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Monday, February 14, 2011
Redox (shorthand for oxidation-reduction) reactions describe all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. This can be either a simple redox process, such as the oxidation of carbon to yield carbon dioxide (CO2) or the reduction of carbon by hydrogen to yield methane (CH4), or a complex process such as the oxidation of sugar (C6H12O6) in the human body through a series of complex electron transfer processes.
The term comes from the two concepts of reduction and oxidation. It can be explained in simple terms:
- Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
- Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
Though sufficient for many purposes, these descriptions are not precisely correct. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number — the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation number, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number. In practice, the transfer of electrons will always cause a change in oxidation number, but there are many reactions that are classed as "redox" even though no electron transfer occurs (such as those involving covalent bonds).
Non-redox reactions, which do not involve changes in formal charge, are known as metathesis reactions.
Oxidizing and reducing agents
In redox processes the reductant transfers electrons to the oxidant. Thus, in the reaction, the reductant or reducing agent loses electrons and is oxidized, and the oxidant or oxidizing agent gains electrons and is reduced. The pair of an oxidizing and reducing agent that are involved in a particular reaction is called a redox pair.
Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative or oxidizing and are known as oxidizing agents, oxidants, or oxidizers. Put another way, the oxidant removes electrons from another substance, and is thus itself reduced. And, because it "accepts" electrons, it is also called an electron acceptor.
Oxidants are usually chemical elements or substances with elements in high oxidation numbers (e.g., H2O2, MnO−
4, CrO3, Cr2O2−
7, OsO4) or highly electronegative substances/elements that can gain one or two extra electrons by oxidizing an element or substance (O, F, Cl, Br).
Substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive or reducing and are known as reducing agents, reductants, or reducers. That is, the reductant transfers electrons to another substance, and is thus itself oxidized. And, because it "donates" electrons, it is also called an electron donor. Electron donors can also form charge transfer complexes with electron acceptors.
Reductants in chemistry are very diverse. Electropositive elemental metals, such as lithium, sodium, magnesium, iron, zinc, aluminium, carbon, are good reducing agents. These metals donate or give away electrons readily. Hydride transfer reagents, such as NaBH4 and LiAlH4, are widely used in organic chemistry,[1][2] primarily in the reduction of carbonyl compounds to alcohols. Another method of reduction involves the use of hydrogen gas (H2) with a palladium, platinum, or nickel catalyst. These catalytic reductions are used primarily in the reduction of carbon-carbon double or triple bonds.
Examples of redox reactions
A good example is the reaction between hydrogen and fluorine in which hydrogen is being oxidized and fluorine is being reduced:
We can write this overall reaction as two half-reactions:
the oxidation reaction:
- H2 → 2 H+ + 2 e−
and the reduction reaction:
- F2 + 2 e−
Analyzing each half-reaction in isolation can often make the overall chemical process clearer. Because there is no net change in charge during a redox reaction, the number of electrons in excess in the oxidation reaction must equal the number consumed by the reduction reaction (as shown above).
Elements, even in molecular form, always have an oxidation number of zero. In the first half-reaction, hydrogen is oxidized from an oxidation number of zero to an oxidation number of +1. In the second half-reaction, fluorine is reduced from an oxidation number of zero to an oxidation number of −1.
When adding the reactions together the electrons cancel:
H2 → 2 H+ + 2 e− F2 + 2 e− → 2 F− H2 + F2 → 2 H+ + 2 F−
And the ions combine to form hydrogen fluoride:
Displacement reactions
Redox occurs in single displacement reactions or substitution reactions. The redox component of these types of reactions is the change of oxidation state (charge) on certain atoms, not the actual exchange of atoms in the compounds.
For example, in the reaction between iron and copper(II) sulfate solution:
- Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
The ionic equation for this reaction is:
- Fe + Cu2+ → Fe2+ + Cu
As two half-equations, it is seen that the iron is oxidized:
- Fe → Fe2+ + 2 e−
And the copper is reduced:
- Cu2+ + 2 e−
→ Cu
Other examples
- The oxidation of iron(II) to iron(III) by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of an acid:
- Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e−
- H2O2 + 2 e− → 2 OH−
- Overall equation:
- 2 Fe2+ + H2O2 + 2 H+ → 2 Fe3+ + 2 H2O
- The reduction of nitrate to nitrogen in the presence of an acid (denitrification):
- 2 NO3− + 10 e− + 12 H+ → N2 + 6 H2O
- Oxidation of elemental iron to iron(III) oxide by oxygen (commonly known as rusting, which is similar to tarnishing):
- 4 Fe + 3 O2 → 2 Fe2O3
- The combustion of hydrocarbons, such as in an internal combustion engine, which produces water, carbon dioxide, some partially oxidized forms such as carbon monoxide, and heat energy. Complete oxidation of materials containing carbon produces carbon dioxide.
- In organic chemistry, the stepwise oxidation of a hydrocarbon by oxygen produces water and, successively, an alcohol, an aldehyde or a ketone, a carboxylic acid, and then a peroxide.
Balancing redox reactions
Describing the overall electrochemical reaction for a redox process requires a balancing of the component half-reactions for oxidation and reduction. For reactions in aqueous solution, this generally involves adding H+, OH−, H2O, and electrons to compensate for the oxidation changes.
Acidic media
In acidic media, H+ ions and water are added to half reactions to balance the overall reaction.
For example, when manganese(II) reacts with sodium bismuthate:
Unbalanced reaction: Mn2+(aq) + NaBiO3(s) → Bi3+(aq) + MnO4− (aq) Oxidation: 4 H2O(l) + Mn2+(aq) → MnO−
4(aq) + 8 H+(aq) + 5 e−
Reduction: 2 e−
+ 6 H+ + BiO−
3(s) → Bi3+(aq) + 3 H2O(l)
The reaction is balanced by scaling the two half-cell reactions to involve the same number of electrons (multiplying the oxidation reaction by the number of electrons in the reduction step and vice versa):
- 8 H2O(l) + 2 Mn2+(aq) → 2 MnO−
4(aq) + 16 H+(aq) + 10 e−
- 10 e−
+ 30 H+ + 5 BiO−
3(s) → 5 Bi3+(aq) + 15 H2O(l)
Adding these two reactions eliminates the electrons terms and yields the balanced reaction:
- 14 H+(aq) + 2 Mn2+(aq) + 5 NaBiO3(s) → 7 H2O(l) + 2 MnO−
4(aq) + 5 Bi3+(aq) + 5 Na+(aq)
Basic media
In basic media, OH− ions and water are added to half reactions to balance the overall reaction.
