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Current refinement(s):
De toekomst van hout in de biobased economy
Annevelink, E. ; Harmsen, P.F.H. ; Spijker, J.H. - \ 2018
Vakblad Natuur Bos Landschap 15 (2018)141. - ISSN 1572-7610 - p. 7 - 11.
biobased economy - hout - biobrandstoffen - biomassa - hernieuwbare energie - materialen uit biologische grondstoffen - cellulose - lignine - vezels - biobased economy - wood - biofuels - biomass - renewable energy - biobased materials - cellulose - lignin - fibres
De laatste jaren is de biobased economy sterk gegroeid door allerlei activiteiten, variërend van fundamenteel onderzoek naar nieuwe biobased toepassingen, tot het op commerciële schaal vervaardigen van biobased producten. Welke kansen biedt dit voor hout en houtige biomassa en wat zijn de verwachte effecten op de houtmarkt?
Overheidsmaatregelen biokerosine : mogelijkheden om de vraag naar biokerosine te stimuleren en de effecten op de luchtvaart en de economie
Faber, Jasper ; Smeets, E.M.W. - \ 2017
Delft : CE Delft - 112
biobrandstoffen - biobased economy - kerosine - overheidsbeleid - stimulatie - subsidies - emissiereductie - luchttransport - biofuels - biobased economy - kerosene - government policy - stimulation - subsidies - emission reduction - air transport
De maatregel met het grootste potentieel om CO2-emissies van de luchtvaart te verminderen is het gebruik van brandstoffen met lage emissies over de levenscyclus, zoals bijvoorbeeld geavanceerde biobrandstoffen gemaakt van residuen uit de bos- en landbouw. Om de luchtvaart te laten bijdragen aan de afname van de wereldwijde emissies is het dus wenselijk een groter aandeel alternatieve duurzame brandstoffen in de luchtvaart in te zetten. Vanwege het prijsverschil tussen fossiele kerosine en biokerosine is hier overheidsbeleid voor nodig. Het doel van deze studie is het beantwoorden van de volgende twee centrale onderzoeksvragen: 1. Met welke beleidsmaatregelen kan de Nederlandse Rijksoverheid de vraag naar en productie van biokerosine laten toenemen? 2. Wat zijn de directe en indirecte effecten van de beleidsmaatregelen?
Socio-economic assessment of Algae-based PUFA production
Voort, Marcel van der; Spruijt, Joanneke ; Potters, Jorieke ; Wolf, Pieter de; Elissen, Hellen - \ 2017
Göttingen : PUFAChain - 84
bioenergy - biobased economy - biofuels - biomass - algae - fatty acids - bio-energie - biobased economy - biobrandstoffen - biomassa - algen - vetzuren
Biobased materialen, circulaire economie en natuurlijk kapitaal
Overbeek, M.M.M. ; Smeets, E.M.W. ; Verhoog, A.D. - \ 2017
Wageningen : Wettelijke Onderzoekstaken Natuur & Milieu (WOt-technical report 109) - 37
biomassa - biobased economy - materialen uit biologische grondstoffen - bioplastics - hernieuwbare energie - duurzaamheid (sustainability) - biobrandstoffen - recycling - chemie op basis van biologische grondstoffen - biomass - biobased economy - biobased materials - bioplastics - renewable energy - sustainability - biofuels - recycling - biobased chemistry
This preliminary study investigates the amount of biomass that would be needed in the Netherlands to replace the fossil raw materials used in the manufacture of plastics and how this transition to biobased plastics can be achieved. It is based on desk research and calculations of the area of agricultural land that would be needed to produce sufficient biobased material to meet Dutch demand for biobased plastics. In addition, interviews were held with experts on the institutional obstacles to such a transition. Far too little agricultural land is available in the Netherlands to produce the required amount of biomass needed to replace fossil plastics. Research with the aim of increasing the contribution made by biobased materials to the circular economy should focus on assessing the options for producing sustainable raw materials and on a comprehensive assessment of the sustainable use of biomass in various applications.
Circular food chains and cascading of biomass in metropolitan regions : Vision on metropolitan biorefinery concepts in relation to resource-efficient cities
Annevelink, E. ; Gogh, J.B. ; Groot, J.J. - \ 2017
Wageningen : Wageningen Food & Biobased Research (Wageningen Food & Biobased Research report 1790) - ISBN 9789463437424 - 18
biomass - bioenergy - residual streams - refining - biofuels - biobased economy - biogas - biomassa - bio-energie - reststromen - raffineren - biobrandstoffen - biobased economy - biogas
Expectations are that 80 percent of the global population will reside in urban areas by the year 2050. As urbanisation levels increase so do ecological footprint sizes in these areas, as it is in the cities that income levels are higher, and where higher levels of disposable incomes exist. Whereas the circular economy is gaining ground as a concept for increasing sustainability by the efficient use of available materials and resources, urban areas are often recognised as attractive starting points for making the transition towards a circular economy. The paper "Circular food chains and cascading of biomass in metropolitan regions" contains the description of a vision on how biorefinery concepts in current and future metropoles may contribute to the increased efficiency in the use of resources for biomass production. As such this vision forms the interpretation of the principles of the circular economy within the context of biomass value chains and within the geographic boundaries of a metropolitan region. This is also referred to as the circular metropolitan system. With this paper researchers from Wageningen Food & Biobased Research intend to contribute to a scientific basis for increasing resource use efficiency in metropolitan regions through developing appropriate and sustainable biorefinery concepts.
Innovatieve technologie in beheer en oogst van houtige biomassa : eindrapportage
Raa, Rik te; Pfau, S. ; Clerkx, A.P.P.M. ; Massop, Hans ; Hissink, H.J. - \ 2017
BTG Biomass Technology Group - 57
bio-energie - biobased economy - biobrandstoffen - hout - biomassa productie - bosbeheer - bioenergy - biobased economy - biofuels - wood - biomass production - forest administration
Opiniestuk sustainable development goals : transities realiseren met duurzaam bodem - en landgebruik
Mol, G. ; Cleen, M. de; Molenaar, Co ; Keesstra, S. ; Visser, S. ; Okx, J. - \ 2017
Wageningen : Wageningen University and Research - 7
duurzame energie - biobased economy - biobrandstoffen - biogas - overheidsbeleid - klimaat - bio-energie - reststromen - hernieuwbare energie - energiebeleid - sustainable energy - biobased economy - biofuels - biogas - government policy - climate - bioenergy - residual streams - renewable energy - energy policy
In 2015 hebben de Verenigde Naties de Duurzame Ontwikkelingsdoelen – beter bekend als de Sustainable Development Goals of kortweg SDGs – aangenomen als de weg waarlangs ze de meest urgente problemen op het gebied van armoede, honger, maar ook onderwijs, economie, en milieu en klimaat wil aanpakken. De ambities, geformuleerd in de 17 SDGs, zijn verstrekkend en hoog. In verschillende Nederlandse beleidsdocumenten1234567 wordt daarom aangegeven dat hiervoor serieuze maatschappelijke transities nodig zijn zoals op het gebied van energie en klimaat, voedselvoorziening en circulaire economie, mobiliteit en leefbare steden. Voor veel van deze transities is duurzaam gebruik en beheer van bodem, water en land een essentieel onderdeel. Dit opiniestuk heeft als doel de rol van duurzaam bodem- en landgebruik te benadrukken en de urgentie ervan agenderen voor de maatschappelijke transities waar Nederland voor staat. En laten zien dat de maatschappelijke opgaven te complex zijn voor een sectorale aanpak. Integrale benadering en goede samenwerking tussen alle stakeholders zijn nodig om te komen tot duurzame oplossingen. Het is raadzaam hier voortvarend werk van te maken; de bodem is een traag systeem, dus 2030 – het jaar waarin de SDGs moeten zijn gerealiseerd – is al morgen.
