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How Can I Become a Christian School Administrator?
Explore the career requirements for Christian school administrators. Get the facts about education requirements, job duties, employment outlook and salary to determine if this is the right career for you.
What is a Christian School Administrator?
Christian school administrators have much of the same responsibilities as public school administrators. They're in charge of making sure their school meets state education standards, and they manage staffing, organizational operations, and finances. Depending on your specific role as an administrator, you may also work with students in handling behavioral and disciplinary matters, as well as acknowledging high-performing students. The table below lists the general requirements for a career as a Christian school administrator.
|Degree Required
|Master's degree, along with teaching experience
|Education Field of Study
|Education administration, education leadership
|Licensure is required by most states for public school administrators
|Key Skills
|Leadership, interpersonal skills, problem-solving, decision-making
|Job Growth (2018-2028)
|4% growth (for all education administrators in elementary and secondary schools)*
|Median Salary (2018)
|$95,310 (for all education administrators in elementary and secondary schools)*
Source: *U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
Becoming a Christian School Administrator
Because Christian schools are private schools, teachers and administrators are exempt from state licensing requirements. However, private schools often prefer that applicants be licensed and only make exceptions when a candidate has exceptional experience or qualifications. Licensing requirements often vary between states, but most require you to have completed some graduate study and pass an exam.
A master's degree is typically required to work in this profession. You can find master's degrees in education administration in either online or on-campus formats. These programs typically take 2-3 years to complete and culminate in a comprehensive exam or a thesis. Most programs incorporate internships, observation hours or other methods to help you gain professional experience.
Master's degrees in education administration train you in pedagogy, business and leadership. You could learn about educational law, educational leadership, policy development and implementation, reform initiatives and professional learning communities. Opportunities are also available to gain business skills specific to the profession, including public school financing, human resources management, community relations and supervision.
Additionally, schools may prefer applicants who have teaching experience. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), employers look for candidates who demonstrate qualities such as leadership, determination, innovation, confidence and motivation (www.bls.gov). Decision making, team building, efficiency and strong interpersonal skills can also improve your employment chances.
Job Duties
Most Christian school administrators will be expected to see that their school adheres to state standards including enrollment, standardized testing and curriculum requirements. Business duties may involve public relations, accounting, marketing, personnel decisions and budgeting. You may also be in charge of developing and implementing educational and extracurricular programs.
Salary and Career Outlook
The BLS reported that education administrators could expect a 4% growth in employment opportunities from 2018-2028, which is about average in comparison to other careers. In 2018, education administrators earned a median salary of $95,310 annually in elementary and secondary schools.
What Are Some Alternative Related Careers?
With a background in educational administration, you will also be qualified to work as an administrator in a public school system as well. You also may be interested in returning to teaching, which you could do at any level of education, including postsecondary. If you have a desire to work with older students, you may also be invested in becoming an administrator of a postsecondary institution, like a college.


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Grammy-winning rapper Ludacris' wife Eudoxie is letting fans deep into her personal life. The rap veteran's life partner has revealed she suffered a miscarriage.
This week, Eudoxie went to Instagram and shared an emotional post about having surgery following the miscarriage.
View this post on Instagram
Lord, I thank you for the gift of life. This year didn't necessarily start off right for us. I had a miscarriage and needed to have surgery. It was very easy to complain and self pity but I refused to let the enemy win. I stayed faithful and prayed up. I spent hours focusing on the many ways the Lord has blessed me. How could I complain when God has blessed me with the opportunity to already experience motherhood? I'm sharing this with you all to remind you to live in gratitude. When the enemy tries to knock you down, get even closer to your faith. My faith has been tested many times throughout my life but I'm only getting stronger. Life will not always go as planned and keeping a positive and grateful attitude will only bring more and bigger blessings. Thank you God for your favor over my life. Thank you for my beautiful family and friends who have been so supportive. Thank you for another year!! 🙏🏽❤
Back in January 2015, Luda shared a wedding pic alongside Eudoxie.
According to reports, the couple officially tied the knot in late 2014.
According to our sources, Luda popped the question to long time GF Eudoxie during the day … then took her out to dinner at a Georgia restaurant. When they returned home, a wedding dress was draped over a piece of furniture. This was all a surprise to Eudoxie, but she was game so they got married on the spot. A few friends and family members were there to celebrate. (TMZ)
In December 2014, Luda announced their headline-generating engagement.

subset: commoncrawl


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My name is David. I am a husband, father, theology professor, pastoral minister, speaker, and author. I treasure the gift of my Catholic faith. This website is a place where you can learn more about me and my work. You will also find some original reflections on the teachings of St. John Paul II, who has had a profound formative influence on my life and thought. My hope is that they will help you to see how Christ "fully reveals man to man himself and makes his supreme calling clear" (Gaudium et Spes, n. 22) and that "the Gospel of Life is at the heart of Jesus' message" (Evangelium Vitae, n. 1).
To get to know me better, click here: David Hajduk.


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L-Arginine is a conditionally essential basic amino acid involved primarily in urea metabolism and excretion, as well as DNA synthesis and protein production. It is an important precursor of Nitric Oxide (NO) and thus plays a role in the dilation of blood vessels. L-Arginine 500mg is a high-quality dietary supplement that is Non-GMO that will satisfy your needs of conditionally essential amino acids and Nitric Oxide.
Take 2 capsules twice daily as needed. Take between meals or at bedtime with a carbohydrate drink to facilitate absorption.
Even when healthy foods and natural supplements weren't mainstream 50 years ago, NOW's founder Elwood Richard started his own company to meet consumer needs for health foods by offering affordable, high quality natural products. NOW has never wavered from this mission until nowadays, and will never do in future.
By: Islam on 05 April 2020
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|Sydney Libraries
Use this page for access to:
Quicklinks, Course Research guides.
|Course Research Guides
|Library resources specifically selected for your course.
Catalogue, Databases (research, ebooks, ejournals, videos)
|Research Help
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|Borrowing, Facilities, Services, Contact Us, Sydney TAFE Heritage.
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Interior Design
Ecospecifier is a knowledge base of over 6000 eco-products, materials, technologies and resources. The leading global source of sustainable, life-cycle assessed green product information including global and national general products and certified and building rated products. Linking independent information with a powerful search interface, Ecospecifier assists with materials research for homeowners and professionals alike, delivering innovative sustainable product solutions. Ecospecifier promotes all eco products globally and nationally and specialising in categorising products according to rating scheme compliance such as Green Star and BASIX. Ecospecifier helps reduce the time and costs of researching the world best sustainable products.
Below is a video (accessed from You Tube 23/7/2012) which shows you how to search for products in Ecospecifier.
National Construction Code (NCC, BCA and Plumbing Code)
NCC 2019 Free Online Access
You can register for free access to the 2019 edition of the National Construction Code (NCC).
Registering your details will ensure you are kept up-to-date with NCC amendments or changes. By registering you gain immediate access to the NCC 2019 Volumes One, Two, Three and the Guide to the BCA, along with a new stand-alone document that extracts the Performance Requirements of the NCC.
NOTE: Each individual, students and staff, who want to use the NCC need to register to gain access. Free access is from 1st May 2016.
To register via the ABCB use website home page.
The NCC Performance Requirements are the only legal requirements. To find out more, visit the NCC a performance based code web page for further information and guidance material.
Please note, the ABCB is no longer printing hard copy versions of the NCC, instead you will now have the option of printing the complete NCC set or individual volumes from the freely available digital download files provided in A4 format.
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HAAFNER (Haffner), Jacob Godfried. Halle 1755 — 3.9.1809. Dutch (German born) traveller and precursor of Indology. His father, originally from Alsace, was sent by his catholic parents to monastery, but ran away and studied medicine at Halle, where he also married and adopted Lutheran confession. He brought the boy in 1766 to Amsterdam, where they embarked for East Indies. During the stay at Cape Country the father died, and the poor orphaned boy had to earn his living as a seaman in Eastern seas. This way he learnt several Asian languages, in addition to his earlier German, French and Dutch. At the age of 18 he passed the sailor's examen, but tired of sea life took a place at Negapatnam factory and served six years there. He learnt book-keeping and finally served as secretary of Schenneman. Quarreled with his boss and quitted Negapatnam in 1779. Now served at Sadras factory and was used in negotiations with the British, but later became their prisoner of war. He lived in Madras in poverty until in 1781 obtained a place as book-keeper of Antonio de Souza, a rich Portuguese merchant. A year later, on 24.11.1782 escaped from the starving city through Trankebar to Ceylon. Later he came to Calcutta, where Joseph Fowke took him in his service. Now he became acquainted, among others, with Sir William Jones, whom he assisted translating a Malayālam MS.
After twenty years in the East JGH arrived at Amsterdam in 1787. Now he married and began literary work. As a widow he remarried in 1808. After his death his son, Christiaan Matthias Haffner (1791 — 4.1.1849) published his manuscripts.
Publications: articles in Algemeene Vaderl. Letteroefening 1801, 1806, 1807.
– Mijne Lotgevallen op eene reize van Madras, over Tranquebar naar het eiland Ceylon. Amsterdam 1806, 2nd ed. 8+268 p. Amst. 1826; Reize in een Palanquin of lotgevallen op eene reize langs de kusten van Oxira en Coromandel. 1-2. Amst. 1808; Reize te voet door het eiland Ceylon. Amst. 1810, 2nd ed. 8+60+263 p. Amst. 1826, new ed. Haarlem 1852; Lotgevallen en vroegere zeereizen. Amst. 1820; Reize naar Bengalen en terugreize naar Europa. Amst. 1822; several travel books also transl. in German and French.
– Proeve van Indische dichtkunde, volgens den Ramayon, naar het oorspronkelyk Sanskriet. Amsterdam 1820/23.
– edited by his son: Gezammelte Werken. 1-4. Amsterdam 1826-27.
Sources: Heeren, Nieuw Nederlandsch Biographisch Woordenboek 3, Leiden 1914, 516f. ; German and Dutch Wikipedia, with portrait and further references.
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Honey Mustard Dressing
LOVE this dressing..it has vinegar and who doesn't love that
Fill your cart with your favorite products and make your meals healthy and exciting again!
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Founder Mark Sisson mustard all of his strength to create this seriously delicious recipe when he first whipped it up in his kitchen at home! PRIMAL KITCHEN® Honey Mustard Vinaigrette & Marinade is Certified Paleo and Keto Certified, and packed with sweet and savory flavor! Glaze grilled chicken or drizzle over salads with this dressing made with avocado oil, organic stone ground mustard, and organic honey. We skipped refined sugars, gluten, grains, dairy, soy, and canola oil to make this marvelous marinade, swapping in high-quality, real-food ingredients for a tangy taste you'll love.
Avocado Oil, Water, Organic Apple Cider Vinegar, Organic Stone Ground Mustard (Water, Organic Mustard Seeds, Organic Vinegar, Salt, Organic Spices), Organic Honey, Organic Lemon Juice Concentrate, Sea Salt
* Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs.
LOVE this dressing..it has vinegar and who doesn't love that
If you are looking for a great summer dressing, this is the one! Right amount of calories, clean ingredients, and excellent taste!
I highly recommend!
This is our new favorite marinade for chicken! It's so good, we like to add a little more mustard to the marinade so it had a really good mustard flavor! Haven't tried it yet but I bet it would be an amazing salad dressing too.
This has been my favorite dressing for quite a while now! If you like honey mustard but not sweet. This is the best choice!
Our dressings have a best by date printed on the bottle. Please refrigerate after opening and use within 60 days for best quality.
Our dressings are manufactured in a shared facility and on a shared line with other products that contain the 8 major allergens. They have an allergen control program and specific cleaning protocols to avoid allergen residues.
If for any reason you are not completely satisfied with any of our products or have a less than satisfactory experience, please contact our customer service specialists within 30 days of the receipt of your order.
The vinegar is derived from non-grain sources.
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Ethereum price is currently consolidating above the 0.0308BTC support against bitcoin. ETH/BTC could climb higher once buyers push the price above 0.0324BTC.
Important points
- Ethereum price is finding a decent support near the 0.0308BTC level.
- ETH/BTC is facing two important bearish trend lines with resistance at 0.0318BTC and 0.0324BTC on the 4-hours chart.
- ETH price must break the 0.0324BTC resistance to start a solid recovery in the near term.
Ethereum price analysis (ETH/BTC)
After trading as low as 0.0303BTC, Ethereum price recovered a few points versus bitcoin. However, ETH to BTC failed to gain momentum above the 0.0320BTC level and later started a consolidating in a range.
The 4-hours chart of ETH/BTC indicates that the recent swing low was at 0.0309BTC before the price started trading in the range below the 50 simple moving average (4-hours).
On the upside, an initial resistance is near 0.0315BTC level and the 50 simple moving average (4-hours). The next resistance is the 23.6% Fibonacci retracement level of the recent slide from the 0.0344BTC high to 0.0309BTC low.
More importantly, there are two important bearish trend lines formed with resistance at 0.0318BTC and 0.0324BTC on the same chart. The second trend line is significant near the 0.0324BTC level. A successful break above the second trend line and the 0.0325BTC level could open the doors for more gains.
The next hurdle for buyers could be 0.0327BTC and the 50% Fibonacci retracement level of the recent slide from the 0.0344BTC high to 0.0309BTC low. The final target for buyers in the mentioned case may be near the 0.0345BTC level.
On the other hand, the 0.0309BTC low is a strong support, below which there is a risk of a fresh decline towards the 0.303BTC low. The main support is near the 0.0300BTC level. If sellers push the price below 0.0300BTC, there could be a sharp slide towards 0.0280BTC.
Overall, as long as Ethereum price is above the 0.0309BTC support, there are high chances of an upside break above the 0.0315BTC and 0.0324BTC resistance levels in the near term.
Disclaimer The views, opinions, positions or strategies expressed by the authors and those providing comments are theirs alone, and do not necessarily reflect the views, opinions, positions or strategies of CoinGape. Do your market research before investing in cryptocurrencies. The author or publication does not hold any responsibility for your personal financial loss.