For example, in the reaction between potassium permanganate and sodium sulfite:
Unbalanced reaction: KMnO4 + Na2SO3 + H2O → MnO2 + Na2SO4 + KOH Reduction: 3 e−
+ 2 H2O + MnO4− → MnO2 + 4 OH−
Oxidation: 2 OH− + SO32− → SO42− + H2O + 2 e−
Balancing the number of electrons in the two half-cell reactions gives:
- 6 e−
+ 4 H2O + 2 MnO4− → 2 MnO2 + 8 OH−
- 6 OH− + 3 SO32− → 3 SO42− + 3 H2O + 6 e−
Adding these two half-cell reactions together gives the balanced equation:
- 2 KMnO4 + 3 Na2SO3 + H2O → 2 MnO2 + 3 Na2SO4 + 2 KOH
PURPOSEThe purpose of this experiment is to introduce the student to electrochemistry and oxidation-reduction reactions through the construction and operation of a simple galvanic cell.
DESCRIPTIONThis experiment is appropriate for a general or first-year college-prep course. An inexpensive cell is made from materials obtained locally. Students test the cell by connecting it to a 1.5-volt flashlight lamp and observing whether or not the lamp will light. In addition, four or more of these cells can be connected in series to form a battery that can power a small radio or other device that operates on direct current.
TIME REQUIREDTwo to three labs periods.
- Chemicals
- 0.5 M copper(II) sulfate (dissolve 125 g CuSO4·5H2O in distilled or deionized water and dilute to 1.00 liter)*
- 0.5 M sodium sulfate (dissolve 71 grams of Na2SO4 in distilled or deionized water and dilute to 1.00 liter)
- zinc, copper, aluminum, and magnesium strips (approximately 1 cm x 10 cm)*
- Equipment
- 250-mL beaker*
- dialysis tubing*
- hook-up wire or bell wire
- 1.5-volt flashlight lamp with less than 100 milliamp rating
- alligator clamps
- crimping tool
- soldering iron and resin core solder
- clamps(for dialysis tubing)
- sandpaper or steel wool
HAZARDSAvoid contact with solutions. Goggles must be worn throughout experiment.
- Copper sulfate pentahydrate is available as root killer at garden supply stores.
- Aluminum, from aluminum cans, may be used if it is sanded well on both sides. Aluminum gutter nails may also be used.
- Copper tubing or fittings may be used in place of copper strips.
- Zinc can be obtained from old dry cell battery casings. This should be done carefully to avoid contact with caustic chemicals in battery.
- Sausage casings can be used in place of dialysis tubing but diffusion is extremely rapid. Dialysis tubing is readily available in biology labs.
- Baby food jars or other open glass jars may be used instead of beakers.
- Prepare a test lamp by soldering wire test leads to a 1.5-volt flashlight lamp. Attach alligator clips to the ends of the leads.
- Obtain strips of magnesium and copper, each strip should be 2.5 cm longer than the height of the beaker being used. Sand the strips until they are shiny.
- Tie a knot with string or use a non-reactive clamp in one end of dialysis tubing that has been soaked in distilled water. The length of tubing should be long enough so that it overlaps the edge of the beaker by 2.5 cm.
- Fill the dialysis tubing with the prepared copper(II) sulfate solution. Place the copper strip in this piece of dialysis tubing that is now filled with copper(II) sulfate solution and use string or a rubber band to secure the top of the dialysis tubing around the copper. Leave 2.5 cm of copper sticking out of the tubing.
- Fill the beaker with the prepared sodium sulfate solution, place both the dialysis tubing, containing the copper and copper(II) sulfate solution, and the magnesium strip in the beaker. Place the magnesium strip as far away as possible from the dialysis tubing. Secure both the magnesium strip and the copper strip in the dialysis tubing in the beaker by bending them over the edge of the beaker.
- Complete the circuit by attaching one alligator clip to the copper strip and the other to the magnesium strip.
- Observe and record any activity taking place at the metal strips, the solution (especially color changes), and the test lamp.
- Connect several cells in series and operate a small radio or some other direct current device.
- Try making cells with zinc or aluminum in place of the magnesium.
DISPOSALAll solutions may be flushed down the drain with water.
DISCUSSIONThe following discussion applies when copper and magnesium strips are used as the metal strips. If other metals are used, similar explanations can be used.
Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq) " src="file:///F:/galvanic%20experiment_files/rightarrow.htm" align="BOTTOM" border="0" hspace="4"> Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s) + 1.5vThis reaction is an oxidation-reduction reaction in which the magnesium is oxidized by the copper to Mg2+ ions. The result of this reaction is a transfer of electrons which provides the power required to light the flashlight lamp.
Students performing this experiment should be familiar with the following terms: anode, cathode, oxidizing agent, reducing agent, and electromotive series. Students should be presently studying a unit on electrochemistry and oxidation-reduction reactions in order to fully understand the "chemistry" of this experiment.
- The metal strips used in this experiment should have a large surface area to minimize resistance within the cell.
- Use a voltmeter instead of the light bulb to eliminate the need for soldering.
- Aluminum strips may not work unless sanded thoroughly and acid treated with 6.0 M HCl.
- Soldering techniques should be mastered by teacher so that any soldering can be
REFERENCESummerlin, L.R., and Ealy, J.L. Jr, Chemical Demonstrations-A Sourcebook for Teachers, American Chemical Society, Washington D.C, 1985, p. 115. This experiment is adapted from this source.
Here, each of the reactant is taken in a separate container in contact with a rod/sheet of a metallic-conductor (electronic conductor) called an electrode. Electrical contact between the two reactants is established by placing a conducting salt bridge in-between.
Fig: 9.2 - Experimental set up for an indirect redox reaction
The species capable of losing electrons transfers them to the electrode placed in it. This makes the metallic conductor or electrode negatively charged due to the accumulation of electrons. On the other hand, the species capable of gaining electrons accepts them from the metallic conductor (electrode) placed in it. As a result this metallic conductor electrode) gets positively charged due to the deficiency of electrons. When a metallic wire connects the two electrodes, the electrons flow from the negatively charged electrode to the positively charged electrode. Thus, in an indirect redox reaction, electrons flow in a particular direction through an external conducting wire connecting the two electrodes.
This flow of electrons generates electricity, which can be used for doing some useful work.
Thus, in an indirect redox reaction, the decrease in the chemical energy is liberated in the form of electrical energy.
An electrochemical reaction differs from a chemical reaction in the following respects.
|Chemical reaction
|Electrochemical reaction
|Electron transfer from one species to another takes place directly in the same medium.
|Electron transfer from one species to another takes place indirectly through electrodes.
|Energy is liberated in the form of heat, light and sound.
|Energy is liberated in the form electrical energy.
|The chemical reaction is instantaneous proceeding at a finite rate.
|This reaction takes place only on the application of electricity.
|Redox reactions take place in the same medium.
|Redox reaction takes place separately at the Anode and cathode surface.
