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History of Greece
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The history of Greece encompasses the history of the territory of the modern state of Greece, as well as that of the Greek people and the areas they ruled historically. The scope of Greek habitation and rule has varied much through the ages, and, as a result, the history of Greece is similarly elastic in what it includes. Each era has its own related sphere of interest.
The first (proto-) Greek-speaking tribes, are generally thought to have arrived in the Greek mainland between the late 3rd and the first half of the 2nd millennium BC – probably between 1900 and 1600 BC.[1] When the Mycenaeans invaded, the area was inhabited by various non-Greek-speaking, indigenous pre-Greek people, who practiced agriculture as they had done since the 7th millennium BC.[2]
At its geographical peak, Greek civilization spread from Greece to Egypt and to the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan. Since then, Greek minorities have remained in former Greek territories or other territories colonised by Greeks (e.g., Turkey, Albania, Italy, and Libya, Levant, Armenia, Georgia, etc.), and Greek emigrants have assimilated into differing societies across the globe (e.g., North America, Australia, Northern Europe, South Africa, etc.). Today most Greeks live in the modern state of Greece (independent since 1832) and Cyprus.
- 1 Prehistoric Greece
- 2 Ancient Greece
- 3 Byzantine Empire (4th century – 1453)
- 4 Ottoman rule (15th century – 1821)
- 5 Modern Greek state (1821–present)
- 6 See also
- 7 Further reading
- 8 References
- 9 Footnotes
- 10 External links
Prehistoric Greece
The Neolithic Revolution reached Europe by way of Greece and the Balkans, beginning in the 7th millennium BC.[citation needed] Some Neolithic communities in southeastern Europe, such as Sesklo in Greece, were living in heavily fortified settlements of 3,000–4,000 people. The Greek Neolithic era ended with the arrival of the Bronze Age from Anatolia and the Near East, by the end of the 28th century BC (early Helladic period).
In about 2100 B.C, Indo-European speakers overran the Greek peninsula from the north and east.[3] These Indo-Europeans, known as Mycenaeans, introduced the Greek language to present-day Greece.[4]
Bronze Age
Cycladic and Minoan civilization
One of the earliest civilizations to appear around Greece was the Minoan civilization in Crete, which lasted from about 2700 BC (Early Minoan) to 1450 BC, and[clarification needed] the Early Helladic period on the Greek mainland from ca. 2800 BC to 2100 BC.
Little specific information is known about the Minoans (even the name is a modern appellation, from Minos, the legendary king of Crete).[4] They have been characterized as a pre-Indo-European people, apparently the linguistic ancestors of the Eteo-Cretan speakers of Classical Antiquity; their language was written in the undeciphered Linear A script. They were primarily a mercantile people engaged in overseas trade, taking advantage of their land's rich natural resources. Timber was then an abundant natural resource that was commercially exploited and exported to nearby lands such as Cyprus, Syria, Egypt and the Aegean Islands.[4] During the Early Bronze Age (3300 BC through 2100 BC), the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete held great promise for the future.[5]
The Mycenaean Greeks invaded Crete and adopted much of the Minoan culture they found there.[6] The Minoan civilization which preceded the Mycenaean civilization on Crete was revealed to the modern world by Sir Arthur Evans in 1900, when he purchased and then began excavating a site at Knossus.[5]
Mycenaean civilization
The Proto-Greeks are assumed to have arrived in the Greek peninsula during the late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BC.[7] The migration of the Ionians and Aeolians resulted in Mycenaean Greece by the 16th century BC.[8][9] The transition from pre-Greek to Greek culture appears to have been rather gradual. Some archaeologists have pointed to evidence that there was a significant amount of continuity of prehistoric economic, architectural, and social structures, suggesting that the transition between the Neolithic, Helladic and early Greek cultures may have continued without major rifts in social texture.[10]
On Crete, however, the Mycenean invasion of around 1400 BC spelled the end of the Minoan civilization. Mycenaean Greece is the Late Helladic Bronze Age civilization of Ancient Greece. It lasted from the arrival of the Greeks in the Aegean around 1600 BC to the collapse of their Bronze Age civilization around 1100 BC. It is the historical setting of the epics of Homer and of most Greek mythology. The Mycenaean period takes its name from the archaeological site Mycenae in the northeastern Argolid, in the Peloponnesos of southern Greece. Athens, Pylos, Thebes, and Tiryns are also important Mycenaean sites.
Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior aristocracy. Around 1400 BC the Mycenaeans extended their control to Crete, center of the Minoan civilization, and adopted a form of the Minoan script called Linear A to write their early form of Greek. The Mycenaean era script is called Linear B.
The Mycenaeans buried their nobles in beehive tombs (tholoi), large circular burial chambers with a high vaulted roof and straight entry passage lined with stone. They often buried daggers or some other form of military equipment with the deceased. The nobility were often buried with gold masks, tiaras, armor and jeweled weapons. Mycenaeans were buried in a sitting position, and some of the nobility underwent mummification.
Around 1100 BC the Mycenaean civilization collapsed. Numerous cities were sacked and the region entered what historians see as a dark age. During this period Greece experienced a decline in population and literacy. The Greeks themselves have traditionally blamed this decline on an invasion by another wave of Greek people, the Dorians, although there is scant archaeological evidence for this view.
Early Iron Age
The Greek Dark Ages (ca. 1100 BC–800 BC) refers to the period of Greek history from the presumed Dorian invasion and end of the Mycenaean civilization in the 11th century BC to the rise of the first Greek city-states in the 9th century BC and the epics of Homer and earliest writings in alphabetic Greek in the 8th century BC.
The collapse of the Mycenaean coincided with the fall of several other large empires in the near east, most notably the Hittite and the Egyptian. The cause may be attributed to an invasion of the sea people wielding iron weapons. When the Dorians came down into Greece they also were equipped with superior iron weapons, easily dispersing the already weakened Mycenaeans. The period that follows these events is collectively known as the Greek Dark Ages.
Kings ruled throughout this period until eventually they were replaced with an aristocracy, then still later, in some areas, an aristocracy within an aristocracy—an elite of the elite. Warfare shifted from a focus on cavalry to a great emphasis on infantry. Due to its cheapness of production and local availability, iron replaced bronze as the metal of choice in the manufacturing of tools and weapons. Slowly equality grew among the different sects of people, leading to the dethronement of the various Kings and the rise of the family.
At the end of this period of stagnation, the Greek civilization was engulfed in a renaissance that spread the Greek world as far as the Black Sea and Spain. Writing was relearned from the Phoenicians, eventually spreading north into Italy and the Gauls.
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece was an ancient civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (ca. 600 AD).[citation needed] In common usage it refers to all Greek history before the Roman Empire, but historians use the term more precisely. Some writers include the periods of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, while others argue that these civilizations were so different from later Greek cultures that they should be classed separately. Traditionally, the Ancient Greek period was taken to begin with the date of the first Olympic Games in 776 BC, but most historians now extend the term back to about 1000 BC.
The traditional date for the end of the Classical Ancient Greek period is the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. The period that follows is classed as Hellenistic. Not everyone treats the Classical Ancient and Hellenic periods as distinct, however, and some writers treat the Ancient Greek civilization as a continuum running until the advent of Christianity in the 3rd century AD.
Ancient Greece is considered by most historians to be the foundational culture of Western Civilization. Greek culture was a powerful influence in the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of Europe. Ancient Greek civilization has been immensely influential on the language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, art and architecture of the modern world, particularly during the Renaissance in Western Europe and again during various neo-Classical revivals in 18th- and 19th-century Europe and the Americas.
Archaic Greece
In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization. Literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. From about the 9th century BC, written records begin to appear.[11] Greece was divided into many small self-governing communities, a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography, where every island, valley and plain is cut off from its neighbours by the sea or mountain ranges.[12]
The Archaic period can be understood as the Orientalizing period, when Greece was at the fringe, but not under the sway, of the budding Neo-Assyrian Empire. Greece adopted significant amounts of cultural elements from the Orient, in art as well as in religion and mythology. Archaeologically, Archaic Greece is marked by Geometric pottery.
Classical Greece
The basic unit of politics in Ancient Greece was the polis, sometimes translated as city-state. "Politics" literally means "the things of the polis". Each city was independent, at least in theory. Some cities might be subordinate to others (a colony traditionally deferred to its mother city), some might have had governments wholly dependent upon others (the Thirty Tyrants in Athens was imposed by Sparta following the Peloponnesian War), but the titularly supreme power in each city was located within that city. This meant that when Greece went to war (e.g., against the Persian Empire), it took the form of an alliance going to war. It also gave ample opportunity for wars within Greece between different cities.
