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Theravāda (Sanskrit: स्थविरवाद) is a branch of Buddhism that uses the teaching of the Pāli Canon, a collection of the oldest recorded Buddhist texts, as its doctrinal core, but also includes a rich diversity of traditions and practices that have developed over its long history of interactions with various cultures and communities. It is the dominant form of religion in Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma, and is practiced by minority groups in Vietnam, Bangladesh, and China. In addition, the diaspora of all of these groups as well as converts around the world practice Theravāda Buddhism.
- 1 Adherents
- 2 History
- 2.1 Origins
- 2.2 Transmission to Sri Lanka
- 2.3 Theravāda subdivisions
- 2.4 Mahāyāna influences
- 2.5 Abolition of other Theravāda traditions
- 2.6 Lineage of nuns
- 2.7 Spread to Southeast Asia
- 2.8 Modernisation and spread to the West
- 3 Doctrinal differences with other schools
- 4 Teachings
- 4.1 Learning
- 4.2 Practice
- 4.3 Attainment
- 5 Scriptures
- 6 Lay and monastic life
- 7 Festivals and customs
- 8 List of Theravāda majority countries
- 9 Gallery
- 10 See also
- 11 Notes
- 12 References
- 13 Sources
- 14 External links
Theravāda Buddhism is followed by various countries and people around the globe, and are:
- In South Asia:
- Nepal (by 10% of the population)
- Sri Lanka (by 70% of the population)
- Bangladesh (by 0.7% of the population)
- India (by 0.7% of the population
- In Southeast Asia:
- In other parts of Asia:
- Theravāda has also recently gained popularity in the Western world.
Today, Theravāda Buddhists, otherwise known as Theravadins, number over 150 million worldwide, and during the past few decades Theravāda Buddhism has begun to take root in the West[a] and in the Buddhist revival in India.[web 2]
The name Theravāda comes from the ancestral Sthāvirīya, one of the early Buddhist schools, from which the Theravadins claim descent. After unsuccessfully trying to modify the Vinaya, a small group of "elderly members," i.e. sthaviras, broke away from the majority Mahāsāṃghika during the Second Buddhist council, giving rise to the Sthavira sect.[1] According to its own accounts, the Theravāda school is fundamentally derived from the Vibhajjavāda (or "doctrine of analysis") grouping,[2] which was a division of the Sthāvirīya.
Theravadin accounts of its own origins mention that it received the teachings that were agreed upon during the putative Third Buddhist Council under the patronage of the Indian Emperor Ashoka around 250 BCE. These teachings were known as the Vibhajjavada.[3] Emperor Ashoka is supposed to have assisted in purifying the sangha by expelling monks who failed to agree to the terms of Third Council.[4] Later, the Vibhajjavādins in turn is said to have split into four groups: the Mahīśāsaka, Kāśyapīya, Dharmaguptaka, and the Tāmraparṇīya.
Transmission to Sri Lanka
The Theravāda is said to be descended from the Tāmraparṇīya sect, which means "the Sri Lankan lineage." Missionaries sent abroad from India are said to have included Ashoka's son Mahinda and his daughter Sanghamitta, and they were the mythical founders of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, a story which scholars suggest helps to legitimize Theravāda's claims of being the oldest and most authentic school.[4] Sanghamitta is said to have founded the Mahāvihāra Monastery of Anuradhapura. In the 7th century CE, Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and Yijing refer to the Buddhist schools in Sri Lanka as Shàngzuòbù (Ch. 上座部), corresponding to the Sanskrit "Sthavira Nikāya" and the Pali "Thera Nikāya."[b][c] The school has been using the name Theravāda for itself in a written form since at least the 4th century, about one thousand years after the Buddha's death, when the term appears in the Dīpavaṁsa.[d]
According to Buddhist scholar A.K. Warder, the Theravāda