Electrochemical cell
Spontaneous redox reactions are the metal displacement reactions. Therefore such reactions have been used for producing electricity. This is done by carrying out these reactions in specially designed units called electrochemical cells.An electrochemical cell is a device used to convert chemical energy of an indirect redox reaction into electrical energy. This is also called Voltaic cell or a Galvanic cell. It is set up by dipping two electrodes (conducting rods) into the same or two different electrolytes. No reaction takes place inside the cell until a conducting wire joins the two electrodes.
Fig: 9.3 - An electrochemical cell (a) one electrolyte (b) two electrolytes
A typical metal displacement reaction is the reaction between zinc metal and copper sulphate solution i.e.,
The electrochemical cell based on this reaction is set up as follows.Zinc sulphate solution is taken in a beaker and a zinc rod is dipped in to it. Similarly copper sulphate solution is taken in another beaker and a copper strip is dipped in to it. An inverted U tube containing concentrated solutions of inert electrolytes such as KCl, KNO3 etc., connects the two solutions. The two openings of the U tube are plugged with porous materials like glass wool or cotton. This U tube is called as salt bridge as it acts like a bridge connecting the solutions of the two beakers. In place of salt bridge, one can also use either a paper strip, unglazed porcelain or clay porous pot or asbestos fibre for developing electrical contact between the two half-cells. When a key is inserted to complete the outer circuit, the following observations are made.
- There is a flow of electrical current through the external circuit.
- The zinc rod loses weight, while the copper rod acquires weight.
- The concentration of ZnSO4 solution increases, while that of CuSO4 solution decreases.
- The two solutions in the beakers have electrical neutrality.
The above indications clearly show the overall reaction to be:
Zinc is oxidized to Zn2+ ions and go into the solution during the reaction.
The electrons released at the electrode move towards the other electrode through the outer circuit. These electrons are accepted by Cu2+ ions of CuSO4 solution. Thus the Cu2+ ions are reduced to metallic copper, which get deposited on the copper electrode.
With the onset of the chemical reaction, the zinc plate begins to dissolve and loses weight, electrons get generated and move and finally, the copper plate gains weight. Therefore, this indirect redox reaction is accompanied by the liberation of energy in terms of electric charge, which is the electrical energy. In this way the chemical reaction leads to the production of electrical energy that further helps in doing useful work (deposition of copper metal).
Fig: 9.4 - Electrochemical cell based on redox reaction of zinc and copper sulphate
Salt Bridge and Its Function
A salt bridge is a low resistance device, which establishes an electrical contact between two electrolytes not in direct contact. This is used to overcome the direct liquid-liquid junction that leads to intermixing. The salt bridge consists of a glass U-tube filled with KCl containing Agar-Agar paste, which sets into a gel. The choice of the electrolyte added to the gel depends upon the nature of the electrolytes used in the cell. However these electrolytes are inert for they should not react chemically or undergo any electrochemical reactions with the electrolytes electrically connected with them. Commonly used salts are, KCl, NH4NO3, KNO3, or K2SO4. The KCl-bridge cannot be used when any salt of lead, or silver is used in the cell because lead chloride and silver chloride are insoluble in water.
Functions of a Salt Bridge
- When in a galvanic cell two solutions are kept in separate containers, an electrical contact between the two is needed to complete the circuit. A salt bridge completes the circuit by allowing the migration of anions from one container into the salt bridge and from the salt bridge into the other container.
- The salt bridge prevents the physical transference/diffusion of the electrolytes from one container to the other.
- A salt bridge helps in maintaining the charge balance in the reactions taking place at the two containers by releasing counter ions into the solution. Other wise due to the accumulation of the respective charges in the two containers there will be no flow of electrons and the cell will stop functioning.
- A direct liquid-liquid junction is thermodynamically unstable state. The unequal rates of migration of the cations and anions across a liquid-liquid junction give rise to a potential difference across the junction. This potential difference across the liquid-liquid junction is called liquid junction potential. A salt bridge eliminates a direct contact between the two solutions, and thus minimizes the liquid junction potential.
A Galvanic cell, or Voltaic cell, named after Luigi Galvani, or Alessandro Volta respectively, is an electrochemical cell that derives electrical energy from chemical reactions taking place within the cell. It generally consists of two different metals connected by a salt bridge, or individual half-cells separated by a porous membrane.
Volta was the inventor of the voltaic pile, the first electrical battery. In common usage, the word "battery" has come to include a single Galvanic cell, but a battery properly consists of multiple cells.[1][2]
In 1780, Luigi Galvani discovered that when two different metals (copper and zinc for example) were connected together and then both touched to different parts of a nerve of a frog leg at the same time, they made the leg contract.[3] He called this "animal electricity". The voltaic pile invented by Alessandro Volta in the 1800s is similar to the galvanic cell. These discoveries paved the way for electrical batteries.
A Galvanic cell consists of two half-cells. In its simplest form, each half-cell consists of a metal and a solution of a salt of the metal. The salt solution contains a cation of the metal and an anion to balance the charge on the cation. In essence the half-cell contains the metal in two oxidation states and the chemical reaction in the half-cell is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction, written symbolically in reduction direction as
- Mn+ (oxidized species) + n e− M (reduced species)
In a galvanic cell one metal is able to reduce the cation of the other and, conversely, the other cation can oxidize the first metal. The two half-cells must be physically separated so that the solutions do not mix together. A salt bridge or porous plate is used to separate the two solutions yet keep the respective charges of the solutions from separating, which would stop the chemical reactions.
The number of electrons transferred in both directions must be the same, so the two half-cells are combined to give the whole-cell electrochemical reaction. For two metals A and B:
- An+ + n e− A
- Bm+ + m e− B
- m A + n Bm+ n B + m An+
This is not the whole story as anions must also be transferred from one half-cell to the other. When a metal in one half-cell is oxidized, anions must be transferred into that half-cell to balance the electrical charge of the cation produced. The anions are released from the other half-cell where a cation is reduced to the metallic state. Thus, the salt bridge or porous membrane serves both to keep the solutions apart and to allow the flow of anions in the direction opposite to the flow of electrons in the wire connecting the electrodes.
The voltage of the Galvanic cell is the sum of the voltages of the two half-cells. It is measured by connecting a voltmeter to the two electrodes. The voltmeter has very high resistance, so the current flow is effectively negligible. When a device such as an electric motor is attached to the electrodes, a current flows and redox reactions occur in both half-cells. This will continue until the concentration of the cations that are being reduced goes to zero.
For the Daniell cell, depicted in the figure, the two metals are zinc and copper and the two salts are sulfates of the respective metal. Zinc is the oxidized metal so when a device is connected to the electrodes, the electrochemical reaction is
- Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
The zinc electrode is dissolved and copper is deposited on the copper electrode (as copper ions become reduced to copper metal). By definition, the cathode is the electrode where reduction (gain of electrons) takes place, so the copper electrode is the cathode. The cathode attracts cations, so has a negative charge when current is discharging. In this case, copper is the cathode and zinc the anode.