Biodigestion at the Neighbourhood Level : from community participation to waste separation
Hiemstra, J. ; Lie, R. ; Rietveld, M. - \ 2017
Urban Agriculture Magazine (2017)32. - ISSN 1571-6244 - p. 49 - 51.
bio-energie - biobrandstoffen - biobased economy - reststromen - projecten - co-vergisting - digestaat - hernieuwbare energie - energiebronnen - organisch afval - recycling - bioenergy - biofuels - residual streams - projects - co-fermentation - digestate - renewable energy - energy sources - organic wastes
Urban Agriculture magazine • number 32 • September 2017 49 www.ruaf.org High energy bills and litter on the streets caused a group of residents of the Wildeman neighbourhood in the district of Osdorp in Amsterdam to act. Expecting no solution from the municipality, they decided to take care of it themselves and tackled these two problems with one solution: using the technology of biodigestion to produce energy from municipal food waste - a perfect example of the urban food-waste-energy nexus.
Groene Cirkels : Resultaatrapportage
Steingröver, E.G. ; Vos, C.C. - \ 2017
Wageningen : Groene Cirkels - 15
bio-energie - biobrandstoffen - biobased economy - duurzame energie - indicatoren - biomassa - bioenergy - biofuels - biobased economy - sustainable energy - indicators - biomass
Met de resultaatmeting wil Groene Cirkels inzichtelijk maken wat er bereikt is ten aanzien van het bereiken van onze doelen en ambities. Met deze informatie wil Groene Cirkels effectief sturen op het behalen van de ambities en inzicht geven in de bijdragen en resultaten van de diverse thema-activiteiten en Groene Cirkels
The SEEA EEA carbon account for the Netherlands
Lof, Marjolein ; Schenau, Sjoerd ; Jong, Rixt de; Remme, Roy ; Graveland, Cor ; Hein, Lars - \ 2017
The Hague : Statistics Netherlands - 64
carbon dioxide - netherlands - carbon - economics - environment - biofuels - bioenergy - biogas - emission - kooldioxide - nederland - koolstof - economie - milieu - biobrandstoffen - bio-energie - biogas - emissie
The carbon account provides a comprehensive overview of all relevant carbon stocks and flows. The carbon account for the Netherlands was developed within the scope of the 'System of Environmental Economic Accounts – Experimen tal Ecosystem Accounting' (SEEA EEA) project for the Netherlands (Natuurlijk Kapitaalrekeningen Nederland: NKR_NL), which is currently c arried out jointly by Statistics Netherlands and Wageningen University. Funding and support was provided by the Ministries of Economic Affairs and Infrastructure and the Environment. Within the NKR_NL project, a number of accounts are currently under devel opment. The carbon account is described in detail in this report.
Sustainable woodfuel for food security : A smart choice: green, renewable and affordable
Sooyeon, Laura Jln ; Schure, J.M. ; Ingram, V.J. ; Yoo, Byoung Il ; Reeb, Dominique ; Xia, Zuzhang ; Perlis, Andrea ; Nordberg, Mats ; Campbell, Jeffrey ; Muller, Eva - \ 2017
biobased economy - biofuels - bioenergy - wood - biomass - heat - biobased economy - biobrandstoffen - bio-energie - hout - biomassa - warmte
With food insecurity, climate change and deforestation and forest degradation remaining key global issues, this paper highlights the role of sustainable woodfuel in improving food security. Food insecurity and a high dependence on woodfuel as a primary cooking fuel are characteristics common to vulnerable groups of people in developing regions of the world.With adequate policy and legal frameworks in place, woodfuel production and harvesting can be sustainable and a main source of green energy. Moreover, the widespread availability of woodfuel, and the enormous market for it, presents opportunities for employment and for sustainable value chains, providing further rationale for promoting this source of energy. This paper explains how sustainable woodfuel is closely linked to food security and provides insights in how the linkages could be strengthened at all stages of woodfuel production, trade and use.
Measurements of transcripts, proteome and metabolite profiles
Peters, Sander - \ 2017
Fuel4Me - 7
biobased economy - biobrandstoffen - algen - algenteelt - oliën - biobased economy - biofuels - algae - algae culture - oils
The work described for this deliverable was carried out by DLO-PRI, in collaboration with WU, and aim ed to understanding lipid production in Phaeodactylum tricornutum . By means of transcriptome, proteome and metabolome analyses we aimed to provide insight into the one step lipid production performed by partner WU. Cultivation conditions were chosen to steer lipid profile towards most suitable composition for biofuel production.
Photosynthetic efficiency in microalgal lipid production
Remmers, Ilse M. - \ 2017
Wageningen University. Promotor(en): R.H. Wijffels, co-promotor(en): P.P. Lamers. - Wageningen : Wageningen University - ISBN 9789463434607 - 200
algae - biofuels - light - triacylglycerols - lipids - metabolism - algae culture - cultural methods - algen - biobrandstoffen - licht - triacylglycerolen - lipiden - metabolisme - algenteelt - cultuurmethoden
Microalgae can contain large amounts of lipids which make them a promising feedstock for sustainable production of food, feed, fuels and chemicals. Various studies, including pilot-scale, have been performed and the knowledge on microalgal processes has advanced quickly. Unfortunately, current production costs for cultivation are still too high for bulk lipid production from microalgae.
One of the major causes for the high costs of bulk lipid production is the reduced solar-to-lipid conversion efficiency. Current research, however, does not provide sufficient insight to identify optimization targets. Therefore, in this thesis we have studied the lipid production in microalgae in depth.
Different TAG-accumulation strategies were investigated from a process engineering and metabolic point of view. The combination of all findings were used in the general discussion to thoroughly evaluate the microalgal lipid accumulation strategies. Current phototrophic microalgal lipid yields are still 10 times lower than the theoretical maximum. There is, however, still an enormous potential for further improvements. Future research should focus on (genetically) improved strains and advanced cultivation strategies, including adaptation to fluctuating outdoor weather conditions.
This thesis was performed within the EU FP7 FUEL4ME project under grand agreement No 308938. Objective of this program is to develop a sustainable and scalable process for biofuels from microalgae and to valorize the by-products.
Exploring opportunities for rural livelihoods and food security in Central Mozambique
Leonardo, Wilson José - \ 2017
Wageningen University. Promotor(en): K.E. Giller, co-promotor(en): G.W.J. van de Ven; H.M.J. Udo. - Wageningen : Wageningen University - ISBN 9789463431651 - 183
agricultural production systems - food security - crop production - livelihoods - small farms - biofuels - farming systems - models - intensification - mozambique - agrarische productiesystemen - voedselzekerheid - gewasproductie - middelen van bestaan - kleine landbouwbedrijven - biobrandstoffen - bedrijfssystemen - modellen - intensivering - mozambique
Growing awareness of widespread hunger and poverty in many countries in the SSA is spurring a focus on productivity increase in smallholder farming systems. The rationale is that with current production systems many SSA countries are not keeping pace with population growth and changing of peoples' lifestyles. To respond to this challenge the Government of Mozambique developed its Strategic Plan for Agricultural Development (PEDSA) aiming to improve agricultural productivity of the majority of smallholder farmers who depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. Smallholder farmers are diverse in terms of resources and aspirations. The main objectives of this study are first to understand the diversity among maize-based smallholder farms and their current constraints in improving agricultural productivity in the Manica Plateau, Central Mozambique, and second, building on that understanding to explore options for biomass production either for food, cash or biofuel at farm level and contributions to maize availability in the region. The study was conducted in the Dombe and Zembe Administrative Posts. Farmers in the two posts cultivate both food and cash crops using the same resources, however, distances to the urban market differ, with Zembe close and Dombe far away from the markets. In addition, the agroecological conditions for crop production are more favourable in Dombe compared with Zembe. Using farm surveys, direct observations and on-farm measurements, followed by Principal Components Analysis (PCA) I identified land and labour as the variables that can best explain the variability found among smallholder farms (Chapter 2). Based on these variables I categorised farms into four Farm Types (FT): FT1. Large farms (4.4 ha in Dombe and 2.2 ha in Zembe), hiring in labour; FT2. Intermediate sized farms (1.9-1.2 ha), hiring in and out labour; FT3a. Small farms (1.1-0.9 ha), sharing labour; and FT3b. Small farms (1.0-0.7 ha), hiring out labour. The maize yield and maize labour productivities were higher on large farms (2.3 t ha-1 in Dombe and 2.0 t ha-1 in Zembe; 2.5×10-3 t h-1 in Dombe and 2.6 ×10-3 t h-1 in Zembe) compared with small farms (1.5 t ha-1 in Dombe and 1.1 t ha-1 in Zembe; 1.4×10-3 t h-1 in Dombe and 0.9×10-3 t h-1 in Zembe). The hiring in labour from small farms allowed large farms to timely weed their fields. Small farms were resource constrained and hired out labour (mutrakita) for cash or food to the detriment of weeding their own fields, resulting in poor crop yields. Excessive alcohol consumption by small farms also raised concerns on labour quality. Chapter 3 explored options aiming at addressing farmers' objectives of being maize self-sufficient and increased gross margin and the contribution to national objective of producing food. A bio-economic farm model was used to investigate two pathways to increase agricultural production: (i) extensification, expanding the current cultivated area; and (ii) intensification, increasing input use and output per unit of land.