Two major wars shaped the Classical Greek world. The Persian Wars (500–448 BC) are recounted in Herodotus's Histories. By the late 6th century BC, the Achaemenid Persian Empire ruled over all Greek city states and had made territorial gains in the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper as well. The Ionian Greek cities revolted from the Persian Empire, through a chain of events, and were supported by some of the mainland cities, eventually led by Athens. To punish mainland Greece for its support of the Ionian cities (which uprising by that time had already been quelled) Darius I launched the First Persian invasion of Greece, which lasted from 492 BC till 490 BC. The Persian general Megabyzus re-subjugated Thrace and conquered Macedon in the early stages of the war,[13] but the war eventually ended up with a Greek victory. Darius' successor Xerxes I launched the Second Persian invasion of Greece. Even though at a crucial point in the war almost all of mainland Greece was briefly overrun (all territories north of the Isthmus of Corinth)[14] the Greek city states managed to turn this war into a victory too. The notable battles of the Greco-Persian Wars include Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea.
To prosecute the war and then to defend Greece from further Persian attack, Athens founded the Delian League in 477 BC. Initially, each city in the League would contribute ships and soldiers to a common army, but in time Athens allowed (and then compelled) the smaller cities to contribute funds so that it could supply their quota of ships. Secession from the League could be punished. Following military reversals against the Persians, the treasury was moved from Delos to Athens, further strengthening the latter's control over the League. The Delian League was eventually referred to pejoratively as the Athenian Empire.
In 458 BC, while the Persian Wars were still ongoing, war broke out between the Delian League and the Peloponnesian League, comprising Sparta and its allies. After some inconclusive fighting, the two sides signed a peace in 447 BC. That peace, it was stipulated, was to last thirty years: instead it held only until 431 BC, with the onset of the Peloponnesian War. Our main sources concerning this war are Thucydides's History of the Peloponnesian War and Xenophon's Hellenica.
The war began over a dispute between Corcyra and Epidamnus. Corinth intervened on the Epidamnian side. Fearful lest Corinth capture the Corcyran navy (second only to the Athenian in size), Athens intervened. It prevented Corinth from landing on Corcyra at the Battle of Sybota, laid siege to Potidaea, and forbade all commerce with Corinth's closely situated ally, Megara (the Megarian decree).
There was disagreement among the Greeks as to which party violated the treaty between the Delian and Peloponnesian Leagues, as Athens was technically defending a new ally. The Corinthians turned to Sparta for aid. Fearing the growing might of Athens, and witnessing Athens' willingness to use it against the Megarians (the embargo would have ruined them), Sparta declared the treaty to have been violated and the Peloponnesian War began in earnest.
The first stage of the war (known as the Archidamian War for the Spartan king, Archidamus II) lasted until 421 BC with the signing of the Peace of Nicias. The Athenian general Pericles recommended that his city fight a defensive war, avoiding battle against the superior land forces led by Sparta, and importing everything needful by maintaining its powerful navy. Athens would simply outlast Sparta, whose citizens feared to be out of their city for long lest the helots revolt.
This strategy required that Athens endure regular sieges, and in 430 BC it was visited with an awful plague that killed about a quarter of its people, including Pericles. With Pericles gone, less conservative elements gained power in the city and Athens went on the offensive. It captured 300–400 Spartan hoplites at the Battle of Pylos. This represented a significant fraction of the Spartan fighting force which the latter decided it could not afford to lose. Meanwhile, Athens had suffered humiliating defeats at Delium and Amphipolis. The Peace of Nicias concluded with Sparta recovering its hostages and Athens recovering the city of Amphipolis.
Those who signed the Peace of Nicias in 421 BC swore to uphold it for fifty years. The second stage of the Peloponnesian War began in 415 BC when Athens embarked on the Sicilian Expedition to support an ally (Segesta) attacked by Syracuse and to conquer Sicily. Initially, Sparta was reluctant, but Alcibiades, the Athenian general who had argued for the Sicilian Expedition, defected to the Spartan cause upon being accused of grossly impious acts and convinced them that they could not allow Athens to subjugate Syracuse. The campaign ended in disaster for the Athenians.
Athens' Ionian possessions rebelled with the support of Sparta, as advised by Alcibiades. In 411 BC, an oligarchical revolt in Athens held out the chance for peace, but the Athenian navy, which remained committed to the democracy, refused to accept the change and continued fighting in Athens' name. The navy recalled Alcibiades (who had been forced to abandon the Spartan cause after reputedly seducing the wife of Agis II, a Spartan king) and made him its head. The oligarchy in Athens collapsed and Alcibiades reconquered what had been lost.
In 407 BC, Alcibiades was replaced following a minor naval defeat at the Battle of Notium. The Spartan general Lysander, having fortified his city's naval power, won victory after victory. Following the Battle of Arginusae, which Athens won but was prevented by bad weather from rescuing some of its sailors, Athens executed or exiled eight of its top naval commanders. Lysander followed with a crushing blow at the Battle of Aegospotami in 405 BC which almost destroyed the Athenian fleet. Athens surrendered one year later, ending the Peloponnesian War.
The war had left devastation in its wake. Discontent with the Spartan hegemony that followed (including the fact that it ceded Ionia and Cyprus to the Persian Empire at the conclusion of the Corinthian War (395–387 BC); see Treaty of Antalcidas) induced the Thebans to attack. Their general, Epaminondas, crushed Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC, inaugurating a period of Theban dominance in Greece. In 346 BC, unable to prevail in its ten-year war with Phocis, Thebes called upon Philip II of Macedon for aid. Macedon quickly forced the city states into being united by the League of Corinth which led to the conquering of the Persian Empire and the Hellenistic Age had begun.
Hellenistic Greece
The Hellenistic period of Greek history begins with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and ends with the annexation of the Greek peninsula and islands by Rome in 146 BC. Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture, which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of Christianity, it did mark the end of Greek political independence.
During the Hellenistic period the importance of "Greece proper" (that is, the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The great centres of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch, capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria. (See Hellenistic civilization for the history of Greek culture outside Greece in this period.)
Athens and her allies revolted against Macedon upon hearing that Alexander had died, but were defeated within a year in the Lamian War. Meanwhile, a struggle for power broke out among Alexander's generals, which resulted in the break-up of his empire and the establishment of a number of new kingdoms (see the Wars of the Diadochi). Ptolemy was left with Egypt, Seleucus with the Levant, Mesopotamia, and points east. Control of Greece, Thrace, and Anatolia was contested, but by 298 BC the Antigonid dynasty had supplanted the Antipatrid.
Macedonian control of the city-states was intermittent, with a number of revolts. Athens, Rhodes, Pergamum and other Greek states retained substantial independence, and joined the Aetolian League as a means of defending it and restoring democracy in their states, where as they saw Macedon as a tyrannical kingdom because of the fact they had not adopted democracy. The Achaean League, while nominally subject to the Ptolemies was in effect independent, and controlled most of southern Greece. Sparta also remained independent, but generally refused to join any league.
In 267 BC, Ptolemy II persuaded the Greek cities to revolt against Macedon, in what became the Chremonidean War, after the Athenian leader Chremonides. The cities were defeated and Athens lost her independence and her democratic institutions. This marked the end of Athens as a political actor, although it remained the largest, wealthiest and most cultivated city in Greece. In 225 BC Macedon defeated the Egyptian fleet at Cos and brought the Aegean islands, except Rhodes, under its rule as well.
Sparta remained hostile to the Achaeans, and in 227 BC invaded Achaea and seized control of the League. The remaining Acheans preferred distant Macedon to nearby Sparta, and allied with the former. In 222 BC the Macedonian army defeated the Spartans and annexed their city—the first time Sparta had ever been occupied by a different state.
Philip V of Macedon was the last Greek ruler with both the talent and the opportunity to unite Greece and preserve its independence against the ever-increasing power of Rome. Under his auspices, the Peace of Naupactus (217 BC) brought conflict between Macedon and the Greek leagues to an end, and at this time he controlled all of Greece except Athens, Rhodes and Pergamum.
In 215 BC, however, Philip formed an alliance with Rome's enemy Carthage. Rome promptly lured the Achaean cities away from their nominal loyalty to Philip, and formed alliances with Rhodes and Pergamum, now the strongest power in Asia Minor. The First Macedonian War broke out in 212 BC, and ended inconclusively in 205 BC, but Macedon was now marked as an enemy of Rome.
In 202 BC, Rome defeated Carthage, and was free to turn her attention eastwards. In 198 BC, the Second Macedonian War broke out because Rome saw Macedon as a potential ally of the Seleucid Empire, the greatest power in the east. Philip's allies in Greece deserted him and in 197 BC he was decisively defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalae by the Roman proconsul Titus Quinctius Flamininus.