Galvanic cells are typically used as a source of electrical power. By their nature they produce direct current. For example, a lead-acid battery contains a number of galvanic cells. The two electrodes are effectively lead and lead oxide.
The Weston cell was adopted as an International Standard for voltage in 1911. The anode is a cadmium mercury amalgam, the cathode is made of pure mercury, the electrolyte is a (saturated) solution of cadmium sulfate and the depolarizer is a paste of mercurous sulfate. When the electrolyte solution is saturated the voltage of the cell is very reproducible, hence its use as a standard.
Cell voltage
The standard electrical potential of a cell can be determined by use of a standard potential table for the two half cells involved. The first step is to identify the two metals reacting in the cell. Then one looks up the standard electrode potential, E0, in volts, for each of the two half reactions. The standard potential for the cell is equal to the more positive E0 value minus the more negative E0 value.
For example, in the figure above the solutions are CuSO4 and ZnSO4. Each solution has a corresponding metal strip in it, and a salt bridge or porous disk connecting the two solutions and allowing SO42− ions to flow freely between the copper and zinc solutions. In order to calculate the standard potential one looks up copper and zinc's half reactions and finds:
- Cu2+ + 2 e−
Cu: E0 = +0.34 V
- Zn2+ + 2 e−
Zn: E0 = −0.76 V
Thus the overall reaction is:
- Cu2+ + Zn Cu + Zn2+
The standard potential for the reaction is then +0.34 V − (−0.76 V) = 1.10 V. The polarity of the cell is determined as follows. Zinc metal is more strongly reducing than copper metal as shown by the fact that the standard (reduction) potential for zinc is more negative than that of copper. Thus, zinc metal will lose electrons to copper ions and develop a positive electrical charge. The equilibrium constant, K, for the cell is given by
where F is the Faraday constant, R is the gas constant and T is the temperature in kelvins. For the Daniell cell K is approximately equal to 1.5×1037. Thus, at equilibrium, a few electrons are transferred, enough to cause the electrodes to be charged.[4]
Actual half-cell potentials must be calculated by using the Nernst equation as the solutes are unlikely to be in their standard states,
where Q is the reaction quotient. This simplifies to
where {Mn+} is the activity of the metal ion in solution. The metal electrode is in its standard state so by definition has unit activity. In practice concentration is used in place of activity. The potential of the whole cell is obtained by combining the potentials for the two half-cells, so it depends on the concentrations of both dissolved metal ions.
The value of 2.303R/F is 0.19845×10-3 V/K, so at 25 °C (298.15 K) the half-cell potential will change by 0.05918V / n if the concentration of a metal ion is increased or decreased by a factor of 10.
These calculations are based on the assumption that all chemical reactions are in equilibrium. When a current flows in the circuit, equilibrium conditions are not achieved and the cell potential will usually be reduced by various mechanisms, such as the development of overpotentials.[5] Also, since chemical reactions occur when the cell is producing power, the electrolyte concentrations change and the cell voltage is reduced. A consequence of the temperature dependency of standard potentials is that the voltage produced by a galvanic cell is also temperature dependent.
The electrochemical cell consists of two half cells where one of the half-cell has a higher value of reduction potential as compared to the other. As a result of this potential difference, there is a flow of electrons from the electrode with a lower reduction potential (or higher oxidation potential) to the electrode with higher reduction potential (or lower oxidation potential). The difference between the electrode potentials of the two electrodes in the electrochemical cell is known as electromotive force or cell potential of a cell. The electromotive force is commonly abbreviated as EMF (emf) and is expressed in volts. The emf of a cell may be expressed in terms of the difference in the reduction electrode potential.
EMF = Esubstance reduced - Esubstance oxidized
EMF= ER - EL or EMF= Ecathode - Eanode
where ER and EL represent electrode potential of electrode on right hand side and on the left hand side respectively. It depends upon the nature of the electrodes and the concentration of the solutions in the two half-cells.
Difference between EMF and potential difference
In the mid-1780s, anatomist Luigi Galvani (Bologna, Italy) was studying the effects of atmospheric electrical discharge. One day, in his garden, he fastened brass hooks between the spinal cord of a dissected frog and an iron railing. To his amazement the frog's legs began twitching wildly, not only when lightning flashed, but also when the sky was calm. Galvani interpreted his results in terms of animal electricity (incorrect). Galvani proclaimed that the muscle retained a nerveo-electrical fluid similar to that of an electric eel. While his papers on the subject ignited research among scientists of Europe, the most significant consequence of Galvani's discovery was the concept of Galvanism which refers to the production of electrical current from the contact of two metals in a moist environment. Shortly before he died, Galvani was dismissed from his professorship at the University of Bologna, because he refused to swear allegiance to Napoleon's Republic.
Alessandro Giuseppe Volta (1745-1827)
Volta was born in Como, Italy (near Milan). In 1774, he began his first academic position as principal of the state Gymnasium in Como. In 1777, he was appointed Professor of Physics at the University of Pavia. Here he began to repeat Galvani's famous experiments with decapitated frogs. He observed that Galvani had connected brass hooks between the frog's spinal cord and an iron railing. According to Volta's interpretation, the muscle twitches were induced by current flowing between two dissimilar metals connected by the moist flesh of the frog's leg. This led him to develop the first device which demonstrated chemical production of electric current. In 1799, Volta arranged a vertical pile of metal discs (zinc with copper or silver) and separated them from each other with paperboard discs that had been soaked in saline solution. This stack became known as the voltaic pile and was the first electric battery.
In his pursuit of the current generated by his primitive batteries, Volta developed several new devices. He invented the electrophore, a forerunner of the capacitor; the condensatore, a device that detected weak electrical current; and the straw electrometer, a meteorology tool which measured atmospheric electricity. The term volt, a unit of electrical measurement, is named in his honor. In 1801, Volta was summoned to Paris to demonstrate his discovery before the Academy of Sciences. Napoleon declared his presentation a triumph, awarded him a gold medal and initiated the annual Volta Prize in his honor.
Humphry Davy (1778-1829)
At 19, Davy began studying chemistry after reading papers by Antoine Lavoisier. Within five years he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at The Royal Institution in London. In his first scientific work, Davy investigated the possible therapeutic value of inhaling various gases, using himself as a guinea pig. Since nitric oxide (laughing gas) and carbon monoxide were among the gases studied, it is surprising he survived. Davy utilizes the recently discovered voltaic pile to lay the qualitative foundations of electrochemistry. Davy isolated elemental potassium which was soon followed by sodium, barium, calcium, strontium, and magnesium. Davy later isolated boron and silicon.