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This blog post has been circling my little online world (via facebook, mostly) for about a week now, and I just love it! It is so very true. So powerfully simple. And so important (I think) for mom's and dad's to read and understand and want to do for their children. Because making your kids happy is easy... teaching them to be content is not. But it is like the parable about the fish- Give a man a fish, and you feed him for a day. Teach a man to fish, and you feed him for a lifetime. The hubs and I will not always be around to give Ava what she needs, give her guidance and direction, but God will. And teaching her to seek Him and His will is and should always be and our #1 goal as parents. And that is tough...because as adults, as parents, and as Christians, it isn't always easy to follow His will ourselves. But if we are unwilling to do it ourselves, how can we teach it to our children and expect them to seek Him first. After all, "monkey see, monkey do" and "actions speak louder..." You get the point! :)
Saturday, March 26, 2011
What Parents are REALLY for....
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Bulldogs' Lara chases history once more at state meet
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Plainview cross country runner Sergio Lara will have one final chance to chase history when he competes at the UIL State Cross Country Championships at Old Settler's Park in Round Rock Saturday.
The Bulldog senior will run in the Class 5A race, which is scheduled to begin at 9:05 a.m.
This will be Lara's fourth consecutive trip to the state meet. He is bidding to become the first Plainview boys' cross country runner ever to earn a medal. To do that, he'll have to finish in the top 10.
Lara said he's feeling confident and healthy as he embarks on his final state cross country meet in high school.
"I'm pretty confident, resting whenever I have rest, and doing work, whatever Coach (Teena Bennett) tells me to," Lara said. "I'm healthy, no injuries or anything. I'm ready to race."
Lara had high expectations last year. He finished 56th as a freshman, but improved to 25th, which earned all-state honors, as a sophomore. A top-10 finish was the goal. But Lara got caught up in the pack at the state meet, and was hampered by a slight injury heading into the race and finished 33rd.
"Last year at regionals they had two false starts and I overstretched my quad, so that kind of hurt," Lara said.
Bennett said Lara's workouts have been strong the past week as he's prepared for the state meet. The senior has always been a fast starter and a strong finisher. They've been concentrating on an approximately three-quarter mile stretch in the middle of the three-mile race.
"We've cut down on mileage a little bit," Bennett said. "We've still pushed hard sprint days and we've still given him rest days. We've been working on the main areas where he needs to improve to have a better chance of earning a medal at state. We've been looking at a particular area of the race – the last 600 meters of the second mile and the first 600 meters of the third mile. That seems to be the area where we lose on our mileage time."
Bennett said the emphasis on that latter portion of the race won't change Lara's strategy at the start.
"We've been working on that, maintaining our pace and not letting that area slow us down to where we're having to play catch-up," Bennett said. "He's not going to change anything on his start. He knows who he needs to look for at state and that's who he's supposed to get out and stay with."
The three runners Lara will be seeking to stay with are all familiar to him. They finished 1-2-3 in the Region I-4A meet ahead of the Plainview senior, who finished fourth. Their times were among the fastest in all four regional meets. In fact, Lara's fourth-place time of 15 minutes, 25.27 seconds would have been the fastest in two regions.
Graydon Morris of Aledo won the regional race in 14:40.10. Michael Abeyta of El Paso Hanks was the runner-up in 14:44.80. El Paso Irvin's Aaron Gilliam was third in 15:14.40.
"I'm going to try to stick with them," Lara said. "I'm sure I can catch the guy that got third place at regionals. That would put me up in the top four. I need to stick with the top five guys and then by that last 1200 (meters) I need to make my move then and stick up there with them."
Lara said he wants to settle in behind the top runners.
"I want to run it smart, let them get in front, stay right behind, don't let them get too far ahead," he said.
Bennett said Lara's time heading to the state meet is a minute and 15 seconds faster than his time at state last year, which was 16:15.58. The nagging injury affected him in the state race. Earlier in his junior season, Lara ran 15:31 at the state meet course in the McNeil Invitational. A repeat of that time would have been good for sixth place at the UIL meet last season.
Now, Lara has one more race in his high school career to get onto the medal stand.
"I'm going to try my hardest and go all out. This is my last year. I'm going to focus like I've tried to do this whole week and run smart and try not to have an injury," Lara said.