Luckily for the Greeks, Flamininus was a moderate man and an admirer of Greek culture. Philip had to surrender his fleet and become a Roman ally, but was otherwise spared. At the Isthmian Games in 196 BC, Flamininus declared all the Greek cities free, although Roman garrisons were placed at Corinth and Chalcis. But the freedom promised by Rome was an illusion. All the cities except Rhodes were enrolled in a new League which Rome ultimately controlled, and aristocratic constitutions were favoured and actively promoted.
Roman Greece
Militarily, Greece itself declined to the point that the Romans conquered the land (168 BC onwards), though Greek culture would in turn conquer Roman life. Although the period of Roman rule in Greece is conventionally dated as starting from the sacking of Corinth by the Roman Lucius Mummius in 146 BC, Macedonia had already come under Roman control with the defeat of its king, Perseus, by the Roman Aemilius Paullus at Pydna in 168 BC.
The Romans divided the region into four smaller republics, and in 146 BC Macedonia officially became a province, with its capital at Thessalonica. The rest of the Greek city-states gradually and eventually paid homage to Rome ending their de jure autonomy as well. The Romans left local administration to the Greeks without making any attempt to abolish traditional political patterns. The agora in Athens continued to be the centre of civic and political life.
Caracalla's decree in AD 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana, extended citizenship outside Italy to all free adult men in the entire Roman Empire, effectively raising provincial populations to equal status with the city of Rome itself. The importance of this decree is historical, not political. It set the basis for integration where the economic and judicial mechanisms of the state could be applied throughout the Mediterranean as was once done from Latium into all Italy. In practice of course, integration did not take place uniformly. Societies already integrated with Rome, such as Greece, were favored by this decree, in comparison with those far away, too poor or just too alien such as Britain, Palestine or Egypt.
Caracalla's decree did not set in motion the processes that led to the transfer of power from Italy and the West to Greece and the East, but rather accelerated them, setting the foundations for the millennium-long rise of Greece, in the form of the Eastern Roman Empire, as a major power in Europe and the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages.
Byzantine Empire (4th century – 1453)
The history of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire is described by Byzantinist August Heisenberg as the history of "the Christianized Roman empire of the Greek nation".[15] The division of the empire into East and West and the subsequent collapse of the Western Roman Empire were developments that constantly accentuated the position of the Greeks in the empire and eventually allowed them to become identified with it altogether. The leading role of Constantinople began when Constantine the Great turned Byzantium into the new capital of the Roman Empire, from then on to be known as Constantinople, placing the city at the center of Hellenism a beacon for the Greeks that lasted to the modern era.
The figures of Constantine the Great and Justinian dominated during 324–610. Assimilating the Roman tradition, the emperors sought to offer the basis for later developments and for the formation of the Byzantine Empire. Efforts to secure the borders of the Empire and to restore the Roman territories marked the early centuries. At the same time, the definitive formation and establishment of the Orthodox doctrine, but also a series of conflicts resulting from heresies that developed within the boundaries of the empire marked the early period of Byzantine history.
In the first period of the middle Byzantine era (610–867) the empire was attacked both by old enemies (Persians, Lombards, Avars and Slavs) as well as by new ones, appearing for the first time in history (Arabs, Bulgars). The main characteristic of this period was that the enemy attacks were not localized to the border areas of the state but they were extended deep beyond, even threatening the capital itself. At the same time, these attacks lost their periodical and temporary character and became permanent settlements that transformed into new states, hostile to Byzantium. Those states were referred by the Byzantines as Sclavinias.
Changes were also observed in the internal structure of the empire which was dictated by both external and internal conditions. The predominance of the small free farmers, the expansion of the military estates and the development of the system of themes, brought to completion developments that had started in the previous period. Changes were noted also in the sector of administration: the administration and society had become immiscibly Greek, while the restoration of Orthodoxy after the iconoclast movement, allowed the successful resumption of missionary action among neighboring peoples and their placement within the sphere of Byzantine cultural influence. During this period the state was geographically reduced and economically damaged, since it lost wealth-producing regions; however, it obtained greater lingual, dogmatic and cultural homogeneity.
From the late 8th century, the Empire began to recover from the devastating impact of successive invasions, and the reconquest of Greece began. Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor were brought in as settlers. The Slavs were either driven out or assimilated and the Sclavinias were eliminated. By the middle of the 9th century, Greece was Greek again, and the cities began to recover due to improved security and the restoration of effective central control.
Economic prosperity
When the Byzantine Empire was rescued from a period of crisis by the resolute leadership of the three Komnenoi emperors Alexios, John and Manuel in the 12th century, Greece prospered. Recent research has revealed that this period was a time of significant growth in the rural economy, with rising population levels and extensive tracts of new agricultural land being brought into production. The widespread construction of new rural churches is a strong indication that prosperity was being generated even in remote areas.
A steady increase in population led to a higher population density, and there is good evidence that the demographic increase was accompanied by the revival of towns. According to Alan Harvey in his book ''Economic expansion in the Byzantine Empire 900–1200'', towns expanded significantly in the twelfth century. Archaeological evidence shows an increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a 'notable upsurge' in new towns. Archaeological evidence tells us that many of the medieval towns, including Athens, Thessaloniki, Thebes and Corinth, experienced a period of rapid and sustained growth, starting in the 11th century and continuing until the end of the 12th century.
The growth of the towns attracted the Venetians, and this interest in trade appears to have further increased economic prosperity in Greece. Certainly, the Venetians and others were active traders in the ports of the Holy Land, and they made a living out of shipping goods between the Crusader Kingdoms of Outremer and the West while also trading extensively with Byzantium and Egypt.
Artistic revival
The 11th and 12th centuries are said to be the Golden Age of Byzantine art in Greece. Many of the most important Byzantine churches in and around Athens, for example, were built during these two centuries, and this reflects the growth of urbanisation in Greece during this period. There was also a revival in the mosaic art with artists showing great interest in depicting natural landscapes with wild animals and scenes from the hunt. Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three-dimensional forms. With its love of luxury and passion for color, the art of this age delighted in the production of masterpieces that spread the fame of Byzantium throughout the Christian world.
Beautiful silks from the workshops of Constantinople also portrayed in dazzling color animals—lions, elephants, eagles, and griffins—confronting each other, or representing Emperors gorgeously arrayed on horseback or engaged in the chase. The eyes of many patrons were attracted and the economy of Greece grew. In the provinces, regional schools of Architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences. All this suggests that there was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work.
Yet the marvelous expansion of Byzantine art during this period, one of the most remarkable facts in the history of the empire, did not stop there. From the tenth to the 12th century Byzantium was the main source of inspiration for the West. By their style, arrangement, and iconography the mosaics of St. Mark's at Venice and of the cathedral at Torcello clearly show their Byzantine origin. Similarly those of the Palatine Chapel, the Martorana at Palermo, and the cathedral of Cefalu, together with the vast decoration of the cathedral at Monreale, prove the influence of Byzantium οn the Norman Court of Sicily in the 12th century.
Hispano-Moorish art was unquestionably derived from the Byzantine. Romanesque art owes much to the East, from which it borrowed not only its decorative forms but the plan of some of its buildings, as is proved, for instance, by the domed churches of south-western France. Princes of Kiev, Venetian doges, abbots of Monte Cassino, merchants of Amalfi, and the Norman kings of Sicily all looked to Byzantium for artists or works of art. Such was the influence of Byzantine art in the 12th century, that Russia, Venice, southern Italy and Sicily all virtually became provincial centers dedicated to its production.
The Fourth Crusade and after
The year 1204 marks the beginning of the late Byzantine period, when probably the most important event for the Empire occurred. Constantinople was lost for the Greek people for the first time, and the empire was conquered by Latin crusaders and would be replaced by a new Latin one, for 57 years. In addition, the period of Latin occupation decisively influenced the empire's internal development, as elements of feudality entered aspects of Byzantine life.
In 1261 the Greek empire was divided between the former Greek Byzantine Comnenos dynasty members (Despotate of Epirus) and Palaiologos dynasty (the last dynasty until the fall of Constantinople) ruling the Despotate of the Morea. After the gradual weakening of the structures of the Byzantine state and the reduction of its land from Turkish invasions, came the fall of the Byzantine Empire at the hands of the Ottomans. The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 is considered the end of the Byzantine period.
Even after the Ottoman conquest, various areas remained under Venetian control, such as the Kingdom of Candia (until 1669), the Venetian Ionian islands, various Aegean islands or short-lived occupied lands (Kingdom of the Morea, Preveza etc.).