Late in 1813, Davy set out on an 18 month tour of Europe accompanied by young Michael Faraday. Though neither then realized it, Davy's star was beginning to set while Faraday's was soon to rise. Faraday was to succeed Davy at The Royal Institution. Some have unkindly suggested that Davy's greatest discovery was Michael Faraday. Strictly as a chemist, Davy was the greater of the two. As a scientist, Faraday was incomparable.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
Although Faraday came from very humble beginnings, left school at the age of 12, and was essentially self-taught, he is acknowledged as one of the greatest of all scientists.Davy was Faraday's mentor in his early years of physics and electrochemistry research. For a time, in fact, Faraday extended and developed the research begun by Davy at the Royal Institution in London, where Faraday began his career in 1813 as Davy's Laboratory Assistant. Most of Faraday's early experiments and published papers bore the stamp of Davy's involvement.
Faraday achieved scientific prominence of his own for the First Law of Electrochemistry, developed in 1834: The chemical power of a current of electricity is in direct proportion to the absolute quantity of electricity which passes. The Second Law of Electrochemistry, also defined by Faraday, states: Electrochemical equivalents coincide, and are the same, with ordinary chemical equivalents. The work that led to these two laws also resulted in many of the modern electrochemical terms such as electrode, electrolyte, and ion.
But Faraday didn't consider himself an electrochemist; he preferred the title of natural philosopher and devoted his life to proving the interconnection of natural forces. His electrochemical research was one outcome of this effort, exploring the connection between the chemical and electrical forces of the voltaic battery.
Johann Wilhelm Ritter (1776-1810)
Ritter was born in Poland and began his career as an apothecary. He went to the University of Jena in 1796 to study science. Ritter made the first dry cell battery in 1802 and storage battery in 1803; While working with silver chloride, Ritter discovered the ultraviolet end of the spectrum. Ritter's most important contribution came in 1798 when he established an explicit connection between galvanism and chemical reactivity. He correlated the electrical effects produced by various metal couples on the muscle with differences in the metals' ease of oxidation. His suggestion that current was due to a chemical interaction between the metals was the first electrochemical explanation of this phenomenon. Fascinated by experiments in electrical excitation of muscle, Ritter performed experiments on his own body with very high voltages. Undoubtedly, these experiments led to his untimely death at the age of 33.
John Frederic Daniell (1790-1845)
Daniell was born in London and was appointed professor of chemistry at King's College, London. Daniell's research into development of constant current cells took place at the same time (late 1830s) that commercial telegraph systems began to appear. Early telegraph messages were brief and traveled short distances. Daniell's copper battery (1836) became the standard for British and American telegraph systems. In 1839, Daniell experimented on the fusion of metals with a 70-cell battery. He produced an electric arc so rich in ultraviolet rays that it resulted in an instant, artificial sunburn. These experiments caused serious injury to Daniell's eyes as well as the eyes of spectators. Ultimately, Daniell showed that the ion of the metal, rather than its oxide, carries an electric charge when a metal-salt solution is electrolyzed.


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Friday's Heroes and Helpers
Published: May. 22, 2020 at 4:59 AM CDT
Today, we want to thank Savannah Lee. Savannah is a nurse. Her nomination said..." she is one of the best nurses I know. she has such a kind heart and caring attitude. She is constantly picking up extra shifts and extra hours to help her coworkers out. She has worked so hard to care for her patients... even with a broken foot! "
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Does it cost anything to add the CBS All Access channel to my Roku Streaming Player?
No. You can browse and watch clips for free. However, in order to view premium content on the CBS All Access channel, you will need to subscribe to the service, which is $5.99 per month (plus any applicable tax) for the Limited Commercials plan, and $9.99/month for Commercial Free*.
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Example Of Brief Lesson Plan, Easy Then A Detailed In Mapeh Sample Stimulant Hallucinogen, Lifestylistadvisory.Info - magnificence! Inside the photos that i confirmed to you what do you observe? - Sir inside the images you have shown to us i observed that they are the gamers of the uaap girls volleyball crew. Felle cainglet. - Excellent! What else elegance? Michelle gumabao the los angeles salle volleyball girls - what else elegance? - Sir the tres marias of the ateneo volleyball ladies group. And gretchen ho. Valdez. - Aside from the uaap volleyball team what else? - Sir i saw within the pix the 2012 team captain of the ateneo blue eagles volleyball ladies. Felle cainglet. .
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what else? Sir.- In officiating the sport best the primary and second referee may additionally blow the whistle at some point of the suit. In the course of the match. The primary referee is placed on the end of the net. If he note that they may be fallacious. He has legal to overrule the selections of the other officers. - - The primary and 2nd referee gives the alerts on the stop of the set. He has the authority to over all of the officers and the individuals of the group. It consists of out his features seated or standing on a referee's stand. His decision is very last. The first referee gives the signal for the carrier that starts offevolved the rally. . The ball and the alternative system. ?? previous to the in shape the primary referee: inspect the conditions of the gambling area. - - Magnificence what are the functions and obligations of the first referee? - The primary referee direct the healthy from the begin until the cease.
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First, I am a huge fan of the Citezreny's mission and products, but this particular purchase was a let down. The product arrived in a very damaged shipping box. Inside the box there was minimal padding - in fact, the thin blue bag the chair arrived in was tattered and looked re-used, not the formal packaging you would expect/I have seen in the past. There was some damage to the black paint on legs, no directions on how to assemble the chair (which was not straightforward), and the metal took some bending and many tries to actually fit together. Once assembled, it is functional, but not perfect. The leather portion is lovely.
Hi Megan, Thanks so much for sharing your feedback on the Palermo Chair - we truly appreciate it. We work closely with our artisan partners in Argentina to ensure that these chairs showcase the world's best leather and finest craftsmanship, and we're so sorry to hear that the construction and packaging fell short of the mark. We want to be sure you're happy with your purchase, so our client experience team has reached out to discuss next steps. Thanks so much for your support of The Citizenry and our mission - it's because of customers like you that we're able to produce a sustainable income for artisan partners around the world. Best, - The Citizenry Team
The product is great and is exactly what I was looking for in color and quality. The chair arrived without assembly instructions but I figured it out. The ends of the shipping box were open so better packaging for shipment is needed.
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Technical Director
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I'm in the middle of reading Stephen King's On Writing at the moment and his perspective on writing with a writer's toolbox intrigued me greatly. For those who haven't read it, he claims that every writer needs a (metaphorical) toolbox at their disposal anytime they write. Having it close at hand whenever one might need it is important as a serious writer because you never know when you might need to know how to use an Oxford comma or correctly punctuate a heated exchange between two characters. He claims that there should be four levels to your toolbox, the first of which should include knowledge of grammar rules. It is in that vein that I start today's post about dialogue attributes and other rules for punctuating dialogue that I didn't already cover in Part I.