In the extensification pathway I considered the use of animal traction, herbicides and cultivators to save labour, whereas in the intensification pathway I explored the use improved varieties of maize, sesame, sunflower, pigeonpea and fertilizers. I focused on the large farms and the small farms hiring out labour as they represent both sides of the spectrum. The simulated results showed that combining labour and labour saving technologies substantially increased both gross margin and maize yields of large and small farms in both posts. Minor trade-offs is observed on large farms between the two goals whereas for small farms we see synergies between the goals. We concluded that prospects for increasing gross margin and food production are much better for large farms in Dombe compared with other farms. In Dombe, the maximum gross margin of large farms was 7530 $ y-1 per farm and maximum maize sales of 30.4 t y-1 per farm. In Zembe, the maximum gross margin of large farms (2410 $ y-1 per farm) and maximum maize sales (9.5 t y-1 per farm) were comparable to small farms in Dombe. I further assessed the impact of two biofuel investments (jatropha plantation and sunflower outgrower schemes) on farm level food security (food availability, access to food, stability of food, utilization of food). The results showed positive impact on small farms from employment on a jatropha plantation by increasing access to food and no impacts on intermediate and large farms. Impacts on food security from the sunflower outgrower scheme were minor which may be explained by the poor yields.
The need to link smallholder farmers to markets has been increasingly recognized as important strategy to promote rural development and poverty reduction. I developed an analytical framework, the Windmill Approach that looked at decision making at farm level to grow certain crops and at transaction strategies (Chapter 5). Through this framework I showed that a farmer decision to participate in a particular (new) value chain is determined by (a) the suitability of the new crop in the farm system (including the adaptability of the current farm system), and (b) the farmer's experience with selling in various value chains. This has major policy implications as it highlights that to support smallholder farmers access to markets a holistic approach is needed that combines farming systems analysis and transaction cost theory.
In order to explore the opportunities for smallholder development there is need to understand the diversity of farms and farmers' social and economic context. For large farms, in Central Mozambique farms with on average 2-4 ha of land, opportunities to improve their livelihoods through crop production can follow two pathways: intensification and extensification. Smallholders continue to produce staple food crops even when working on a plantation or participating in outgrower schemes. For small farms, off-farm opportunities such as those in a biofuel plantation are the best options to improve their livelihoods.
Assessing the case for sequential cropping to produce low ILUC risk biomethane : final report
Peters, Daan ; Zabeti, Masoud ; Kühner, Ann-Kathri ; Spöttle, Matthias ; Werf, Wopke van der; Stomph, Jan - \ 2016
Utrecht : ECOFYS Netherlands - 39
methane - biofuels - sequential cropping - farmers' associations - biogas - ancillary enterprises - farm management - agricultural energy production - transport - biobased economy - fuel crops - biomass production - methaan - biobrandstoffen - estafetteteelt - boerenorganisaties - biogas - nevenactiviteiten - agrarische bedrijfsvoering - energieproductie in de landbouw - transport - biobased economy - brandstofgewassen - biomassa productie
In recent years and especially since the COP - 21 climate agreement reached in Paris last year, efforts to mitigate climate change accelerate. All sectors need to contribute in order to achieve the well below 2 degree climate target. The agricultural sector is relevant for climate change in various ways. Like the agricultural sector, the transport sector is also responsible for significant greenhouse gas emissions. Advanced biofuels and biogas produced from wastes and residues can play an increasingly important role in the transport mix. In Italy, 600 Italian farmers are organised in the Italian Biogas Council (Consorzio Italiano Biogas e Gassificazione, CIB). Some years ago, CIB members developed a concept that they coined Biogasdoneright. In collaboration with various research institutes they seeked for a way to combine biogas feedstock production with crop production for food and feed as a way to generate additional income in a sustainable manner. The core of the Biogasdoneright concept is that farmers apply sequential cropping by growing a winter cover crop on land that was previously fallow during winter time, while maintaining the main crop production during summer time as previously. Multiple claims can be made about Biogasdoneright, for example related to the large potential role for biogas in our future energy system. This project focussed on the most relevant claims related to the use of biomethane in transport, with a focus on sustainability aspects.
Methodologies identification and certification of Low ILUC risk biofuels : final report
Peters, Daan ; Spöttle, ; Hähl, Thomas ; Kühner, Ann-Kathrin ; Cuijpers, Maarten ; Stomph, Tjeerd Jan ; Werf, Wopke van der; Grass, Martin - \ 2016
Utrecht : ECOFYS Netherlands - 58
biofuels - greenhouse gases - land use - biomass - biomass production - biobased economy - indirect land use change - biobrandstoffen - broeikasgassen - landgebruik - biomassa - biomassa productie - biobased economy - indirecte veranderingen van landgebruik
Biofuels can be an important instrument to decarbonise the transport sector. However, the greenhouse gas performance of biofuels can be negatively impacted by Indirect land use change (ILUC) effects. In this report, Ecofys proposes two methodologies to identify and demonstrate low ILUC risk biofuel feedstock production through the application of yield increase (see Chapter 3) or unused land (see ILUC mitigation methodology for unused land).
Microbial electrosynthesis of biochemicals : innovations on biocatalysts, electrodes and ion-exchange for CO2 supply, chemicals production and separation
Bajracharya, S. - \ 2016
Wageningen University. Promotor(en): Cees Buisman; David Strik; Deepak Pant. - Wageningen : Wageningen University - ISBN 9789462578531 - 181
carbon dioxide - biofuels - chemicals - biocatalysis - ion exchange - electrodes - kooldioxide - biobrandstoffen - chemicaliën - biokatalyse - ionenuitwisseling - elektrodes
Microbial electrosynthesis (MES) is an electricity-driven production of chemicals from low-value waste using microorganisms as biocatalysts. MES from CO2 comprises conversion of CO2 to multi-carbon compounds employing microbes at the cathode which use electricity as an energy source. This thesis presents innovations on MES from CO2 using anaerobic mixed-cultures, circumventing the methane generation. Acetate was the primary product but other products including ethanol, butyrate were also produced. Establishment of active biocathode at the graphite felt cathode was achieved under long-term operation which led to the acetate accumulation up to 7-10 g L-1 at -1 V/Ag/AgCl cathode potential. CO2 reduction in MES requires continuous availability of CO2 and low cathode potential to ensure the supply of reducing equivalents/hydrogen. Use of gas diffusion biocathode doubled the CO2 mass-transfer rate which enhanced the production rates, reaching. Furthermore, a sustainable technology for manufacturing biochemicals/biofuels was demonstrated in this thesis by integrating the product separation in MES. The electricity-driven production of chemicals/biofuels from CO2/waste products and subsequent product recovery studies prospect an integration of microbial electrosynthesis with biorefineries for the up-scaling of both technologies.