Ottoman rule (15th century – 1821)
When the Ottomans arrived, two Greek migrations occurred. First many of the Greek intelligentsia migrated to Western Europe and influenced the advent of the Renaissance. In the second migration, Greeks left the plains of the Greek peninsula and resettled in the mountains.[16] The millet system contributed to the ethnic cohesion of Orthodox Greeks by segregating the various peoples within the Ottoman Empire based on religion.
The Greeks living in the plains during Ottoman domination were either Christians who dealt with the burdens of foreign rule or crypto-Christians (Greeks who held themselves out to the government as Muslims but were secret practitioners of the Greek Orthodox faith). Some Greeks became crypto-Christians to avoid heavy taxes while at the same time maintaining their identity by keeping their ties to the Greek Orthodox Church. Greeks who publicly professed conversion to Islam and did not maintain a crypto-Christian identity were deemed Turks in the eyes of Orthodox Greeks even if they did not adopt the Turkish language.
The Ottomans ruled Greece until the early 19th century.
Modern Greek state (1821–present)
In the early months of 1821, the Greeks declared their independence but did not achieve it until 1829. The Great Powers first shared the same view concerning the necessity of preserving the status quo of the Ottoman Empire, but soon changed their stance. Scores of non-Greeks volunteered to fight for the cause, including Lord Byron.
On 20 October 1827, a combined British, French and Russian naval force destroyed the Ottoman and Egyptian armada. The Russian minister of foreign affairs, Ioannis Kapodistrias, himself a Greek, returned home as President of the new Republic. The first capital of the independent Greece was Aigina (1828–1829) and the second was Nafplio (1828–1834). After his assassination the European powers helped turn Greece into a monarchy; the first King, Otto, came from Bavaria and the second, George I, from Denmark. King Otto, in 1834 transferred the capital to Athens.
During the 19th and early 20th centuries Greece sought to enlarge its boundaries to include the ethnic Greek population of the Ottoman Empire. Greece played a peripheral role in the Crimean War. When Russia attacked the Ottoman Empire in 1853 Greek leaders saw an opportunity to expand North and South into Ottoman areas that had a Christian majority. However Greece did not coordinate its plans with Russia, did not declare war, and received no outside military or financial support. The French and British seized its major port and effectively neutralized the Greek army. Greek efforts to cause insurrections were failures that were easily crushed by the Ottoman army. Greece was not invited to the peace conference and made no gains out of the war. The frustrated Greek leadership blamed the King for failing to take advantage of the situation; his popularity plunged and he was later forced to abdicate. The Ionian Islands were returned by Britain upon the arrival of the new King George I in 1863 and Thessaly was ceded by the Ottomans. As a result of the Balkan Wars of 1912–13 Epirus, southern Macedonia, Crete and the Aegean Islands were annexed into the Kingdom of Greece. Another enlargement followed in 1947, when Greece annexed the Dodecanese Islands from Italy.
In the late 19th century the population grew rapidly, putting heavy pressure on the system of small farms with low productivity. Overall the density of population more than doubled from 41 persons per square mile in 1829 to 114 in 1912 (16 to 44 per km2). One response was emigration to the United States, with a quarter million people leaving between 1906 and 1914. Entrepreneurs found numerous business opportunities in the retail and restaurant sectors of American cities; some sent money back to their families, others returned with enough dollars to purchase a farm or a small business in the old village. The urban population proportion tripled from 8% in 1853 to 24% in 1907. Athens grew from a village of 6000 people in 1834, when it became the capital, to 63,000 in 1879, 111,000 in 1896, and 167,000 in 1907.[17]
In Athens and other cities men arriving from rural areas set up workshops and stores, creating a middle class. They joined with bankers, professional men, university students, and military officers, to demand reform and modernization of the political and economic system. Athens became the center of the merchant marine, which quadrupled from 250,000 tons in 1875 to more than 1,000,000 tons in 1915. As the cities modernized, businessmen adopted the latest styles of West European architecture.[18]
World War I and Greco-Turkish War
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 produced a split in Greek politics, with King Constantine I, an admirer of Germany, calling for neutrality, while Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos pushed for Greece to join on the side of the Allies, aiming for the realization of the Megali Idea.[19] The conflict between monarchists and Venizelists sometimes resulted in open warfare and became known as the National Schism. In 1916 the Allies forced Constantine to abdicate in favor of his son Alexander, and Venizelos returned as premier. At the end of the war the Great Powers agreed that the Ottoman city of Smyrna (Izmir) and its hinterland, both of which had large Greek populations, should be handed over to Greece.[19]
Greek troops occupied Smyrna in 1919, and in 1920 the Treaty of Sèvres was signed by the Ottoman government: it stipulated that in five years time a plebiscite would be held in Smyrna on whether the region would join Greece.[19] However, the Turkish nationalists, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, overthrew the Ottoman government and organised a military campaign against the Greek troops, resulting in the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922). A major Greek offensive ground to halt in 1921, and by 1922 the Greek troops were in retreat. The Turkish forces recaptured Smyrna on 9 September 1922, setting the city ablaze and killing many Greeks and Armenians.
The war was concluded by the Treaty of Lausanne, according to which there was to be a population exchange between Greece and Turkey on the basis of religion. Over one million Orthodox Christians left Turkey in exchange for 400,000 Muslims from Greece.[19] The events of 1919–1922 are regarded in Greece as a particularly calamitous period of history. Between 1914 and 1923, an estimated 750,000[20] to 900,000[21] Greeks died at the hands of the Ottoman Turks, in what many scholars have termed a genocide.[22][23][24][25][26]
World War II
Despite the country's numerically small and ill-equipped armed forces, Greece made a decisive contribution to the Allied efforts in World War II. At the start of the war Greece sided with the Allies and refused to give in to Italian demands. Italy invaded Greece by way of Albania on 28 October 1940, but Greek troops repelled the invaders after a bitter struggle (see Greco-Italian War). This marked the first Allied victory in the war.
Primarily to secure his strategic southern flank, German dictator Adolf Hitler reluctantly stepped in and launched the Battle of Greece. Axis units from Germany, Bulgaria, and Italy successfully invaded Greece, through Yugoslavia, forcing out the Greek defenders. The Greek government eventually decided to stop the fighting and thus stopped sending ammunitions and supplies to the north front and the defenders were easily overrun. The Greek government then proceeded, as the Nazi forces came towards the capital of Athens, to leave for Crete and then Cairo. On 20 May 1941, the Germans attempted to seize Crete with a large attack by paratroopers—with the aim of reducing the threat of a counter-offensive by Allied forces in Egypt—but faced heavy resistance. The Greek campaign might have delayed German military plans against Soviet Union, and it is argued that had the German invasion of the Soviet Union started on 20 May 1941 instead of 22 June 1941, the Nazi assault against the Soviet Union might have succeeded. The Nazi forces finally managed to seize the island but their heavy losses on the paratrooper forces, led the Germans to launch no further large-scale air-invasions.
During the years of Occupation of Greece by Nazi Germany, thousands of Greeks died in direct combat, in concentration camps, or of starvation. The occupiers murdered the greater part of the Jewish community despite efforts by Christian Greeks to shelter the Jews. The economy of Greece was devastated.
When the Soviet Army began its drive across Romania in August 1944, the German Army in Greece began withdrawing north and northwestward from Greece to avoid being cut off in Greece. Hence, the German occupation of Greece ended in October 1944. The Resistance group ELAS seized control of Athens on 12 October 1944. The insurrection was defeated by British troops who entered Athens at 14 October 1944.[27]
Goulter (2014) summarizes the devastation done to Greece during the war:
- Between 1941 in 1945, over 8% of the Greek population had died; some 2000 villages and small towns had been razed to the ground; starvation was widespread due to the destruction of crops and worsened in many parts of Greece after liberation when agricultural labourers migrated to urban centres to escape politically inspired violence in the countryside; trade either internally or externally had all but ceased; most of Greece's merchant marine lay at the bottom of the sea; and motorized transport had been confiscated by the axis occupiers.[28]
Greek Civil War (1944–49)
The Greek Civil War (Greek: Eμφύλιος πόλεμος Emfílios pólemos) was fought between 1944 and 1949 in Greece between the Greek governmental and the Greek communist army. Funding for the government came from Britain and the U.S.[29] The insurgents were the military branch of the Greek communist party. According to some analysts on the left, it represented the first example of a post-war West interference in the political situation of a foreign country.[30] The victory of the British—and later US-supported government forces led to American funding through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan and to Greece's membership in NATO and helped to define the ideological balance of power in the Aegean for the entire Cold War.
On one side of the civil war were the armed forces of the postwar non-Marxist Greek administrations; on the other side were communist-led forces, and key members of the former resistance organization (ELAS), the leadership of which was controlled by the Communist Party of Greece (KKE). The war mainly involved guerilla warfare between those two sides, mainly in the mountain ranges of northern Greece. The war ended with the NATO bombing of Mount Grammos and the final defeat of the communists.