I'm going to start with looking at attributes again, but this time in order to look at when to capitalize the word that follows someone's spoken phrase.
Consider the following example:
"Move over!" said Harriet. "There isn't enough room in the back seat!"
Even though the first part of the sentence spoken aloud ends in an exclamation point (which you will notice is inside of the quotation marks), the attribute still starts with a lowercase s on the word said.
The same rule applies when you end in a question mark instead of an exclamation point:
"Are you coming?" she asked. "The bus is just about to leave."
You will notice in both of these examples that the dialogue attribute ends in a period rather than a comma (see Part I about when to use a comma when the attribute interrupts the spoken line).
The basic rule to keep in mind about capitalization in dialogue attributes is this: Unless your attribute starts with a name ("Go!" Harriett said.) or if your attribute starts the sentence (She said, "Go!"), it should not be capitalized.
The other part of dialogue we haven't discussed yet has to do with paragraphing. How do you know when to start a new paragraph?
The first rule (and probably the one you remember from high school English class) is that whenever there is a new speaker (or a new action by a new speaker), you need a new paragraph, like this:
"Do you think it will rain today?" Harriett asked, gazing out the window of the third-floor hotel room.
Forrest scowled. He wasn't in the mood for rain. Not today.
"I should have brought my rain boots," Harriett said. "I don't want to get my sandals wet."
"Something else has been bothering me," he said, not willing to meet her eye.
We should also pay attention to paragraphing within dialogue when a character speaks for a long time. In that case, the rule is — in this writer's opinion — less intuitive.
If a speaker has a line that spreads across multiple paragraphs, any paragraph that isn't the final one ends without a quotation mark and only a period, exclamation point, or question mark. Then, subsequent paragraphs start without a leading quotation mark. The final quotation mark is placed at the very end of the last paragraph only, like this:
"Look," Harriett said, fidgeting with the hem of her t-shirt, "I know what you're going to say. I'm sorry I've been so distant lately. I've just been worried about the rain and the farm and I know that isn't an excuse. I just…I know that it's been hard for you, too. I'm not discounting that, but I just can't do this right now.
It goes back to when we were in New York and you didn't want to go up to the top of the Statue of Liberty because you were afraid. I just don't think I can be with someone who is scared of heights. It's a deal breaker for me.
Don't try to talk me out of it, either. I've made up my mind and I'm leaving at the end of the week. I was going to wait to tell you, but it was eating me alive. I'm sorry."
If there are any other bits of dialogue and punctuation surrounding it that I haven't addressed, let me know in the comments!
Happy writing!
Sources referenced for this post:
- Hill, B. (2010, December 10). Punctuation in Dialogue. Retrieved May 1, 2018, from http://theeditorsblog.net/2010/12/08/punctuation-in-dialogue/
- Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (2000). The Elements of Style (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.


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3 edition of Mr. White"s speech in the Senate, January 7, 1809 found in the catalog.
Mr. White"s speech in the Senate, January 7, 1809
1809 by Printed at the office of the Federal Republican in Baltimore [Md.] .
Written in English
Edition Notes
|Early American imprints -- no. 19220
|Hillhouse, James, 1754-1832., United States. Congress. Senate
|The Physical Object
|8 p
|ID Numbers
|Open Library
|LC Control Number
Speech of Hon. Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, in the Senate, Febru , All of these speeches were contained in Republican Campaign Documents of A Collection of the Most Important Speeches and Documents Issued by the Republican Association of Washington, During the Presidential Campaign of (Washington, ). Mr. Rogers: It's a half hour every day. Most channels schedule it in the noontime as well as in the evening. WETA here has scheduled it in the late afternoon. Senator Pastore: Could we get a copy of this so that we can see it? Maybe not today, but I'd like to see the program. Mr. Rogers: I'd . 5 John C. Calhoun, Febru In Reply to Mr. Webster, on the Resolutions Respecting the Rights of the States 6 Henry Clay, Janu On the Expunging Resolution 7 John C. Calhoun, February 6, On the Reception of Abolition Petitions 8 Henry Clay, Ma Valedictory to the Senate President of the Senate United States Senate Washington, DC. Dear Mr. President: In accordance. with the requirements of 38 U.S.C. , we are pleased to submit the joint Annual Report for Flscal Year regarding the actlviUes and accompllshments of the Department of Veterans Affairs and Department of Defense Joint Executive.
Mr. Smith: [upon reading from the Declaration of Independence] Now, you're not gonna have a country that can make these kind of rules work, if you haven't got men that have learned to tell human rights from a punch in the nose. Reporter: That's good for a headline. Mr. Smith: It's a funny thing about men, you know. They all start life being boys.
Who should control the behavior of minors?
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Ten great years
classical and topographical tour through Greece, during the years 1801, 1805 and 1806.
Includes Mr. Hillhouse's speech, January 7,on Mr. White's motion to postpone Mr. Giles' bill to enforce the Embargo (p. Master microform held by: Readex. Reproduction Notes.
Get this from a library. White's speech, in Senate. January 7, under 1809 book Mr. Giles' bill for enforcing the embargo laws and the amendments to it, sent up by the House of Representatives.
[Samuel White]. QUINCY'S SPEECH IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES OF TH UNITED STATES JANU [(congress)] on *FREE* shipping on qualifying : (congress). January 7 Webster and Hayne's celebrated 1809 book in the United States Senate, on Mr.
Foot's resolution of January, Also Daniel Webster's speech in the 7,on the slavery compromise [Daniel Webster, Robert Young Hayne] on *FREE* January 7 on qualifying offers. This is a reproduction of a book published before This book may have occasional imperfections such as.
Speeches of Hayne and Webster in January 7 United States Senate, on the resolution of Mr. Foote, January, Also, Mr. Webster's celebrated speech on the slavery compromise bill, March 7, by Hayne, Robert Young, ; 1809 book, Daniel, Pages: Full text of "Webster and Hayne's celebrated speeches: in the United States Senate, on Mr.
Foot's resolution of January, Also Daniel Webster's speech in the Senate of the United States, May 1809 book 7,on the slavery compromise" See other formats. Warren Gamaliel Harding (November 2, – August 2, ) was the 29th president of the United States from until his death in A member of the Republican Party, he was one of the most popular U.S.
presidents to that his death, a number of scandals—including Teapot Dome—came to light, as did his extramarital affair with Nan Britton; each eroded his popular or: Myron T.
Herrick. The United States Senate: An Institutional Bibliography, Present 12 ; Find in: Library of Congress, Microfilm Room, Microfilm no. AP Butler, Charles H.
The Treaty-Making Power of the United States. New York: Banks Law Publishing Company, Crandall, Samuel B. Treaties, Their Making and. SEWARD'S SPEECH IN THE SENATE. Able and Important Speech of Mr. Douglas in Reply.
