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Thanks for your interest in ClickFunnels Did You Know!
I'm currently working on a detailed video to get you the latest information on this…
But in the meantime…
Checkout the best ClickFunnels offers, benefits, and features below.
In this day and also age, the way your service runs online can make or damage you.
How do most businesses presently have an existence online?
Internet sites.
The reality of the issue is, nevertheless, that web sites have considerably progressed over the previous years – and the approaches of old are no longer practical for modern day business.
Back in the day, it would be enough to have an easy site with a home page, solutions, pricing, regarding us, as well as speak to web pages.
A prospective client would certainly go to your website, scroll about, visit the various web pages and take in content as they please.
Nonetheless, if you are a company investing any type of cash on advertising and marketing, you want to control exactly what customers are learning about on your website, present deals at the right time, and make the most of the revenue you make from each person.
Exactly how does one accomplish this?
Utilizing sales funnels.
Enter ClickFunnels
ClickFunnels is the easiest method to make high transforming sales and also marketing funnels.
It is an unique tool produced specifically to turn prospective clients right into customers.
It really is an all-in-one option to develop sales funnels and also consists of touchdown pages, e-mail integration, billing, webinars, subscription sites, therefore much more. No wonder it has promptly end up being a preferred device for marketing professionals.
Below is my thorough ClickFunnels Testimonial, consisting of favorite features, prices, pros/cons, and also comparisons against rivals.
ClickFunnels Did You Know: Yet First, Exactly What Is a Sales Channel?
Sales funnels (also called advertising funnels) are multi-step projects that are designed to move potential prospects through your sales process, as well as turn them right into purchasers.
Picture a real-life funnel. On top, you pour fluid in, which narrows down to one repaired location.
In sales, a similar event happens. On top, site visitors come to your web site, however not all who get in make it from the other end as purchasers.
Several things need to happen from the moment a site visitor enters your funnel, to the time they act and also effectively complete a purchase.
By damaging down the consumer's trip into smaller sized actions, you can be a lot more accurate regarding exactly how and when you offer a deal to your target market.
The detailed action in a funnel could look something similar to this:
- Unqualified lead comes to landing web page
- Page connects the initial deal (something complimentary to gather an e-mail).
- When e-mail is collected, main deal is pitched.
- Lead ends up being a paying consumer.
- Even more email communication delivering client value.
- More partnership building
- Reoccuring sales.
ClickFunnels likewise has a visuals that explains this in a simple method:.
What is ClickFunnels?
As pointed out earlier, ClickFunnels is the most effective sales funnel software program around today.
The company makes the bold case of offering you whatever you have to market, sell, as well as provide your items online – and they definitely supply.
A conventional funnel will certainly use an opt-in web page (to accumulate email addresses), an e-mail vehicle responder (to send out e-mails to your customers), plus an extra sales page with some content as well as an order kind, perhaps complied with by additional material, a subscription website, etc
. Formerly, you would certainly need to utilize various platforms as well as devices to accomplish every one of these tasks such as:
- Develop a website
- Discover Hosting
- Discover an autoresponder solution
- Discover subscription site software application
- Find split-testing software … and so on
However ClickFunnels cares for everything with their system. You not just save a lots of money by not needing to get various products/services, however you likewise prevent the technical mess of needing to set every little thing up, as well as can focus on exactly what's really essential – expanding your service.
ClickFunnels uses a Cost-free 14-Day Trial, so you reach discover the tool and also really see if it's best for your business.
Preferred Functions
* Rapidly Create Pages Making Use Of Layouts and also Aspects *.
Prior to obtaining also much, it's important to understand that a funnel is a collection of web pages created in a critical order, with the goal of transforming as many prospects right into clients. And a web page is merely a collection of different aspects made to obtain somebody to take a particular activity.
ClickFunnels provides more than 50 various elements in order to help you build the ideal web page. The editor is exceptionally simple to utilize as well as all you need to do is drag and drop different components on the page, and upgrade the message and also look to fit your demands – no coding skills required!
ClickFunnels additionally makes your life easier by offering you with a lots of totally free templates.
Actually, ClickFunnels provides over 37 kinds of web pages for you to blend as well as match with. These are damaged down into the complying with 10 classifications:
- Presell Pages: Survey Page, Article Page, Presell Page, Clickpop Page
- Optin Pages: Squeeze Page, Reverse Capture Page, Lead Magnet, Voucher
- Thanks Pages: Thanks Web Page, Deal Wall Surface, Bridge Web Page, Share Page
- Sales Pages: Video Sales Web Page, Sales Letter Page, Product Release Web Page
- OTO Pages: Upsell Page, Downsell Web Page
- Order Forms: 2 Action Order Page, Standard Order Web Page, Video Clip Sales Letter Order Web Page, Sales Letter Order Page, Product Introduce Order Page
- Webinar Pages: Webinar Enrollment Page, Webinar Verification Web Page, Webinar Broadcast Area, Webinar Replay Room
- Subscription Pages: Accessibility Page, Member's Location
- Associate Pages: Access Web Page, Affiliate Location
- Other Pages: Application Page, Ask Page, Store Front, Home Page, Hero Web Page, Hangout Page, Live Trial Page
The pre-built themes are totally customizable, and also are exactly what most individuals make use of.
You are able to pick a layout, edit or change the components with your very own, and also your brand-new web page is ready to go.
You can additionally link any channel you create with your own e-mail marketing service (if you don't utilize the one consisted of in ClickFunnels), as well as use the ClickFunnels built in invoicing system.
This is additionally a blast to discuss that ClickFunnels gives extremely beneficial and also understandable training video clips when you initially join. I highly recommend experiencing those because they rapidly allow you to make use of the device at its complete capability, as well as you'll have more enjoyable messing around. ClickFunnels Did You Know
* Produce One-Click Subscription Sites *.
Among the very best features with ClickFunnels is the capacity to conveniently develop subscription websites and also supply material to your target market in one place.
Your subscription website will certainly come complete with registration web pages, membership gain access to web pages, as well as content web pages which you can quickly lock or trickle feed to your clients according to acquisitions they made in your funnel.
ClickFunnels subscription websites permit you to send out e-mails, easily manage your e-mails, and build a community all while removing the anxiety that's connected with various other options such as Kajabi, or WordPress systems.
It's really useful to not need to get a different software or plugin to produce membership websites.
* Email Integration & Actionetics *.
With every funnel comes e-mail checklist building chances.
ClickFunnels supports e-mail combination with all the major e-mail automation systems such as:
- Active Campaign
- Aweber
- Constant Contact
- ConvertKit
- Drip
- Get Response
- Hubspot
- InfusionSoft
- Mad Mimi
- MailChimp
- Market Hero
- Ontraport
- Salesforce
- Sendlane
- And others
Nonetheless, ClickFunnels likewise has their very own powerful automation device called Actionetics.
Although you could develop, timetable, and supply e-mails as with other e-mail advertising and marketing platform, Actionetics is a lot a lot more.
I love Actionetics due to the fact that it not just replaces your e-mail advertising and marketing but carrier advertising and marketing and SMS marketing software programs as well. This takes automation to a whole new level as well as assists you connect the best message to your customers, exactly when they require it. A video overview of Actionetics will be offered further below.
* Invoicing and also Payment Integration *.
An outstanding attribute within ClickFunnels is the ability to accumulate every one of the billing information from your consumers exactly on your sales page. Selling is made a lot less complicated when consumers do not need to leave your website.
ClickFunnels integrates with significant payment gateways such as PayPal, Stripe, and also InfusionSoft, among others.
ClickFunnels Rates.
While you can start with the Free 14-Day Trial, there are three various rates options with ClickFunnels:
- $ 97/month.
- $ 297/month.
- $ 997 bulk discount rate strategy (recommended).
I'll go into detail for each of these strategies below.
1. ClickFunnels Criterion Strategy – $97/month.
The typical plan consists of all the attributes you would need within ClickFunnels, but with limitations on the number of funnels (20) as well as pages (100) you could have in your account, in addition to how many site visitors (20K) could view your pages per month.
You additionally do not get advanced functionality such as ClickFunnels own email advertising and also affiliate monitoring tools.
2. ClickFunnels Etison Collection – $297/month.
This plan includes all the bells as well as whistles of the common plan, without any restrictions. It also has 2 added items generated by ClickFunnels called Actionetics (e-mail advertising and marketing) as well as Backpack (associate management platform).
In Actionetics – you can take care of all your calls that register for your list, send out e-mail broadcasts, as well as create a host of various other automations. ClickFunnels Did You Know
The distinction in between both strategies actually is the constraints, as well as Actionetics/Backpack. If you are a standard individual as well as do not expect to make use of more than 20 funnels in your account – the Criterion Plan should suffice.
Nevertheless, if you prepare to have an affiliate program or want to keep your email advertising and marketing within ClickFunnels and not make use of a 3rd party software program, the Etison Collection is for you.
You can always begin on the reduced strategy as well as upgrade if needed.
3. Funnel Hacks System – $997
For anybody that's serious regarding their company, the ClickFunnels Funnel Hacks System is the deal of the century.
The $997 Funnel Hacks System contains robust training programs bundled with 6-month accessibility to the ClickFunnels Etison Suite.
This is an extraordinary bargain since outside of this program, 6-months of Etison Collection alone would cost you $1782.
Not only are you conserving $785 however you're getting a lots of trainings and also guides to aid you obtain one of the most from ClickFunnels!