The civil war left Greece with a legacy of political polarization; as a result, Greece also entered into alliance with the United States and joined NATO, while relationships with its Communist northern neighbours, both pro-Soviet and neutral, became strained.
Postwar recovery and military junta
In the 1950s and 1960s, Greece developed rapidly, initially with the help of the U.S. Marshall Plan's grants and loans, and later through growth in the tourism sector, leading to the Greek economic miracle. New attention was given to women's rights, and in 1952 suffrage for women was guaranteed in the Constitution, full Constitutional equality following, and Lina Tsaldari becoming the first female minister that decade.
In 1967, the Greek military seized power in a coup d'état, overthrew the centre right government of Panagiotis Kanellopoulos.[31] It established the Greek military junta of 1967-1974 which became known as the Régime of the Colonels or the The Junta of the Americans led by dictator and former CIA agent Georgios Papadopoulos. The junta government's accession to power lead to an isolation to Greece from European affairs and froze Greece's entry to the European Union. In 1973, the régime abolished the Greek monarchy. After a second coup that year, Colonel Ioannides was appointed as the new head-of-state.
Ioannides was responsible for the 1974 coup against President Makarios of Cyprus.[32] The coup became the pretext for the first wave of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 (see Greco-Turkish relations). The Cyprus events and the outcry following a bloody suppression of Athens Polytechnic uprising in Athens led to the implosion of the military régime. An exiled politician, Konstantinos Karamanlis, returned and became interim prime minister on July 23, 1974[33] and later gained re-election for two further terms at the head of the conservative New Democracy party. In August 1974, Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus.[34]
Restoration of democracy
In 1974, a referendum voted 69%–31% to confirm the deposition of King Constantine II. A democratic republican constitution came into force.[35] Another previously exiled politician, Andreas Papandreou, also returned and founded the socialist Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) party, which won the 1981 election and dominated Greek politics for almost two decades.[36]
After the restoration of democracy, Greece's stability and economic prosperity improved significantly. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980, joined the European Union (EU) in 1981 and adopted the euro as its currency in 2001. New infrastructure, funds from the EU and growing revenues from tourism, shipping, services, light industry and the telecommunications industry brought Greeks an unprecedented standard of living. Tensions continue to exist between Greece and Turkey over Cyprus and the delimitation of borders in the Aegean Sea but relations have considerably thawed following successive earthquakes—first in Turkey and then in Greece—and an outpouring of sympathy and generous assistance by ordinary Greeks and Turks (see Earthquake Diplomacy).
Economic crisis of 2009–2015
From late 2009, fears developed in investment markets of a sovereign debt crisis concerning Greece's ability to pay its debts, in view of the huge increase in the country's government debt, mainly because of the misuse of European loans by corrupt Greek politicians and governments.[37][38] This crisis of confidence was indicated by a widening of bond yield spreads and risk insurance on credit default swaps compared to other countries, most importantly Germany.[39][40] Downgrading of Greek government debt to junk bond status created alarm in financial markets. On 2 May 2010, the Eurozone countries and the International Monetary Fund agreed on a €110 billion loan for Greece, conditional on the implementation of harsh austerity measures.
In October 2011, Eurozone leaders also agreed on a proposal to write off 50% of Greek debt owed to private creditors, increasing the EFSF[clarification needed] to about €1 trillion and requiring European banks to achieve 9% capitalization to reduce the risk of contagion to other countries. These austerity measures were extremely unpopular with many of the Greek public, precipitating demonstrations and civil unrest.
See also
- History of Crete
- History of the Cyclades
- History of Thessaly
- History of Athens
- History of Thessaloniki
- History of Anatolia
- History of the Greek language
- Timeline of Ancient Greece
- Timeline of modern Greek history
- List of ancient Greeks
- List of ancient Greek cities
- List of Kings of Greece
- List of Presidents of Greece
- List of Prime Ministers of Greece
Further reading
- Boardman, John; et al. (2002). The Oxford History of Greece & the Hellenistic World.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Brewer, David (2010). Greece: The Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople to Greek Independence. I.B. Tauris. p. 308.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Burn, A.R. (1966). The Penguin History of Greece.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Cartledge, Paul (2002). The Cambridge Illustrated History of Ancient Greece.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-29037-6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Demand, Nancy H. (2006). A History of Ancient Greece in Its Mediterranean Context.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Grant, Michael (1993). A Social History of Greece and Rome.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Koliopoulos, John S.; Veremis, Thanos M. (2009). Modern Greece: A History since 1821.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Pomeroy, Sarah B.; et al. (2009). A Brief History of Ancient Greece: Politics, Society and Culture.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Woodhouse, C. M. (2000). Modern Greece: A Short History.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- [41]
- Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-29037-6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Mountjoy, P.A. (1986). Mycenaean Decorated Pottery: A Guide to Identification. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 73. Göteborg: Paul Åströms Forlag. ISBN 91-86098-32-2.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Mylonas, George E. (1966). Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age. Princeton UP. ISBN 0-691-03523-7.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Podzuweit, Christian (1982). "Die mykenische Welt und Troja". In Hänsel, B. (ed.). Südosteuropa zwischen 1600 und 1000 v. Chr. pp. 65–88.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Roebuck, Carl (1966). The World of Ancient Times. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Taylour, Lord William (1964). The Mycenaeans. Revised edition (1990). London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27586-6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Latacz, Joachim (1994). "Between Troy and Homer. The so-called Dark Ages in Greece". Storia, Poesia e Pensiero nel Mondo antico. Studi in Onore di M. Gigante. Rome.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Vacalopoulos, Apostolis (1976). The Greek Nation, 1453–1669. Rutgers University Press.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Roebuck 1966, p. 77 & 113.
- ↑ Roebuck 1966, p. 13.
- ↑ Roebuck 1966, p. 77.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Roebuck 1966, p. 101.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Roebuck 1966, p. 108.
- ↑ Roebuck 1966, p. 107.
- ↑ Bryce 2006, p. 91; Cadogan & Langdon Caskey 1986, p. 125
- ↑ "The Greeks". Encyclopædia Britannica. US: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2008. Online Edition.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–3. ISBN 0-521-29037-6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Runnels, Curtis Neil; Murray, Priscilla (2001). Greece before history: an archaeological companion and guide. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. p. 64. ISBN 0-8047-4050-X.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Hall Jonathan M. (2007). A history of the archaic Greek world, ca. 1200–479 BCE. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-22667-3.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Sealey, Raphael (1976). A history of the Greek city states, ca. 700–338 B.C. University of California Press. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0-631-22667-3.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 144435163X pp 135-138, p 343
- ↑ Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. Warfare in the Ancient World Pen and Sword, 19 jan. 2006 ISBN 1848846304
- ↑ Winnifrith, Tom; Murray, Penelope (1983). Greece Old and New. Macmillan. p. 113. ISBN 0-333-27836-4.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>. "For August Heisenberg the Byzantine empire was 'the Christianised Roman empire of the Greek nation'."
- ↑ Vacalopoulos, p. 45. The Greeks never lost their desire to escape from the heavy hand of the Turks, bad government, the impressment of their children, the increasingly heavy taxation, and the sundry caprices of the conqueror. Indeed, anyone studying the last two centuries of Byzantine rule cannot help being struck by the propensity of the Greeks to flee misfortune. The routes they chiefly took were: first, to the predominantly Greek territories, which were either still free or Frankish-controlled (that is to say, the Venetian fortresses in the Despotate of Morea, as well as in the Aegean and Ionian Islands) or else to Italy and the West generally; second, to remote mountain districts in the interior where the conqueror's yoke was not yet felt.
- ↑ Myrsiades, Linda S.; Myrsiades, Kostas (1992). Karagiozis: Culture & Comedy in Greek Puppet Theater. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 32–33.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Birēs, Manos G.; Kardamitsē-Adamē, Marō (2004). Neoclassical Architecture in Greece. Getty Publications. p. 173.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Clogg, Richard, A Concise History of Greece, (Cambridge University Press, 1992) pages 86–98.
- ↑ Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. pp. 150–151. ISBN 0415486181.
By the beginning of the First World War, a majority of the region's ethnic Greeks still lived in present-day Turkey, mostly in Thrace (the only remaining Ottoman territory in Europe, abutting the Greek border), and along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts. They would be targeted both prior to and alongside the Armenians of Anatolia and Assyrians of Anatolia and Mesopotamia...The major populations of "Anatolian Greeks" include those along the Aegean coast and in Cappadocia (central Anatolia), but not the Greeks of the Thrace region west of the Bosphorus...A "Christian genocide" framing acknowledges the historic claims of Assyrian and Greek peoples, and the movements now stirring for recognition and restitution among Greek and Assyrian diasporas. It also brings to light the quite staggering cumulative death toll among the various Christian groups targeted...of the 1.5 million Greeks of Asia minor – Ionians, Pontians, and Cappadocians – approximately 750,000 were massacred and 750,000 exiled. Pontian deaths alone totaled 353,000.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. p. 166. ISBN 9780415486187.