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Forty percent of women with primary cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections during pregnancy infect their fetuses with complications for the baby varying from mild to severe. How CMV crosses the syncytiotrophoblast, the barrier between maternal blood and fetal tissue in the villous placenta, is unknown. Virus may cross by infection of maternal cells that pass through physical breaches in the syncytiotrophoblast or by direct infection of the syncytiotrophoblast, with subsequent transmission to underlying fetal placental cells. In this study, we show that pure (>99.99%), long-term and healthy (>3 weeks) cultures of syncytiotrophoblasts are permissively infected with CMV. Greater than 99% of infectious progeny virus remained cell associated throughout culture periods up to 3 weeks. Infection of term trophoblasts required a higher virus inoculum, was less efficient, and progressed more slowly than parallel infections of placental and human embryonic lung fibroblasts. Three laboratory strains (AD169, Towne, and Davis) and a clinical isolate from a congenitally infected infant all permissively infected trophoblasts, although infection efficiencies varied. The infection of first trimester syncytiotrophoblasts with strain AD169 occurred at higher frequency and progressed more rapidly than infection of term cells but less efficiently and rapidly than infection of fibroblasts. These results show that villous syncytiotrophoblasts can be permissively infected by CMV but that the infection requires high virus titers and proceeds slowly and that progeny virus remains predominantly cell associated.
Cytomegalovirus (CMV), a member of the Herpesviridae family, is endemic and results primarily in subclinical infections in normal healthy individuals (reviewed in reference 32). However, the virus causes severe disease and death in immunocompromised hosts and can be transmitted to the fetus during pregnancy. Excluding rubella epidemics, CMV is the most common congenital infection in the world, occurring in 0.5 to 2.0% of all live births (50). Ten to fifteen percent of infected infants show severe symptoms at birth (14, 41). Thirty to sixty percent of infants born with mild or clinically asymptomatic infections develop neurological deficits of various degrees later in life (41, 55). Approximately 40% of mothers with a primary infection during gestation transmit CMV to their infants, compared to <0.5% transmission during a recurring infection (65). A primary infection in the first trimester of pregnancy may result in more severe fetal consequences than one occurring in the third, but this timing is not associated with an increased risk of transmission (9, 10, 31, 42, 54).
Human CMV replicates in vivo in a variety of human cells including epithelium (56). In vitro it preferentially replicates in human fibroblasts, although low levels of replication occur in other cell types (52). Several patterns of infection occur, dependent on the cell types and virus strains involved (20, 45, 60), including (i) permissive infections during which infectious virus is produced and cytopathic effects are observed, (ii) persistent permissive infections during which virus is produced but cell loss is lower than cell replacement by proliferation, allowing the culture to survive indefinitely, or (iii) abortive infections during which immediate-early (IE) antigen, but not infectious virus, is produced.
Although the pathogenesis of CMV transmission to the fetus during pregnancy is unknown, congenital CMV infections are commonly associated with chronic villitis (38, 47) and infection of the placenta (1, 7, 18, 33, 35, 37, 38, 43, 47, 48, 51). Thus, passage likely occurs through the placenta (5, 6), which may also act as a viral reservoir (22). Since only 40% of pregnant women with primary CMV infections give birth to infected infants (54), an effective fetal barrier, either physical or immunological, must exist. Within the villous placenta lies a physical barrier of fetal cells consisting of continuous, mitotically inactive, multinucleated syncytiotrophoblasts (ST) that are in direct contact with maternal blood (6). In order to reach the fetus in the third trimester of pregnancy, molecules, cells, or organisms must cross the ST and the endothelial cells of fetal blood vessels. Underlying the ST in the first and second trimester are immature, mitotically active, mononuclear cytotrophoblasts (CT) that fuse into the ST (4). Connective tissue containing placental fibroblasts and macrophages can intervene between these CT and fetal blood vessels. Whether virus crosses the ST by direct infection or through sites of damage is not known.
The role of ST in transmission of CMV across the placental barrier is unclear. Results from in vivo studies are difficult to assess because placentas obtained from stillbirths, symptomatic congenitally infected infants at term, or those with chronic villitis at term tend to be preferentially studied (18, 33, 37, 48, 51). Such term placentas, and the trophoblast in particular, rarely display the inclusion bodies characteristic of permissive CMV infections (18, 33, 37, 38, 43, 51). Immunohistochemical analysis of sections from term placentas displaying chronic villitis revealed IE (37, 51) but not early nuclear (37) or late (p150) (51) antigens, suggesting abortive infections (51). In situ hybridization revealed CMV DNA primarily in stromal cells and rarely in the trophoblast of term placentas with chronic villitis (47). Term placentas perfused in vitro and challenged with high titers of a CMV laboratory strain for up to 9.5 h were nonpermissive within this short experimental time frame (36).
In contrast, placentas from first or second trimester abortions contain nuclear inclusions frequently in stromal cells (48) and more rarely in trophoblasts (18), with some expression of pp65 antigen in the trophoblast (61), indicating that a permissive trophoblast infection during the first half of gestation is possible. In vitro infections of first trimester placental explants show permissive infections by both morphological and immunohistochemical criteria (2, 3). In guinea pigs, detection of intranuclear inclusions and expression of CMV antigens in ST at all stages of gestation indicate permissive infections are also possible in this animal model (22). Highly purified term trophoblasts express IE antigens after CMV challenge but do not release virus into culture supernatants unless coinfected with either human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) (59) or human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) (58). These results are compatible with the in vivo findings of infrequent nonpermissive trophoblast infections at term. However, it remains difficult to explain the 40% transmission rate resulting from primary maternal infections or the more frequent indications of permissive infections in first trimester trophoblasts on the basis of such coinfections.
Although apparently straightforward, the development of an effective culture model of ST infection by CMV must address two interdependent problems: fibroblast contamination and long-term culture viability. Placental fibroblasts are likely preferred targets for this virus not only because laboratory strains are passaged in fibroblasts but also because placental fibroblasts, unlike primary villous trophoblasts (66), proliferate in culture. CMV replicates more rapidly in proliferating than quiescent cells (57) and would be predicted to replicate more slowly in trophoblasts than fibroblasts. Permissive infection by CMV also requires viable (healthy) cultures (32). The possibility of slow virus replication dictates that cultures must be viable longer than 2 weeks. However, primary trophoblasts have rarely been cultured for longer than 7 days because of fibroblast overgrowth or loss of viability (15, 16, 29, 65). We have developed culture models of highly purified (>99.99% [28]) term trophoblasts that maintain viability for greater than 3 weeks in culture and have modified this model to obtain highly purified first trimester trophoblasts. We demonstrate using these models that CMV laboratory strains and a clinical isolate permissively infect term and first trimester trophoblasts, but virus replication is slow and infectious virions remain cell associated.
Cells. (i) Isolation and purification of human term villous CT.Placentas were obtained after normal term delivery or elective cesarean section from uncomplicated pregnancies. Villous CT (>99.99% pure) were isolated by trypsin-DNase digestion of minced chorionic tissue and immunoabsorption onto immunoglobulin (Ig)-coated glass bead columns (Biotex, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada) as previously described (28, 65), using anti-CD9, anti-major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I (W6/32; Harlan Sera-Lab, Crawley Down, Sussex, England), and anti-MHC class II (clone 7H3) antibodies for immunoelimination. The purified cells were routinely cryopreserved and after thawing were washed twice in Iscove's modified Dulbecco's medium (IMDM; GIBCO, Grand Island, N.Y.) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS; GIBCO). The cells were seeded at 105 per microwell per 100 μl of 10% FBS (GIBCO) in 96-well tissue culture dishes (Nunc no. 167008; GIBCO) and incubated for 4 h at 37°C in a 5% CO2 humidified atmosphere; the nonadherent cells and debris were removed with prewarmed IMDM, and the cells were replenished with 10% FBS–IMDM and 50 μg of gentamicin per ml. All preparations contained fewer than 10 vimentin-positive cells (fibroblasts) per microwell after the 4-h wash. Syncytialization of cultured CT was induced by treatment with 10 ng of recombinant human epidermal growth factor (EGF; Prepro-Tech, Rocky Hill, N.J.) per ml for 5 days (34) and assessed by immunostaining fixed cells with antidesmoplakin monoclonal antibody (Sigma) to visualize desmosome-containing tight junctions (15) as previously described (65). Cell numbers were estimated as described below.
(ii) Isolation, purification, and culture of human first trimester villous CT.Placental chorionic tissue was separated microscopically from fetal material obtained from elective abortions performed at 10 to 15 weeks of gestation. Chorionic cells were isolated as described previously (65), with the following modifications: 10 ml of tissue was harvested per placenta; and trypsin-DNase digestion was performed at the same concentration for the same number of times as with term placentas, but with 1:1 volumes of tissue to trypsin-DNase at a reduced time of 5 min. Cell purification was carried out on glass bead columns as described above. CT preparations from first trimester placentas used in this study contained fewer than 0.02% vimentin-positive cells. Culture and induction of syncytialization of first trimester villous CT were performed as described for term CT.
(iii) Isolation, purification, and culture of PF.Placental fibroblasts (PF) were isolated from first trimester chorionic cell suspensions prior to antibody treatment and column purification by plating the suspensions in 60- by 15-mm tissue culture dishes for 60 min, followed by removal of nonadherent cells and culture in 10% FBS–IMDM. Adherent cells grown to confluency were lifted by treatment with 0.05% trypsin-EDTA (GIBCO), washed in 10% FBS–IMDM, and further propagated in 100- by 20-mm tissue culture dishes. Confluent cultures were passaged at least five times to ensure >99% purity, as assessed by immunohistochemical staining for vimentin, and cryopreserved in 10% dimethyl sulfoxide in FBS. Before experimental use, PF were thawed and cultured in 10% FBS–IMDM and 50 μg of gentamicin per ml until confluent and passaged at least once.
(iv) HEL cells.Human embryonic lung fibroblasts (HEL cells) were propagated in Eagle's minimum essential medium (MEM) supplemented with 10% FBS and 50 μg of gentamicin per ml. For CMV infection assays, the cells were plated in 10% FBS–MEM at a concentration 4 × 104 per 100 μl in 96-well tissue culture plates. All experiments were carried out on confluent cultures with changes of media every 96 h.
(v) Determination of cell numbers in culture.The number of trophoblasts and fibroblasts in microwells was determined from the DNA content of parallel cultures based on a DNA content for a human diploid nucleus of 6 pg. Calculations of fibroblast and CT numbers were based on one nuclei per cell, while ST numbers were based on an average of four per cell (28, 63). After virus challenge and washing (see below), the microwell cultures of trophoblasts contained from 4,000 to 16,000 cells per well, depending on the adherence properties of individual preparations, the time of culture (most preparations lose 20 to 50% of their DNA content over a 1-month culture period), and the multinucleated state of the culture.
CMV. (i) Virus stock preparations.CMV laboratory strains AD169, Davis, and Towne and a clinical isolate from a congenitally infected infant were passaged on confluent HEL cells in 2% FBS–MEM, and infectious virus was recovered by freezing and thawing the cultures three times. The lysate was passed through 0.45-μm-pore-size filters (MILLEX-HV; Millipore Products Division, Bedford, Mass.) and stored in liquid nitrogen until use. All CMV strains were passaged <12 times, and the clinical isolate was passaged four times. Viral titers were determined by inoculating confluent HEL cultures in 96-well plates with dilutions of each virus in serum-free MEM. The plates were then centrifuged for 45 min at 2,500 rpm in a GCL-2 Sorvall centrifuge, the wells were washed five times with warm MEM, and the plates were incubated for a further 18 to 20 h in fresh 2% FBS–MEM. The cultures were fixed in ice-cold methanol and immunohistochemically stained for CMV IE antigen as described below. Each IE-positive nucleus is equated to an infection focus (IF) of infectious virus, and the titer of virus was determined within a linear dose-response concentration range as IF/milliliter.
(ii) Infection protocols.Infection with each strain or isolate at various multiplicities of infection (MOIs) was carried out in serum-free IMDM for 2 h at 37°C in 5% CO2. MOI is the ratio of IF of inoculating virus to the total number of cells in culture to be infected. The cell number was determined at all times of culture as described above. The cultures were infected as follows: EGF-treated (+EGF) term trophoblasts at day 5 of culture, non-EGF-treated (-EGF) term trophoblasts at day 1 of culture, +EGF first trimester trophoblasts at day 3 of culture, and PF and HEL cells at confluency. The cells were then washed five times with serum-free IMDM and incubated in fresh 2% FBS–IMDM with or without EGF for various times postinfection, and the media were changed every 96 h. HEL infection was carried out as described above in serum-free MEM, followed by incubation in 2% FBS–MEM. All IE-positive nuclei strongly stained and were scored (e.g., in Fig. 1A there are eight IE-positive nuclei in the field); however, only strongly pp65-positive nuclei were scored since these were often surrounded by nuclei that stained more weakly for pp65 antigen (e.g., in Fig. 1B there are three pp65-positive nuclei in the field). All placental preparations were tested for initial or reactivated CMV infection by including uninfected control cultures stained for IE and pp65 antigens in each experiment.
(iii) Determination of infectious virus titers in supernatants or cell lysates.Supernatants were removed from cultures at various times postinfection and frozen at −80°C until assessed for virus titer on HEL cells. Adherent cells were washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and lysed in 100 μl of 2% FBS–IMDM by freezing and thawing three times (lysate). Viral titers in culture supernatants or cell lysates were assayed on HEL cultures as described above, and IF/milliliter of transferred supernatant or cell lysate was determined. Infectious virus found in supernatants were not from residual inoculum since in all cases, none was found 24 h after challenge (data not shown).
Immunohistochemical staining.Infected and uninfected cultures were washed twice with PBS, fixed in ice-cold methanol for 10 min at −20°C, and washed three times with PBS. Endogenous peroxidase activity was neutralized by a 30-min incubation at room temperature with 3% H2O2, followed by a 1-h incubation at room temperature in 10% nonimmune goat serum (Zymed/Intermedico, Markham, Calif.) to block nonspecific sites. Primary antibodies detecting either CMV IE (detecting p72; Specialty Diagnostics, Dupont) or CMV pp65 (detecting pp64/pp65; Biotest, Dreieich, Germany) antigens, and their respective isotype controls, IgG2a (Zymed/Intermedico) and IgG1 (Dako Corporation, Carpinteria, Calif.), were added; the plates were sealed with Parafilm and incubated overnight at 4°C. After thorough washing with PBS, secondary antibody (biotinylated goat anti-mouse IgG) and streptavidin-peroxidase conjugate (streptavidin-biotin system, Histostain-SP kit; Zymed) were added according to the manufacturer's instructions. Following a PBS wash, Ni-diaminobenzidine (DAB) substrate (95 mg of DAB, 1.6 g of NaCl, 0.136 g of imidazole, 2 g of NiSO4; made up to 200 ml with 0.1 M acetate buffer [pH 6.0] [21]) was added for 2 to 5 min and yields a dark brown precipitate. The plates were then washed with double-distilled H2O. The frequencies of IE- or pp65-positive nuclei and IF were determined at all time points. The number of nuclei per foci ranged from one in -EGF cultures within a week of infection to as high as 50 for +EGF cultures at 20 days of culture. In some cases, double staining by incubation with a second primary antibody, either desmoplakin (ICN ImmunoBiologicals, Costa Mesa, Calif.) or vimentin (clone V9; Dako), was carried out immediately and the secondary antibody and streptavidin-peroxidase conjugate steps were repeated as described above, using aminoethylcarbazole (AEC) as a substrate, yielding a red precipitate. The cells were counterstained with hematoxylin, and photographs were taken immediately.
Measurement of DNA.The assay was a modification of the method described by Cesarone et al. (11). Cells cultured in 96-well plates were washed twice with PBS, 100 μl of double-distilled H2O was added to each well, and the plates were frozen and thawed three times to lyse the cells. The samples were transferred to 96-well V-bottom plates (Nunc) and mixed with equal volumes of Hoechst dye solution (1 μg of Hoechst 33258 [Sigma Chemical, St. Louis, Mo.] per ml, 10 mM Tris, 1 mM EDTA, 2.1 M NaCl [pH 7.4]), and the fluorescence was measured on an LS-5 luminescence spectrometer (Perkin-Elmer, Norwalk, Conn.), using calf thymus DNA as a standard to calculate the amount of DNA per well in nanograms/milliliter.
Villous trophoblasts from term placentas are infected with cell-free CMV.Primary villous CT cultured with EGF (designated +EGF) form within 4 days a continuous cell layer that is predominantly multinuclear ST-like; Fig. 1), whereas cells cultured without EGF (designated -EGF) form a continuous layer of predominantly mononuclear cells (CT-like) (65). When +EGF cultures were challenged with AD169 and examined for CMV IE or pp65 (early-late) antigens and desmoplakin 12 days after challenge (Fig. 1A and B), both CMV antigens are expressed. Each multinucleated (syncytialized) cell, demarcated by desmoplakin staining, was generally IE positive in all nuclei or none (Fig. 1A). Characteristic cytopathic manifestations of CMV infection such as enlarged cells with nuclear inclusions (24, 27, 44) were also observed in all infected trophoblast cultures (data not shown).
Because trophoblasts do not proliferate in vitro (4, 19), cultures lose 20 to 50% of their DNA content over a 1-month period. Virus challenge of trophoblasts did not increase this loss of DNA either in the presence or in the absence of EGF over a 3-week culture period (two independent experiments with different placental preparations [data not shown]).