ClickFunnels Pros and Cons
- Developing funnels is extremely straightforward, simple, and quick
- All-in-one platform with every little thing your company has to win
- Split testing and also conversion tracking included
- Email combination with all of the significant email autoresponder systems
- Repayment processing capabilities within ClickFunnels
- ClickFunnels is always adapting and also upgrading to the moments
- There is constantly support readily available (whether real-time or not).
- Extremely active Facebook Team Neighborhood.
- Free 14-Day Test – permits you to try it take the chance of cost-free.
- As remarkable as ClickFunnels is, it definitely is not a low-cost remedy as well as requires a constant registration to use
- Assistance isn't always the fastest as well as could extract from 1 minute to 24 hours depending on the concern.
ClickFunnels vs. Every person Else.
Lots of people ask how ClickFunnels compares to other touchdown web page home builders such as Leadpages, Unbounce, and Infusionsoft.
Generally it's not actually a fair contrast because each of these tools stands out is one location or the other.
The graph above offers a thorough analysis – but I'll highlight some of the significant comparisons listed below.
ClickFunnels vs Leadpages
Before ClickFunnels, Leadpages was the huge dog.
Leadpages is simply a lead capture software application – absolutely nothing even more. You could develop landing pages, lead boxes, collect leads … that's virtually it. In addition, the Leadpages layouts are likewise restricted on customization.
ClickFunnels is even more flexible – it's much easier to use and also does so far more compared to produce lead capture pages.
Basically, Leadpages is actually just a touchdown web page builder, while ClickFunnels is focused around constructing highly integrated funnels.
ClickFunnels vs Infusionsoft
Infusionsoft is not a touchdown page or sales web page contractor. It has several of that capability built it, however that's not what it's understood for.
At it's core, Infusionsoft is a CRM system – one that permits you to handle your entire consumer database. ClickFunnels has this capability with Actionetics, but it's not virtually as progressed as Infusionsoft.
Infusionsoft is likewise very costly and pressures every new client to pay $2000 for a compulsory kickstart coaching plan simply to find out ways to make use of the complicated system (which is infamously difficult to make use of).
ClickFunnels Associate Program
There are 2 major paths people decrease as ClickFunnels individuals.
Those that opt to utilize the device for their company – in hopes of one day attain the Two Comma Club (over $1M in revenue).
As well as those that have an interest in gaining passive income as a ClickFunnels Affiliate and also winning the Dream Vehicle Contest (where they pay $500/$1000 towards your dream vehicle if you get to 100/200 energetic monthly signups, respectively).
With a monstrous 40% month-to-month repeating commission, ClickFunnels conveniently has one of the best associate programs of any kind of platform around.
That's right – you make money an ongoing 40% commission on every associate signup you make through the ClickFunnels Associate Program. Yet, exactly what does that actually equate to?
The standard plan is a $97/month financial investment and also the Etison Suite plan is a $297/month financial investment. as a result you make $38.80 each fundamental strategy and $118.80 per Etison Collection strategy … every single month!
Typically, every 100 signups will bring in $4000/month in associate compensations (more or less depending on the amount of Etison Plan individuals are in there).
Click here to read more concerning ending up being a ClickFunnels Affiliate.
All-time Low Line
ClickFunnels is pass on the greatest system if you are wanting to easily build high converting sales funnels.
Because it was developed from scratch to be the most effective sales funnel contractor, it vanquishes all the competitors because respect.
Externally, it could not be the least expensive item out there – yet if you utilize it to its complete capability, your company will certainly become much more rewarding and also you will certainly save money from not needing to use various other devices. ClickFunnels Did You Know
If you have actually reviewed this far right into my ClickFunnels Review, I advise you see on your own with a Free 14-Day Trial here.


text: Population Demographics for Sylvarena Village, Mississippi in 2020, 2019 Other Counties and Cities in MississippiPopulation Demographics by RaceRacePopulation% of TotalTotal Population112100White10391Population Demographics by Race and gender.MaleFemaleTotalTotal Population4468112White4162103Relevant Related Information Demographic population totalsTotal population in Sylvarena Village Total Population:112Male Population:44Female Population:68Demographic median age by sexMedian age in Sylvarena Village Both sexes43Male45Female41Demographic sex by age for the population in householdsPopulation in households in Sylvarena Village Total Population:112Male Population:44Under 5 years:15 to 9 years:110 to 14 years:315 to 17 years:218 and 19 years:020 years:021 years:122 to 24 years:025 to 29 years:130 to 34 years:335 to 39 years:240 to 44 years:845 to 49 years:150 to 54 years:455 to 59 years:560 and 61 years:062 to 64 years:365 and 66 years:267 to 69 years:370 to 74 years:175 to 79 years:280 to 84 years:185 years and over:0Female Population:68Under 5 years:35 to 9 years:510 to 14 years:515 to 17 years:518 and 19 years:120 years:021 years:022 to 24 years:325 to 29 years:030 to 34 years:535 to 39 years:640 to 44 years:245 to 49 years:650 to 54 years:455 to 59 years:460 and 61 years:262 to 64 years:165 and 66 years:267 to 69 years:170 to 74 years:775 to 79 years:280 to 84 years:385 years and over:1Demographic average population of home by ageAverage household size in Sylvarena Village Total:2Under 18 years:018 years and over:1Demographic household typeNumber of occupied homes in Sylvarena Village Total:45Family led homes:34Husband-wife family:25Other family:9Population of male led with no wife present:1Population female led with no husband present:8Population of Nonfamily homes:11Population living alone:11Population not living alone:0Demographic population of homes with people under 18 years old by typeTotal occupied homes in Sylvarena Village with people under 18 years old: Total:45Population of homes with one or more people under 18 years:15Population of family homes:15Husband-wife family:11Under 6 years only:1Under 6 years and 6 to 17 years:16 to 17 years only:9Other family:4Male householder, no wife present:1Under 6 years only:1Under 6 years and 6 to 17 years:06 to 17 years only:0Female led with no husband present:3Under 6 years only:1Under 6 years and 6 to 17 years:06 to 17 years only:2Nonfamily households:0Male led households:0Under 6 years only:0Under 6 years and 6 to 17 years:06 to 17 years only:0Female led householder:0Under 6 years only:0Under 6 years and 6 to 17 years:06 to 17 years only:0Households with no people under 18 years:30Family households:19Husband-wife family:14Other family:5Male led with no wife present:0Female led with no husband present:5Nonfamily households:11Male led householder:4Female led householder:7Demographic type of home by age of owner-renterTotal number led homes in Sylvarena Village, by type Total Home Population:45Population of Family homes:34Population of 15 to 24 year olds:0Population of 25 to 34 year olds:4Population of 35 to 44 year olds:7Population of 45 to 54 year olds:3Population of 55 to 59 year olds:4Population of 60 to 64 year olds:3Population of 65 to 74 year olds:7Population of 75 to 84 year olds:5Population of 85 year olds and over:1Population of Nonfamily Homes:11Population of 15 to 24 year olds:0Population of 25 to 34 year olds:0Population of 35 to 44 year olds:3Population of 45 to 54 year olds:4Population of 55 to 59 year olds:2Population of 60 to 64 year olds:0Population of 65 to 74 year olds:1Population of 75 to 84 year olds:1Population of 85 year olds and over:0Demographic population of homes with people 60 year olds and overhouseholds in Sylvarena Village containing people over 60 Total Population:45Population of homes with one or more people 60 years and over:201-person household:22-or-more-person household:18Family households:18Nonfamily households:0Population of homes with no people 60 years and over:251-person household:92-or-more-person household:16Family homes:16Nonfamily homes:0Demographic population of multigenerational homeshomes in Sylvarena Village with multiple generations. Total Population:45Home has three or more generations:1Home does not have three or more generations:44Demographic presence of unmarried partner of home owner-renterUnmarried population in Sylvarena Village under 18 years old in homes Total Population:25Unmarried partner of home lead present:3In family homes:3Population of male led and male partner homes:0Population of male led and female partner households:1Population of female led and female partner households:0Population of female led and male partner households:2In nonfamily homes:0Population of male led and male partner homes:0Population of male led and female partner homes:0Population of female led and female partner homes:0Population of female led and male partner homes:0No unmarried partner of home lead present:22In family homes:22Population of husband-wife family homes:20Population of male lead with no wife present, family homes:0Population of female lead with no husband present, family homes:2In nonfamily homes:0Demographic population in families by agePopulation in families living in Sylvarena Village Total Population:99Population Under 18 years:25Population 18 years and over:74Demographic tenure of people in homesHow long in Sylvarena Village have lived in one place. Total:45Population of Owner occupied homes:41Family home:32Nonfamily homess:9Male led home:3Living alone:3Not living alone:0Female led home:6Living alone:6Not living alone:0Population of Renter occupied homes:4Family run homes:2Husband-wife family:2Other family:0Male led with no wife present:0Female led with no husband present:0Nonfamily Homes:2Male led homes:1Male living alone:1Male not living alone:0Female led homes:1Females living alone:1Females not living alone:0

subset: commoncrawl


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Satisfy your dog's natural instinct to chew with these tasty Beef Tubes. These long lasting dog chews promote healthy teeth and gums and the best: it's fun! Every pack comes with 3 tubes which you can fill with natural peanut butter or other favourite treats.
Be sure to keep your dog occupied with nutritious snacks and always offer fresh clean drinking water.
100% Australian Beef
Free of Nasty Chemicals
Please refer to the sizing charts on the product pages.
For further queries please contact the Customer Service Team on firstname.lastname@example.com


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Juliepatoolie's is a full service design studio. We work with you one-on-one from start to finish to create a design tailored for your event. Let us stuff, seal, stamp, address and send your invitations without you having to lift a finger. We are also an authorized envelopments dealer. Visit our website to see some of our latest work or book a consultation under "Say Hello" - we would love to help you check this off your list!