... spread rapidly south from Avanti into Maharastra and Andhra and down to the Chola country (Kanchi), as well as Sri Lanka. For some time they maintained themselves in Avanti as well as in their new territories, but gradually they tended to regroup themselves in the south, the Great Vihara (Mahavihara) in Anuradhapura, the ancient capital of Sri Lanka, becoming the main centre of their tradition, Kanchi a secondary center and the northern regions apparently relinquished to other schools.[7]
Theravāda subdivisions
Over much of the early history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, three subdivisions of Theravāda existed in Sri Lanka, consisting of the monks of the Mahāvihāra, Abhayagiri Vihāra, and the Jetavana Vihāra.[8] The Mahāvihāra was the first tradition to be established, while Abhayagiri Vihāra and Jetavana Vihāra were established by monks who had broken away from the Mahāvihāra tradition.[8] According to A.K. Warder, the Indian Mahīśāsaka sect also established itself in Sri Lanka alongside the Theravāda, into which they were later absorbed.[8] Northern regions of Sri Lanka also seem to have been ceded to sects from India at certain times.[8]
When the Chinese monk Faxian visited the island in the early 5th century CE, he noted 5000 monks at Abhayagiri, 3000 monks at the Mahāvihāra, and 2000 monks at the Cetiyapabbatavihāra.[10]
Mahāyāna influences
Over the centuries, the Abhayagiri Theravādins maintained close relations with Indian Buddhists and adopted many new teachings from India.[11] including many elements from Mahāyāna teachings, while the Jetavana Theravādins adopted Mahāyāna to a lesser extent.[10][12]
Xuanzang wrote of two major divisions of Theravāda in Sri Lanka, referring to the Abhayagiri tradition as the "Mahāyāna Sthaviras," and the Mahāvihāra tradition as the "Hīnayāna Sthaviras."[13] Xuanzang further writes:[10]
The Mahāvihāravāsins reject the Mahāyāna and practice the Hīnayāna, while the Abhayagirivihāravāsins study both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna teachings and propagate the Tripiṭaka.
Akira Hirakawa notes that the surviving Pāli commentaries (Aṭṭhakathā) of the Mahāvihāra school, when examined closely, also include a number of positions that agree with Mahāyāna teachings.[14] Kalupahana notes the same for the Visuddhimagga, the most important Theravāda commentary.[15]
It is known that in the 8th century CE both Mahāyāna and the esoteric Vajrayāna form of Buddhism were being practiced in Sri Lanka, and two Indian monks responsible for propagating Esoteric Buddhism in China, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra, visited the island during this time.[16] Abhayagiri Vihāra appears to have been a center for Theravadin Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna teachings.[17]
Abolition of other Theravāda traditions
Some scholars have held that the rulers of Sri Lanka ensured that Theravāda remained traditional, and that this characteristic contrasts with Indian Buddhism.[18] However, before the 12th century CE, more rulers of Sri Lanka gave support and patronage to the Abhayagiri Theravādins, and travelers such as Faxian saw the Abhayagiri Theravādins as the main Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka.[19][20]
The trend of Abhayagiri Vihara being the dominant Theravāda sect changed in the 12th century CE, when the Mahāvihāra gained the political support of King Parakkamabāhu I (1153–1186 CE), and completely abolished the Abhayagiri and Jetavana Theravāda traditions.[21][22] The Theravāda monks of these two traditions were then defrocked and given the choice of either returning to the laity permanently, or attempting re-ordination under the Mahāvihāra tradition as "novices" (sāmaṇera).[22][23] Richard Gombrich writes:[24]
Though the chronicle says that he reunited the Sangha, this expression glosses over the fact that what he did was to abolish the Abhayagiri and Jetavana Nikāyas. He laicized many monks from the Mahā Vihāra Nikāya, all the monks in the other two – and then allowed the better ones among the latter to become novices in the now 'unified' Sangha, into which they would have in due course to be reordained.