An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about 350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and may approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period. Most surviving Greeks were expelled to Greece as part of the tumultuous "population exchanges" that set the seal on a heavily "Turkified" state.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Adam Jones (26 October 2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-0-415-48618-7. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
A resolution was placed before the IAGS membership to recognize the Greek and Assyrian components of the Ottoman genocide against Christians, alongside the Armenian strand of the genocide (which the IAGS has already formally acknowledged). The result, passed emphatically in December 2007 despite not inconsiderable opposition, was a resolution which I co-drafted, reading as follows:... (IAGS resolution is on page 172)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ IAGS Resolution on Genocides committed by the Ottoman Empire retrieved via the Internet Archive (PDF), International Association of Genocide Scholars<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament — full text containing the IAGS resolution and the Swedish Parliament resolution from news.am
- ↑ Gaunt, David. Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2006.
- ↑ Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Churchill, S.W. (1953). The Second World War (Volume 6). p. 285.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Christina J. M. Goulter, "The Greek Civil War: A National Army's Counter-insurgency Triumph," The Journal of Military History (July 2014) 78#3 pp: 1017-55, quote pp 10234-25
- ↑ Nikos Marantzidis, and Giorgos Antoniou. "The axis occupation and civil war: Changing trends in Greek historiography, 1941–2002." Journal of Peace Research (2004) 41#2 pp: 223-231.
- ↑ Chomsky, Noam (1994). World Orders, Old And New. Pluto Press London.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Richard Clogg (2002). A Concise History of Greece. Cambridge University Press. p. 159.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Barry Bartmann (2003). De Facto States: The Quest For Sovereignty. Psychology Press. p. 167.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "NATO Update 1974". NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization. 26 October 2001.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Dr Fo Moustakis (2003). The Greek-Turkish Relationship and NATO. Taylor & Francis. p. 33.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Geoffrey Pridham (1990). Securing Democracy: Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Southern Europe. Psychology Press. p. 182.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Harry Coccossis; Yannis Psycharis (2008). Regional Analysis and Policy: The Greek Experience. Springer. p. 45.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ George Matlock (16 February 2010). "Peripheral euro zone government bond spreads widen". Reuters. Retrieved 28 April 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "Acropolis now". The Economist. 29 April 2010. Retrieved 22 June 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "Greek/German bond yield spread more than 1,000 bps". Financialmirror.com. 28 April 2010. Retrieved 5 May 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "Gilt yields rise amid UK debt concerns". Financial Times. 18 February 2010. Retrieved 15 April 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ The Oxford illustrated history of Greece and the Hellenistic world. Oxford. 2001.
|last1=(help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
External links
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The Code Napoleon: or, the French Civil Code. Literally translated from the original and official edition, published at Paris, in 1804. By a Barrister of the Inner Temple (London: William Benning, 1827). https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/2353,
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subset: commoncrawl


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I put in my order for this big guy tonight. Be warned that HTS charges you when you order and not when the toy ships. Kind of a crappy way to do things.
It looks a sewer rat on steroids experiment gone wrong.
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Video: Highlights: UFC 156: Benavidez – McCall
In a pivotal bout for the UFC's flyweight division, recent title challenger Joseph Benavidez outpointed Ian McCall and put himself right back in contention for another title shot.
Benavidez (17-3 MMA, 4-1 UFC) beat McCall (11-4-1 MMA, 0-2-1 UFC) with 29-28 scores across the board in an entertaining fight to open Saturday's pay-per-view main card.
Benavidez fought champion Demetrious Johnson for the inaugural UFC flyweight title in October, but lost a split decision. With the fledgling division lacking a deep roster like some of the promotion's other weight classes, Benavidez may be next in line for a shot at Johnson, who defended his belt against John Dodson this past month in Chicago.
Full highlights now are available for the fight, which took place at UFC 156 at Mandalay Bay Events Center in Las Vegas and aired live on pay-per-view following prelims on FX and Facebook.
Check out the highlights above.
For complete coverage of UFC 156, stay tuned to the UFC Events section of the site.


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If you read yesterday's bathroom post, I'm sure you expected some sort of bathroom book holder giveaway from CSN. Now I'll be perfectly honest with you. I did an online search for a shelf or rack that would work for books in the bathroom. After all, CSN Stores is a huge group of over 200 online stores so I thought something interesting might pop up in my search. CSN does has a ton of bookcases and other storage products, and there were plenty of interesting options that I found. The Lexington Studios Bathroom Reading Book Organizer is one option. The Little Colorado Potty Chair with Accessories comes with a built in book rack, but it is meant for toddlers. Good options but I thought not everyone would find them useful.
Everyone can use a good step stool though, right? CSN Stores has kindly offered to giveaway a KidKraft Step N' Store Stool to two (2) Brimful Curiosities readers. I don't personally own this step stool, so I can't offer a review, but it has received several favorable comments on both CSN and Amazon. Each winner will be able to choose a KidKraft Step N' Store Stool of their choice valued at $24.95 or less. There are several varieties and colors available in this style, including a pretty cool John Deere tractor design.
To enter to win a KidKraft Step N' Store Stool ($24.95 or less), visit CSN Stores and leave a comment mentioning the step stool color/design you'd choose if you won. (Note: The KidKraft Two Step Stool in Natural or White ($24.95) are also options in this giveaway, if you'd prefer a taller stool.)
• For contact purposes, if you are a non-blogger or your email is not accessible in your blog profile, please leave a valid email address within the comment section.Three ways to gain extra entries (Maximum total entries is 4; please leave a separate comment for each entry):
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1st extra entry: Blog about this contest then post your link in the comment section.
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This post was written for CSN Stores who provided the item for giveaway. I was not compensated for this post, nor did I receive a product to review. (View my full disclosure statement for more information about my reviews and informational posts.)


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What to Know
- Shirlene Quigley's father says she was last seen at Port Authority Bus Terminal early Sunday
- The father, who lives in California, says his daughter always calls him at 6 p.m. each day; he was concerned when he hadn't heard from her
- Quigley's phone was found at a bridal store in Manhattan
UPDATE: Missing backup dancer found safe, police say
Mega music stars are joining in the surging call for help finding a 32-year-old backup dancer from New Jersey who vanished near the Port Authority Bus Terminal over the weekend after making a cryptic comment to friends.
Rihanna posted an emotional plea on Instagram for information on the whereabouts of Shirlene Quigley, who has also performed with Beyonce and Missy Elliott.
Calling Quigley a "beautiful soul," Rihanna wrote, "My heart aches thinking of how heavy this is on all who love her!" The Instagram post included a video of the missing woman contemplating peace and love.
"Imagine if we treated each other like we all came from the same family," Quigley says in the video. "If you are in my life, I love you, whether it be 10 seconds or forever, because we're all family."
Quigley, who lives alone in North Bergen and teaches dance at Peridance Capezio Center and Broadway Dance Center in Manhattan, according to her Facebook page, was last seen getting on a bus at Port Authority around 1 a.m. Sunday, her father said.
Her father, who lives in California, said Quigley normally calls him every day around 6 p.m., and he became concerned when he hadn't heard from her.
"I just want her to come home, or if someone has her to let her be," the father said. "She's everything to me. She's why I live."
Missy Elliott posted a collage of Quigley, urging people to call police if they have information.
"Need help from the whole Dance Community to spread the word!" Elliott wrote on Instagram. "Those who have met her know her spirit is always bubbly and kind & uplifting energy! Sending countless prayers."
Police say Quigley's phone was found at a bridal store in Chelsea; her father says she could've been there to pick up something for a show.
Quigley's father said his daughter made a strange comment to her friend recently along the lines of "Get ready, it's about to happen and I'm going to need you to sub for me."
Quigley attended Liberty Church in Brooklyn; her father says that she is very religious, and that lately she has seemed "euphoric."
Her landlord saw her leave her New Jersey home Saturday afternoon and later called a friend to say Quigley did not seem well, the friend said.
According to her personal website, Quigley's dance career launched when she was 18 and earned a role as one of the "uhh ohh girls" on Beyonce's "Crazy in Love" music video. She has performed on an array of awards shows, including the VMA's, Grammy's and ESPY Awards.
Quigley created the first high heel dance class at a studio in her hometown of Los Angeles and later brought the workshop to New York City. She has also taught at dance studios around the world, her website says.