Other couples have also viewed:
36 Reviews for Juliepatoolie's
Recommended by 98% of couples
Dianne · event on: 06/22/2018
I stopped at the cute little yellow house on Church Street to see what Juliepatoolies might have for invitations for a wedding brunch/shower. I found Julie pleasant and easy to work with. She encouraged me to make any changes when I proofed and didn't mind making the changes. She provided prompt service and I was very pleased with the final product. I would suggest you make an appointment because it takes some time to make decisions. She provides a special service and she works with you until you are happy. Great job, Julie!Sent on 04/11/2018
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We used Julie for our wedding invitations and they are absolutely beautiful!!! She is very knowledgeable and easy to work with.Sent on 10/10/2017
Andy · Married on 10/28/2017
Fabulous to work with. Had the patience of a saint. You won't be disappointed in anything when working with Julia. Thanks again!Sent on 04/27/2017


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Eligible Texas Veterans and Military Members have an opportunity to purchase a home with a competitive, low-interest loan with little or no down payment. Veterans, Military Members and their spouses may receive up to $484,350 on a fixed-rate loan for 15, 20, 25 or 30 year terms*.
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Investment products and services are offered through wells fargo advisors. wells fargo Advisors is a trade name used by Wells Fargo Clearing Services, LLC (WFCS) and Wells Fargo Advisors Financial Network, LLC, Members SIPC, separate registered broker-dealers and non-bank affiliates of Wells Fargo & Company.
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From FHA home loans for the first-time home buyers to VA home loans for our Texas Veterans, we can find the perfect home loan for each individual borrower. Call us today or apply online to learn more about how we work and why people are choosing Lone Star Financing as their preferred lender in Texas.
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You are some geek who has been in love with a cute and hot blonde babe who is your neighboor. Someday, you were staring at her and you notice some zombies outside her window!
Do you think if you can save her then you will a chance with her? Well lets see… If not, at least you will enjoy a funny and addictive physics puzzle gameplay!
- Mouse to aim. Click once for power bar. Click again to shoot.
Added In: November 27th, 2012
Categories: Puzzlers
Tags: Bow And Arrows, Funny, Physics, Zombies
Developer/Publisher: charlesp2
Played: 6 times.
Permanent link to Zombies Took My Chick!


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"How to Find More Time in the New Year"
By: Justin Waggoner, Ph.D., Beef Systems Specialist
One of the more common New Year's resolutions is to find more time for family, friends, exercise or some new activity. However, the question becomes, how can we find more time within the day or week for the aforementioned activity of choice. One of the ways that many people try to find more time (including myself) is the "do I really need that much sleep" method of finding more time. Although, this method does work; it may also result in some undesirable outcomes, especially if the activity involves interacting with others. Time management experts suggest that the best way to make more time for any new activity is to become more efficient within our day. Efficiency is essentially organizing and prioritizing the daily "to do list" but it also includes looking for places in our day where we simply waste time. The most common "time waster" for many people involves a computer or a phone in today's world. Procrastination is also another common "time waster" that reduces our ability to get things done. Many strategies have been developed to combat procrastination. One simple strategy that I recently came across is the two-minute rule and it essentially targets all those little things that we encounter during the day that eventually add up. This informal rule essentially says that when we encounter anything in our day that will take less than two-minutes that we should do it, be it a quick email response or cleaning up our computer files. It is difficult to find more time in our busy work schedules, but one thing is clear seconds turn into minutes, minutes into hours, hours into days and so forth, which proves that little things do add up over time.
For more information, contact Justin Waggoner at email@example.com.


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Commodore Amiga: a visual CommpendiumCOMING SOON
Launched in 1985, the Amiga ushered in a new age of home computing. With its powerful 16-bit Motorola CPU and custom graphics and audio chipsets, it was an instant hit among gamers looking to move on from the eight-bit systems, as well as artists and musicians moving into the digital realm.
With early titles like Defender of the Crown, Barbarian and Hybris, the machine quickly asserted its graphical credentials, while arcade-perfect conversions of Marble Madness, Space Harrier and Rainbow Islands showed that it could match the power of dedicated coin-op cabinets. Over the next decade the Amiga would play host to a bewildering diversity of titles; games like Rocket Ranger, Populous, Cannon Fodder, Speedball and Worms ushered in new genres and helped to redefine the videogame landscape.
Over the course of some 420 pages, Commodore Amiga: a Visual Commpendium showcases more than 140 of the biggest titles, bringing them vividly to life with a double-page screen grab or loading page. This is accompanied by quotes and commentary from renowned Amiga artists, developers and publishers, including R J Mical, David Braben, Sid Meier, Ron Gilbert, Julian Eggbrecht, Tobias Richter, Dave Gibbons and many more.
It also covers the origins of the hardware, the vibrant demo scene, interviews with artists and profiles of the most prominent games publishers. Presented using high-quality lithographic printing on superior paper stock, this book is a wonderful celebration of the machine's graphics prowess and a reminder of the wealth of quality games the Amiga brought to bear. The title is available as a hardback only and comes in a protective shrink wrap.
424 pages. 170mm x 230mm, Lithographic print, Double thick cover, Sewn binding, Spot varnish cover, Spot varnish dust jacket, shrink wrapped.
Full contributor list
- Reviews
- Questions
- everyone
- selection
- games
- representative
- computer history
- amiga
- heart
- content
- compendium
- memories
Very good. It was a gift and the recipient was very pleased and is thoroughly enjoying it
but the books are lovely enough to purchase anyway. If that isn't a testament to their quality, I don't know what is. The digital copy is perfect for collectors that don't want to open the book either :D
I did wonder why the book was a little on the pricey side, but when I received it, I feel it's a bargain! The quality is stunning, the pictures are stunning. The book is, stunning! I will be placing an order every month for a book, until I have a set!
Really nice looking book with a nice heft to it. Prints inside look amazing, and the accompanying quotes and commetary are interesting reading. I spent much, much more time with the C64 in my youth than any Amiga, yet it was the Amiga which I coveted, and this book is a fantastic return to that time of my life. Ten thumbs up
This is the second Visual Commpendium I have bought and definitely the best. I thought the Sega Master System book and thought it was good but was missing some major games. this book however covers just about everything. I was also impressed with the amount of A1200 games in the book. Fantastic!


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London nurses front sci-fi flu campaign
Nurses in North West London are fronting the trust's annual flu campaign which uses the appliance of science to encourage more staff to get their free jab.
This year's sci-fi B movie theme enlisted the likes of theatre nurse and Afghan war veteran Annette Bodden-Whisker, pictured, who happily hammed it up for the camera with a suitably retro look.
Half the trust's 9,000 strong workforce have had their flu jab as part of the 'Put the science first. Don't let flu myths put you at risk' campaign which runs until February.
The current campaign shows a 6.5% improvement on vaccination uptake compared to the same time last year.


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Nigerian students in tertiary institutions have threatened to stage a protest if the federal fails to announce a date for resumption of educational activities altogether institutions of learning within subsequent fortnight
the scholars are reception since March when schools were pack up thanks to the COVID-19 pandemic.
The students under the aegis the National Association of Polytechnic Students (NAPS), National Association of University Students (NAUS) and National Association of schools of Education Students (NANCES), at a virtual meeting, decried Federal Government's approach towards resumption of learning institutions within the country.?
They condemned the Federal government's decision to cancel the 2020 West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASCCE).? consistent with the scholars , WASSCE are often written while observing social distancing and other safety protocols.?
"It is hardly feasible that coronavirus could also be eradicated during a fortnight and after months of observing several safety measures, there are little or no gains within the results thus far recorded.?
'Huge funds are wont to contain the spread of the virus, but we still have poorly equipped medical centres across the country" they said
the scholars urged the federal to prevent salaries of university teachers and other officials for advocating the continued closure of faculties without proffering solutions to the COVID-19 pandemic.?


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Summer learning doesn't have to take a lot of time or resources. Although structured activities are great, quick and easy lessons on the fly are an educational (and much simpler) way to squeeze in a quick math or science session. The next time you find yourself at one of these summertime places, turn it into a fast (and fun!) learning experience.
At the Beach
Collect and count seashells, estimate how far you think the tide will come up, watch your shadows throughout the day — the beach has tons of learning opportunities!
As you build sandcastles, talk about what sand is and where it comes from. Explore the tide pools and examine all the different sea creatures you find in there. You don't have to go to the beach with specific learning activities in mind — just observing your surroundings and talking about the different landscape and the animals that live at the beach is a great way to learn about the environment!
Farmer's Market
With all the different fruits and vegetables at the farmer's market, your child will always find something new to learn about. Younger children can work on counting and learning their colors by identifying the rainbow of fruits and vegetables available and counting pieces of fruit to put in your shopping cart.
Older children can get a quick math lesson by helping you to weigh your produce. If you are getting different varieties, ask your child how much he thinks your total will be by adding the different prices. If you have more than one child with you, turn it into a game — whoever is closest to the right amount wins!
Baseball Game
Math lessons abound at baseball games, and your child probably doesn't even realize it! Keep track of strikes, balls, and outs each inning as you cheer on your home team. Ask your child to count the change when you buy snacks and drinks at the concession stand. Count the steps as you climb up to your seats. Simple lessons like these can help your child understand how the subjects they learn in school apply to everything — even the baseball stadium!