To determine the kinetics of infection, +EGF cultures were challenged with strain AD169 and the percentages of IE- and pp65-positive cells were determined at various times after challenge. The numbers of IE- and pp65-positive cells increased continuously throughout the 21-day culture period (Fig. 2). However, the increase of IE-positive cells was observed earlier, and IE-positive cells were consistently more numerous than pp65-positive cells. Figure2 represents one of seven independent experiments carried out on five different placental trophoblast preparations. Between 18 and 21 days after challenge at an MOI of 1.0, the maximum fraction of IE-positive cells never exceeded 15%, and <3% were positive for pp65 antigen. Visual inspection of +EGF cultures at various times after virus challenge showed IE-positive nuclei to be clustered in foci which were generally equivalent to syncytialized cells until late in infection (>day 8), when some foci consisted of multiple syncytialized cells (data not shown).
The infected cells in culture are predominantly trophoblasts.Placental fibroblasts, common contaminants of primary trophoblast cultures (29), can be infected with strain AD169 as efficiently as HEL cells (data not shown). It was therefore possible that the rather low frequency of infection observed in term trophoblast cultures could be attributed to contaminating fibroblasts. Fibroblasts, as well as other possible contaminating villous stromal cells such as macrophages and endothelial cells, can be immunohistochemically distinguished from trophoblasts by the former cells' expression of the intermediate filament protein vimentin. Analysis of the seven preparations of placental trophoblasts used in this study for vimentin-positive cells between days 10 and 12 after infection showed 1.14 ± 1.17 (mean ± standard deviation [SD]) positive cells in +EGF microwell cultures and 1.08 ± 1.56 positive cells in -EGF cultures. Since there are between 4,000 and 16,000 cells in these cultures (see Materials and Methods), the average contamination frequency is between 0.03 and 0.007%. In an experiment using only one of these preparations (chosen for its unusually high number of vimentin-positive cells in the presence of EGF), the number of vimentin-positive cells did not exceed 10 per microwell over a 20-day infection period (Fig. 3A). Thus, it is unlikely that a significant fraction of the 15% IE-positive cells or the 2 to 3% pp65-positive nuclei observed 3 weeks after virus challenge were fibroblasts. Double staining of the cultures for IE antigen and vimentin 12 days postinfection confirmed this prediction: greater than 99% of IE-positive cells (in this experiment, 495 of 496) were vimentin negative and thus trophoblasts (Fig. 3B). Interestingly, most of the vimentin-positive cells were not IE positive (e.g., the vimentin-positive cell in Fig. 3B is IE negative).
Trophoblasts are permissively infected, but most progeny virus remains cell associated.A permissive infection of trophoblasts was demonstrated by the presence of infectious progeny virus, titered on HEL cells in culture supernatants (Fig.4 and 5C). However, exact times and extent of virus release into culture supernatants varied between trophoblast preparations, with some (Fig.5D) releasing no detectable virus. Differences in virus release were not due to fibroblast contamination, since experiments in which there was appreciable release (mean of 531 ± 450 IF/ml) between days 8 and 20 after infection had microwells containing 1.03 ± 1.23 vimentin-positive cells, while those with very low release (mean of 1.08 ± 1.48 IF/ml) had 1.66 ± 1.65 vimentin-positive cells per microwell.
Infectious virus produced by trophoblasts is predominantly cell associated.The variability and low titers of infectious virus released from infected trophoblasts (Fig. 5C and D) suggested intracellular accumulation of virus, a phenomenon occurring in macrophages (17). Infectious virus was observed in cell lysates, thus associated with cells, at times when none was detected in culture supernatants (Fig. 4, before day 16). In cultures where ratios of cell-associated to released virus could be calculated (those releasing detectable virus), greater than 100-fold more infectious virus was found in lysates than supernatants. This ratio for infected HEL cultures in the same experiment was approximately one (data not shown). In some preparations (Fig. 5B and D), virtually all progeny virus was cell associated over a 24-day culture period.
Susceptibility to CMV infection is independent of trophoblast differentiation state.To determine whether the differentiation state of villous trophoblasts affected their susceptibility to CMV infection, the infection frequencies of trophoblasts from two different placentas cultured with (ST-like) and without (CT-like) EGF were compared (Fig. 5). The differences in infection frequency of +EGF and −EGF cultures during the first 2 weeks after challenge were not large and were not reproducible between trophoblast preparations (Fig. 5A and B). Any divergence between the infection frequencies of +EGF and −EGF cultures corresponded to the appearance of infectious virus in culture supernatants later in culture (day 16 for the preparation represented in Fig. 5A and C), but late release of infectious virus was not reproducible between preparations (Fig. 5D). This finding suggests that the infection progresses laterally within foci until virus is released into culture supernatants. The data also suggest that the differentiation state of the trophoblasts does not have an effect on the initial infection frequency (before progeny virus release).
Trophoblasts isolated from first trimester placentas are permissively infected with CMV.Although in utero transmission to the fetus following primary maternal infection can occur at any point during gestation, infection during the first trimester results in the most severe consequences to the fetus (9, 10, 54). We therefore asked whether villous trophoblasts isolated from first trimester placentas could be permissively infected by CMV and, if so, whether the kinetics and extent of infection differed from term trophoblasts. The levels of expression of CMV IE and pp65 antigens were determined between days 1 to 9 after challenge with strain AD169 at an MOI of 1 (Fig. 6A). Both antigens appeared more rapidly in first trimester (Fig. 6A) than term (Fig. 2) cells, and the fraction of cells infected were higher in first trimester than term trophoblast cultures. First trimester cultures were double stained for vimentin and IE antigen (to detect infected fibroblasts). As noted above for term cells, >99% of IE-positive cells were vimentin negative and thus trophoblasts (data not shown). Infectious virus production also occurred sooner in first trimester (Fig. 6B) than term (Fig. 4 and data not shown) cells. Although the ratio of cell-associated to supernatant virus was only 6 on day 3 of culture, it increased to approximately 1,000 on days 6 and 9 (Fig. 6B). Thus, virus production in first trimester trophoblasts, as with term cells, is cell associated, but more cells are infected and the infection progresses faster.
CMV infects a smaller fraction of trophoblasts than fibroblasts, and trophoblasts require a higher virus challenge.The foregoing CMV infection experiments were carried out at fixed inoculum levels of CMV for each cell type. To compare the initial interaction efficiency of virus with trophoblasts and fibroblasts, the fraction of IE-positive cells was measured 24 h after challenge with various levels of virus, expressed as MOI (allowing for multinucleated cells) for confluent HEL cell and +EGF term and first trimester trophoblast cultures (Fig. 7). The results show that EGF-treated term and first trimester trophoblasts require >100-fold-higher ratios of virus to cells for infection than fibroblasts. Increasing virus challenge increased the fraction of IE-positive fibroblasts at 24 h to 100% at an MOI of 3.5. However, fewer than 20% first trimester trophoblasts were infected at an MOI of 16, and only 6% of term cells were infected at an MOI of 38. Thus, not only do trophoblasts require higher virus concentrations for productive interaction to an IE-positive stage than fibroblasts, but the greater majority are resistant to infection.
Permissive infection of trophoblasts is not unique to CMV strain AD169.To determine whether CMV strains infected trophoblasts with differing efficiencies, cultured cells were challenged with AD169, two other laboratory strains (Davis and Towne [32]), and a low-passage clinical isolate from a congenitally infected infant. Infection was determined by using the criteria of IE and pp65 antigen expression and production of infectious virus 12 days after virus challenge. All strains permissively infected trophoblasts, albeit to different degrees, and >99% of infectious progeny virus was cell associated (Table 1). The strain variability (AD169 ∼ Towne > Davis ∼ congenital isolate) was reproducible in three independent experiments using cells from different placentas.
The crucial location of placental villous trophoblasts separating maternal blood from fetal tissues suggests that it plays a role in preventing or disseminating CMV infection from mother to fetus during pregnancy. Previous studies have indicated the villous trophoblast is infected only under very specific conditions: in term placentas, trophoblasts rarely showed signs of permissive infection compared to fetal mesenchymal cells (18, 33, 37, 38, 43, 51), and permissive CMV infection in vitro occurred only after enhancement by coinfection with another virus, either HIV-1 (59) or HTLV-1 (58). Our results suggest an alternative view. We demonstrate that cultured term trophoblasts are readily infected but require a high CMV inoculum, infection progresses more slowly than in fibroblasts, and progeny virus remains predominantly cell associated. Our results argue that permissive infection of villous ST or CT in late gestation by cell-free CMV can occur but is unlikely unless the virus titer in the maternal circulation is very high. Such levels could occur during primary infections because of the transient absence of neutralizing antibody and may partially explain why vertical transmission is much more frequent in primary than recurring infections (8, 66).
CMV crosses the placenta at all stages of gestation (54), and villous trophoblasts from first trimester placentas show frequent signs of permissive infection in vivo (18, 61). However, in vitro, Rosenthal et al. (46) found CMV-infected first trimester placental fibroblasts but not trophoblasts. We confirm that first trimester placental fibroblasts are readily infected but also find that first trimester trophoblasts are infected. The infection of first trimester trophoblasts is intermediate between placental fibroblasts and term trophoblasts in two aspects: the fraction of cells infected at near saturating virus titers and the kinetics of the infection. Twenty-four hours after challenge, all placental fibroblasts are IE antigen positive at an MOI of 3.5, 15% of first trimester trophoblasts are IE antigen positive at an MOI of 16, and only 6% of term trophoblasts are IE antigen positive at an MOI of 38 (Fig. 7). The kinetics of progression from the IE to early-late infection stage can be visualized by plotting the ratio of pp65-positive to IE-positive foci in cultures as a function of time (Fig.8). After CMV challenge of placental fibroblasts at an MOI of 0.19, measurable pp65 antigen is observed within 24 h, and over half of infected cells have progressed to the early-late stage by 48 h. In contrast, even at a challenge MOI of 1, pp65 antigen does not appear in +EGF term trophoblasts until after day 4 and the pp65/IE ratio never exceeds 0.3 over a 21-day culture period. EGF-treated first trimester trophoblasts show intermediate progression kinetics. At an MOI challenge of 1, pp65 antigen expression appears within 24 h, but thereafter progression is slower than in fibroblasts, with a pp65/IE ratio of approximately 0.4 9 days after challenge. The larger fraction of infectable cells and more rapid progression kinetics may explain why more first trimester than term villous trophoblasts show signs of permissive infection in vivo (18, 61).
We also find that although infectious progeny virus is rapidly released from placental fibroblasts, virus remains predominantly cell associated in both term and first trimester trophoblasts. Although basal release of infectious virus has yet to be demonstrated, such release from either first trimester or term trophoblasts would explain why vertical transmission does not appear to occur more frequently in the first than third trimester (13, 31) even though first trimester trophoblasts are more readily infected. A placental barrier that retains infectious progeny virus is in accord with studies by Griffith et al. (22) in guinea pig models showing that the placenta can accumulate CMV without transmission to the fetus.
The cell isolation procedures and culture models used in this study were essential for a complete characterization of trophoblast infection by CMV. Infectious challenge of cultures that contained very low frequencies of placental fibroblasts and direct demonstration of IE and pp65 antigen-positive cells that were vimentin negative (and thus trophoblasts) eliminate the possibility that the 5 to 15% CMV infection frequencies observed were due to preferential infection of placental fibroblasts. Crucial to the demonstrations of productive infection and the slow progression of infection in trophoblasts was the ability to maintain viable cultures for greater than 3 weeks without overgrowth by proliferating placental fibroblasts.
Interestingly, most of the very few vimentin-positive cells (fibroblasts) in these cultures were uninfected. Possible reasons include the following: (i) there is a disadvantageous target ratio (there are >4,000-fold more trophoblasts); (ii) infected vimentin-positive cells may lyse and not be detected, although lack of high titers of infectious virus in supernatants during the first week of culture argues against this; (iii) fibroblasts, which strongly adhere to tissue culture plastic, may lie beneath the trophoblasts and be protected from virus challenge; and (iv) EGF down modulates CMV production from infected placental fibroblasts as it does with other human fibroblasts (30).
Our results differ from those of Toth et al. (59), who found that CMV infection of syncytialized term trophoblasts was abortive and became fully permissive only if the cells were preinfected with HIV-1. The reasons for the different results are not clear, but it is possible that different CT subpopulations were isolated by the slightly different negative selection methods used in the two laboratories: elimination of MHC class I, MHC class II, and CD9-expressing cells in our laboratory (28) and elimination of MHC class I and II cells in their laboratory (59). Alternatively, the stocks of the laboratory strain of CMV, AD169, used in both studies may be substantially different since, according to Cha et al. (12), long-term passage can result in loss of genetic information, explaining differences in tissue tropism and virulence. To confirm that the permissive infection that we observed was not a property of our laboratory AD169 strain, we tested two other well-known laboratory-adapted strains, Towne and Davis, and a low-passage congenital isolate. Although there was considerable variation in infection efficiency (AD169 and Towne infected much more efficiently), all strains were able to permissively infect term trophoblasts.
The ST is a rather unique tissue in that it is a continuous, multinucleated cell layer that, theoretically, covers entire villous branches. The EGF-treated cultures in this study, although not continuously syncytialized, nonetheless offer a useful model of the ST. Approximately 90% of nuclei are in cells containing >2 nuclei, with approximately 20% being in cells with as many as 50 nuclei (28). It was consistently observed that either all or no nuclei in CMV-challenged syncytialized cells were positive for CMV antigens; thus, all nuclei in an infected ST participate in infection. Since ST, both in culture and in vivo, does not proliferate (4, 19), any increases in the number of infected nuclei must come from free virus infection, fusion of infected with uninfected cells, or cell-to-cell transmission (focal spread [39]). We find that the spread of virus is initially focal since the number of infected nuclei increases (data not shown) but the number of foci does not. An increase in the number of foci coincides with release of progeny virus into culture supernatants, suggesting that free virus dissemination also exists. In the absence of trophoblast proliferation in culture, cell loss due to death or shedding leads to a decrease in DNA content over time. CMV infection did not increase this loss of DNA content; thus, infected cells are not preferentially lost, a conclusion supported by the observation that the number of infected cells always increased and never peaked or decreased. These observations indicate that CMV infection, at least up to 3 weeks after virus challenge, does not damage ST, possibly because of slow virus accumulation in infected syncytia.
Our in vitro results are consistent with the more frequent and later CMV infection stages found in first trimester (18, 61) than term (18, 33, 37, 38, 40, 43, 51) ST in situ. However, detection of CMV-infected ST is less frequent than would be anticipated given the more frequent in vivo observations of infected fetal stromal cells and our in vitro observations of virus retention by cultured ST. The in vivo and in vitro observations can be reconciled by two possible explanations. (i) Virus titers in the maternal circulation are not high enough to infect the ST, and the virus enters (perhaps via CMV-infected maternal leukocytes) the stroma through breaches in the ST caused by physical trauma or sites of trophoblast damage caused by intervillous accumulations of activated monocytes (intervillositis [26]). (ii) The ST is infected as often as the stroma, but manifestations of ST infection are rapidly lost possibly because the infected ST is shed. The trophoblast, like other epithelia, would be expected to renew its outer surface. Observations of an even distribution of apoptotic nuclei (mostly in syncytial knots) in the ST of placentas from uncomplicated term deliveries suggests that turnover occurs (53). Regulated ST turnover is suggested by observations that the cytokines EGF, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and gamma interferon can up and down regulate ST apoptosis in culture (19). If CMV infection up regulates intracellular adhesion molecule 1 (which is inducible in ST [63]) as it does in fibroblasts (23, 25), T lymphocytes (62), and endothelial cells (49), infected ST may be preferentially cleared through phagocytosis by LFA-1-activated monocytes that adhere to sites of infection. Therefore, because of shedding, the steady-state level of obviously infected ST may be low even though infection occurs frequently. Thus, our data, combined with published data, tentatively describe the ST as an infectable barrier that may maintain its integrity by retaining infectious virus until shed.
This work was supported by grants from the Hospital for Sick Children Foundation and the National Health Research Development of Canada to L.J.G. C.N. was supported by studentship grants from the Alberta Heritage Foundation for Medical Research, and D.G.H. was supported by a grant from University of Alberta Perinatal Research Centre.
We thank Bonnie Lowen for expert technical assistance and the University of Alberta Perinatal Research Center laboratory staff and the OB/GYN nursing staff, both at the Royal Alexandra Hospital in Edmonton, for placental cell preparations.
- Received 4 December 1997.
- Accepted 2 March 1998.
- Copyright © 1998 American Society for Microbiology


