and Silva, 1996). Among the few studies conducted, we may mention Dantas (2003), Santana (2005), Souto (2006), and Costa et al. (2007). On average, litter production in the drier areas of the Caatinga biome falls between 1500 to 3000 kg ha-1 year-1, on a dry matter basis, but may reach over 6000 kg ha-1 year-1 in the more humid areas of the region (Sampaio and Silva, 1996; Dantas, 2003). These levels of litter production are clearly lower than those observed in other forest formations in Brazil but, similarly to other ecosystems, the period of peak litterfall in areas of Caatinga vegetation occurs at the end of the rainy season and beginning of the dry season.
Data about litter stocks are also rare. Martins (2008) quantified the stocks of litter in areas of Caatinga in Pernambuco and found 6,500 to 20,100 kg ha-1 of dry matter in preserved areas, from 1,900 to 7,200 kg ha-1in moderately degraded areas, and from 140 to 1.016 kg ha-1 in severely degraded areas. Amorim (2009) studied the carbon cycling in an area of preserved Caatinga in Petrolina, Pernambuco, and observed an average litter stock of 7,000 kg ha-1. In another study in an area of Caatinga in Paraíba, Souto (2006) estimated an average litter stock of about 1,200 kg ha-1.
Most of the Caatinga litter biomass corresponds to the leaf fraction, followed by bark, branches and the miscellaneous fractions (Souto, 2006). The nutrient content of the leaf fraction has been reported by Dantas (2003), who found average values of 19.1; 1.0; 15.6 g kg-1 of N, P and K, on a dry matter basis, respectively, while Santana (2005) observed concentrations of 14.5; 0.8; and 7.6 g kg-1 of these elements.
4.3. Root biomass stocks and productivity
Only four papers deal with root biomass of native vegetation in the Caatinga biome, two restricted to thin roots in the upper soil layer. The stock of 5 mm thick roots down to 30 cm soil depth varied from 3 to 8 Mg ha-1 in Caruaru, PE (Salcedo et al., 1999), while the total stock down to 1 m reached 12 Mg ha-1 in Araripina, PE (Tiessen et al., 1992).
The production of thin roots (up to 2 mm thick) in the top soil layer, estimated as the stock difference along the year, was 2.4 Mg ha-1 year-1 (Medeiros, 1999). Therefore, the magnitude seems to be the same as that of aboveground biomass productivities. In a 5 year old dwarf cashew crop, roots down to 30 cm soil depth had biomass (0.5 to 0.9 Mg ha-1) corresponding to less than 10% of the aboveground biomass (Morais et al., 2004).
4.4. Atmospheric deposition of nutrients
Nutrient inputs through rainfall are one of very few processes that provide nutrients to ecosystems in the Caatinga biome. In spite of its low magnitude, this input becomes relevant because of the low natural stocks and the low inputs of other external sources. Perez-Marin and Menezes (2008) quantified nutrients in rainfall water in an agroforestry system and evaluated the effects of tree canopies in the nutrient content of the water reaching the soil. Those authors determined that 32% of the total rainfall (TR) was intercepted by the canopies (I), 67% passed as throughfall (T) and only 0.74 reached the soil through stemflow (S). Stemflow only occurred during rain events equal to or larger than 4 mm, a similar value to that reported by Lima and Leopoldo (2000) in a riparian forest (4.2 mm). Although low, the quantities of S are relevant because the water reaches the soil at a low speed and are more easily infiltrated, resulting in a localized water and nutrient distribution around the trees (Oliveira Junior and Dias, 2005; Johnsson, 1990). The concentrations of N and P in S and T were similar and four times higher than those of the rainwater. The concentration of K was 2 times higher in S than in T and seven times higher than in the rainwater. Average N, P and K inputs were 5, 1 and 24 kg ha-1 in the rainwater, 9, 2 and 62 kg ha-1 in the throughfall and 0.12, 0.02 and 1 kg ha-1 in stemflow water, respectively.
4.5. Biological nitrogen fixation
The capacity of Caatinga legume species to simbiotically associate with rhizobia is an important issue to their use in agroforestry systems and revegetation programs. However, knowledge on the subject is limited in semiarid Northeast in spite of the high number of total legume species, many of them endemic (Queiroz, 2002). The world literature on legume nodulation (Allen and Allen, 1981; The Bean Bag, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2002; Souza et al., 1994; Faria et al., 1984, 1987, 1989; Faria and Lima, 1998) refer to approximately 293 species that occur in the semiarid, 216 (73.4%) nodulate, 69 (23.5%) do not and 8 species have conflicting information.