In the Car
If you've got a long road trip planned, turn your car ride into a quick learning lesson. If your child is older and knows more advanced math, ask her how many times she thinks you'll need to stop for gas by calculating how many gallons your car's fuel tank holds, how many miles per gallon your car gets, and how many miles you have to drive.
She can also calculate how much time she thinks it will take you to your destination based on how many miles you have to drive and what the speed limit is.
Younger kids can work on word recognition by reading billboards. Look for "vanity" license plates and ask your child what she thinks it says. License plates can also be a math lesson — ask your child to add and subtract any numbers she sees. Play "I Spy" and work on alphabet skills.
Having quick activities will not only help keep your kid's brain sharp — it will help pass the time on a boring car ride, too!
In the Backyard
As you lounge and play in your backyard this summer, take a minute to observe nature with your child. Plan a night to go backyard camping, and observe the night sky. Break out the magnifying glass and take a close-up look at all the critters that live in the grass and garden. Talk about the weather, and how rain and sun are necessary for plants and animals to thrive. Just a few minutes in your backyard can open your child's eyes to all that is thriving back there!
In the Vegetable Garden
From measuring the distance between seeds to knowing how much to water your plants, a garden is a great place to squeeze in a quick math lesson. As you are planning your garden, ask your child to read the back of the seed packet to you, so you can determine how much sun and shade each plant will need.
Start a compost pile to use as fertilizer and have your child add to it throughout the summer. When it comes time to harvest your crop, count how many of each types of vegetable you were able to get, and then add them all up to see how big your bounty is. She'll get a kick out of seeing her hard work end up on the dinner table!
In the Kitchen
The next time you are whipping up a batch of cookies, let your child help out. Learning his way around the kitchen is a useful skill, and learning opportunities are everywhere! Counting and sorting ingredients are perfect for little ones to work on some basic math skills. Older kids can help read the recipe, measure ingredients, and preheat the stove (with adult supervision, of course!)
When your cookies are finished, you can all sit down and enjoy your hard work with a tall glass of milk.
Source: Family Education


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NFC TIMES Exclusive Insight – The massive new fare-collection system planned by Boston's Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, or MBTA, which will include open-loop contactless payments and an expanded closed-loop program, has had trouble getting off the ground. Late last week, the transit agency finalized its "reset" of the project, agreeing to increase the contract by nearly 30% to just over $935 million and to add two more years to the rollout schedule–all in hopes of getting the project back on track.
NFC TIMES Exclusive Insight – The head of information systems for a major European transit operator says he believes public transit agencies should support interoperable fare payments globally, like mobile network operators offer roaming when their customers travel abroad.
NFC TIMES Exclusive Insight - The heads of the two largest payments networks in the U.S., Visa and Mastercard, predict strong growth for contactless payments in the U.S., with Mastercard CEO Ajay Banga noting that 70% of U.S. Mastercard-branded cards in the U.S. are coming up for reissue over the next 12 to 14 months, and most of these cards will be issued with a contactless interface. A large number of Visa-branded cards will be reissued with a contactless interface during that period, as well.
NFC TIMES Exclusive Insight – It's coming up on six years since Apple announced its groundbreaking digital-payments service, Apple Pay. And while consumer adoption remains a work in progress, Apple has had considerable success gaining participation from banks and other issuers in what is now more than 50 countries worldwide.
NFC TIMES Exclusive Insight – Another transit agency in Canada has announced it will enable mobile ticketing, along with reloadable contactless cards, citing in part the Covid-19 pandemic and the desire to reduce the use of cash, vending machines and customer interaction with agency staff.
NFC TIMES Exclusive Insight – The announcement by The Kroger Co., the largest supermarket chain in the U.S., that it has begun trialing contactless payments in a subsidiary indicates that one of the last major holdouts among big U.S. merchants will eventually accept such NFC payments services as Apple Pay and Google Pay, as well as contactless bank cards.
NFC TIMES Exclusive Insight – There's more evidence that popular trip-planning apps Transit, Moovit and Google Maps are seeking to expand further into mobile ticketin
NFC TIMES Exclusive Insight – In a move seeking to expand the base of merchants that can accept its payments service, Apple Pay, Apple has reportedly acquired Montreal, Canada-based mobile POS company Mobeewave, which could enable small shop owners, restaurants and street vendors, among others, to more easily accept contactless EMV cards and NFC mobile wallets.
NFC TIMES Exclusive – Three small public transit agencies in the U.S. are quietly testing use of Google Maps and Google Pay to enable customers to first plan then pay for tickets. It's believed to be the first pilots of its kind for Google, a move that could mean the search giant plans to compete with such popular trip-planning apps as Transit and Moovit, which are starting to enable public transit ticketing and payments, NFC Times reports.
NFC TIMES Exclusive Insight – The Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, or Metro, plans to introduce an Android version of its TAP closed-loop fare card, with a virtual TAP card for the Google Pay wallet, a Metro spokesman confirmed to NFC Times.
NFC TIMES Exclusive – As expected, Uber today has expanded support for public transit ticketing in its app again, this time to a consortium of 13 small and mid-tier transit agencies in Ohio and Northern Kentucky–following two other U.S. transit agencies, in Denver and Las Vegas, which have already integrated with Uber–it was announced today. NFC Times had reported the planned move in late May.
NFC TIMES Exclusive Insight – Another of Italy's major cities has launched open-loop fare collection, with Turin enabling customers to pay for rides on its one-line metro and certain bus routes by tapping their contactless EMV credit and debit cards, along with smartphones and smartwatches supporting NFC payments services.
NFC TIMES Exclusive Insight – Canada's third largest city, Calgary, has introduced its first electronic fare payments service, offering mobile ticketing from a software-as-a-service platform provider, with plans to enable customers to pay for fares with their contactless EMV credit and debit cards and NFC wallets.
NFC Times Exclusive Insight – As e-commerce continues to grow in importance as Covid-19 lockdowns ease, four major U.S. payments networks announced today they are laying the groundwork to expand their uniform e-commerce checkout platform internationally.
NFC TIMES Exclusive Insight – The head of transit payments gateway and processor Littlepay said he believes that Apple and Google are well-positioned to take a "big bite out of the payment chain," which could change their relationship with payments networks Visa and Mastercard from one of collaboration to one of competition.


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Earth station antennas must be highly directional. In the transmit mode, they radiate energy in a narrow beam; and in the receive mode, they extract the radiant energy that arrives within the angular boundaries of this beam. The antenna's directivity is liable for its gain, both transmitting and receiving, and makes it possible for adjacent satellites, separated by only 2 ° (9 ° for DBS satellites) on the orbital arc, to operate on the same frequencies.
Since uplinks and downlinks operate on different frequencies, the same antenna can be used simultaneously for transmission and reception. This requires a waveguide filter in the coupling network to prevent leakage of transmitter power into the receiver.
There are three types of single beam antenna which is below:
a. Prime-focus-feed antenna
b. Dual-reflector antenna
c. Offset-feed antenna
Single-Beam Antennas
In the most basic single-beam-antenna configuration, the reflector is a section of a parabolic; and the feed horn, located at its focus, illuminates it directly. It's known as a prime focused antenna.
Figure – Prime-focus-feed antenna
The dual-reflector antenna is an important variation. The feed horn is aimed away from the main reflector; its beam is intercepted by a sub-reflector and reflected back to the main reflector.
Dual-reflector antennas come in a variety of configurations, depending on the shape of the two reflectors. If the sub-reflector is convex toward the main reflector. It is known as a Cassegrain antenna. If it is concave, it is known as a Gregorian. In still another variation known as the Gregux, the sub-reflector consists of a concave ring.
Figure – Dual-reflector antenna
A third variation, the offset-feed antenna, is based on the prime-focus-feed type where the dish is an of-center section of a parabolic. It has the advantage that the feed horn and its support are not in the way of the signal beam. This design is adaptable to low costs and it is widely used for DBS receivers.
Figure – Offset-feed antenna
Antenna designs are the result of a complex series of trade-offs between cost, directivity, and gain. Prime-focus-fed antennas are more inexpensive, suffer less loss of radiant energy by blockage, and, for lower gain antennas, have lower-level sidelobes. Dual-reflector antennas have greater design flexibility and offer a greater choice of trade-offs. The three most common configurations used in satellite systems are the prime-focus-feed, the Cassegrain, and the offset-feed. C-band receive-only stations frequently employ prime-focus feeds, while higher gain Cassegrain antennas are often used for C-band transmit-receive systems and for the Ku band.
If the feed horn is located on the axis of the main reflector, the antenna beam will be directed along this axis, but the beam can be pointed in other directions by offsetting the feed horn from the axis. Offset feeding degrades the performance of antennas somewhat, but it has almost become the standard for DBS receiving antennas. Offset-feeding's other main application is in multiple-beam antennas.


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January 30 – The Chinese Football Association (CFA) has postponed all domestic games due to the coronavirus epidemic as the number of fatalities and infections continues to rise.
The virus has had a major impact on China's sporting landscape and the CFA said in a statement on its website that football at all levels was being called off.
The CFA said the move was taken to help with the "prevention and control of the pneumonia epidemic of the new coronavirus infection, and to protect the health of the majority of fans, media, players, coaches, game officials, clubs and district staff".
It said the decision affected the "2020 season national football competitions at all levels".
That also includes, of course, the Chinese Super League which was scheduled to begin on February 22 and to run until October 31. A new starting date for the season has not been announced.
"The Chinese Football Association will continue to maintain close communication with national authorities … and make reasonable adjustments to the organisation, schedule and scale of matches where necessary," the CFA added.