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This is officially Mother's Day in the States. We love our mama and all our friends' mamas and wish them all a terrific day......cuz it is always Mother's Day no matter where you reside!!!!!
Today is the BIG BLOGOVERSARY
CELEBRATION at Max the
Quilt Cat's blog......we hope
you will celebrate with them.
(blogoversary is the 9th but
being celebrated today)
Love and Mega Purrs,


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Latest ASLEF News
The Jack Leslie statue campaign
Unions unite at stations across London
23 October 2013
Today the Action for Rail campaign joined forces with transport, disabled and older people's campaign groups to condemn plans by London Mayor Boris Johnson to shed hundreds of staff across London's transport. His plans include closing ticket offices at stations across London Underground, cutting other tube staff, and removing guards from trains on London Overground.
General Secretary Mick Whelan and National Organiser Simon Weller were present at Oxford Circus
A survey of passengers jointly commissioned by Action for Rail, Transport for All, Disabled Passengers Against Cuts (DPAC) and the National Pensioners Convention shows that 81 percent of respondents said the loss of staff at stations would make travel difficult and more than a third would be deterred from making some journeys
ASLEF General Secretary Mick Whelan said: "During the London Olympics transport workers in London moved millions of tourists quickly and safely through the capital. Londoners deserve the same standards this year – and every year – as in 2012."
If you weren't able to take part yesterday you can email Boris Johnson and Peter Hendy here
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CFMU-FM is a Canadian radio station, broadcasting at 93.3 FM in Hamilton, Ontario. It is a campus/community radio station owned and operated by the McMaster Students Union at McMaster University.
Hamilton is a Canadian port city on the western tip of Lake Ontario. The Niagara Escarpment, a huge, forested ridge known locally as "the mountain" and dotted with conservation areas and waterfalls, divides the city. The long-distance Bruce Trail runs along the escarpment. HMCS Haida, a naval warship on the city's lakefront, and the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum in the south, trace Canada's military past.
Ontario is a province in east-central Canada that borders the U.S. and the Great Lakes. It's home to Ottawa, Canada's capital, known for Parliament Hill?s Victorian architecture and the National Gallery, featuring Canadian and indigenous art. Toronto, Ontario's capital, is home to the 553m-high CN Tower, with expansive views from its revolving restaurant, as well as High Park, site of a rare oak savannah habitat.
Canada is a North American country stretching from the U.S. in the south to the Arctic Circle in the north. Major cities include massive Toronto, west coast film centre Vancouver, French-speaking Montréal and Québec City, and capital city Ottawa. Canada's vast swaths of wilderness include lake-filled Banff National Park in the Rocky Mountains. It's also home to Niagara Falls, a famous group of massive waterfalls. (V)