Parakkamabāhu also appointed a Sangharaja, or "King of the Sangha," a monk who would preside over the Sangha and its ordinations in Sri Lanka, assisted by two deputies.[24]
Regarding the differences between these three Theravāda traditions, the Cūḷavaṁsa laments, "Despite the vast efforts made in every way by former kings down to the present day, the Bhikkhus turned away in their demeanor from one another and took delight in all kinds of strife."[25]
Lineage of nuns
A few years after the arrival of Elder Mahinda, Bhikkhuni Sanghamitta, who is also believed to be the daughter of Emperor Ashoka, came to Sri Lanka. She started the first nun's order in Sri Lanka, but this order of nuns died out in Sri Lanka in the 11th century and in Burma in the 13th. In 429 CE, by request of China's emperor, nuns from Anuradhapura were sent to China to establish the Nun's Order. The order was then spread to Korea. In 1996, 11 selected Sri Lankan nuns were ordained fully as Bhikkhunis by a team of Theravāda monks in concert with a team of Korean Nuns in India. There is disagreement among Theravāda vinaya authorities as to whether such ordinations are valid. In the last few years the head of the Dambulla chapter of the Siyam Nikaya in Sri Lanka has carried out ordination ceremonies for hundreds of nuns. This has been criticized by other leading figures in the Siyam Nikaya and Amarapura Nikaya, and the governing council of Burmese Buddhism has declared that there can be no valid ordination of nuns in modern times, though some Burmese monks disagree with this.[26]
Spread to Southeast Asia
According to Mahavamsa, a Sri Lankan chronicle, after the conclusion of the Third Buddhist Council, a missionary was also sent to Suvannabhumi where two monks Sona and Uttara, are said to have proceeded.[27] Scholar opinions differ as to where exactly this land of Suvannabhumi is located, but Suvannabhumi is believed to be located somewhere in the area which now includes lower Burma, Thailand, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra Island.
Before the 12th century, the areas of Thailand, Burma, Laos, and Cambodia were dominated by various Buddhist sects from India, and included the teachings of Mahāyāna Buddhism.[28][29] In the 7th century, Yijing noted in his travels that in these areas, all major sects of Indian Buddhism flourished.[28]
Though there are some early accounts that have been interpreted as Theravāda in Burma, the surviving records show that most Burmese Buddhism incorporated Mahāyāna, and used Sanskrit rather than Pali.[29][30][31] After the decline of Buddhism in India, missions of monks from Sri Lanka gradually converted Burmese Buddhism to Theravāda, and in the next two centuries also brought Theravāda Buddhism to the areas of Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, where it supplanted previous forms of Buddhism.[32]
The Mon and Pyu were among the earliest people to inhabit Burma. Recent archaeological research at a Pyu settlement in the Samon Valley (around 100 km south-east of Bagan) has shown that they had trade links with India from 500-400 BC and with China around 200 BC.[33] Chinese sources which have been dated to around 240 A.D. mention a Buddhist kingdom by the name of Lin-Yang, which some scholars have identified as the ancient Pyu kingdom of Beikthano[34][35] 300 km north of Yangon. The oldest surviving Buddhist texts in the Pali language come from Pyu city of Sri Ksetra, the text which is dated from the mid 5th A.D. to mid 6th A.D. is written on twenty-leaf manuscript of solid gold.[36] The Burmese slowly became Theravādan when they came into contact with the Pyu and Mon civilization. The Thais also slowly became Theravādan as they came into contact with the Mon civilization.
During the pre-modern era, Southeast Asian Buddhism included numerous elements which could be called tantric and esoteric (such as the use of mantras and yantras in elaborate rituals). The French scholar François Bizot has called this Tantric Theravada, and his textual studies show that it was a major tradition in Cambodia and Thailand.[37] Some of these practices are still prevalent in Cambodia and Laos today.
Despite its success in Southeast Asia, Theravāda Buddhism in China has generally been limited to areas bordering Theravāda countries.