The Contest for Printer Reopened in the House. Reagan, of. Samuel White (December – November 4, ) was an American lawyer and politician from Wilmington, in New Castle January 7, Delaware. He was a member of the Federalist Party, who served as U.S.
Senator from cal party: Federalist. Congressional Speeches on Imperialism by Senator Albert Beveridge (Indiana) and Senator George Hoar (Massachusetts) () One of the great questions occupying the U.S.
public at the turn of the twentieth century was the fate of the Philippines following the U.S. victory in the Spanish-American Size: KB.
Mr. Whites speech in the Senate speech makes me want to vote for 1809 book. Flake for president. I need to do research on his actions as senator, but it would appear he loves the country. That was a. Henry Wilson (born Jeremiah Jones Colbath; Febru – Novem ) was the 18th vice president of the United States (–75) January 7 a senator from Massachusetts (–73).
Before and during the American Civil War, he was a leading Mr. Whites speech in the Senate, and a strong opponent of devoted his energies to the destruction of the "Slave Power" – the faction of slave owners Born: Jeremiah Jones Colbath, Febru.
Speech of Mr. Webster, of Massachusetts [Janu ] Speech of Mr. Hayne, of South Carolina [Janu ] Speech of Mr. Webster, of Massachusetts [January 26 ] NOTES.
Note Wednesday, Febru Note Extracts from Mr. Calhoun's Speech, on Mr. Randolph's motion to strike Mr. Whites speech in the Senate the minimum valuation on. In Januarythe chief congressional correspondent of the New York Times, William S. White, published a book entitled Citadel: The Story of the U.S.
immediate best-seller, Citadel soon became one of the most influential books ever written about the Senate. In publishing this book, William White enjoyed several advantages.
Speech by President Franklin D. Roosevelt Mr. Vice President, Mr. Speaker, members of the Senate and the House of Representatives: Yesterday, December 7, - a date which will live in infamy - the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.
hill makes a speech; criticisms inspired by the senator's course. a long address upon his motion to take up the silver purchase repeal bill -- senator morrill asked what he meant -- repub. - A portrait in sound that documents the reactions of "the man on the street" to war-time conditions in the United States.
The "voices speaking to the president" want to know about conditions after the war including higher prices and loss of jobs. Features recorded voices of men and women of diverse. Apartheid (South African English: / ə ˈ p ɑːr t eɪ d /; Afrikaans: [aˈpartɦɛit], segregation; lit.
"aparthood") was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) from until the early s.
Apartheid was characterised by an authoritarian political culture based on baasskap (or white supremacy), which ensured that. A Senate Republican's words seemed mild. They were really a direct rebuke.
Senate Intelligence Committee Vice Chairman Mark R. Warner (D-Va.), left, and Chairman Richard Burr (R-N.C.). The following is the text of Sen. Jeff Flake's remarks from the floor of the U.S.
Senate on Oct. 24,as prepared for delivery. President, I rise today to address a matter that has been. Obama ended up winning over 95 percent of the black vote — the highest figure for any Democratic candidate — but he received only 43 percent of the white vote.
McCain's 55 percent of the white vote would have been enough to hand him the election back in when whites. Sen. Robert Byrd's closed-door impeachment statement Released into Congressional Record, Febru Mr. BYRD. Chief Justice: I. Sen. Jeff Flake (R-Ariz.) plans to give a speech in the coming days that compares President Trump's public criticism of the news media to similar comments once.
this day in politics. Daniel Webster delivers famous Senate speech, Jan. 26, On this day inhe tells colleagues "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable!". AND THE PRESIDENT PRO TEMPORE OF THE SENATE December 5, Dear Mr.
Speaker: (Dear Mr. President:) I am providing this supplemental consolidated report, prepared by my Administration and consistent with the War Powers Resolution (Public Law ), as part of my efforts to keep the Congress informed about deployments of U.S.
Armed Forces. The following is the text of Sen. Jeff Flake's remarks from the floor of the U.S. Senate on Oct. 24,as prepared for delivery. President, I rise today to address a matter that has been much on my mind, at a moment when it seems that our democracy is more defined by our discord and our dysfunction than it is by our values and our principles.
This was a speech given by a president that stressed America could come to the aid of Middle Eastern countries if they were being threatened.
This speech was made after the Suez Crisis in order to advert the Soviet Union from interfering with the Middle East. It's goal was to stop the spread of communism in Middle Eastern countries. Ma Dear Congress, Mr. President, and the American public, Inthe public learned that the National Security Agency (NSA) had been collecting and analyzing international telegrams of American citizens since the s under secret agreements with all the major telegram companies.
Years later, the NSA instituted. I guess deregulating the market, allowing massive income inequality to happen, doing tax cuts for the rich while cutting social services and raising middle class taxes, and voting for war and outsourcing is not "terrible" but god no a wild card president who puts a mean, destructive face.
Farewell Address to Congress by George H. White Janu Washington, D.C. George H. White had been the only African American member of Congress since reconstruction when he delivered this address. I want to enter a plea for the colored man, the colored woman, the colored boy, and the colored girl of this country.
The next day (26th January, ) Mr. Webster took the floor and delivered the following speech, which has given such great celebrity to the debate.
The circumstances connected with this remarkable effort of parliamentary eloquence are vividly set forth in Mr. Everett's Memoir, prefixed to the first volume of Mr. Webster's Works.].
Vice President, Mr. Speaker, members of the Senate and the House of Representatives: Yesterday, December 7, - a date which will live in infamy - the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.
The United States was at peace with that nation, and, at the solicitation of. STEWART. It was introduced in the Senate January 6, The bill was referred to the Committee on Finance.
I wish to show the action of that committee. It was reported to the Senate June 9,and the report will be found in Senate Ex. Doc. second session of the Fortieth Congress, commencing on page 1 of the document. Mr. Vice President, Mr. Speaker, Members of the Senate, and of the House of Representatives: Yesterday, December 7th, -- a date which will live in infamy -- the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.
from that state from until his death in In this speech before the Senate, he defends white South Carolinians who had murdered a number of black citizens. President, I have not the facts and figures here, but I want the country to get the full view of the Southern side of this question and the justification for anything we Size: 90KB.
Rand Paul gives and epic speech on government spending on the floor of the Senate. February 8th Order your "Russian Bot" shirt from my online store her. Dear Mr. President sound recording | Radio Research Project January or February (Date).
Sound Recording (Form). Contributor: Carlyle, Jack - Randolph, Vance - Trail, Ivy - Library of Congress. Radio Research Project. The Honorable James King, President of the Senate The Honorable Johnnie Byrd, Jr., Speaker of the House Dear Governor, Mr.
President and Mr. Speaker: It has been an honor and privilege to serve the citizens of the state of Florida, Chief Financial Offi cer Tom Gallagher, and the employees of the division, as the Director of.