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American Addiction Centers (AAC) is the leading provider for addiction treatment nationwide, specializing in evidence-based treatment and mental healthcare. With 9 locations across the U.S., AAC has a facility near you that is ready to help you start your journey to sobriety today.
When you call the helpline displayed on Withdrawal.net, you will be connected with a caring admissions navigator to discuss your options for treatment. Our representatives work solely for AAC and will discuss whether an AAC facility may be an option for you.
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African Union Summit: Commissioner Piebalgs reaffirms strong ties between the two continents
BRUSSELS, Kingdom of Belgium, January 25, 2013/African Press Organization (APO)/ -- Commissioner for development, Andris Piebalgs, will represent the European Union at the African Union Summit, which takes place in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) on 27-28 January under the main theme of "Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance".
The Summit will provide a rare opportunity for a series of meetings with attending Heads of States and ministers to discuss EU-Africa cooperation and major crises affecting the continent, from Mali and the Sahel, to Somalia, the Republic of Central Africa (RCA), Sudan or the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Commissioner Piebalgs will attend the signing ceremony of the Peace and Security Framework for the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Great Lakes Region, with Mr Ban Ki-moon, Secretary General of the United Nations (UN).
On this occasion, Commissioner Piebalgs will also discuss with the recently-elected Chairperson of the African Union Commission, Dlamini-Zuma the state of play of the Joint Africa-EU Strategy (JAES) as well as the new African Union Commission priorities in key areas such as peace and security, as well as the empowerment of women.
Ahead of his departure Andris Piebalgs stated: "This year marks the 50th anniversary of the Africa Union, which, like the European Union, works relentlessly on strengthening economic and political integration in Africa and cooperation with external partners, first and foremost the EU. Today's numerous challenges in Africa and Europe call, more than ever, for coordinated responses both at the continental, trans-continental and global level."
He added: "The EU is firmly committed to continue working closely with the African Union under our overarching partnership, the Joint Africa-EU Strategy (JAES) which we launched in 2007. Through the African Peace Facility, we also strongly support the AU's role in the prevention and resolution of conflicts, in partnership with the UN."
European Commissioner Andris Piebalgs will then also attend the international donors conference on Mali to take place in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) on the 29th of January.
Tentative Programme of Commissioner Piebalgs mission to Ethiopia
Meeting with Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, H.E. Dr. Tedros Adhanom
20th Ordinary Session of the Assembly of the African Union, Opening Ceremony
Meeting of the Campaign for Accelerated Reduction of Maternal Mortality in Africa (CARMMA), hosted by H.E. Mr. Boni Yayi, President of the Republic of Benin and Chairman of the African Union
Bilateral meeting with Chairperson of the Commission of the African Union, H.E. Dr. Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma
Bilateral meeting with President of the Republic of Benin and Chairman of the African Union, H.E. Mr. Boni Yayi
Bilateral meeting with President of Guinea, H.E. Mr Alpha Condé
Bilateral meeting with President of Rwanda, H.E. Mr Paul Kagame
Signing ceremony of the Peace and Security Framework for the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Great Lakes Region


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64:18 minutes (29.44 MB)
This week, Maria Knee, Sheila Adams, and Lisa Parisi were joined by Ginger Lewman and Erin Fitzpatrick to continue last week's discussion on what is and what isn't Professional Development. The conversation moved into how we get most of our professional development, what school districts provide for us, and what we can expect from teachers.
Chat archive:


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For a nine year old; you wouldn't expect to find yourself...
Step into Asgard9711136
- by TFALokiwriter
- Rating:
- Published: 30 Apr 2014
- Updated: 19 Sep 2014
- Status: Complete
This is not a love story. But, if you want to find one in this story then go right ahead. This is about a girl who gets transported to Asgard and begins an adventure that is big. One question still bugs her from the Thor end credit scene and...she'll meet Loki. Still confused? Then read it.
Join MovellasFind out what all the buzz is about. Join now to start sharing your creativity and passion
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NE-26E Spur
Ponca, NE 68770
Start the New Year with a Ponca State Park Hiking Marathon Challenge! Hiking in the winter is a great way to exercise, relieve stress, and enjoy the great outdoors. Ponca State Park offers 22 miles of hiking trails that offer a diverse mix of scenery and skill levels. We will be kicking off the Hiking Marathon with a guided hike January 1st at 2pm on the Corps of Discovery Trail, meet at the riverfront. The Hiking Marathon challenge can be done as a group, individually, or with your furry canine. It begins on January 1st and concludes on March 5th. To help you stay on track, hike with a naturalist every Saturday morning at 8:00 am (sunrise is at 7:55 am) meeting at the Resource and Education Center. Early mornings give us a great opportunity to see wildlife and morning frost on the trees. Participants may also hike on their own time and chart their progress at the Resource and Education Center. Call Ponca State Park at 402-755-2284 to register! All participates completing the challenge by the March 5th deadline will be entered in a drawing for a rechargeable foot and hand warmer.
Hiking Schedule
January 1st — Corps of Discovery Trail 1.4 Miles – Moderate/Difficult
January 9th — Bloodroot Trail 1.6 miles – Easy
January 16th — Prairie Loop Trail 1 Mile – Easy
January 23rd — Buffalo Run Trail 3.4 Miles – Moderate
January 30th — Whitetail Trail .8 Mile – Moderate
February 6th — Backwater Trail 4 Miles – Easy
February 13th — Bigley's Ravine Trail 2.1 Miles – Moderate
February 20th — Old Oak Trail 1.9 Miles – Easy
A Park Entry Permit is required.
Download the event flyer for the Hiking Marathon: Hiking Marathon flier 2016


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Kritzerland Presents THE STEPHEN SCHWARTZ ALBUM at Sterling's Upstairs Tonight
Kritzerland at Sterling's Upstairs at The Federal presents The Stephen Schwartz Album tonight, February 4, 2013, at 8:00 pm. Kritzerland is performing on Monday this month to allow you and The Federal to enjoy Super Bowl Sunday.
Dan Callaway (Broadway National Company: The Phantom of the Opera; Musical Theare Guild's Titanic)
Chelsea Emma Franko (Winner: LA's Next Great Stage Star 2012; Hairspray, Redondo Beach Performing Arts)
Kim Huber (Broadway and National Tours: Belle, Beauty and the Beast; Having It All, NoHo Arts Center)
Dennis Kyle (Reprise's They're Playing Our Song; Rooster in Annie, Theater Aspen, Colorado)
Lisa Livesay (Nat'l Tour, Wicked, Glinda; Monteen, Parade, Center Theatre Group; Tribute to Alan Menken, NY)
Jenna Rosen (Disney's Sofia the First, Carpenter Performing Arts Center; Outside The Box's Exorcist, The Musical)
Sami Staitman (Annie, Annie; Young Cosette, LES MISERABLES; Shirley Temple, Singin' in the Rain, Cabrillo)
Sarah Staitman (Olive, 25th Annual Spelling Bee; Matilda, Willy Wonka, Jr.; Nellie, Annie Get Your Gun)
Musical Director: Lloyd Cooper
Karen Morrow: (Broadway: A Joyful Noise; I'm Solomon; The Grass Harp; Music, Music; The Selling of The President; Mystery of Edwin Drood; Off-Broadway: Sing Muse; The Boys From Syracuse.)
Adrian Zmed: (Broadway: Danny Zuko, Grease: Marvin, Falsettos; Blood Brothers; Off-Broadway; Eating Raoul, Raoul; Noah's Ark, Noah; Children of Eden, Adrian Zmed in Concert.)
The 30th Kritzerland show is The Stephen Schwartz Album, featuring the music and lyrics of the brilliant Stephen Schwartz. Based on the hit album produced by Bruce Kimmel, the evening will feature songs from Godspell, The Baker's Wife, The Magic Show, Children of Eden, Working, Pippin, and, of course, Wicked. This will be Kritzerland's usual mix of the well-known and somewhat lesser- known, and there will be a phenomenal cast to bring these wonderful songs to life.
For guest stars, Kritzerland welcomes the legendary Karen Morrow, and the wonderful Adrian Zmed, who was an original cast member of Children of Eden.
Kritzerland's last few shows have been jam-packed and early reservations are recommended. Reservations: 818 754-8700. Your phone reservation will be confirmed. Dinner reservations from 6:30 pm - 7:00 pm. Reservations have already started coming in, and are highly recommended. Cover charge $15 + $10 food minimum + $3 facility charge. You can eat dinner and see the show for only $28.
Sterling's at The Federal is located at 5303 Lankershim Blvd., North Hollywood, Calif. The Federal Bar is adjacent to the El Portal Theatre. The North Hollywood Stations for the Metrolink Red Line and Orange Line are directly across the street, north of Chandler on Lankershim. Parking is available - entrance for Federal lot is on Weddington Street (directly behind the building) at $3.50. There is also available street parking.