Modernisation and spread to the West
In the 19th century began a process of mutual influence of both Asian Theravadins and a Western audience interested in ancient wisdom. Especially Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, founders of the Theosophical Society had a profound role in this process. In Theravāda countries a lay vipassana practice developed. From the 1970s on, Western interest gave way to the growth of the so-called Vipassana movement in the West.[38]
Reaction against Western colonialism
Buddhist revivalism has also reacted against changes in Buddhism caused by colonialist regimes. Western colonialists and Christian missionaries deliberately imposed a particular type of Christian monasticism on Buddhist clergy in Sri Lanka and colonies in Southeast Asia, restricting monks' activities to individual purification and temple ministries.[39] Prior to British colonial control, monks in both Sri Lanka and Burma had been responsible for the education of the children of lay people, and had produced large bodies of literature. After the British takeover, Buddhist temples were strictly administered and were only permitted to use their funds on strictly religious activities. Christian ministers were given control of the education system and their pay became state funding for missions.[40]
Foreign, especially British, rule had an enervating effect on the sangha.[41] According to Walpola Rahula, Christian missionaries displaced and appropriated the educational, social, and welfare activities of the monks, and inculcated a permanent shift in views regarding the proper position of monks in society through their institutional influence upon the elite.[41] Many monks in post-colonial times have dedicated themselves to undoing these changes.[42] Movements intending to restore Buddhism's place in society have developed in both Sri Lanka and Burma.[43]
One consequence of the reaction against Western colonialism has been a modernisation of Theravāda Buddhism: Western elements have been incorporated, and meditation practice has opened to a lay audience. Modernized forms of Theravādan practice have spread to the West.[38]
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka Theravadins were looking at Western culture to find means to revitalize their own tradition. Christian missionaries were threatening the indigenous culture.[44] As a reaction to this, Theravadins started to propagate Theravāda Buddhism. They were aided by the Theosophists, who were dedicated to the search for wisdom within ancient sources, including Buddhism and the Pali Canon. Anagarika Dharmapala was one of the Theravāda leaders with whom the Theosophists sided. Dharmapala tried to reinstate vipassana, using the Visuddhimagga and the Pali Canon as a foundation. Dharmapala reached out to the middle classes, offering them religious practice and a religious identity, which were used to withstand the British imperialists. As a result of Dharmapapla's efforts lay practitioners started to practise meditation, which had been reserved specifically for the monks.[45]
The translation and publication of the Pali Canon by the Pali Text Society made the Pali Canon available to a lay audience for the first time in history, not only in the West, but also in the East. Western lay interest in Theravāda Buddhism was promoted by the Theosophical Society, and endured until the beginning of the 20th century. During the 1970s interest rose again, leading to a surge of Westerners searching for enlightenment, and the republishing of the Pali Canon, first in print, and later on the internet.
With the coming to power in 1851 of King Mongkut, who had been a monk himself for twenty-seven years, the sangha, like the kingdom, became steadily more centralized and hierarchical, and its links to the state more institutionalized. Mongkut was a distinguished scholar of Pali Buddhist scripture. Moreover, at that time the immigration of numbers of monks from Burma was introducing the more rigorous discipline characteristic of the Mon sangha. Influenced by the Mon and guided by his own understanding of the Tipitaka, Mongkut began a reform movement that later became the basis for the Dhammayuttika order of monks.
In the early 1900s, Thailand's Ajahn Sao Kantasilo Mahathera and his student, Mun Bhuridatta led the Thai Forest Tradition revival movement. In the 20th century notable practitioners included Ajahn Thate, Ajahn Maha Bua and Ajahn Chah.[46] It was later spread globally by Ajahn Mun's students including Ajahn Thate, Ajahn Maha Bua and Ajahn Chah and several Western disciples, among whom the most senior is Luang Por Ajahn Sumedho.
Burmese Theravāda Buddhism has had a profound influence on modern vipassana practice, both for lay practitioners in Asia as lay practitioners in the West.
The so-called "New Burmese method" was developed by U Nārada and popularized by his students Mahasi Sayadaw and Nyanaponika Thera. Another prominent teacher is Bhikkhu Bodhi, a student of Nyanaponika. The New Burmese Method strongly emphasizes vipassana over samatha. It is regarded as a simplification of traditional Buddhist meditation techniques, suitable not only for monks but also for lay-practitioners. The method has been popularized in the West by teachers as Joseph Goldstein, Jack Kornfield, Tara Brach, Gil Fronsdal and Sharon Salzberg.
The Ledi lineage begins with Ledi Sayadaw.[47] S.N. Goenka is a well-known teacher in the Ledi-lineage. According to S. N. Goenka, vipassana-techniques are essentially non-sectarian in character, and have universal application. One need not convert to Buddhism to practice these styles of meditation. Meditation centers teaching the vipassanā popularized by S. N. Goenka exist now in India, Asia, North and South America, Europe, Australia, Middle East and Africa.