Targets and tools for optimizing lignocellulosic biomass quality of miscanthus
Weijde, R.T. van der - \ 2016
Wageningen University. Promotor(en): Richard Visser, co-promotor(en): Luisa Trindade; Oene Dolstra. - Wageningen : Wageningen University - ISBN 9789462578388 - 231
miscanthus - bioethanol - biomass - biofuels - lignocellulose - fuel crops - plant breeding - cell walls - cell wall components - genetic diversity - genetic variation - biomass conversion - biobased economy - miscanthus - bioethanol - biomassa - biobrandstoffen - lignocellulose - brandstofgewassen - plantenveredeling - celwanden - celwandstoffen - genetische diversiteit - genetische variatie - biomassaconversie - biobased economy
Miscanthus is a perennial energy grass characterized by a high productivity and resource-use efficiency, making it an ideal biomass feedstock for the production of cellulosic biofuels and a wide range of other biobased value-chains. However, the large-scale commercialization of converting biomass into cellulosic biofuel is hindered by our inability to efficiently deconstruct the plant cell wall. The plant cell wall is a complex and dynamic structure and its components are extensively cross-linked into an unyielding matrix. The production of biofuel depends on the extraction, hydrolysis and fermentation of cell wall polysaccharides, which currently requires energetically and chemically intensive processing operations that negatively affect the economic viability and sustainability of the industry. To address this challenge it is envisioned that the bioenergy feedstocks can be compositionally tailored to increase the accessibility and extractability of cell wall polysaccharides, which would allow a more efficient conversion of biomass into biofuel under milder processing conditions.
Extensive phenotypic and genetic diversity in cell wall composition and conversion efficiency was observed in different miscanthus species, including M. sinensis, M. sacchariflorus and interspecific hybrids between these two species. In multiple experiments a twofold increase in the release of fermentable sugars was observed in 'high quality' accessions compared to 'low quality' accessions. The exhaustive characterization of eight highly diverse M. sinensis genotypes revealed novel and distinct breeding targets for different bioenergy conversion routes. The key traits that contributed favourably to the conversion efficiency of biomass into biofuel were a high content of hemicellulosic polysaccharides, extensive cross-linking of hemicellulosic polysaccharides (revealed by a high content of trans-ferulic acids and a high ratio of arabinose-to-xylose), a low lignin content and extensive incorporation of para-coumaric acid into the lignin polymer.
Lignin is widely recognized as one of the key factors conveying recalcitrance against enzymatic deconstruction of the cell wall. The incorporation of para-coumaric acid into the lignin polymer is hypothesized to make lignin more easily degradable during alkaline pretreatment, one of the most widely applied processing methods that is used to pretreat biomass prior to enzymatic hydrolysis. Previous studies have shown that reducing lignin content is often implicated in reduced resistance of plants to lodging. We hypothesize that extensively cross-linked hemicellulosic polysaccharides may fulfil a similar function in supporting cell wall structural rigidity and increasing the content of hemicellulosic polysaccharides may be a way to reduce lignin content without adversely affecting cell wall rigidity. This strategy can be used to improve biomass quality for biobased applications, as hemicellulosic polysaccharides are more easily degradable during industrial processing than lignin. Furthermore, hemicellulosic polysaccharides adhere to cellulose, which negatively affects the level of cellulose crystallinity. Crystalline cellulose is harder to degrade than its more amorphous form. Therefore the reduction of cellulose crystallinity is another mechanism through which increasing the content of hemicellulosic polysaccharides positively contributes to cell wall degradability. These results provided new insights into the traits that may be targeted to improve the quality of lignocellulose feedstocks.
However, evaluation of complex biochemical traits for selection purposes is hindered by the fact that their accurate quantification is a costly, lengthy and laborious procedure. To overcome these limitations an accurate and high-throughput method was developed based on near-infrared spectroscopy. Through extensive calibration we developed accurate prediction models for a wide range of biomass quality characteristics, which may be readily implemented as a phenotyping tool for selection purposes.
Additionally, progress through breeding may substantially be improved by marker-assisted selection, which will reduce the need for the evaluation of genotype performance in multi-year field trials. To this end, a biparental M. sinensis mapping population of 186 individuals was developed and genotyped using a genotyping-by-sequencing approach. A total of 564 short-sequence markers were used to construct a new M. sinensis genetic map. Cell wall composition and conversion efficiency were observed to be highly heritable and quantitatively inherited properties. This is the first genetic study in miscanthus to map quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for biomass quality properties and is a first step towards the application of marker-assisted selection for biomass quality properties.
Through the evaluation of a diverse set of miscanthus genotypes in multiple locations we demonstrated that in addition to genotypic variation, growing conditions may have a substantial influence on cell wall composition and conversion efficiency. While further research is needed to identify which specific environmental parameters are responsible for the observed effects, these results clearly indicate that the environmental influence on biomass quality needs to be taken into account in order to match genotype, location and end-use of miscanthus as a lignocellulose feedstock. Moreover, significant genotype-by-environment interaction effects were observed for cell wall composition and conversion efficiency, indicating variation in environmental sensitivity across genotypes. Although the magnitude of the genotypic differences was small in comparison to genotype and environmental main effects, this affected the ranking of accession across environments. Stability analysis indicated some stable accessions performed relatively across diverse locations.
In addition to trialing miscanthus in diverse locations, we also evaluated miscanthus biomass quality under drought conditions for a number of reasons: 1) drought stress is linked to a differential expression of cell wall biosynthesis genes, 2) incidence of drought events is increasing due to climate change, 3) irrigation is likely to be uneconomical during the cultivation of miscanthus and 4) miscanthus has many characteristics that make it a crop with a good potential for cultivation on marginal soils, where abiotic stresses such as drought may prevail. Drought stress was shown to result in a large reduction in cell wall and cellulose content and a substantial increase in hemicellulosic polysaccharides and cellulose conversion rates. We hypothesized that the reduction in cellulose content was due to an increase in the production of osmolytes, which are well-known for their role in plant protection against drought. The results indicated that drought stress had a positive effect on the cell wall degradability of miscanthus biomass.
Overall the compendium of knowledge generated within the framework of this thesis provided insights into the variation in biomass quality properties in miscanthus, increased our understanding of the molecular, genetic and environmental factors influencing its conversion efficiency into biofuel and provided tools to exploit these factors to expand the use of miscanthus as a lignocellulose feedstock.
Biofuel production in Vietnam : Greenhouse gas emissions and socioeconomic impacts
Thanh, L. le - \ 2016
Wageningen University. Promotor(en): Ekko van Ierland; Xueqin Zhu. - Wageningen : Wageningen University - ISBN 9789462576186 - 197
biofuels - greenhouse gases - environmental economics - emission - socioeconomics - fuels - natural resources - vietnam - biobrandstoffen - broeikasgassen - milieueconomie - emissie - sociale economie - brandstoffen - natuurlijke hulpbronnen - vietnam
The overall objective of this thesis is to study the energy efficiency, GHG emission savings, and the economic viability of biofuels as energy for transportation and to examine the impacts of biofuel policies on food production, welfare, and emission in Vietnam.