Contact the writer of this story at email@example.com


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The production of saints' lives, primarily through translation, reached industrial proportions in Anglo-Saxon England (Lazzari, Lendinara and Di Sciacca, 2014; Gretsch, 2006; Blair, 2005; Blair, 2002; Lees, 1999; Rollason, 1989; Rollason, 1986; Skeat, 1966). By some distance the most prolific author was Ælfric of Eynsham, who sought to ensure that the laypeople of England received clear guidance to holy living through vernacular homilies and hagiography.1 His work is well-studied, in discussions that often emphasise his interest in clarifying narrative and meaning (e.g. Hall, 2009; Gretsch, 2006; Zettel, 1982). His narratorial role is very clearly didactic and authoritative, to the extent of reserving some stories for clerics alone, on the grounds that they are too difficult for lay understanding (Wilcox, 1994, e.g. 127; Whatley, 2002). Ælfric's interest in control can be seen in his directions to scribes that his Lives of Saints should be maintained as a unit and copied precisely (Hill, 2009; Scragg, 2006). And yet the insertion of additional lives into Ælfrician collections is well-attested. Even in his own lifetime, compilers of manuscripts supplemented copies of his work with translations by other, anonymous, translators as can be seen in, for instance, London, British Library, Cotton MS Julius E. vii (Kleist, 2009; Thomson, 2018a, 260–264; 274–275).2
One such anonymous hagiography is the passio of saint Christopher, once included in the largely Ælfrician collection London, British Library, Cotton MS Otho B. × (Tite, 1984).3 Unfortunately, this manuscript was extremely badly damaged in the 1731 Ashburnham House fire and the life of Christopher almost entirely lost (on the fire, see Prescott, 1997; for recovered readings from this text, see McGowan, 1995). However, a contents list was made by Thomas Smith in 1696, during his curation of the Cottonian library, so it is possible to know that Christopher was the eleventh item in a homiletic collection.4 Based on Smith's list, Otho B. × was an essentially Ælfrician manuscript into which four non-Ælfrician hagiographies were inserted: lives, respectively, of Euphrosyne, Christopher, Mary of Egypt, and the Seven Sleepers.5 Euphrosyne, Mary of Egypt, and the Seven Sleepers are also, along with Eustace, the non-Ælfrician texts inserted into Julius E. vii. In what may be an attempt to claim some status for them, in both instances the anonymous texts are inserted into the middle of a sequence of works by Ælfric. The appeal of this small corpus of anonymous lives is worth considering in further detail, as is perhaps the question of what made them unattractive to Ælfric himself; they could, perhaps, be regarded as 'popular hagiography' as opposed to the authoritative work of the abbot of Eynsham.6 As Kenneth Sisam showed long ago, this impression of Christopher's popularity is supported by the presence of a prayer to him in the fire-damaged Galba Prayerbook.7 For now, however, it suffices to note the presence of an English translation of Christopher's life in Otho B. × as part of a larger collection of (primarily) non-English saints.
A better-known, fuller but still partial, copy is extant in London, British Library, Cotton MS Vitellius A. xv (Part 2).8 Mostly as a result of the connection with Beowulf, the text has been edited a number of times (Fulk, 2010; Pulsiano, 2002; Rypins, 1924; Einenkel, 1893; Herzfeld, 1888). The linguistic interest of the text is limited, written as it is in standard late West-Saxon dateable to the tenth century.9 Similarly, literary discussions tend to simply note that the central figure is a giant cynocephalus and therefore accept its inclusion in a manuscript most often read as being interested in the monstrous.10 This is understandable: there are many prose hagiographies, and this one is missing its first two thirds including (arguably) its key point of interest: the description of the saint's dog head. However, the story of Christopher, and its inclusion in the Nowell Codex, merits further attention. In particular, I hope to show here that the translation is free and creative, developing the narrative into a coherent and dramatically taut story with some adaptation to Anglo-Saxon tastes: evidently produced by a talented writer who was focused on a lay audience.
There has been some minor dispute over the closeness of the two partially surviving English texts, and it is therefore important to briefly clarify the evidence for their relationship (Ker, 1957; Malone, 1963; Pickles, 1971; Orchard, 2003). Of Otho, the incipit survives and the explicit was recorded by Humphrey Wanley.11 As the opening of Nowell does not survive, only the explicits can be compared. These show that Otho did not include the concluding sentence of Nowell, which adds a prayer by Christopher for all of those who read or write his text (discussed further below); this has been used and accepted as evidence that the versions were different, with Otho potentially for preaching and Nowell for private use (Sisam, 1953b; Pickles, 1973: 23–24; Orchard, 2003: 12–13). However, it is important to note that Latin manuscripts of the life, whether intended for preaching or not, show considerable variance in including and adapting this prayer.12 In my view, the more significant evidence of the close relationship between the English copies is how exceptional they both are in contrast to all Latin versions. There is, in fact, no direct equivalent to either of the two sentences in the Otho explicit, as recorded by Wanley, in any copy other than Nowell; Latin texts move directly from the king's conversion to a generic conclusion giving glory to God, some with the insertion of Christopher's additional prayer. None meditate on the spread of Christ's rule. Despite their differences, that both Nowell and Otho include these sentences make it significantly more likely that they originated from the same translation. One of the phrases with no equivalent in the source and shared by these English texts is 'blowað ⁊ growað' ('flourish and grow'), describing the future spread of Christopher's prayers.13 It is unlikely in the extreme that two different renderings of the narrative chose to use the same phrase where nothing is required by the source. It is not possible to know whether the Nowell version had a translation of Christopher's additional prayer added to it, or if this sentence was excluded from the Otho version; most likely it was dropped from Otho to enhance its suitability for sermon delivery. It is also clear that what can be compared shows considerable orthographical variance, and it is likely that both are somewhat distant from the original production and from one another (Sisam 1953b). But I consider it indisputable that both texts derive from the same translation.
The Early Medieval Saint Christopher
The story of saint Christopher was widespread in early medieval western Europe, taking two main forms with a large number of derivatives showing more and less significant variations.14 These were divided by the Bollandists into seventeen versions, numbered 1764–1780 (Société des Bollandistes, 1898–1901, vol 1: 266–268). The two main groups are what I call the 'Decius group', after the name given to Christopher's key adversary, comprising 1764–1765 (likely the earliest Latin version and a sophisticated later adaptation); and the 'Dagnus group' 1766–1775.15 Only 1764, 1766, and 1767 have been printed.16 Based on the final prayers, Neil Ker (1957: 281), followed by Phillip Pulsiano (2002: 168–169) and Pam Weisweiller (1985–1986: 2–5), noted that 1768 and 1769 are the closest of these to Nowell, with the advantage probably held by 1769. Separately, in unpublished correspondence, James Cross suggested correspondences with 1767 as close enough to be a potential source.17 While there are some details in 1767 that correspond to the Old English translation, they are all also shared with 1769 and there are other quite significant differences which, in my view, make it certain that there is no direct relationship between them.18 In particular, Weisweiller found some corresponding details between a particular copy of BHL 1769 and Nowell.19 The three most significant correspondences are:
- in §12 of the Latin text, both have ten vessels of oil poured onto the fire intended to burn the saint, whereas most versions have forty;
- in §14, the arrows fired at Christopher hang in the air on his right-hand side only (this also occurs in 1768);
- lastly and perhaps most convincingly, in §17, Nowell has a specific total of 48,115 people converted by Christopher. The same number appears in 1769, whereas 1766 has 48,111 and both 1767 and 1768 round down to 48,000.20
While I have not been able to identify a specific source for the Old English text, it seems certain that it was based on a copy of the BHL 1769 tradition, probably one also closely related to the (considerably later) Munich 22242. It is on this basis that comparisons are made below, with reference to other texts and specific manuscripts where productive (contrast Biggs et al, 2001, who must have worked with published sources only). Where there is no parallel to a phrase in any extant Latin texts, I assume it to be an innovation of the translator.21 While this discussion relies on manuscript copies and hagiographical classification, it is ultimately more about the process of retelling a story in late Anglo-Saxon England; discussion of manuscript variation is therefore mostly confined to notes in an attempt to maximise clarity.
In Anglo-Saxon scholarship, Christopher's narrative is usually summarised from the narratio contained in the Old English Martyrology, which is itself most closely related to BHL 1765 (Rauer, 2013: 90–91; Leinbaugh, 1985).22 This has the unfortunate effect of leaving out a major sequence involving two women which must have been present in the Nowell version: I have not seen any other narrative account (including similar martyrological summaries) that excludes them (Thomson, 2019). The account that follows is therefore based on the narrative of BHL 1769 which, as above, is likely the closest to the Old English translation.