Modern developments
The following modern trends or movements have been identified.[48][web 5]
- Modernism: attempts to adapt to the modern world and adopt some of its ideas; including, among other things
- Reformism: attempts to restore a supposed earlier, ideal state of Buddhism; includes in particular the adoption of Western scholars' theories of original Buddhism (in recent times the "Western scholarly interpretation of Buddhism" is the official Buddhism prevailing in Sri Lanka and Thailand.[49])
- Ultimatism: tendency to concentrate on advanced teachings such as the Four Noble Truths at the expense of more elementary ones
- Neotraditionalism; includes among other things
- Revival of ritualism
- Remythologization
- Insight meditation
- Social action
- Devotional religiosity
- Reaction to Buddhist nationalism
- Renewal of forest monks
- Revival of samatha meditation
- Revival of the Theravāda bhikkhuni lineage (not recognized in Thailand)
Doctrinal differences with other schools
The Sthāvirīya, from which Theravāda is derived, differed from other early Buddhist schools on a variety of teachings,[50] which are maintained by the Theravāda school.[citation needed] The differences resulted from the systemization of the Buddhist teachings, which was preserved in the Abdhidhammas of the various schools.[51]
The Abhidhamma is "a restatement of the doctrine of the Buddha in strictly formalised language [...] assumed to constitute a consistent system of philosophy".[52] Its aim is not the empirical verification of the Buddhist teachings,[52] but "to set forth the correct interpretation of the Buddha's statements in the Sutra to restate his 'system' with perfect accuracy".[52]
The Arahant is perfect
The Mahāsāṃghika believed that Arahants could regress, while the Theravāda believes that the Arahant has an "incorruptible nature".[53]
Insight is sudden and perfect
According to the Theravāda, "progress in understanding comes all at once, 'insight' (abhisamaya) does not come 'gradually' (successively - anapurva)".[54] This is reflected in the Theravāda-account on the four levels of attainment, in which the attainment of the four paths appears suddenly, and the defilements are rooted out at once.[e] The same stance is taken in the contemporary Vipassana movement, especially the so-called "New Burmese Method".
The commentaries gave a new definition of "a 'principle' or 'element' (dharma)":[56]
[D]harmas are what have (or 'hold', 'maintain', dhr is the nearest equivalent in the language to the English 'have') their own own-being (svabhava). It is added that they naturally (yathasvabhavatas) have this through conditions (pratyaya). The idea is that they are distinct, definable, principles in the constitution of the universe."[57]
Theravāda promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis." This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, application of knowledge, and critical reasoning. However, the scriptures of the Theravadin tradition also emphasize heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged.
Theravāda orthodoxy takes the seven stages of purification as its basic outline of the path to be followed.
The Theravāda Path starts with learning, to be followed by practice, culminating in the realization of Nirvana.[f]
The Three Characteristics
Throughout the Pali-canon two characteristics of all conditioned phenomena and one characteristic of all dhammas are mentioned. The Theravāda tradition has grouped them together. Insight into these three characteristics is the entry to the Buddhist path:
- Anicca (impermanence): All conditioned phenomena are subject to change, including physical characteristics, qualities, assumptions, theories, knowledge, etc. Nothing is permanent, because, for something to be permanent, there has to be an unchanging cause behind it. Since all causes are recursively bound together, there can be no ultimate unchanging cause.
- Dukkha (suffering): Craving causes suffering, since what is craved is transitory, changing, and perishing. The craving for impermanent things causes disappointment and sorrow. There is a tendency to label practically everything in the world, as either "good", "comfortable" or "satisfying"; or "bad", "uncomfortable", and "unsatisfying". Labeling things in terms of like and dislike creates suffering. If one succeeds in giving up the tendency to label things, and freeing himself from the instincts that drive him towards attaining what he himself labels collectively as "liking", he attains the ultimate freedom. The problem, the cause, the solution and the implementation, all of these are within oneself, not outside.