In general, δ15N of tropical forests are higher than those of temperate forests (Martinelli et al., 1999). Values of non-fixing species in Caatinga ( 7 a 9) are high (Freitas et al., 2010a) compared to those of other Brazilian ecosystems: cerrado, <2 (Sprent et al., 1996; Bustamante et al., 2004); and Amazon forest, <5,25 (Gehring et al., 2005). But they are similar to those found by Schulze et al. (1991) in semiarid areas of Namibia (7.38). A survey of determinations in 118 areas indicates that high values are usually associated with semiarid regions (Handley et al., 1999). The processes that increase δ15N signals are associated to soil mineral N losses, usually through leaching or volatilization. Any factor that increases the flow from organic to mineral pools (more susceptible to losses) drives the systems to enrichment of 15N (Högberg, 1997; Handley et al., 1999).
In Caatinga, trees with high N2 fixation can be clearly separated from non-fixing ones based on their δ15N signals. Several species have been identified as fixing high proportions of their N while others are clearly non-fixing ones (Freitas et al., 2010b; Souza, 2010). Preliminary estimates of N amounts fixed annually in the canopy of Caatinga were made for two sites: in Serra Talhada, PE, they were of 3 kg ha-1, in mature Caatinga, and 26 kg ha-1 in a regenerating Caatinga; in Remigio, PB, they were 11 and 21 kg ha-1, respectively (Freitas and Sampaio, 2008). To these amounts must be added the amounts fixed in the wood parts that were estimated only for the regenerating Caatinga in Serra Talhada (22 kg ha-1). Apparently, the contribution of biological fixation to mature Caatingas is small but it is, of the same order of magnitude of the only other estimative (7 kg ha-1 year-1 Roggy et al. 1999), found in the literature for a tropical vegetation, a rain forest in French Guyana (Roggy et al.1 1999). The most important factor for these low amounts is the low proportion of plants of fixing species in the mature vegetation, a fact confirmed by several studies (Sampaio, 1996). In regenerating Caatinga, the large difference comes from the much higher proportion of fixing plants.
5. Processes that lead to losses of water, C, N and P
5.1. Losses due to the removal of Caatinga vegetation
Slash-and-burn systems, which still exist in the Caatinga biome, contribute significantly to losses of carbon and nutrients from agroecosystems. However, in NE Brazil, the agricultural phase of the slash-and-burn cycle is losing the significance as the main driver of land clearing, due to the low prices and low productivities of crops in the region. Instead, the extraction of fuel wood, in many areas of the region, is becoming the main driver of deforestation, in order to supply the widespread domestic, commercial and industrial demands for fuel wood in the region.
The fire used after land clearing eliminates the debris (small branches and leaves) and also promotes a short-term improvement in soil fertility, due to inputs of nutrients in the ash and the elimination of the seed bank of many invasive plant species. However, the fire also leads to the loss of almost 100% of the C and N and part of the P present in the burnt biomass. Kauffman et al. (l993) quantified losses of more than 500 and 20 kg ha-1 of N and P, respectively, after a fire to burn the biomass slashed from an area of Caatinga in Serra Talhada, PE.
In addition to the losses from the slashed vegetation, the fire may also lead to significant losses of C and N from soil organic matter. Salcedo et al. (l993, 1997) worked in the same plots as Kauffman et al. (l993) and observed rapid decreases in nutrient stocks in the soil organic matter during the months following slash and burn. Similarly, Tiessen et al. (1992), who worked in an Oxisol in Araripina, PE, found losses up to 40% of soil C only six years after land clearing. In another study, Fraga and Salcedo (2004) quantified the stocks of C and organic N and P in ten sites in Paraíba and Pernambuco, comparing soils under native Caatinga vegetation and adjacent agricultural or pasture plots. Those authors found that the cultivated areas had only approximately half of the levels of carbon and nutrients compared to the soils under Caatinga.
5.2. Nutrient outputs due to crop harvest and grazing
After mineralization, the nutrients in the soil organic matter are converted to labile forms and may be taken up by crops or forage species. Afterwards, a fraction of these nutrients is then exported from the ecosystem due to the sale of crops or animal products. Menezes et al. (2002) quantified the removal of nutrients from subsistence systems in family farms in the semi-arid region of Paraíba and found that cropping fields lost, on average, 16, 1 and 18 kg ha-1 year-1 of N, P and K, respectively, due to the harvest of grains and straw. The results are similar to those reported by Sanchez (2002), which compiled 30 years of data from 37 countries in Africa and found average N, P and K losses of 22, 2.5 and 15 kg ha-1 year-1 from cropping fields. In another study, Menezes et al. (2005) quantified the removal of nutrients in the biomass of prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica Mill) cultivated to be used as forage in 50 fields in semi-arid NE Brazil. Since this species is particularly productive in dry lands, nutrient removal was extremely high, averaging up to 300, 107 and 1454 kg ha-1 of N, P and K, respectively, in the 5 most productive fields, which represented 7 and 3% of the total N and P from the top layer of the soils.