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Mysterious. Intriguing. Haunting. The same words that accurately describe the legendary Johnny Cash can be used for a cigar that was inspired by one of his songs, "Cocaine Blues." It's time to make the acquaintance of Jericho Hill by Crowned Heads.Crowned Heads cigars are built with a rebellious aura surrounding them. And this aura isn't just a marketing ploy or some insecure attempt to appear cooler than they really are; these guys are legit. Their first cigar, Four Kicks, and their second, Headley Grange, were both inspired by songs and were specifically blended to mirror the beat of the music. It's the same exact story with Jericho Hill, only this time the spotlight falls on none other than Mr. Johnny Cash. The song tells the sad tale of a man fueled up on whiskey and cocaine who accidently kills a woman. The sheriff who catches him is from a town called Jericho Hill. All of the size names come from the songs on Cash's "At Folsom Prison" album. Jericho Hill is the first regular production cigar from Crowned Heads to be offered out of Nicaragua, and comes from My Father Cigars. The Nicaraguan binder and filler leaves are accompanied by a San Andres wrapper, also a first for the company, that's visually stunning with minimal veins and blemishes. Flavor notes of earth, sweetness, and spice are all present, and the strength is decidedly medium, though it does perceptibly intensify in the final third. Fans of Cash, fans of Crowned Heads, and fans of great cigars would all do well to give it a shot.
Bold and smooth. If you're a maduro man (or woman), you'll love Jericho Hill. Its like a box pressed Ruination. Darkened notes of coffee with a hint of dark chocolate and leathery textures. It is well constructed and burns slow and even. A must try for all smokers!


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My niece Carla's wedding was spectacular on Saturday and I had a wonderful time. The food was positively the best - filet mignon, whitefish, and risotto to DIE for! I had lost 9 pounds so far on the 17 day diet so far so I'm trying to be good. I was a dancing fool - the band was marvelous.
I'm using my phone again for this post so I can't post pictures but will when I can.
Right now I'm sitting in the parking lot of the motel that Kevin and I stayed at, hoping they can find his glasses. Yep, so typical.
This afternoon I'm driving my niece Erica and her boyfriend Tommy to the airport and then stopping to see my friend Jackie, who is on the mend from back surgery.
Hope you have a great week. I'll write again when I can! :-D


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BEST PRACTICE: WHEN TO STAY IN AN INSURANCE COVERAGE ACTION I recently came across this helpful article by fellow insurance attorney for policyholders, Erica Villanueva at the fine firm of Farella Braun + Martel LLP here in San Francisco. Her summary of recent appellate court decisions includes pointers for attorneys in seeking a Motion to Stay an insurance coverage action: "When a liability insurer wishes to avoid all coverage obligations with respect to a claim against its insured, it may seek an adjudication that it has no duty to defend or indemnify the policyholder. If the insurer files for such declaratory relief while the underlying litigation is still pending, California insureds will frequently move to stay the coverage action, pursuant to Montrose Chemical Corp. v. Superior Court, 6 Cal. 4th 287 (1993) ("Montrose I"). The purpose of such a Montrose stay is to avoid the risk of prejudice to the insured in…
Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
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"Civil War Part 3: The Drums of War"
Marvel's Avengers Assemble Season 3 Episode 25
January 28, 2017
January 28, 2017
Previous Episode
Next Episode
- I've hoped humans and inhumans would annihilate each other for me, but if I want the job done right I'll have to do it my self. Now a new world order, THE ULTRON REVOLUTION!
- -- Ultron
Appearing in "Civil War Part 3: The Drums of War"
Featured Characters:
- Avengers
- Captain America (Steve Rogers) (Revealed to be alive)
- Iron Man (Tony Stark)
- Falcon (Sam Wilson)
- Hawkeye (Clint Barton)
- Black Widow (Natalia Romanova)
- Thor
- Songbird (Melissa Gold) (Joins team)
- Hulk (Bruce Banner)
- Mighty Avengers (Joins team)
- Inhuman Royal Family (Joins team)
Supporting Characters:
- Truman Marsh (Ultron) (First revealed as a Ultron)
Other Characters: Races:
- Ant-Man's Suit
- Ant-Man's Helmet
- Pym Particles
- Vibranium
- Panther Habit
- Iron Man Armor MK L
- Falcon Armor
- Captain America's Shield
- Hawkeye's Bow and Trick Arrows
- Mjolnir
- Black Widow's Gauntlets
- Registration Disks
Synopsis for "Civil War Part 3: The Drums of War"
- Synopsis not yet written.
- No special notes.
- No trivia.
See Also
- Discuss "Civil War Part 3: The Drums of War" on the forums
- Gallery for the Marvel's Avengers Assemble series
Recommended Media
- None.
Links and References
- None.
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted.


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"If life's unfair to everyone doesn't that make life fair?" It's just normal for life to throw you some problems. It's up to you if you'll be destroyed by it or you'll destroy it.
Life is like a circle, sometimes you're on the top but sometimes you're on the bottom. Life isn't all about prince and princesses, it also contains witches and nightmares.
Self-pity will not bring you to somewhere. You'll just stay there, the same, a loser. Why would you make things bitter if you can make them better? Why making yourself sad if you can be happy? You have to fight to make yourself something.
You have to change what you think about yourself. If you think that you're worthless, no, you're not. A mistake will not destroy your personality, thus it will even build it up. Continue moving on with life. Forget all the bad things and start moving forward.