During the reign of Dagnus, which the text specifies as taking place in Samos, Syria, a cynocephalus is spoken to by God, baptised by a cloud, and given the gifts of speech and eloquence to convert people.23 On the outskirts of the city, a woman coming out to pray to the pagan gods sees the monster's face and is so horrified that her own face changes (exactly how is not specified). She calls a crowd, who witness the saint's first miracle: he sets his staff in the ground, prays, and it blooms with leaves and fruit. The crowd converts. Dagnus sends soldiers to bring Christopher to him; they, too, are converted – apparently merely by witnessing Christopher calmly praying. The soldiers and the saint travel together to the king, who – on seeing Christopher's face – faints, recovers, and then interrogates him. More soldiers convert, rejecting all of Dagnus' offers of rewards. The king attempts a different tactic, sending two women – Nicea and Aquilina, who later explain that they are prostitutes – into Christopher's cell to seduce him into submission. They, too, are horrified by his face and faint from seeing it; again, by his calm prayer and kind speech, he converts them.24 The story shifts focus onto the women, who (like the soldiers before them) reject all of the king's attempts to bribe them into submission, but eventually offer to publicly sacrifice if Dagnus ensures that everyone comes to watch. In the temple, they destroy the statues of Jove and Apollo while, apparently, the king, his priests, and all the citizens look on. Dagnus is upset, perhaps comically so, and has them tortured to death. Aquilina is ripped apart and Nicea burned in a fire which fails to harm her and then beheaded. The oldest martyrologies that include Christopher often record them as independent saints on the day before Christopher's own feast.25 The story returns to Christopher, and another dialogue between the saint and the king. Christopher is tortured in various ways: with iron bars, a burning helmet, tied to an iron bench in a furnace, and shot at with arrows. Nothing harms him and, as Dagnus mocks him a final time, an arrow turns to blind the king. Christopher tells him how to cure himself and is finally martyred by beheading after a prayer. Dagnus cures his blindness with a poultice made out of Christopher's blood and earth from the site of his execution, and then converts, issuing a new edict that Christianity is to be enforced as harshly as paganism was previously. An appendix gives more information about Christopher's final prayer.
The base narrative, then, is an interesting but hardly exceptional one, displaying a number of straightforward hagiographical approaches with the saint's nature its most remarkable aspect. Further, as will be clear from the discussion below, despite the attention and revisions it received at various points, the Latin Christopher texts contain a number of unexplained jumps and awkward moments of narration. Even though an original source cannot be identified, and it is therefore not possible to be certain that all changes come from the process of translation, the fact that it is so different from all extant Latin texts shows that the translator worked very freely. I will argue below that particular energy is focused on making Dagnus more hysterical and ridiculous and on developing the agency of the supremely passive Christopher; that events are clarified at a number of points in the narrative; and that it is streamlined to produce a sharper storytelling experience.26 This shows, I will argue, a skilful and authorial level of adaptation, reshaping the text to bring it into the world of an Anglo-Saxon lay audience (cf. Howe, 2008: 179).
The extant Old English text starts as Christopher insults the king and is then tortured with iron rods and the burning helmet; it is impossible to know what variations there may have been before this point. It is also worth noting that the sole copy we have is evidently corrupt in at least one place. As described above, during the torture of Christopher, Dagnus commands that 'mitti in capite eius cassidem igneam' ('a burning helmet be set on his head'). This straightforward brutality is garbled in the extant Old English copy into 'he het settan on his heafde þry weras' ('he commanded that three men be set on his head'). The three men are not an addition; they appear in the next sentence in all versions of the text, as discussed further below. So, as has been noted elsewhere, it seems certain that the phrase corresponding to 'cassidem igneam' was missing or unreadable in the copy manuscript (McGowan, 1991: 452). The Nowell scribe seems to have noticed the problem, placing an otherwise unnecessary point at the site of the gap, but done nothing to resolve it (Thomson, 2018a: 156–157). There is no reason to think that the problem originated with the translator rather than a faulty copy; as above, this sits alongside other evidence that the Nowell text is some distance from the original translation (Sisam, 1953b).
Passive Saint to (Partly) Active Hero: Christopher's Character
The drama of the narrative mostly derives from the (comic?) contrast between the calm and eloquent Christian 'monster' and the hysterical and violent pagan king (cf. Lionarons 2002: 178; Powell, 2006: 12). This remains consistent in the Old English, but there are a number of minor ways in which Christopher's character is made stronger and more forceful in the translation. This is in line with the well-documented Anglo-Saxon preference for dynamic heroism, most famously shown in the development of Christ into an active hero during his own execution in The Dream of the Rood. So, for instance, those who have been converted by the end of the text are described neutrally in the Latin ('Sunt autem qui crediderunt…' 'So those who believed…'), but in the Old English have been 'Gode astrynde' ('gathered to God'). A sharper lexical shift occurs in the moment when Christopher reveals his death. The Latin has him anticipate receiving his 'corona' ('crown [of martyrdom]'), whereas the Old English has him looking forward to 'minne sigor' ('my victory').27 A similar gesture to the saint as a more forceful, even military, figure comes in the scene in which he is beaten with iron rods. The translator replaces the idea of Christopher as 'famula Dei' ('servant of God') with 'godes cempan' ('God's soldier'). None of these are radical shifts, to be sure – and in the Latin he is earlier invoked as 'athleta Dei' ('champion of God') by Aquilina – but they indicate a direction of travel.
A more significant addition comes after Dagnus, having seen that the fire has not harmed Christopher, lies in a faint from the first until the ninth hour of the day. In the Latin he eventually just wakes up and moves on, but the Old English makes an intriguing addition: 'Þa þæt geseah se halga Cristoforus, he hyne het up arisan' ('When the holy Christopher saw that, he told him to get up'). There is evidently something absurd about Christopher standing in the fire for eight hours before he notices that Dagnus is lying down; the revision is not entirely smooth. But it is still rather stronger than the Latin, which provides no reason at all for Dagnus to get up (and also has the awkward sense that time stops for all other figures in the narrative while the king lies unconscious). The verb 'hatan' (translating 'iubeo') is used relentlessly for Dagnus, who does little himself but orders others around with abandon. This is the only occasion on which Christopher tells anyone to do anything, giving him a sense of command and control which is entirely absent from the Latin.
A final expansion unique to the Old English text comes when Christopher speaks to Dagnus. Not only does he pronounce a curse on the pagan gods, he also vows to 'him teonan do' ('do them injury'). This seems sure to be related to the physical destruction of the temple that Nicea and Aquilina undertook and may be another indication that Christopher was more involved in giving the order for this in the Old English translation than in any extant Latin version.28 Or it may simply be an attempt by the translator to tie the narrative together more tightly. The Latin texts offer no indication that Christopher wants to hurt anything. Indeed, the repeated contrast between his appearance and behaviour – between how the audiences both inside and outside the text would expect a monster like him to behave and what he does – is a quasi-miraculous element of his sanctity (cf. Lionarons, 2002: 179, 182; Frederick, 1989: 139–140). By contrast, the changes made in the Old English seem to suggest that an Anglo-Saxon audience found an inclination to violence less significant as a barrier to sainthood.
Foolish Tyrant to Psychotic Toddler: Dagnus' Character
Whereas some of the Latin texts present a conflict between the Christian God and the pagan gods, mediated through their respective champions, the Old English focuses more closely on Dagnus.29 A minor change illustrates this clearly. All Latin versions set up a contrast between 'diis meis' (§12: 'my gods'), to whom Dagnus wants his people to sacrifice, and the idea that they are instead turning 'ad te' (§12: 'to you'). That is, the contrast in Dagnus' mind is between his gods and Christopher (cf. Lionarons, 2002: 178–179). The giant cynocephalus may, perhaps, have looked rather like some pagan gods,30 but the point here is that Dagnus does not recognise the true God behind Christopher's actions: like so many pagans in hagiographies, he cannot see beneath the surface (cf. Scheil, 2000). Christopher's response seeks to correct the error: he says that he has led many people 'credere … per me Deum' (§12: 'to believe in God through me'). In the Old English, though, this subtle negotiation is dropped in favour of making Dagnus' character egotistical. He asks Christopher: 'hu lange dyrstlæcest þu þæt ðu þis folc fram me tyhtest, swa þæt him nis alyfed þæt hi minum godum onsecgen?' ('how long will you dare to induce this people from me, so that they are not permitted to sacrifice to my gods?'). This development of his character may also be detectable in the fact that the Old English is the only version to not include the bringing of firewood to kindle beneath the iron bench; Dagnus gives orders and things happen, but we do not see the people who perform those actions. Certainly, throughout their interactions, the emphasis is not on Christopher, or even really on the gods, but on Dagnus: he is less the devout pagan and more the autocratic ruler, concerned not about the status of his gods but about the lack of sacrifice as symbolising a loss of authority over his people. It is not his citizens committing their souls 'ad te' that concerns the Old English Dagnus, but that they are withdrawing their subservience 'fram me'.
Further, the translator adds in a number of comments that focus on Dagnus' cruelty and bloodthirstiness. In all versions of the Latin, when Christopher is tortured with a burning helmet the men who are present (discussed further below) criticise Dagnus for ordering 'talia tormenta' (§10: 'such tortures'). In the Old English, the men criticise the manner in which he calls for the torments, claiming that he 'wælhreowlice hetst' ('orders slaughter-cruelly/bloodthirstily'). The adverb is echoed later in the text in another addition when Christopher calls the king 'wælgrim' ('slaughter-savage/bloodthirsty'), a description with no parallel in the Latin. The quasi-ritualistic manner in which Christopher tells Dagnus 'Tibi dico tyranne et stulte' (§14: 'You I name a tyrant, and stupid') becomes the more economical 'Þu wælgrimma ond þu dysega' ('You bloodthirsty fool'), again focusing on the idea of the pagan as vicious and cruel.
Dagnus' own words are also supplemented to demonstrate his bloodthirsty nature. His eagerness to see death is clarified by three conscientious objectors being executed 'þære ylcan tide' ('that very hour') rather than at an unspecified future moment. Apparently enjoying his own nastiness, he describes the arrows threatening Christopher as 'egeslic' ('horrible'), an adjective with no counterpart in the sources. Only the Old English has Dagnus insisting on an 'unmætoste fyr' ('enormous fire') in which to place Christopher and then pouring oil over it until it is 'on þære mæstan hæto' ('at its hottest'). Similarly, every other version (except BHL 1764, which has a different expansion) moves swiftly on from the fire being set to Christopher speaking from within it. The Old English, however, clarifies that the oil was added 'þæt he wolde þæt þæs fyres hæto þe reðre wære ond þe ablæstre on þone halgan man' ('because he [Dagnus] wanted the fire to be fiercer and more furious against the holy man'). This image is emphasised when Christopher speaks from 'þam reðestan ond ðam unmætostan liges bæle' ('the fiercest and most immense burning of fire'). Like Dagnus, the narrator seems to revel in the intensity of the torments.