- Anatta (not-self): all dhammas lack a fixed, unchanging 'essence'; there is no permanent, essential Self. A living being is a composite of the five aggregates (khandhas), which is the physical forms (rupa), feelings or sensations (vedana), perception (sanna), mental formations (sankhara), and consciousness (vinnana), none of which can be identified as one's Self. From the moment of conception, all entities (including all living beings) are subject to a process of continuous change. A practitioner should, on the other hand, develop and refine his or her mind to a state so as to see through this phenomenon. Truly understanding this counter-intuitive concept of Buddhism requires direct and personal experience. This is given in vipassana-practice, closely watching the continuous changes in the Five Aggregates.[59]
Dukkha - The Four Noble Truths
The Four Noble Truths are described as follows:
- Dukkha (suffering): This can be somewhat broadly classified into three categories. Inherent suffering, or the suffering one undergoes in all the worldly activities, what one suffers in day-to-day life: birth, aging, diseases, death, sadness and so on. In short, all that one feels, from separating from "loving" attachments, and/or associating with "hating" attachments, is encompassed into the term. The second class of suffering, called Suffering due to Change, implies that things suffer due to attaching themselves to a momentary state which is held to be "good"; when that state is changed, things are subjected to suffering. The third, termed Sankhara Dukkha, is the subtlest. Beings suffer simply by not realizing that they are mere aggregates with no definite, unchanging identity.
- Dukkha Samudaya (cause of suffering): Craving, which leads to Attachment and Bondage, is the cause of suffering. Formally, this is termed Tanha. It can be classified into three instinctive drives. Kama Tanha is the Craving for any pleasurable sense object (which involves sight, sound, touch, taste, smell and mental perceptives). Bhava Tanha is the Craving for attachment to an ongoing process, which appears in various forms, including the longing for existence. Vibhava Tanha is the Craving for detachment from a process, which includes non-existence and causes the longing for self-annihilation.
- Dukkha Nirodha (cessation of suffering): One cannot possibly adjust the whole world to one's taste in order to eliminate suffering and hope that it will remain so forever. This would violate the chief principle of Change. Instead, one adjusts one's own mind through detachment so that the Change, of whatever nature, has no effect on one's peace of mind. Briefly stated, the third Noble Truth implies that elimination of the cause (craving) eliminates the result (suffering). This is implied by the scriptural quote by The Buddha, 'Whatever may result from a cause, shall be eliminated by the elimination of the cause'.
- Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Patipada (pathway to freedom from suffering): This is the Noble Eightfold Pathway towards freedom or Nirvana. The path can roughly be rendered into English as right view, right intention, right speech, right actions, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.
In Theravāda, the cause of human existence and suffering (dukkha) is identified as craving (tanha), which carries with it the defilements (kilesas). Those defilements that bind humans to the cycle of rebirth are classified into a set of ten "Fetters," while those defilements - sometimes referred to in English as "toxic mental states" - that impede concentration (samadhi) are presented in a fivefold set called the "Five Hindrances."[web 6] The level of defilement can be coarse, medium, and subtle. It is a phenomenon that frequently arises, remains temporarily and then vanishes. Theravadins believe defilements are not only harmful to oneself, but also harmful to others. They are the driving force behind all inhumanities a human being can commit.
There are three stages of defilements. During the stage of passivity the defilements lie dormant at the base of the mental continuum as latent tendencies (anusaya), but through the impact of sensory stimulus, they will manifest (pariyutthana) themselves at the surface of consciousness in the form of unwholesome thoughts, emotions, and volitions. If they gather additional strength, the defilements will reach the dangerous stage of transgression (vitikkama), which will then involve physical or vocal actions.
Theravadins believe these defilements are habits born out of ignorance that afflict the minds of all unenlightened beings, who cling to them and their influence in their ignorance of the truth. But in reality, those mental defilements are nothing more than taints that have afflicted the mind, creating suffering and stress. Unenlightened beings cling to the body, under the assumption that it represents a Self, whereas in reality the body is an impermanent phenomenon formed from the four basic elements. Often characterized by earth, water, fire and air, in the early Buddhist texts these are defined to be abstractions representing the sensorial qualities solidity, fluidity, temperature, and mobility, respectively.[g]
The mental defilements' frequent instigation and manipulation of the mind is believed to have prevented the mind from seeing the true nature of reality. Unskillful behavior in turn can strengthen the defilements, but following the Noble Eightfold Path can weaken or eradicate them. Avijja is destroyed by insight.