An economic model for offshore cultivation of macroalgae
Dijk, Wim van; Schoot, Jan Rinze van der; Edwards, Maeve ; Queguineur, Benoit ; Champenois, Jennifer ; Mooney, Karen ; Barrento, Sara - \ 2015
Swansea : Swansea University - 21
biobased economy - biomass - biofuels - algae - algae culture - oils - seaweeds - seaweed culture - biobased economy - biomassa - biobrandstoffen - algen - algenteelt - oliën - zeewieren - zeewierenteelt
Algae biomass is considered as a potential non-fossil source of raw materials to produce fuel, feed, chemicals and materials. For this purpose microalgae as well as macroalgae can be used, and in this report we focus on the latter. More than 99% of the world production of aquatic plants is produced in Asia (FAO 2012, Table 1). From the remaining 1% about 4% is cultivated in Europe. Important European countries with commercial seaweed cultivation are Denmark, Ireland and France. Depending on their pigmentation seaweed species are commonly grouped in brown, red and green seaweeds.


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text: Jan van Eck + 6,757 MG October 24, 2019 (edited) 27 minutes ago, DayTrader said: Exactly Rob, that's what the whole story is, the fact she did NOT but just left. Sorry, DT not the case. As the wife of a diplomat she indeed does have D.I. And despite the outraged bleatings here about " manslaughter," so far it is no more than a nasty traffic accident, grotesque to be sure, but still without any criminal or malicious intent. She pulled out of the base and started down the (habitual) right side. I have done that also, pulling onto a dual carriageway in the wrong direction. My passenger screamed out, and I immediately pulled to the shoulder, facing oncoming traffic. Then I reversed on the shoulder and drove it back to the intersection, where I could sort it out. Hey, it happens to Americans who do not remember that the Brits do it different. Still, for the wife, an accident. Without wanting to cast blame on the dead, remember that a motorcycle is highly maneuverable. One driven at that legal speed, 40 km, would have been able to turn onto the shoulder or into the field to avoid a head-on. Or swerve over to the other side. There are options when you face a head-on, if you are at a speed appropriate for the roadway. You cannot assume anything when on a bike. Who knows what lies ahead? Cow on the road? Hey, things happen. Edited October 24, 2019 by Jan van Eck 1 Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites


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Joseph A. Shaw and Paul J. Neiman
Coronas and iridescence occur when light is diffracted by small particles of liquid water or ice in the atmosphere. Diffraction colors are particularly vivid in mountain wave clouds because of the small particles and narrow particle-size distributions. The photographs shown here provide evidence that wave cloud diffraction displays are often created by unusually tiny, quasi-spherical ice particles.
For half of the 20th century, people who wanted the very best color prints, and for whom price was no object, demanded dye transfer prints. By the dawn of the new millennium, however, dye transfer printing had largely vanished from the scene. A professional photographer explains why the dye transfer process dominated the field of quality printing for so many years and describes how a range of economic and technological factors ultimately led to its decline.
Dennis Killinger
Free space optics (FSO) communication involves the use of modulated optical or laser beams to send telecommunication information through the atmosphere. The concept of FSO light communication is not new: in his photophone patent of 1880, Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated use of an intensity-modulated optical beam (sunlight) to transmit telephone signals 200 m through the air to a distant receiver.
Michael Wenyon
How optical scientists work and what they can make has changed profoundly with the information technology revolution of the past 50 years. The software packages developed to aid in the traditional activities of lens and coating design are now several generations old. New programs capable of tackling increasingly sophisticated optical problems are emerging: examples include optimization packages for non-imaging optics in illumination and programs to model the complex physics of multichannel, multiwavelength, fiber-optic telecommunications systems.
Tom Price
Genevieve Gill
Keigo Iizuka
Bob Jopson
Judith Donnelly, Fenna Hanes,Nick Massa and Barbara Washburn
A Miniaturized Ultrasound Detector
Ultrafast X-Ray Spectroscopy Gets SMART
Of Rydberg Blockades and Quantum Repeaters


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Airlines, Travel Shares Take Losses As Bush Considers Aid for Carriers
Nearly all segments of the travel industry took heavy losses in their share prices Monday, fueled by fears about the health of the tourism industry.
Airlines struggled the most, but hotels, airport suppliers and even cruise lines were taken down in the pullback. Consumers are concerned about airline safety, which affects virtually all part of the tourist industry.
To Read the Full Story


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Gambling is the fun and interesting way to win money from your favored team or participant. Nevertheless before you will start your bets, right now there are certain things the fact that you need to think about. A good successful sports playing strategy should be capable to help you around a lot of techniques. https://www.wiki.com/ playing is a field that will demands a lot involving practice together with skill.
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Wow, 10k users is quite a large audience for your app. It sounds exciting to build an app for so many people. To answer your question the Microsoft blog says "When deploying your app to a large number of user, one has to keep in mind the connectors are throttled. PowerApps currently support 600 requests per minute per user and up to 30 concurrent calls per user." https://powerapps.microsoft.com/en-us/blog/performance-considerations-with-powerapps/
A large factor in the performance of your PowerApp will be your choice of datasource. The Common Data Service (CDS) or SQL are best suited to handle a high-load of transactions/concurrent users. Both of these options have a different licensing cost.
You may also want to consider using Azure Blob Storage instead of OneDrive. Azure has the best performance for displaying images in PowerApps. Like most things in the Azure Platform it is pay-per-usage.
Finally, an app having 100 screens gives me concern that you will go over the recommended number of controls in a single app. Per Microsoft: "Don't add more than 500 controls to the same app. PowerApps generates an HTML DOM to render each control. The more controls you add, the more generation time PowerApps needs." In my humble opinion you should consider making multiple apps for ease of maintainability as well as to avoid breaching the controls limit. I like to build several apps with a narrow purpose rather than a single-mega app for everything
I know this post is quite lengthy but I hope you find it helpful
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Reopen responsibly, monitor intelligently, and protect continuously with solutions for a safer work environment.
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We're here for our customers and communities. See our latest updates here.
Servings: Makes 8 bars
Total Time: 30 minutes
These bars are great for breakfast on the go! Experiment with different nuts and dried fruit to make them your own.
Nutrition information per serving: 204 calories; 10 g fat; 1 g saturated fat; 0 mg cholesterol; 74 mg sodium; 24 g carbohydrates; 3 g fiber; 5 g protein
Recipe modified from EatingWellT


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Your body and mind work together all day, so it's no surprise that stress in one area can affect the other. For instance, physical inflammation can impact your mind's ability to focus. On the other hand, mental and emotional stress can impact your muscles and joints. At Spa Dior, we use massage to ease tension and discomfort in both the body and the mind, empowering our clients to face their days with peace and confidence. This is award-winning care you need to experience.
When you choose Spa Dior, you not only enjoy an environment that helps you breathe deep and forget your stresses; you also enjoy the skills of a licensed therapist with at least a decade of experience under her belt. Jan Marie King offers you finely honed intuitive touch, extensive experience, and much-coveted training in the Spontaneous Muscle Release Technique (SMRT). SMRT uses the bones to realign and relax the body. As you can imagine, this technique becomes especially effective when you're dealing with sports injuries. Whether you just need to relax or you're recovering from a sports accident, turn to Spa Dior. Jan will make you feel like yourself again.
Massage provides proven health benefits, giving the body a chance to be refreshed and rejuvenated. However, many people find that massage has a similar effect on the mind. At Spa Dior, we're passionate about improving our clients' lives with natural products and world-class skill. Learn more today.
Body Treatment & Body Scrub & Sauna
Applying a clay mask all over your body then relax inside our sauna blanket that uses infrared heating to tighten skin. Then firming lotion is applied after your shower to help tighten the trouble spots.
$100 | 60min
Swedish Massage
Long, light strokes to relax the body and mind.
$45 | 30 min $75 | 65 min $105 | 90 min
Aromatherapy Massage
Combination of acupressure, sligtly deeper work and aromatherapy to enhance your massage.
$45 | 30 min $70 | 60 min $110 | 90 min
Sports Massage
Specifically working an area for your activity. Such as ;golfing, tennis, running, Etc...
$80 | 60min
Hot Stone Massage
Ease tension, relieve tight muscles and recondition your skin using Basalt Lava Stones and therapeutic massage.