For more information about Sterling's Upstairs at The Federal, click HERE.


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Services on Demand
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Investigación bibliotecológica
On-line version ISSN 2448-8321Print version ISSN 0187-358X
VARELA-PRADO, Carmen and BAIGET, Tomàs. The Future of Academic Libraries: Uncertainties, Opportunities and Challenges. Investig. bibl [online]. 2012, vol.26, n.56, pp.115-135. ISSN 2448-8321.
The situation of university libraries in front of the current problematic situation of radical changes in the library profession and of intense general economic crisis is described. Internet, digitalization, mobile web, social networks and other technologies require librarians to diversify in many ways, and at the same time these technologies disconnect them from the main flow of information, leaving their classical role as intermediaries. Their survival should be based on cooperation with other departments and institutions, and assuming new tasks such as advising researchers, curating data, and promoting open data, open access and repositories, and more.
Keywords : Academic Libraries; University Libraries; Librarian Existential Crisis; Economic Crisis; Librarians; Information Professionals; Alternative Tasks; New Roles; Profession Evolution.


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Little did former WEC contender and current UFC fighter Donald "Cowboy" Cerrone know just how much his verbal grenades would help bitter rival Cole Miller.
Miller (17-4 MMA, 6-2 UFC), after all, is slated to fight his friend, Matt Wiman (12-5 MMA, 6-3 UFC), at Saturday's "UFC Fight Night 23: UFC Fights for the Troops 2" event.
Miller said he fights better when he's "a little big angry," which was going to be a difficult task with Wiman. But thanks to a long-brewing rivalry, Miller told MMAjunkie.com Radio (www.mmajunkie.com/radio) he's gotten all the motivation he needs from Cerrone.
Miller and Wiman fight on the Spike TV-televised main card of Saturday's show, which takes place at Fort Hood in Texas as a fundraiser for the Intrepid Fallen Heroes Fund. But thanks to their public feud, Miller's name has been attached more to Cerrone than Wiman in recent weeks.
And that's just fine with Miller, who said the hatred started with a seemingly innocuous dinner. It was sometime in 2008, about a year after Miller had defeated Cerrone's teammate and fellow UFC prospect Leonard Garcia at UFC Fight Night 11.
Miller said he was actually a fan of Cerrone's fighting style and told him so during that dinner. Naturally, he wanted to know whom Cerrone wanted to fight next.
"He said, 'I want to fight you!'" Miller said. "I didn't like that, and we had some words. Every time we see each other now we have words. It doesn't get close to brawling now because it's kind of understood. But every time we see each other we pop off at the mouth a little bit."
One of the latest pops came this past August in Boston. Officials unknowingly put the two rivals on the same van ride to a UFC Fan Expo event. Their fellow commuters, which included Garcia and one of Miller's brothers, could sense the tension.
"It was like, 'All right, let's break this awkward silence by telling each other what we think of each other,'" Miller said with a chuckle.
Given the bad blood, which has become pretty public fodder, UFC officials would be wise to book a Miller vs. Cerrone bout. But up first is Wiman, a fighter with whom Miller has a completely different relationship.
"He's one of these guys where we don't train together or anything like that, but we talk many times per year," said Miller, who met Wiman years ago and became closer after they both appeared on "The Ultimate Fighter 5." "He may call to ask about a fighter he's getting ready for, and I may call just to say merry Christmas to him and his family."
So has the Cerrone feud proved a distraction?
"If anything, it offered me a little more motivation," Miller said. "I've been able to harness some focus. I fight better when I'm a little bit angry. That's something for me to be angry about. It's kind of hard for me to be angry about Matt Wiman. He's a pretty classy guy, a stand-up dude, a good representative of the sport.
"But right now, I'm not looking past Matt Wiman. I'm focused on Matt Wiman. But if I get by him, I can get that fight I really want with 'Cowboy.'"
Miller and Wiman both are after the same thing at this point in their careers: consistency. Miller is a solid 6-2 in the UFC, but he never has put together three straight victories in the organization. Wiman, meanwhile, posted a four-fight UFC win streak after "TUF" but followed it was back-to-back losses. Like Miller, he now looks for his third consecutive win as part of his reemergence.
"We share that in common," Miller said. "We've been unable to establish momentum. We win a few year and then drop one here. That's what I'm trying to do, establish some consistency."
It's clear Miller, an American Top Team product who also spent time training Nick and Nate Diaz for this fight, has shown marked improvement despite his inconsistency. He knows his progress sometimes confuses his many detractors, who appreciate Miller's raw skills but sometimes underestimate his mental toughness.
Now, he's just trying to put it all together.
"I think that was a pretty common viewpoint, that I wasn't going to stick around very long (in the UFC)," he said. "People thought I was a pretty technical fighter but probably didn't have what it took for the high level. But I'm still here, training hard and trying to be a better person, a better fighter and a better mixed martial artist.
"I'm trying to get that next level of consistency. I haven't been able to find it, but that's what separates the good fighters from the great fighters, the ability to do it every single time."
For the latest on UFC Fight Night 23, check out the UFC Rumors section of MMAjunkie.com.


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Lily rose is winning the poll shes so gorgeous I think prettiest and Violet affleck is coming in second
Violet your to cute for words!
And Shiloh Words cannot express how beautiful you are look exactly
like your daddy with mammas lips!
Your in 3rd but tie with lily always for me!


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As World War II raged in May 1943, Bernard Rader was called to battle. The then 19-year-old Brooklynite, two years into college, welcomed the draft notice that he received by telegram.
Like so many American men at the time, he wanted to fight, but he feared that he would be classified "4F" –– unfit for service –– because of his poor eyesight. So, as Radar took the Army's required eye exam, he had a buddy stand behind him and whisper the letters in his ear. He passed.
Rader went on to serve in occupied France and earn the Bronze Star and Purple Heart. Wounded by mortar fire and captured by the Germans in Brittany in October 1944, Rader, among the few Jews in his company, spent 45 harrowing days in a German prison hospital, where he was fed only scraps of lard and bread and nearly starved to death.
Rader is now 89 and has made his home in Freeport for 50 years. Last Wednesday, he delivered a talk at Kennedy High School in Bellmore about his near-death experience to 40 students in the Gilder Lehrman Foreign Policy and Advanced Placement American History classes. The teenagers, more than seven decades younger than Rader, were riveted.
Karen McGuiness, Kennedy's social studies chairwoman, has arranged the visit for the past three years. "It's bringing history to life," she said.
Struggle to survive
On Oct. 2, 1944, Private Rader was part of a 55-man patrol from the 94th Infantry Division sent to pick up German soldiers who claimed that they wanted to surrender. The patrol was walking a narrow road in the French countryside, surrounded by tall hedges. The Germans seemingly appeared out of nowhere, firing concussion mortars into the patrol, followed by semiautomatic gunfire.
"We didn't have a chance," Rader said. "We were outnumbered 12-to-1."
A mortar fell near Rader, knocking him off his feet. Shrapnel pierced his legs, arms and hands. For two hours, Rader lay on the cold ground, bleeding profusely, preparing to die. Five Americans were killed in the attack, and 19 others beside Rader were wounded.


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Epstein Didn't Kill Himself.


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Lactobacillus & Bifidobacterium Multi Probiotic (Vegan) (60 Capsules)
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Save Money & Buy a 30 Eco Pack Key Features Multi Probiotic formulation Helps balance the intestinal flora of both adults and children Helps in the small intestine and throughout the colon, thus balancing the whole intestinal flora 6 probiotic strains combined act synergistically to combat intestinal infections. Description Vegan supplements, Vegan vitamins and Vegan Minerals. We are at the cutting edge of supplying ...
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Inulin (fructo-oligosaccharide), maltodextrin, capsule shell: (Vegetable Cellulose), dehydrated lactic acid bacteria culture (lactobacillus rhamnosus, bifidobacterium bifidum, bifidobacterium breve, bifidobacterium infantis, bifidobacterium longum and lactobacillus acidophilus), antioxidant (ascorbic acid). *Live viable dehydrated bacteria.
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|Bifidobacterium breve
|Bifidobacterium infantis
|Bifidobacterium Longum
|Lactobacillus Acidophilus


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- Home
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- Bob Marley #3 Frame w/Guitar (4x6photo)
Product Description
Bob Marley 4x6 Photo Inside a Quality Picture Frame with Replica Mini Guitar
Frame color may vary
Please allow 1-2 weeks for delivery on some models
This legendary guitarist frame is handmade and very unique!
Makes a great gift item!
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