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Contacting a member of staff
Email is the best way of contacting a member of staff but you are also welcome to telephone the school to leave a message for them. We are committed to responding as quickly as possible, but it is worth remembering that teaching staff may not be able to do so until after lessons and meetings have concluded.
- Teaching Staff
Cathy Chirnside
Head of Art
Rachel Treacher
Art Subject Teacher
Brian Larkin
Head of Computing
Hayley Streeter Staniford
Head of Drama/KS 2/3 Transition and Primary Liaison Co-ordinator
Hannah Boffee
Maternity Leave
Zoe Kerslake
Head of Food Technology
Stephen O'Brien
Head of Resistant Materials
Hannah Tollworthy
Head of English
Alexandra Beasant
English Subject Teacher 2i/c
Sally Cassie
English Subject Teacher / More Able Provision Coordinator
Lara Child
English Subject Teacher
Hannah Hill
English Subject Teacher
James Hogg
English Subject Teacher/Literacy/Senior Professional Tutor/Head of Media
Jessica Smith
English/Media Subject Teacher
Deborah Woods
English Subject Teacher
Geraldine Callanan
Zoe Benjafield
History Subject Teacher / Deputy Head of Year 7
Megan Hillsdon
Head of History / Student Enrichment Coordinator
Tim Starke
Lead Practitioner
Maura Cronin
Head of Business Studies / Head of Year 8
Ogechi Dowdie
Head of Maths
Andrea Ainsworth
Maths Subject Teacher
Vincent Atigla
Maths Subject Teacher
Alan Berzolla
Maths Subject Teacher 2i/c
Sarah Goldson
Maths Subject Teacher
Jerome Johnson
Maths Subject Teacher
Tonderai Mbiba
Maths Subject Teacher
Alina Fantana
Head of Spanish
Elizabeth Robinson
Spanish Subject Teacher / Head of Year 7
Christine Waddell
Head of Music
Kirsty Bailey
PE Subject Teacher 2i/c
Paul Harris
Head of PE
Joe Henderson
PE Subject Teacher / Head of Year 11
James Hanson
PE Subject Teacher
Philip Horton
PE Subject Teacher / Head of Year 10
Jaimielee Hughes
PE Subject Teacher / Deputy Head of Year 8
Deirdre Beale
Science Subject Teacher
Chris Couch
Science Subject Teacher / Head of Year 9
Andrew Doyle
Science Subject Teacher 2i/c
Luke Harris
Science Subject Teacher
Ross Kelly
Head of Science
Daksha Pitroda
Head of RE
Sarah MacGregor
Maternity Leave
Cathleen Small
Maternity Leave
Mr Tom Dawson
Geography Teacher
- Inclusion/SEND
Geraldine Callanan
Jan Downs
Head of SLCN Centre / Deputy SENCO
Jo Markland
SENCO Administrative Assistant
Samantha Cleevely
Learning Support Assistant
Sonal Desai
Learning Support Assistant
Lorna Elsey
Access to Learning Coordinator
Fiona Gridley
Learning Support Assistant
Heather McCarthy
Learning Support Assistant
Justine McGarvey
Learning Mentor
Colin Miles
Learning Support Assistant
Lucy Norris
Learning Support Assistant
Rachel Wiggins
Learning Support Assistant
- Senior Leadership Team
Jeremy Garner
Jeff Place
Deputy Headteacher
Phill Jones
Assistant Headteacher
David Parry
Assistant Headteacher
Jessica Smith
Assistant Headteacher
Rachel Treacher
Assistant Headteacher
- Support Staff
Susan Box
Senior HR Administrator
Helen Broughton
Clerk to SSB
Zoe Defalco
Admissions/SLT Admin
Anna Hughes
PA to Headteacher / Marketing & Events Co-ordinator
Karen Rabbitte
Amanda Robinson
Head of Year Administrator
Natalie Rose
LRC Administrator
Vicky Russell
Admin Assistant
Jayne Starkey
Reception/Admin Assistant
Kate Farrell
Cover Supervisor
Jenna Ireland
Examinations Officer
Lara Smith
Deputy Examinations Officer / Data Assistant
Jade Horne
Resources Assistant
Deborah Blake-Thomas
SIMS Officer
Mark Batters
Site Assistant
Daren Bacon
Deputy Site Manager
Angela Delahunty
Site Manager
Dave Deonarine
Senior Site Assistant
Christopher Knight
Senior Site Assistant
Caroline Sidwell
Wellbeing Officer / Attendance Assistant
Suzy Drew
Student Services Assistant
Zoe Tournes
Student Services Assistant
Julia Webster
Attendance Officer
Julia Wadsworth
Attendance Assistant
Tara Taylor
Senior Learning Support Assistant
Jill Ivory
Senior Science Technician
Sharon Monteith
Science Technician
Sophie Campbell
DT Technician
Ruth Alexander
Ian Andrews
Nigel Ball
Sharna Clemmy
Dave Deonarine
Maria Jose
Matthew Leadbeater
Janice Prole
Cleaning Supervisor
Sharon Whippe
Peter Wort
- School Strategy Board
Mrs Alison Etheridge
SSB Community Member
I have lived in Caterham since 1997 and have two children one is currently a student at de Stafford. Following a 4 year term as a Governor at a local infant school, I became a Governor at de Stafford in June 2011. I have a degree in Psychology and undertook further studies in Human Resources to gain Membership of the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (MCIPD). My career was initially in the voluntary sector, working with a housing association for older people and then a disability charity. In 2008 I became self-employed, helping companies with a variety of HR requirements such as reorganisations, employee relations issues, and mediation.
Mr Liam Collins
Education Partner
Miss Catherine Emmott
Chair of SSB
I grew up in Reigate and moved back to Oxted 12 years ago. I became a Governor at de Stafford in June 2011. I have a law degree and then qualified as a Chartered Surveyor, specialising in landlord and tenant. I have worked extensively in private practice in London and locally, in the public sector in Hertfordshire, as a facilities and property manager and for a time in Jersey. Until recently I was an Operations Director by a FTSE100 property company in London, but am now starting a new career as a Bursar of a local primary school. In my spare time I have a small dog and a large horse.
Mr Jeremy Garner
SSB Member
I have served on the Governing Body of de Stafford School since my appointment as Head Teacher in September 2013. I completed a Post-Graduate Certificate of Education in Physical Education having graduated with a degree in Sports Science. Since qualifying as a teacher nearly 20 years ago, I have worked in three different Surrey secondary schools (Therfield, St Bedeâs, de Stafford) and completed my National Professional Qualification for Headship (NPQH) in 2009. I live in Epsom with my wife and two young children.
Mrs Rowan Spurgin
Community SSB Member / Vice Chair
Having lived in Caterham most of my life, and attended schools in the town, I am very pleased to be able to give something back to the local school community. I became a Governor at de Stafford in April 2015 and have been elected as Chair of the Finance Committee. I have two daughters, one who is a student at de Stafford and the other at St. Johnâs. After gaining a degree in Psychology and Zoology, I studied to become a qualified Chartered Management Accountant. I have worked in the retail and manufacturing sectors, the last few years within IT as a Business Analyst.
Mrs Clare Wingrave
SSB Member (Safeguarding Lead)
I live locally in Caterham and am the principal of Oasis Academy Byron, a thriving primary school in Coulsdon.'My three children attended de Stafford and the school provided them all with very firm foundations for life and their future learning.


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Sustainability Science Days conference 6-7 May 2020 has been POSTPONED to 18-19 May 2021 due to the COVID-19 situation.
More information about the corona situation: Aalto University website and University of Helsinki website.
The Sustainability Science Days concept is a continuum to our events in 2018 and 2019. In previous years, the conference dived into the themes of disruption, climate action and sustainable consumption. The events so far have been a success, with 500+ visitors both times including high-ranking researchers and policymakers.
The two-day conference is organized jointly by Helsinki Institute of Sustainability Science (HELSUS) and Aalto Sustainability Hub (ASH). The next Sustainability Science Days are held through Wed 6th – Thu 7th May 2020 and the conference will concentrate on radical changes that are indispensable for creative solutions to the present sustainability crisis.
About the University of Helsinki & HELSUS
University of Helsinki is one of the top 1% research universities in the world, with the mission to produce research-based knowledge for the benefit of the whole world. A community of 40,000 students and employees creates solutions that will shape the future of our planet and all of humanity. Helsinki Institute of Sustainability Science (HELSUS) is a new cross-faculty research unit in sustainability science within the University of Helsinki. The mission of the institute is to contribute to sustainability transformations of societies by means of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research and education.
About Aalto University & Sustainability Hub
Aalto University is a multidisciplinary community of bold thinkers, where science and art meet technology and business. Aalto University is committed to identifying and solving grand societal challenges and building an innovative future. Aalto University has six schools with 12,000 students. Aalto Sustainability Hub was founded in 2018 to increase interdisciplinary collaboration and to promote sustainability in teaching, campus development and other operations at Aalto University, with a mission to create a world-class research and learning environment focused on sustainability and circular economy.
About the Sustainable Development Goals 9 & 11
Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation
Steady progress has been made in the manufacturing industry. To achieve inclusive and sustainable industrialization, competitive economic forces need to be unleashed to generate employment and income, facilitate international trade and enable the efficient use of resources.
Investment in infrastructure and innovation are crucial drivers of economic growth and development. With over half the world population now living in cities, mass transport and renewable energy are becoming ever more important, as are the growth of new industries and information and communication technologies.
Technological progress is also key to finding lasting solutions to both economic and environmental challenges, such as providing new jobs and promoting energy efficiency. Promoting sustainable industries, and investing in scientific research and innovation, are all important ways to facilitate sustainable development.
More than 4 billion people still do not have access to the Internet, and 90 percent are from the developing world. Bridging this digital divide is crucial to ensure equal access to information and knowledge, as well as foster innovation and entrepreneurship.
Source: UNDP
Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
More than half of us live in cities. By 2050, two-thirds of all humanity—6.5 billion people—will be urban. Sustainable development cannot be achieved without significantly transforming the way we build and manage our urban spaces.
The rapid growth of cities—a result of rising populations and increasing migration—has led to a boom in mega-cities, especially in the developing world, and slums are becoming a more significant feature of urban life.
Making cities sustainable means creating career and business opportunities, safe and affordable housing, and building resilient societies and economies. It involves investment in public transport, creating green public spaces, and improving urban planning and management in participatory and inclusive ways.
Source: UNDP


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Hello to the docx4j community,
Sorry to bother you with a more than basic question. I try to integrate docx4j on an android application (android> 5.1) but even by downloading for example docx4j-6.1.2 with all its dependencies (site https://mvnrepository.com/artifact/org.docx4j/docx4j), it is still missing something to make it work properly. It is missing jaxbContext and other elements. Can you help me have a docx version with all the dependencies useful for android studio? Thank you in advance.
I have already tried to run the given application on github (https://github.com/plutext/Docx4j4Android4) without success


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this is shot of the Queen's Door, you enter through this and go into the casbah.
Month: March 2015
an old postcard from Tetuan, Morocco
now that I've got a used scanner my friend gave me late last year, I'll be posting pictures! yay! This is Tetuan, a city 40 miles from Tangiers. This is Jarrazin Street (or Rue Jarrazin in French.) This is how some of the shops looked when I was there. Most of the merchants were men. Note the beautiful and affordable leather purses on the left. The woman in white is carrying a table she bought and a tote bag full of what looks like onions. Like Southern Spain, the housewives shopped for meat and all perishables almost daily since they lived in such tiny homes and perhaps did not have refrigeration.