$80 | 60 min $125 | 60 min
Hot & Cold Stone Massage
A very relaxing massage to ease tension, relieve tight muscles and recondition your skin with cold stones to relieve extra tension in neck.
$90 | 60 min $125 | 90 min
Increase your immune system and relax with gentle working of the body's reflexes in your feet.
$45 | 30 min $60 | 60 min
Best of Both Worlds
Start relaxing with foot reflexology to boost your immune system then your therapist will work your upper body with everything she found in your feet.
$115 | 90 Minutes (45 mins Reflexology, 45 mins Upper Back, Neck)
Abdominal Massage
Abdominal massage stimulates the Parasympathetic nervous system' which induces a deep state of relaxation in the brain and therefore a wonderful therapy for anxiety, stress and insomnia. It can also work wonders for chronic migraines, neck stiffness, lower back pain, and chronic fatigue.
$ 300 | 1hr
Prenatal Massage
Prenatal massage focus is on the specialized needs of a mother to be. It can help to reduce back and joint pain along with improving circulation and therefore reduces swelling. Can be done on body pillow or side-lying.
$ 90 | 1hr
Rocking and Rolling Massage
Full body massage that allows the body to relax into an alpha state, feel stretched and mentally unplugged. Feel energized and relaxed when you leave.
$ 90 | 1hr


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The term 'transmission' defines infectious disease. Respiratory viruses such as influenza are airborne; diseases such as HIV and hepatitis are transmitted through direct, usually sexual, exchange of bodily fluids; water-borne diseases such as cholera can survive in the environment; and vector-borne pathogens have evolved to use other organisms, especially blood-sucking insects and mites, to travel from one host to another. 'Transmission at different scales' considers the filters for encounter and compatibility, mathematical modelling of epidemic dynamics, and the key factors of virulence, resistance, and tolerance.
Transmission defines infectious disease. Transmission occurs when someone passes a disease to someone else: technically speaking, when a pathogen that was established in one host organism's body succeeds in moving into another host's body and establishing itself there.
Transmission occurs in a huge variety of ways. For example, in transmission of influenza (a respiratory disease), virus particles produced by the cells in an infected person's lungs would first be coughed or sneezed into the surrounding atmosphere. The infectious particles can survive briefly in the air or on surfaces in the environment, and thus be directly transmitted from person to person with minimal contact. The receiving person could either inhale them directly, or could pick them up by touching a surface shortly after virus-containing droplets landed there. The receiver would then transfer virus particles to their nose by touching their face; from there, the natural movement of air within their nose would move the virus into their respiratory tract. In the respiratory tract, the virus particles would enter vulnerable cells and resume their cycle of spreading from one cell to another within the host's body.
Many viruses, including influenza and diarrhoea-causing viruses such as rotavirus, can survive for days in the environment, p. 12↵building up on particular kinds of objects known as fomites. Have you noticed a sudden increase in male physicians sporting bow ties? This fashion statement is a response to health researchers' identification of standard ties as fomites. Influenza viruses can even survive for several days on banknotes, especially if they are first mixed with 'nasopharyngeal secretions' (snot), although we don't actually know whether this transmission pathway is important in real epidemics.
Pathogens whose infectious particles die almost instantaneously outside the warm, wet environment of the human body often rely on bodily fluids being directly transferred from person to person, as in the case of sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV (see Chapter 4) and gonorrhoea. While sexual contact was the most common form of fluid exchange throughout most of human evolutionary history, these pathogens can also be transmitted by more modern modes of fluid exchange such as blood transfusions or the sharing of syringes by drug users.
Other pathogens that cannot survive in the environment have evolved to use other organisms, especially blood-sucking insects and mites, as vectors to travel from one host to another. This strategy requires considerably more biological machinery than direct transfer between the bodies of two hosts of the same species. In the extreme case of pathogens with complex life cycles such as malaria (see Chapter 6), the pathogen goes through major transformations within the body of the mosquito vector. In fact, from the perspective of a mosquito-inhabiting malaria parasite, a human is just a convenient way to transmit itself to another mosquito.
Other infectious diseases can persist much better outside of the hosts' bodies. Diseases such as cholera (see Chapter 5), typhoid, and Legionnaires' disease can survive in water, making their way from one host to another through drinking water or air conditioning systems. Anthrax—which kills its hosts quickly, p. 13↵reducing the potential for direct transmission from one animal host to another—produces long-lasting spores that survive for years in the environment, infecting grazing animals years later when they ingest spores attached to soil particles. Many fungi, such as certain species of Aspergillus, live primarily as free-living organisms, but can sometimes grow within human hosts if they find themselves there, especially if the host has its immune system weakened by stress or infection with other diseases. (These are called opportunistic infectious diseases, in contrast to the obligate dependence of most pathogens. Opportunistic infections can live in a host if one is available, but do not require a host in order to complete their life cycles.) The amphibian fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Chapter 7) is closely related to non-pathogenic soil-dwelling fungi, but is itself an obligate parasite—as far as we know it can only persist in the environment for a few weeks.
Filters for encounter and compatibility
Following the work of Claude Combes, we can break the process of transmission down into three stages: (1) transfer of infectious particles from inside the original host's body to the environment; (2) transfer of infectious particles through the environment, or through the bodies of intermediary vectors or hosts, to the receiving host; (3) transfer of particles from the environment into parts of the receiving host's body such as the blood, lungs, or liver where the pathogen can reproduce. These three stages collectively comprise the encounter filter.
Having made it into a new host's body, the travelling pathogen must overcome physical, biochemical, and immunological barriers in order to grow in the body of the new host. In other words, even if the pathogen can pass the encounter filter, it must also be biologically compatible with the new host; this final stage is called the compatibility filter. A host could close its compatibility filter by having a disease-resistant genetic mutation, such as the p. 14↵sickle-cell variant of the haemoglobin gene that protects against malaria. Opportunistic fungal infections are usually blocked as long as the host has a properly functioning immune system. In order to block most viral diseases, however, the host's immune system needs to have encountered the pathogen before, either naturally or through vaccination.
Both the encounter and compatibility filters must be open in order for successful transmission to occur. Public health measures can close the encounter filter and are especially important in the early stages of an epidemic. Drugs or vaccines can close the compatibility filter, but they are not always available.
Methods for closing the encounter filter include simple preventive strategies such as quarantine (see Chapter 1). They also include environmental strategies such as improved sanitation to control water-borne disease, or mosquito and tick control to stop vector-borne disease. Another class of strategies tries to convince people to modify their behaviour. These include the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's advice to 'Cover Your Cough' to stop influenza, as well as their suggestions for avoiding mosquito-borne diseases such as West Nile virus: stay indoors at dusk, wear long pants and long-sleeved shirts, and use insect repellent. Though changing people's behaviour is difficult, it is usually the cheapest way to control disease. You don't need to inject or swallow substances that may have harmful side effects, and behavioural changes can even protect against unknown pathogens. Avoiding exchanging bodily fluids with strangers is a good idea, even if they have been screened for all currently known diseases.
Epidemic dynamics
It's easy to understand the encounter and compatibility filters at the individual level: if you can prevent the transfer of infectious particles from the environment into your body, or if you immunize p. 15↵yourself to prevent the infection from taking hold in your body, you can stay safe. In order to understand the effects of these filters at the population level—for example, to decide whether an immunization programme or a quarantine will stop an epidemic—we need mathematical models. Almost as soon as biologists began to understand the mechanics of disease transmission, mathematicians started to develop models to describe the effects of the encounter and compatibility filters at the population level. As early as 1760, Daniel Bernoulli, a member of an eminent Swiss family of mathematicians and scientists, used a mathematical model to describe to what extent smallpox immunization (i.e. closing the compatibility filter for some individuals) could improve public health. Bernoulli concluded that immunization could increase the expected lifespan at birth by 10 per cent, from about twenty-seven to thirty years (the expected lifespan at birth was very short in the 18th century because of the high rate of infant and childhood mortality).