I have found no Latin version that comments on how the king speaks, though his behaviour is (of course) often criticised or mocked. There is clearly room in the base narrative for assuming that Dagnus takes a sadistic pleasure in the tortures he metes out; Nicea's punishment is particularly brutal, and BHL 1764 has the king explicitly devising cruel and unusual punishments. But the reason the king gives for the elaborate and imaginative tortures is that the Christians are excessively stubborn and that the threat they pose to his rule is profound. Attributing him with a bloodthirsty lust for the pain of others is exclusive to the Old English translation.
Given this interest in Dagnus' character, it is noticeable that the Old English does not employ the editorialising tone of all Latin texts, which note that the king responded to Christopher's words from the fire 'tamquam [sometimes uelut] stultus' (§12: 'as though stupid'). The stupidity of the pagans is one of the key points of interest for the text; indeed, one of the more entertaining conversations between Christopher and the king, immediately before the extant Old English text in §10 of the Latin, has a childish back-and-forth sequence with each accusing the other of greater stupidity. The note on how Dagnus speaks offers a decisive authorial comment on this issue, and may cause the audience to laugh, particularly given the obviously redundant tamquam. Its exclusion from the Old English works with, rather than in contrast to, the increased interest in Dagnus' brutality. He is not a misguided and silly man, failing to perceive what he should. He is a cruel and tyrannical ruler, still contemptible and perhaps absurd in his hysteria, but motivated by anger rather than a lack of knowledge. We can perhaps associate this impression of him with other Anglo-Saxon depictions of poor kingship, as exemplified by figures such as Heremod, Alexander the Great (in some readings), and Holofernes (as presented by the Old English Judith).31 In each of these instances, it is not incompetence that is looked at askance – Alexander and Holofernes are fantastically successful generals – but harshness and tyranny. This idea of what bad leadership looks like may have been calculated to be more appealing and familiar to a lay audience.
A similar aesthetic seems to function after Dagnus' conversion. In the Latin §16, having converted, he sends an order out 'in omni populo et in omni lingua' ('to all peoples and in all languages'). This Pentecostal ambition becomes more realistic – about the proper exercise of royal authority – in the Old English, where his command is simply sent 'geond eall min rice' ('throughout the whole of my kingdom') and enforced only upon those who are subject to his rule. That sense of the proper relative status of people, king, and God is further developed in the translation in a way that emphasises the totality of Dagnus' conversion. The Latin Dagnus remains psychotic and, in the translator's terms, bloodthirsty: his final command is that everyone should be Christian or 'gladio puniatur' (§16: 'be punished by the sword'). His allegiance has changed, but his character has not. The Old English king recognises that God is beyond all human comprehension, as his final words make clear: 'þæt non eorðlic anweald ne nan gebrosnodlic nys noht, butan his anes' ('that there is no earthly, nor any decayed authority, but His alone'). From an intense focus on the conflict between king and cynocephalus, the translation works to a transcendent conclusion through the development of Dagnus' understanding.
Making the Story Work: Clarifications and Streamlining
A number of minor differences in the description of Christopher's tortures all seem to work towards clarifying precisely what happens to the saint. First, the Old English specifies that the saint's hands and feet are to be tied 'tosomne' ('together'), whereas in the Latin they are both just tied, leaving it unclear whether he is stretched out (as Nicea and Aquilina are earlier on) or compressed, as the Old English implies. More significantly, in BHL 1769 the king orders that iron rods 'cedi' (§10: 'be brought'), with no further mention or use of them as the scene moves on to the burning helmet. The translator adds that Dagnus 'he hyne het swingan' ('commanded that he [Christopher] be beaten') with them. That is, the Old English seeks to clarify what is happening whereas the Latin is more laconic and condensed.32 Later, in §13, when a tree is brought prior to arrows being fired at the saint, only the Old English observes that Dagnus had Christopher 'gefæstnian' ('fixed') to it. This is, of course, implied in the Latin; the translator is arguably clarifying unnecessarily, given that multiple scribes working on Latin copies over several hundred years saw no need to do so. Whether it is viewed as a positive change or an unnecessary elaboration, it is clear that the Old English version is seeking to make the story clearer, alert to the fact that the audience were lay, and therefore being more precise about what physically happens.
The translator also seems to have aimed to make the narrative tauter, tying events and people together. This is perhaps most apparent in the treatment of the three men who object to Christopher being tortured with the iron helmet and rods. These men are consistently if strangely noted to be 'ex consulibus' (§10: 'former consuls') in almost all Latin versions, in which they appear from nowhere as apparently passive spectators to the torture until they abruptly decide that the brutality has gone too far and condemn the king.33 They are summarily despatched. As noted above, the omission in Nowell's copy text puts them onto the saint's head (in place of the helmet), and thereby confuses their status further; this corruption aside, the point here is that the original translator made them 'cempan' ('soldiers'). This demotion makes considerable sense, given that Christopher converts large numbers of soldiers (and, early on, was certainly a soldier-saint along the same lines as George: see Thomson, 2019: 69–70; Hill, 1986). Groups of soldiers are converted by him at various other points in the narrative and defy Dagnus in other ways, including throwing their weapons down and rejecting payment. Converting these objectors into soldiers clarifies their connection with the saint. Indeed, they are even given a role in the scene as the men wielding the iron rods which, in the Latin, are called for but never specifically utilised. This is more than translation with opportunistic clarification of detail: it is reimagination, uniting an unutilised set of rods with an obscure set of men and clarifying each through the other.
The translator greatly clarifies the sequence with arrows being fired at Christopher. All Latin versions have an unspecified group of soldiers firing 'ternas sagittas' (§13: 'three [flights of?] arrows', 'three arrows each[?]') at him, intending to kill him quickly. Then Dagnus asks if God will rescue him 'de manibus meis' (§13: 'from my hands'), and the soldiers resume firing 'ab hora prima usque ad horam duodecimam' (§13: 'from the first hour until the twelfth hour'). The translator omits Dagnus' barbed comment, presumably finding it redundant as it is repeated on the next day, when (as above) it is adapted to show the king's pleasure in the horrors he inflicts. The retention of this second instance also ensures that the justice meted out to Dagnus is seen to immediately follow his sadistic expression. No sooner has he revelled in how unpleasant and inescapable the arrows are than two turn back and strike him in the eyes. A more radical adaptation is the rationalisation of the shooting scene to have 'ðry cempan' ('three soldiers'), creating a pleasing parallel with the three men who wield the iron rods (who, as above, also do not have this function in the source). These soldiers fire continuously 'from þære ærestan tide þæs dæges oð æfen' ('from the first hour of that day until evening'). Dropping the clerical reference to monastic hours is a sensible adaptation mindful of audience; moving the idea of three from the arrows (or flights thereof) to the soldiers is a thoughtful change focused on coherent storytelling (contrast Sisam, 1953b: 69). The result is a tauter, clearer narrative than any of the Latin manuscripts provide.
Another alteration probably had the same motivation. Miraculously, none of the arrows fired at Christopher hit him: instead, in the Latin tests, when Dagnus comes out to look at the saint, the arrows 'suspendebantur a uento a dextrus eius' (§13: 'were hanging in the air on his right-hand side').34 The translator seems to have rejected the idea that twelve hours' worth of arrows hung suspended at the saint's right-hand side, or perhaps the image of soldiers firing endlessly for twelve hours off-target in the same way without at any point changing approach or observing the strange collection of missiles suspended in mid-air. After noting that none of the arrows touched Christopher, the Old English narrator finds a creative, if still somewhat obscure, solution and explains that 'Godes mægen wæs on þæm winde hangigende æt þæs halgan mannes swyðran healfe' ('God's power was hanging in the wind at the holy man's right side'). The following day, Dagnus comes out to mock Christopher again when, in the Latin, one of the arrows, still hovering in a presumably threatening manner close to the saint, turns and blinds the king in a manner reminiscent of the blinding of Garganus in Blickling Homily XVI (Thomson, 2018a: 16–17). In the Old English, the arrows are no longer hanging in the air, having been diverted by God's power, so it is unclear where the arrows that attack Dagnus come from. This loss of clarity is, however, rather minor compared with the enhanced role of God and the better sense of the scene.
Every Latin text has just one arrow (§14: 'sagitta', 'una de sagittis', or 'una ex eis') leaping to Dagnus' single eye (§14: 'oculum regis') which nonetheless 'exc[a]ecavit' (§14: 'blinded') him. Over four hundred years of Latin rewritings are perfectly happy with the idea that Dagnus is, in fact, only partially blinded or that one arrow hitting one eye is a metaphor for a complete blinding. Even this minor detail is clarified by the translator, who has two missiles hit the king's two eyes, with the curiously redundant, or perhaps excessively specific, expansion that it was not the arrows themselves but 'twa flana of þam strælum' ('two darts[?] from those arrows').35
Given that Christopher is already tied to a tree for his bow-and-arrow execution, it makes no sense that the king had him 'ligatum' (§13: 'bound') when the shooting is over for the day. The translator characteristically seeks to combine fidelity to the original story with greater accuracy in telling it, and has Christopher 'swa gebundenne' ('tied up in the same way'), as if those few soldiers left alive and still supporting the king checked the knots for the night. The reason for him being kept bound and guarded overnight is Dagnus' concern that 'Christianis' (§13: 'the Christians') are waiting 'excipere corpus eis' (§13: 'to receive his body'); this, too, makes little sense as he is – miraculously – not dead. Instead, the translator gives his 'cristene folc' ('Christian people') the more insurrectionary and sensible ambition of wanting 'hyne … onlysan þy mergenlican dæge' ('to release him the following day').