5.3. Losses due to soil erosion and water runoff
In addition to the losses due to mineralization and nutrient removal in the harvested crops and pastures, soil erosion is also one of the main processes responsible for the soil fertility decreases in the Caatinga biome (Menezes e Sampaio, 2002; Sampaio et al., 1995). Studies about soil losses following the conversion of native vegetation into cropping fields or pastures present alarming data about these processes (Albuquerque et al., 2001; Margolis et al., 1985b). The severe soil losses reported due to land use change are also related to great water losses due to runoff and, as a consequence, to lower water infiltration and lower water availability for plant growth. The severe rates of erosion and runoff in agroecosystems of the Caatinga biome are a result of the combination of the relief, with most soils presenting moderate to severe slopes, and the rainfall pattern, characterized by short, but intense rainfall events (Sampaio et al., 1995).
The influence of the soil cover type on soil erosion in the Caatinga biome is well reported in the study conducted by Albuquerque et al. (2001). These authors conducted an 8-year study in which quantified soil losses in large field plots with different land covers (native vegetation, crops or pastures) and observed average soil losses of 3 and 30 t ha-1 year-1 in pastures and cropping fields, respectively, while losses under native vegetation averaged only 0,1 t ha-1 year-1. This study also reported data on the inter-annual variability of these processes, demonstrating that 40% of the soil losses occurred in a single year and other 50% in three other years. In another study, Fraga and Salcedo (2004) used the 137Cs technique to estimate soil erosion during a 35-year period after removal of the native Caatinga to implement pastures or cropping fields and estimated that during that period, 57% of the C and N lost from the soil in the deforested areas were due to mineralization, while the remaining 43% were due to soil erosion (up to 500 t ha-1 of soil loss during the whole period). Therefore, it is evident the need for the implementation of soil management and conservation practices in agroecosystems of the Caatinga biome in order to avoid soil erosion and the severe depletion of carbon and nutrients after the removal of the native vegetation. Studies that evaluated the impacts of the implementation of soil management practices, such as terraces, countour planting, construction of countour barriers vegetation or stones, etc, have reported 80 to 100% reductions of soil losses compared to reference areas (Silva et al., 1986; Margolis et al., 1985a; Freitas et al., 1981).
6. Potential impacts of future land use and climate variability
The environmental degradation in many areas of the Caatinga biome has been classified as desertification, which may strongly affect biogeochemical cycling in the region. The desertification processes have both anthropogenic and natural drivers. As discussed previously, the human induced degradation is mostly rooted on deforestation and inadequate soil management, such as slash-and-burn systems, overgrazing and intensive fuel wood extraction. Soil erosion processes are also important drivers of desertification in the Caatinga biome, since it decreases soil fertility and water availability, affecting most ecosystem processes.
Nowadays, there are about 1,300,000 km2 of land in the biome that are susceptible to desertification, which include areas within 1,488 municipalities of nine Brazilian states (Brasil, 2007). It is evident, therefore, the need for the establishment of actions to prevent deforestation, to improve soil management techniques, and to develop sustainable land use systems in the biome. It is also important to mention that the success of such actions will depend on effective long-term commitment from the many agencies and institutions related to this issue, both at the federal, state and municipal levels.
In addition to unsustainable land use practices, future changes in climate patterns also have strong potential to cause significant impacts in the biogeochemical cycles in the Caatinga biome. In fact, among all biomes in Brazil, the Caatinga is the one with the strongest projected impacts related to climate change. Higher temperatures, lower amounts and increased variability in precipitation patterns are some of the expected changes in the region, which may lead to more intense and frequent droughts, floods, biodiversity loss and lower production of food and energy generation (Brasil, 2004).
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Received February 13, 2012
Accepted March 13, 2012
Distributed August 31, 2012
* e-mail: email@example.com


text:
A belated response to ANB reader Joanna who asks about peer review. Hat tip to ANB reader Ms. Clark, who points us to senseaboutscience.org .
- Science has a system for assessing the quality of research before it is published. This system is called peer review.
- Peer review means that other scientific experts in the field check research papers for validity, significance and originality – and for clarity.
- Editors of scientific journals draw on a large pool of suitable experts to scrutinise papers before deciding whether to publish them.
- Many of the research claims you read in newspapers and magazines, find on the internet, or hear on television and the radio are not published in a peer-reviewed journal.
- Some of this research may turn out to be good but much of it is flawed or incomplete. Many reported findings, such as claims about "wonder cures" and "new dangers", never come to anything.
- Unpublished research is no help to anyone. Scientists can't repeat or use it and as a society we can't base decisions about our public safety – or our family's health for example – on work that has a high chance of being flawed.
- So, no matter how exciting or compelling new scientific or medical research is, you must always ask:
Is it peer reviewed? If not, why not?
If it is peer reviewed, you can look for more information on what other scientists say about it, the size and approach of the study and whether it is part of a body of evidence pointing towards the same conclusions.