Bernoulli's model only took into account the direct benefits of immunization, thus missing the key insight of herd immunity. Immunization protects the people who are immunized, but it also reduces the prevalence of the disease and thus provides an indirect benefit to non-immunized people. To eradicate disease, you don't need to close the compatibility and encounter filters entirely (i.e. immunize 100 per cent of the people, or prevent transmission 100 per cent of the time); you just need to reduce transmission enough so that each infectious case gives rise to less than one new case. In technical terms, you need to reduce the reproductive number—the average number of new cases generated by a single case—to less than 1. If you succeed, then the disease will die out in the population as a whole, even if a few unlucky people still get infected.
The reproductive number depends on the biology of the disease: how quickly can it produce new infectious particles? How well do they survive in the environment? It also depends on the ecology p. 16↵and behaviour of the host, which controls the encounter filter: how dense is the population, how do hosts interact with each other, and how often do they interact? Finally, it depends on the fraction of the population that remains susceptible to the disease, which declines over the course of an epidemic as individuals first get infected and then recover (typically becoming immune, at least temporarily) or die. To ignore this last complication, epidemiologists focus on the intrinsic reproductive number, R0 (pronounced 'R-zero' or 'R-nought'), which is the number of cases that would be generated by the first case in a new outbreak. R0 is a basic measure of disease biology and community structure; it doesn't depend on how far the epidemic has spread through the population. If you can close the compatibility and encounter filters far enough to reduce the intrinsic reproductive number to less than 1, then you can not only control an epidemic in progress, but prevent the disease from getting started in the first place.
The importance of this kind of average-centred, population-level thinking in disease control was first appreciated by Ronald Ross, who built mathematical models of malaria transmission to prove that malaria could be eradicated without completely eliminating mosquitoes, by reducing mosquito populations below a threshold level—so that on average each infected human led to less than one new human case. (As we will see in Chapter 6, mosquito control and other methods for closing the encounter and compatibility filters have successfully eradicated malaria in some places, but not worldwide.) Ross won the Nobel Prize in 1902 for elucidating the life cycle of malaria, but his biography at the Nobel Foundation's website states that 'perhaps his greatest [contribution] was the development of mathematical models for the study of [malaria] epidemiology'.
Ross's model was one of the first compartmental models, which divide the population into compartments according to their disease status and track the rates at which individuals change p. 17↵from one disease status to another. The most common, simplest compartmental model is called the SIR model because it divides the population up into Susceptible, Infective, and Recovered people. Susceptibles are people who could get infected, but are not currently infected (i.e. their compatibility filter is open); infectives have the disease and can transmit it (i.e. they are infectious as well as infected); recovered people have had the disease and are at least temporarily immune.
The original compartmental models spawned many variations: for example, SIS models represent diseases such as gonorrhoea where individuals go straight back into the susceptible compartment once they have been cured of disease (say by taking antibiotics), because there is no effective immunity. Dozens of books and thousands of scientific papers have been written about compartmental models. Although the original versions were very simple, researchers have since added all kinds of complexity, accounting for the effects of genetics, age, and nutrition on the compatibility filter, and constructing various representations of social and spatial networks to model the encounter filter. Compartmental models also form the basic structure of huge computer models that track the behaviour and infection status of every individual in the US population in order to understand the spatial spread of influenza epidemics.
While realism and faithfulness to the biological facts of a given disease are important, compartmental models have remained the workhorse of epidemiological modelling because, even in their simpler forms, they capture most of the important characteristics of the spread of disease through a population. Especially when we are ignorant of important information about a disease—a situation painfully familiar to epidemiologists—an oversimplified model can be more useful than an overcomplicated one, as long as we interpret its conclusions cautiously.
Compartmental models typically assume that everyone in the population starts out equally susceptible to a particular disease p. 18↵(at birth, or in the case of sexually transmitted diseases, once they become sexually active). Susceptibles get infected by mixing with infected people in some way—for example, being coughed or sneezed on or exchanging bodily fluids. In general the infection rate increases with the proportion of infected people in the population, but the details vary enormously among models. After an infectious period during which they spread disease, infected people recover; they move into the recovered compartment and gain effective immunity to the disease. As we have seen, a huge number of variations on this model are possible, including subdividing the population by age, sex, or geographic location; allowing people to return to the susceptible class from the recovered class after some time period; or allowing for variation in the rate at which different individuals transmit disease.
Even without going into any of the underlying mathematics, the structure of the SIR model (Figure 1) helps categorize the ways we can control epidemics. The most common control strategy—closing the compatibility filter by immunization or prophylactic drug treatment (i.e. giving people drugs to prevent rather than cure disease)—moves individuals directly from the susceptible to the recovered compartment without passing through the infected compartment on the way. Almost all other epidemic control measures affect the encounter filter in one way or another. For epidemics in wildlife or domestic animals and plants, killing susceptible or infected individuals (culling) removes these individuals from the population entirely, hopefully reducing R0 below 1. Culling is one of the few available strategies, albeit a very controversial one, for controlling the foot and mouth disease virus in cattle. Post-exposure treatment increases the rate at which individuals move into the recovered compartment, importantly shortening their infectious period and reducing the number of susceptibles they can infect. Finally, transmission controls such as quarantines block infection without moving individuals between compartments.
p. 19As well as a conceptual framework for thinking about disease control measures, the SIR model also provides a quantitative framework for calculating exactly how much control is necessary to eradicate a disease, or how much a given level of control will reduce the level of disease in the population. Suppose we can eliminate some fraction of effective contacts, by a control fraction (p), by closing either the compatibility filter (e.g. by vaccination) or the encounter filter (e.g. by providing condoms or clean needles). Then the value of R0 will be reduced by a factor 1 − p; if R0 is initially equal to 4 and we can achieve a control fraction of 0.75 or 75 per cent, then we will reduce R0 to (1 − 0.75) × 4 = 1.
A little bit of algebra shows that in order to reduce R0 to less than 1 we need to increase the control above a critical value of pcrit = 1 − 1/R0 (Figure 2). This tells us immediately why it was much easier to eliminate smallpox (R0 ≈ 6, pcrit ≈ 0.8) than it has been to eliminate measles (R0 ≈ 15, pcrit ≈ 0.95), despite the fact that cheap and effective vaccines are available for both diseases, p. 20↵and why it will be extremely difficult to eradicate malaria, even once we have an effective vaccine: R0 is estimated to be greater than 100 in some areas, so the critical control fraction will be greater than 99 per cent. In fact, the only way to eradicate malaria in high-disease areas will likely be to combine several different strategies (e.g. vaccine and mosquito control), each of which could have (say) 90 per cent effectiveness, so that their combined efficacy could reach the 99 per cent level that might be required.
In principle, if disease control measures can reduce R0 below 1, they will not only terminate any existing epidemic, but will prevent recurrence of the epidemic as long as the control measures are maintained. Eradicating a disease within a given region, such as the UK or Europe, reduces the local burden of infectious disease, but does not eliminate the need for disease control unless public health authorities can somehow be 100 per cent sure that they can prevent the importation of disease from outside the eradication zone. Only if we can eradicate a disease globally, as has so far been p. 21↵done only for smallpox and rinderpest (a lethal cattle disease closely related to measles), can control measures safely be discontinued. This makes eradicating a disease, rather than simply controlling it, an attractive policy option—once the disease is completely gone, any resources that went into managing it can be freed for other disease control efforts, or for other societal goals.