Sen. Elizabeth Warren, D-Mass., speaks on the floor of the U.S. Senate on Feb. 7, (Screen grab from C-SPAN)() - A liberal advocacy group is already fund-raising off Tuesday's Elizabeth Warren kerfuffle, urging fellow Democrats, "Let's turn this outrage into a fiasco for the GOP."Warren had been speaking on the Senate floor for more than 45 minutes Tuesday night -- and she had.
Buy Speech of Mr. Prentiss, of Mississippi, pdf the defalcations of the government: delivered in the House of Representatives, Decem by S S Prentiss (ISBN: ) from Amazon's Book Store. Everyday low prices and free delivery on eligible orders. Following is the second set of answers from Harold Holzer, the author of download pdf books on Abraham Lincoln and the historian for the coming New-York Historical Society exhibition, "Lincoln and New York.".
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The PD100 ProDoc Scale, by Detecto, is a quality diagnostic tool made for daily use and abuse -- commonly found in clinics and health facilities to get accurate weight and body mass composition measurements with repeated use. It will also support heavier individuals where many traditional scales will not.
The PD100 is a 2 piece remote scale made with a heavy-duty base and can support body weight up to 480 pounds or 220 kilograms. It has four rubberized locking feet that can be height adjusted and will operate on any level floor surface. It has medical-grade accuracy and registers weight through its bold one-inch remote display. The display can wall mounted or set on a elevated surface like a desk with its included extra-long cable. The measurements are given to two-tenths of a pound increment.
The remote display has several features that make storing weight measurements and determining BMI easy. With the intuitive button options, weights can be stored for later recall after the person weighed steps off the device. The weight measurement can be switched from pounds to kilograms. Those weight numbers can also be correlated to BMI percentage with the user punching in a height. The scale is powered by 6 AA batteries (not included) or an optional AC power cable (PD-AC). The PD100 is factory assembled and will work right out of the box.
PD100 ProDoc Scale Features and Benefits
- It measures both a person's weight and BMI percentage.
- The measurement is of medical-grade accuracy.
- The digital weight output is to two-tenths of a pound increment.
- Inputting the height to correlate with the weight, a BMI percentage can be displayed.
- The base is heavy duty and will hold people weighing up to 480 pounds.
- Weights can be stored for later retrieval.
PD100 ProDoc Scale Specifications
- Product Number: PD100
- Manufacturer: Detecto
- Size:
- Width 12.5 Inch
- Depth: 13 Inch
- Height: 3.3 Inch
- Display Options: On/Off, BMI Height/Enter, Lock/Release, Units, Zero, Recall, Store
- Power: 6 AA Batteries; Optional AC Cable
- Detecto ProDoc Digital Professional Doctor Scales Owner Manual.
- Additional Information
Additional Information
Manufacturer Detecto
Shipping & Returns
Shipping Information
Leaves Warehouse: 1-2 business days - More details
Economy Shipping: Guaranteed 7-10 business days
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- Reviews


text: Le vendredi 18 novembre 2011 16:04:02 Alexey Sokolov, vous avez écrit : > Well, the proper way to really use git would be to pull commits from > contributors, instead of forcing them to send exported patches to the > mail list and *commiting* the patches from the mail list... No. git-format-path and git-am are the natural commands to deal with the first hop of patch publishing. Since VLC has only one hop (or zero hops), there is no git-pull. The Linux kernel has typically two/three hops depending on the subsystem. Then of course, git-pull is used from the maintainer trees into the Torvalds tree. VLC does not have the large scale of the Linux kernel, nor does it have a natural and available candidate for the position of benevolant dictator for life maintaining the official tree. -- Rémi Denis-Courmont http://www.remlab.net/ http://fi.linkedin.com/in/remidenis


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Seniority is no joke. It ensures that workers are treated fairly, according to their experience and years of service, and ensures they are fairly compensated.Read more
Hospital Pay Parking
The VDLC is joining those who are calling for the elimination of pay parking at BC hospitals. Pay parking brings relatively minimal funding into the medical system, but creates a barrier to accessing medical care and places unnecessary stress on patients and their loved ones.Read more
The VDLC endorses the #BuildSchoolsRight campaign calling for an update to BC's school design policy, because student success requires the right school facilities.Read more
The VDLC supports the extension of voting rights to permanent residents. At our April 2019 regular meeting we adopted the following recommendation endorsing the #LostVotesYVR campaign which is campaigning to achieve this reform in the City of Vancouver.Read more
May Day - Unite to Strike!
Join the Vancouver May Day Organizing Committee in marking May Day, International Workers Day, and calling for the right to strike for all workers in Canada!Read more
Free Them Now
VDLC President Stephen von Sychowski met recently with representatives of the Free Them Now campaign, and expressed our ongoing solidarity with the workers of Iran.Read more


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State football federations in Brazil will retain autonomy over competitions but those governed by the CBF have been suspended indefinitely
The announcement came in the wake of FIFA's postponement of South American qualifiers for the 2022 World Cup, which were scheduled for March 26 – 31, and affected all national competitions currently in progress and under the CBF's supervision.
A statement on the CBF's official website explained that state football federations would have autonomy over their own competitions but underlined the importance of a coordinated response to the coronavirus pandemic.
"The Brazilian Football Confederation [CBF] decided to suspend, from this Monday, March 16, for an indefinite period, the national competitions under its coordination that are in progress: Copa do Brasil, Brazilian Women's Championships A1 and A2, Championship Brazilian U-17 and Copa do Brasil U-20," the statement said.
"CBF will remain in permanent contact with the Ministry of Health, joining efforts so that the country and the sport overcome the great challenge in relation to the pandemic, hoping that, as soon as possible, we can return to normality."
The statement quoted Caboclo as saying: "We know and assume the responsibility of football in the fight against the expansion of COVID-19 in Brazil."
Brazil follows the lead of most nations around the world in suspending their football competitions in an effort to combat the coronavirus.
Australia however declared on Monday that football in the country will continue with the A-League and W-League to be played behind closed doors.
"The scale of football means that we have a key role to play in maintaining the health and wellbeing of Australians, as well as their families and the wider community," FFA CEO James Johnson said, with Australia's football governing body to review the situation for the upcoming finals series.
"We are doing so by allowing people to play, in line with the current government position but with additional guidance to further improve social distancing at football fields around the country.
"We have been working closely with our stakeholders, government health officials and our own chief medical officer to develop our policies for the whole of the game following the COVID-19 outbreak. The situation is subject to constant change, and further measures may be necessary in the future.
"The decision to play the remainder of the Hyundai A-League 2019-20 season, and the Westfield W-League 2020 Grand Final behind closed doors was made in consultation with the clubs and in accordance with the latest federal government advice."


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