Cause and Effect
The Concept of Cause and Effect, or Causality, is a key concept in Theravāda, and indeed, in Buddhism as a whole. This concept is expressed in several ways, including the Four Noble Truths, and most importantly, the Paticca-Samuppāda (dependent co-arising).
Abhidhamma in Theravāda canon differentiate between a root cause (Hetu) and facilitating cause (pacca). By the combined interaction of both these, an effect is brought about. On top of this view, a logic is built and elaborated whose most supple form can be seen in the Paticca Samuppāda.
This concept is then used to question the nature of suffering and to elucidate the way out of it, as expressed in the Four Noble Truths. It is also employed in several suttas to refute several philosophies, or any belief system that takes a fixed mindset, or absolute beliefs about the nature of reality.
By taking away a cause, the result will also disappear. From this follows the Buddhist path to end suffering and existence in samsara.
Theravāda orthodoxy takes the seven stages of purification as the basic outline of the path to be followed. This basic outline is based on the threefold discipline of Sīla (ethics or discipline), Samādhi (meditative concentration), Pañña (understanding or wisdom). The emphasis is on understanding the three marks of existence, which removes vijnana, ignorance. Understanding destroys the Ten Fetters and leads to Nirvana.
Theravadins believe that every individual is personally responsible for their own self-awakening and liberation, as they are the ones that were responsible for their own actions and consequences (Sanskrit: karma; Pali: kamma). Great emphasis is placed upon applying the knowledge through direct experience and personal realization, than believing about the known information about the nature of reality as said by the Buddha.
Noble Eightfold Path and Threefold Discipline
In the Sutta Pitaka the path to liberation is described by the Noble Eightfold Path:
The Blessed One said, "Now what, monks, is the Noble Eightfold Path? Right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.[web 8]
The Noble Eightfold Path can also be summarized as the Three Noble Disciplines.[web 9][60] These are known as discipline (sīla), wisdom (paññā), and training of mind (samādhi).[web 10]
Seven purifications
The Visuddhimagga, written in the fifth century CE by Buddhaghosa, has become the orthodox account of the Theravāda path to liberation. It gives a sequence of seven purifications, based on the sequence of sila, samadhi and prajna.
It is composed of three sections, which discuss: 1) Sīla (ethics or discipline); 2) Samādhi (meditative concentration); 3) Pañña (understanding or wisdom).
- The first section (part 1) explains the rules of discipline, and the method for finding a correct temple to practice, or how to meet a good teacher.
- The second section (part 2) describes samatha's practice, object by object (see Kammatthana for the list of the forty traditional objects). It mentions different stages of concentration.
- The third section (part 3-7) is a description of the five skandhas (aggregates), ayatanas, the Four Noble Truths, dependent origination (Pratitya-samutpada), and the practice of vipassana through the development of wisdom. It emphasizes different forms of knowledge emerging because of the practice. This part shows a great analytical effort specific to Buddhist philosophy.
The seven purifications are:[61]
- Purification of Conduct (sīla-visuddhi)
- Purification of Mind (citta-visuddhi)
- Purification of View (ditthi-visuddhi)
- Purification by Overcoming Doubt (kankha-vitarana-visuddhi)
- Purification by Knowledge and Vision of What Is Path and Not Path (maggamagga-ñanadassana-visuddhi)
- Purification by Knowledge and Vision of the Course of Practice (patipada-ñanadassana-visuddhi)
- Knowledge of contemplation of rise and fall (udayabbayanupassana-nana)
- Knowledge of contemplation of dissolution (bhanganupassana-nana)
- Knowledge of appearance as terror (bhayatupatthana-nana)
- Knowledge of contemplation of danger (adinavanupassana-nana)
- Knowledge of contemplation of dispassion (nibbidanupassana-nana)
- Knowledge of desire for deliverance (muncitukamyata-nana)
- Knowledge of contemplation of reflection (patisankhanupassana-nana)
- Knowledge of equanimity about formations (sankharupekka-nana)
- Conformity knowledge (anuloma-nana)
- Purification by Knowledge and Vision (ñanadassana-visuddhi)
The "Purification by Knowledge and Vision" is the culmination of the practice, in four stages leading to liberation and Nirvana.