Of course, knowing R0 does not tell us everything about controlling disease—diseases such as influenza (R0 ≈ 2 − 3) and HIV (R0 ≈ 2 − 5) are harder to control than their relatively low R0 values would suggest. Sometimes treatments are unavailable, or too expensive. In other cases, treatment or control measures are only partly effective. With a vaccine that is only 50 per cent effective, comparable to the experimental malaria vaccines currently being tested, and better than the best HIV vaccines available (≈ 30 per cent effective), twice as many people need to be treated (if R0 > 2 it would be impossible to eradicate the disease with this vaccine). Another problem is that infections may be hard to detect, and thus be out of reach of disease control efforts, for either biological or cultural reasons. Biologically, some individuals (carriers) can be infected and spread a disease while showing no symptoms; culturally, many diseases carry a stigma that makes people hide the fact that they are infected. During the ongoing West African Ebola epidemic, one of the major concerns about imposing harsh control measures is that they may simply encourage people exposed to Ebola to hide from authorities.
Compartmental models tell us much more than the level of control necessary to eradicate disease locally or globally. They also give a simple formula for the number of people who will be affected by a disease outbreak in the absence of control, or the size of the susceptible population at equilibrium for a disease that becomes established in the population. Compartmental models have also helped epidemiologists to think about the dynamics of disease—the ways that the infected population changes over time.
p. 22For example, one of the first applications of compartmental models explained that observed multi-year cycles of measles epidemics did not necessarily mean that a new genetic type was invading every few years; rather, disease spread so fast that the susceptible population was exhausted and required several years to build up to the point where it could support another major outbreak. Similarly, mathematicians have pointed out that vaccination campaigns that fail to eradicate a disease allow the number of susceptibles in the population to build up. Even if vaccination coverage stays high, these build-ups may lead to large outbreaks several years after the beginning of the campaign. Without this dynamical insight, the outbreak could easily be interpreted as a sudden change in the effectiveness of the vaccine or the transmissibility of the disease, rather than as a straightforward consequence of a sub-critical level of control.
Within-host disease dynamics
One of the many biological details that compartmental models omit in their quest for simplicity is any description of the way that disease plays out within an individual host. In compartmental models, hosts are either infected or not; we don't keep track of the level of infection within an individual (e.g. the number of virus-infected cells or the density of the virus in the bloodstream), nor of the response of the individual's immune system to the disease.
Standard compartmental models are best for understanding small pathogens (microparasites) such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi; because these types of pathogens tend to build up very quickly within a host, and trigger similar immune responses in most hosts, characterizing hosts as either infected or uninfected is a reasonable simplification. In populations infected with macroparasites—larger parasites such as tapeworms or ticks—the number of parasites per host varies greatly among individuals.
p. 23To account for this variation, mathematicians have had to design more complex models. Within the last decade or so, however, these distinctions have begun to blur as researchers build more elaborate microparasite models that track changes in the numbers of infected particles or cells and the level of activation of the immune system within an individual. For example, a large fraction of HIV transmission occurs within the first month of infection. If we want to understand and predict HIV epidemics, we obviously need to use models that distinguish between recently- and not-so-recently-infected people; we might even want to track the precise level of virus in the blood and other bodily fluids of an infected person.
Nested models, which track both changes in the number of infected people and changes in the number of infected cells within individuals, are mathematically complex—one can imagine the difficulty of keeping track of all of the virus particles within every individual in a population! Somewhat more manageable are within-host models, which focus on the progress of disease within a typical person, ignoring how the disease is spreading among individuals. Where epidemiological models represent the progress of disease in a population, and give insight into the impact and control of disease at the population level, within-host models can help understand how disease works within a single individual.
Despite this difference in scope, however, epidemiological models and within-host models have striking similarities (Figure 3). The compartmental model can easily be adapted for within-host models, especially for parasites such as viruses that must invade host cells in order to reproduce. Instead of assuming that infection builds up quickly and characteristically within individual hosts so that we can practically treat them as either uninfected or infected, we now assume that the level of infection (e.g. the number of virus particles) builds up quickly and characteristically within host cells. The concepts of encounter and compatibility filters are just as useful on the within-host as the within-population levels, p. 24↵describing how infection gets from one cell to another and what prevents or allows infection of a cell by a disease particle.
Within-host models often add a new compartment to keep track of free-floating infectious particles outside of cells, and they often include a separate term for the level of immune defences activated within a host. Within-host models usually assume that the strength of immune defences increases as the number of infected cells increases. If the immune response is rapid enough and strong enough, these models show how the immune system can naturally overwhelm an infection, although not necessarily before the infection has had time to proliferate temporarily and infect another host. Within-host models can also show how drug treatments can slow down disease spread within the host sufficiently for the immune response to eradicate the disease. In viruses such as HIV and the human T-lymphotropic virus that attack immune cells, within-host models show exactly how these diseases pervert the normal immune strategy; the immune system responds to the presence of virus infection by activating more p. 25↵immune cells, which in turn provide more resources for virus growth. This is like finding out that you're trying to put out a fire with gasoline instead of water.
Virulence, resistance, and tolerance
Compartmental models have been used most often for widespread diseases where nearly everyone in the population is equally susceptible, such as measles, polio, or smallpox. Humans do vary in their susceptibility to infection: because they have different genotypes (i.e. complete sets of genetic material), or are better or worse nourished, or are more or less stressed. They also vary in infectiousness, how badly they suffer, and how likely they are to die from the disease. However, for the purposes of epidemiological planning it's often wise to ignore these details, at least initially.
When we turn to thinking about evolution, this variation becomes not just dangerous to ignore, but central to the questions we are asking. In the last few decades, epidemiological modellers have turned from just trying to understand how diseases spread in populations over timescales from days to years, to trying to understand how diseases evolve over timescales from years to thousands of years. What is it about the combination of a particular host, a particular parasite, and a particular environment that allows the parasite to infect a host? What determines whether the host is badly harmed by the infection or only has mild symptoms?
We have to make several important distinctions about the characteristics of parasites. The first is between infectiousness (how easily the parasite can infect the host) and virulence (how severely it affects the host if it succeeds). We often treat infectiousness and virulence as fixed properties of a parasite. Smallpox has much more horrible symptoms than measles, and a much higher chance of killing the host, regardless of the particular genetic makeup of the parasite or of the host it infects. Measles is p. 26↵always more infectious than smallpox, which is more infectious than HIV or Ebola. In principle, however, we can imagine two parasite strains and two kinds of hosts that 'cross over' in their effects, with one parasite having higher virulence on the first host genotype than the second and the other having higher virulence on the second genotype.
Hosts could control the infectivity and virulence of the pathogens attacking them in two ways. If the host is able to close the compatibility filter partially or completely, we say that it resists the parasite. As a result the parasite might not be able to infect the host at all, or it might not be able to build up its population within the host to very high levels, so that the host suffers few ill effects. Alternatively, the host might allow the parasite to infect it (or more precisely it might not invest energy in defending itself), but it could evolve mechanisms so that it was not badly harmed by infection: in this case, we would call the host tolerant rather than resistant.
Tolerance and resistance have similar outcomes at the level of the individual host (the host isn't harmed by the parasite), but very different outcomes at the level of the population. If some individuals are highly susceptible (neither resistant nor tolerant), then the presence of resistant individuals will help them by lowering the overall chances of infection, while tolerant individuals will increase the chance of infection. This is one reason that epidemiologists worry about the introduction of partially effective vaccines. If pathogens evolved to replicate more quickly within the host in order to overcome partial resistance in vaccinated people, they might increase their virulence in non-vaccinated people; if vaccination makes people tolerant rather than resistant to disease, they could still spread infection to unvaccinated people.


text: Beuzeville is a town situated in the Eure département (Haute-Normandie région). The town of Beuzeville is the administrative centre of the canton of Beuzeville and belongs to the district of Bernay. The inhabitants of Beuzeville are called Beuzevillais and their number in the 1999 population census was 3097. The town's surface is 23.3 km². Beuzeville has the following code INSEE: 27065 and is associated with the following postal code: 27210. It is situated at an altitude of about 131 meters.


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