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Living Lavishly Outdoors with 2018 Trends
(Family Features) As many families prepare to ramp up their time spent outside, it...
- Posted July 29, 2018
Swimming Pools and Spas: Pool Safety For Children
According to reports by the The Association of Pool and Spa Professionals (APSP), an...
- Posted July 24, 2018
4 tips for festive flourishing flowers, vibrant plants and hardy herbs
(BPT) – Spring is in full bloom, but are your plants keeping pace? If...
- Posted June 28, 2018
Is It Really Your Property?
If you need to put in a fence and aren't sure where your land...
- Posted June 23, 2018
5 ways gardening and plants can reduce stress
(BPT) – In today's busy world, we're continually searching for new ways to slow...
- Posted June 21, 2018
Home Update: Install Flush Mount Fans In Your Home
If you want to update a room to a more modern look, flush mount fans are...
- Posted June 16, 2018
Springtime Sprinkler Tune-Up
Get the warm watering season off to a great start with these Springtime sprinkler...
- Posted June 16, 2018
5 Eco-Friendly Pest Control Methods to Keep Your Family Safe
There's no denying that traditional pest control methods can be damaging to the environment...
- Posted June 9, 2018
Get Your BBQ Ready for Summer Grilling
It's nearly grilling season. With the sun coming out and the 4th of July...
- Posted May 21, 2018
Springtime Power Washing
If you want to give your home more curb appeal, one great way to...
- Posted May 21, 2018


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For information on exhibition and sponsorship opportunities at the conference, contact Yvonne Romaine at firstname.lastname@example.com
For media partnerships, contact mediapartners@ oreilly.com or download the Media & Promotional Partner Brochure (PDF)
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Millions of historical photos from public archives are already available on the internet, but they are currently distributed in a vast array of stand-alone collections, utilizing hundreds of disparate presentation and search techniques. The end result for researchers and the general public alike is often frustration, boredom, and apathy; while painstakingly digitized imagery sits idle and undiscovered. The story of our common history remains buried.
THE TOOLS. We will review existing and new public initiatives in the field of historical archives that are attempting to do at least one of several things:
TAKING IT A STEP FURTHER. We'll look at a new initiative (codename: Open Index of Archives) that aims to create a centralized database built on an open source platform to collect image urls and metadata of source material from stand-alone collections, Flickr Commons, Omeka, and others. This database will be accessible through an API to further enable the dissemination of public archives that have heretofore been limited to independent collections.
ENABLING THE MASHUPS. We'll review some examples of projects that are bringing history to life and building community around historical archives. Prototypes like LookBackMaps and HistoryPlot demonstrate the possibilities coming to life as a new generation of history enthusiasts and academics take a crack at presentations of the past, including map mashups and ghostly augmented reality apps on the iPhone. The Powerhouse Museum in Sydney makes old stuff new again with their participation in the Flickr Commons and beyond. And Paul Hagon at the National Library of Australia is making geolocation a priority for the archive community.
OUR COMMON PAST IS OF VITAL IMPORTANCE. Finally, we'll take a look at why and how these mapping efforts can and should remain free for the sake of historical and cultural preservation.
Jon Voss is founder of LookBackMaps, an innovative public history project that is one of many new initiatives in the field of historical and cultural heritage. He also runs jumpSLIDE networks, a small IT consultancy in San Francisco. Voss has been managing IT projects for non-profits and small to medium businesses in the Bay Area for over ten years. His work on mapping historical photos stems from a love of history and a chance run-in with a band of privy diggers who excavated his back yard in SF's Mission district several years ago.
Barbara Hui is a grad student in Comp Lit at UCLA, where she is finishing up her dissertation entitled Narrative Networks: Mapping Literature at the Turn of the 21st
Century. She is also programmer/analyst at the UC Humanities Research Institute, has worked extensively as a developer on Hypercities, the Danish Folklore Data Nexus, and other historical/archival/literary mapping projects, and is currently a fellow of the NEH Institute for Enabling Geospatial Scholarship.


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MAXCOVER is an angular trapezoidal box profile suitable for both for roofing and wall cladding. It is particularly widely used in domestic and light industrial/commercial roofing applications. This product couples great looks with the widest cover width, making it a very economical alternative to many other profiles.
Profile Drawing
Tiling Procedure
Recommended minimum timber cross-sectional size are :
Purlins – 75 X 50mm, Trusses – 100 X 50mm.
Maximum Purlin Spacing
0.30mm thickness material :- 800mm.
0.40mm thickness and above :- 900mm to 1mtr.
Note :-Note:-It is recommended to use single lengths to cover each run of roof from crest to eave and avoid end lapping for better aesthetics and economy.
Crest Fixing
70mm self-drilling timber screws or twisted shank roofing nails are to be fixed through the crest of the profile ribs using an electric screw guns (drill) or by hammering through pre-drilled holes. 65mm self-drilling screws to be used on steel purlins. Either fastener must be used in conjunction with appropriate uPVC washers.
Note:- MaxCover are fixed by drilling fasteners through its crest its recommended to use minimum 3 fasteners across each width of the profile (both ends at the overlap and center).


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How to Get a Smart Home for Less: Vantage West can help you get the home of the future
Smart technology has become an ever-present part of our lives, so it was only a matter of time before our homes became as smart as our phones.
A smart home is one that features lighting, heating, and other electronic devices that are connected to the internet and enable you to better control how your energy is used, as you're able to monitor your usage and program devices to reflect your daily schedule.
Modern homes don't generally come equipped with smart technology, but you can install most smart devices yourself relatively easily. However, making your home smart can become prohibitively expensive if you're looking to outfit your home with cutting-edge technology.
That said, there are many quality smart devices that will deliver you the convenience of the modern smart home without busting your budget. Here are some budget options for smartening up your home.
Smart lights, camera, action!
If you're like the many of us who have the bad habit of leaving the lights on, then a smart lighting system could be a perfect solution for you. Smart lighting allows you to control your indoor and outdoor lighting system via your smartphone or other smart device, like your Amazon Echo or Google Home.
Smart lights are easy to install and have become relatively inexpensive in recent years, with many hovering around $20 per bulb. Simply replace an old bulb with a smart version, install the accompanying software, and you're ready to go. Some smart bulbs even give you the ability to dim the lights, while more high-end bulbs let you change the color, track motion, and even play music over bluetooth.
Smart home security cameras have also come down in price over the past few years and have subsequently become popular among homeowners. For less than $150, you can purchase a smart camera from FLIR FX, Vimtag, or D-Link, which all allow you to view the camera's HD footage from your smartphone, adjust angles, and transmit audio.
Don't (need to) touch the thermostat
Many of us grew up with parents who protected the thermostat like the Queen's guard. Smart thermometers are a parent's dream, as they allow you to adjust your home's temperature from your phone or smart device. Some smart thermometers, such as Google's Nest, even use machine learning to auto-program a schedule that adjusts with your needs and leads to lower energy bills.
While smart thermometer technology seems space-age, the price is actually quite down to Earth. You can get an entry-level Google Nest system for as little as $110, while there are other less expensive models also available, like the Honeywell Lyric T-5 or the iDevices smart thermostat. All smart thermometers work with Amazon Alexa systems, so you can control your home's temperature without ever having to push a button.
Vantage West can help your home get smart
If you're looking to smarten up your home, Vantage West can help you finance your education costs. With a Home Equity Line of Credit (HELOC) from Vantage West, you can leverage your home's equity to upgrade your living space into the 21st century and save money on your energy bills. With low rates and convenient borrowing terms, your home won't be the only thing that's smart. Vantage West Credit Union offers HELOCs starting at $10,000 for qualified Arizona homeowners.
Loans subject to approval. Mortgage options subject to change without notice. Certain restrictions may apply. NMLS #485751


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Staying Dublin for my second post on this weeks theme. This time we travel to the old jail outside the city, Kilmainham Gaol.
The first picture is the windows looking down into the courtyard inside the jail. This is where the guards or prisoners with more privilege would keep a watch over the other inmates.
The second is a view from inside a cell. This would be the daily view seen by the prisoners, most notable those incarcerated for the 1916 Easter Rising.
For more post about Windows, please visit:


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Getting a roofer is almost as hard as buying your house! Your home is pretty much worthless without a good roof, but you can't have the right roof without a good contractor. This article has some roofing information for you. With the right tools, an okay roof can turn into a great roof.
If you think your shingles need replacing, do not hesitate to act. It may seem okay to hold back on fixing small problems, but those small problems can balloon into giant issues. Fixing shingles immediately will produce longer-term savings. If your roof is properly maintained, it will last quite a while.
Leaks may come from roof foundation damage. Water can get into your home anywhere that dry rot has occurred. Review all entry points, look for rotting wood and make sure the issue is resolved.
It is important that you check out your potential contractor's history before you allow them to work on your roof. You should ask the reference about the quality of the work and the price paid. Drive by some of the addresses on your own. Drive by and get a good look before deciding who to hire.
Don't attempt to create a temporary fix for your roof. These shortcuts may seem like affordable solutions, however they can often result in further damage that will cost even more to fix. Complete the job efficiently so there are no issues in the future.
You should be careful when you attempt to look for problems on your roof. If you think there are problems, hire a professional to do an inspection. You definitely don't want to be walking on the roof unsuspecting as it caves in on you.
If you want to save some money when your get a contractor then you should find one that has employees working for them. A group of roofers are going to perform the job much faster, which should lessen the total cost to you. If you have one doing it alone, be sure they're not overcharging for labor.
Look over the materials you're using for roofing before you get new shingles put up. Leaks often occur quickly due to improper installation. The shingles should be strong and crack free, and the nails should be sturdy.
Don't give a contractor all of the money for your roofing job before they even begin. Some dubious contractors have been known to take the money and run. The best policy is to pay a portion of the total for materials and labor when the project begins and then pay the remain balance upon completion. Write this agreement into your contract.
If your roof is not visible from the ground, climb up and inspect it following a big storm. It is best to fix damaged shingles right away and remember that a small problem can quickly turn into a major leak. Every time you get through a storm, you need to look it over and be safe about it.
The roof is your last and best source of protection against any and all outside elements. It protects you, but it does get damaged along the way. It needs repairs to continue doing its job well. This article is going to teach you what you need to do before you take on a roofing project.