Other Omissions and Additions
It is an interesting oddity of the Old English text that it takes so little interest in how people die. Martyrologies tend to record types of death and in this, as in many martyr narratives, beheading seems to be the only sure way to finally kill a Christian. The three objectors are simply 'acwellan' ('killed') in the Old English, rather than more specifically 'decollari' (§10: 'beheaded') as they are in the Latin. In all copies of the Latin life, Christopher is eventually beheaded (with the statement to that effect sometimes earlier and sometimes later). As observed above, this narrative seems to take particular interest in the technology of torture: Dagnus frequently has something new designed or created to hurt or kill the two women or Christopher. This is particularly noticeable in the Nowell Codex, which is full of comment on and interest in technology and other methods of controlling nature (Thomson, 2018a: 56). It is, then, striking that in the Old English, when the time comes for the actual martyrdom, the translator tells us nothing other than 'fram þas cempan he wæs slegen' ('he was killed by the soldiers'). The same movement is present in the Latin, but far less potently. At least in the Latin texts Dagnus gives the order for him to be beheaded, so when Christopher is killed we can assume this is how it happened. The translator disempowers Dagnus to the extent that the order is not given: after all of the dialogue's back and forth, Christ-like Christopher says that he will die and does so, with no further intervention. Despite the interest that martyrologies have in how a martyr was created, and the obvious symbolic interest in the fact that the head which marks Christopher as remarkable is removed, the Old English text ignores how and at whose command the killing takes place. Christopher's death eludes the fascination with the physical that marks his life. This is particularly striking given that relics of Christopher may have been at New Minster, Winchester and were certainly listed as being at Exeter during the Anglo-Saxon period (Sisam 1953b: 71); a later list specifies that the relic is his head.36 And yet the conclusion to a number of (insular and Continental) versions, including the Old English translation, focus on the idea that the presence or absence of relics is irrelevant: reading, writing, or praying about Christopher is enough to receive his protection. This movement away from the purely physical is present in the Latin texts but is significantly accentuated by the translator's excision of details about the death (cf. Sisam, 1953b: 70). Such an insistence implies that the translation was probably not composed at New Minster or Exeter. Further, it reads as a sophisticated literary-theological moment, refusing to acknowledge Dagnus' power over Christopher's body; an ultimate rejection of the physical in a story that plays upon our fascination with the embodied monster.
The Old English Dagnus has a curious obsession with being tricked away from what he (wrongly) perceives as his true self. When he tells Christopher that the saint clearly desires to 'me uis in tuis maleficiis adducere' (§12: 'lead me into your wickedness'), the translator adds that Dagnus anticipates an attempt 'beswican' ('to deceive') him and clarifies, pathetically, that conversion would require him to 'þinne god gebidde ond minum wiðsace' ('pray to your God and abandon mine'). Deception seems to be how Dagnus explains anyone doing something of which he himself disapproves: when converted, he can only anticipate one of his subjects operating against God if he is 'þurh deofles searwa to þon beswican' ('so deceived through the devil's crafts'). I cannot currently account for this interest in deception, but it does seem to be an intentionally introduced theme.
More obviously directed at the lay audience is the expansion of the scene of healing, in which much more is required of Dagnus by the translator. The Latin texts have him taking some soil from the site of martyrdom, mixing it with blood 'in nomine Domini nostri Ihesu Chrisi' (§16: 'in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ') and placing it on his (singular) eye. The Old English takes this vague idea of doing something in God's name out of the action and sets it by itself as a change that must take place inside Dagnus – after the setting of the poultice – if it is to succeed: 'Þonne, gif þu gelyfest on God of ealra heortan …' ('Then, if you believe in God with all your heart …' [my emphasis]). The same impulse can be seen in Christopher's final prayer, which asks God to 'bonam mercedem praesta scribentibus et legentibus passionem meam' (§16: 'grant a reward to any who write and read my passion'). This is not specific enough for the translator, who has Christopher ask for the reward only for those who write or read it 'mid tearum' ('with tears'; cf. Sisam, 1953b: 70). The Old English goes on to show its audience an instance of this combination of symbolic action and heartfelt prayer: when Dagnus follows his instructions in §17, the Latin has the mixture being applied followed immediately by the healing with no speech; in the translation, by contrast, he says 'On nama Cristoforus godes ic þis don' ('In the name of Christopher's God I do this'). This has the dual effect of reinforcing what we have just been told about the power of praying in Christopher's name, and of making the point that the power does not reside in the physical mixture but in the use of prayer. This is consistent with the Ælfrician principle of educating through homilies and narratives, and of the Wulfstanian ambition of building a deeper understanding of the faith across the breadth and depth of society. Here it is made clear that physical actions unaccompanied by emotional engagement do not suffice. Generations of Latin-literate clerics had managed with being told what to do; the translator clearly feels that a lay audience needs to be shown.
Before his death, Christopher prays for his body to be a powerful ward against evil. The answering voice from heaven promises that his protection will function 'ubi est corpus tuum et ubi non est' (§15: 'where your body is and where it is not'), presumably part of ensuring that the cult could be followed as widely as possible (cf. Sisam, 1953b: 70), but perhaps also part of the narrative's interest in showing that physicality is less significant than spiritual experience. This is faithfully followed in the Old English, but it is interesting that the number of protections is considerably diminished. In every Latin text, Christopher wants the place of his burial to never be plagued by 'grando, non ira flammæ, non mortalitas mala, none fames … languidi aut dæmoniosi' (§15: 'hail, nor the fury of flames, nor evil plague, nor famine … illness or demons'). The translator cuts this list down, allowing the saint to request simply 'ne sy þær ne wædl ne fyres broga' ('let there be no want there, nor fear of fire') and asking for the power to heal. This reduction is perhaps best read as streamlining an excessive text: 'wædl' may have been intended to cover the spectrum of plague and famine, and the healing power may have been expected to extend to demonic possession as well as simpler physical ailments; as Sisam suggested, it is possible that hail was not a particularly threatening force in England (1953b: 70). But it is worth noting that the Latin heavenly voice's generosity is muted by the Old English. The Latin texts promise: 'Christofare, ubi corpus tuum fuerit ibi omnes qui commemorant in orationibus suis nomen tuum quidquid petierint accipient et saluifient' (§15: 'Christopher, wherever your body is, all in that place who remember your name in their prayers will receive whatever they ask for and be saved'). The God of Anglo-Saxon laypeople is more circumspect, promising only that supplicants will receive 'swa hwæs swa hie rithlice biddaþ for þinum naman' ('whatever they reasonably ask for in your name'). The vernacular text was, of course, being produced for lay people: conceivably, the translator sought to control expectations and ensure that this strange, subversive, and foreign saint did not become too Christ-like and all-encompassing in his cult; 'rihtlice' is a pointed addition.
The Old English Christopher becomes more than just the account of a martyr: it is about a ruler developing his understanding of how the spiritual and physical worlds relate to one another and renouncing his egotism and obsession with surface meanings (iron is powerful; fire hurts; people are defined by their faces). Above all, it is about Dagnus the arrogant sinner changing his ways and not (as is the Latin) about Christopher the cynocephalus and his marvellous martyrdom. This is emphasised by the storytelling tone adopted by the narrator in yet another significant addition: 'Ond swa þa wæs geworden þurh godes miht ond þurh gearnunga þæs eadigan Cristoforus þætte se cyningc gelyfde se wæs ær deofles willan full' ('And so it was that through God's might and through the good work of the blessed Christopher that the king believed who was before full of the Devil's will').37 The rhetorical skill of the translator is still more clear in the expression that the saint's prayers 'nu blowað ond growað' ('now bloom and grow'). This addition, which is, as noted above, unparalleled in any of the Latin versions, must echo the blossoming of Christopher's staff, his first miracle. It ties the start and end of his apostolic mission together and marks the transition from physical miracle to spiritual impact which Christopher attained, and to which all Christians should aspire.
Despite such displays of control or finesse, this discussion is not so ambitious as to suggest that the Old English Christopher is a masterpiece or an unacknowledged work by some great unknown writer (cf. Lionarons 2002: 182). But, first, while the exact source remains unknown and possibly unknowable, it is certainly of the BHL 1769 branch and relatively closely related to the recension represented by Clm 22242. Second, it should be clear that this version is remarkable within the rich and varied retellings of the Christopher narrative. Third, the changes that have been made work towards one end: making the story and the saint more relevant, potent, and immediate for the audience who would receive this telling. And fourth – perhaps most importantly – there is much to be gained from engaging seriously with vernacular prose in terms of appreciating how stories were understood and retold by new authors for new audiences. There are many anonymous saints' lives from late Anglo-Saxon England, and study of their interactions with sources has the potential to tell us a great deal. The monumental achievement of the publication of the Acta Sanctorum section of the Sources of Anglo-Saxon Literary Culture (Biggs et al, 2001) should continue to stimulate such investigations; the case study of a partial life of Christopher as presented here makes it abundantly clear that the production of vernacular versions of hagiography was not a simple or mindless process. Such translation is more likely to show a subtle process of negotiation between original text and target audience, an approach which demonstrates significant storytelling skill as well as careful theological engagement.