The emphasis in this system is on understanding the three marks of existence, dukkha, anatta, anicca. This emphasis is recognizable in the value that is given to vipassana over samatha, especially in the contemporary Vipassana movement.
Theravāda Buddhist meditation practices fall into two broad categories: samatha, and vipassanā.[web 11] This distinction is not made in the sutras, but in the Visuddhimagga.[web 12] Some common terms encountered in the Theravāda practice of meditation are:
Meditation (Pali: Bhavana) means the positive reinforcement of one's mind. Broadly categorized into Samatha and Vipassana, Meditation is the key tool implemented in attaining Jhana. Samatha literally means "to make skillful," and has other renderings also, among which are "tranquilizing, calming," "visualizing," and "achieving." Vipassana means "insight" or "abstract understanding." In this context, Samatha Meditation makes a person skillful in concentration of mind. Once the mind is sufficiently concentrated, Vipassana allows one to see through the veil of ignorance.
In order to be free from suffering and stress, Theravadins believe that the defilements need to be permanently uprooted. Initially the defilements are restrained through mindfulness to prevent them from taking over mental and bodily action. They are then uprooted through internal investigation, analysis, experience and understanding of their true nature by using Jhana. This process needs to be repeated for each and every defilement. The practice will then lead the meditator to realize Nirvana.
Samatha meditation
The samatha meditation in Theravāda is usually involved with the concepts of Kammaṭṭhāna which literally stands for "place of work"; in this context, it is the "place" or object of concentration (Pāli: Ārammana) where the mind is at work. In samatha meditation, the mind is set at work concentrated on one particular entity. There are forty (40) such classic objects (entities) used in samatha meditation, which are termed Kammaṭṭhāna. By acquiring a Kammaṭṭhāna and practising samatha meditation, one would be able to attain certain elevated states of awareness and skill of the mind called Jhana. Practising samatha has samadhi (concentration) as its ultimate goal.
It should be noted that samatha is not a method that is unique to Buddhism. In the suttas it is said to be implemented in other contemporary religions in India at the time of Buddha. In fact, the first teachers of Siddhartha, before they attained the state of awakening (Pāli: Bodhi), are said to have been quite skillful in samatha (although the term had not been coined yet). In the Pali Canon discourses, the Buddha frequently instructs his disciples to practice samadhi (concentration) in order to establish and develop Jhana (full concentration). Jhana is the instrument used by the Buddha himself to penetrate the true nature of phenomena (through investigation and direct experience) and to reach Enlightenment.[web 13] Right Concentration (samma-samadhi) is one of the elements in the Noble Eightfold Path. Samadhi can be developed from mindfulness developed with kammaṭṭhāna such as concentration on breathing (anapanasati), from visual objects (kasina), and repetition of phrases. The traditional list contains 40 objects of meditation (kammaṭṭhāna) to be used for Samatha Meditation. Every object has a specific goal; for example, meditation on the parts of the body (kayanupassana or kayagathasathi) will result in a lessening of attachment to our own bodies and those of others, resulting in a reduction of sensual desires. Mettā (loving kindness) generates the feelings of goodwill and happiness toward ourselves and other beings; metta practice serves as an antidote to ill-will, wrath and fear.
Vipassanā meditation
Vipassanā is the ability to see everything as is. "Vi" in pali means either to pierce like a sword or to untangle the strands of..., while "passanā" means to see. Vipassanā then is concerned with seeing through the veil of ignorance (Pāli: Avijjā). While all major religions have a mystical tradition which deals with this process, the centrality of these practices in the religion is unique to Buddhism. Chiefly, vipassanā is involved in breaking the ten Fetters that bind one to the ever-iterating cycle of birth and death i.e. samsara. Some teachers do not distinguish between the two methods, rather prescribing meditation methods that develop both concentration and insight.
Path and fruit
Practice leads to mundane and supramundane wisdom, leading to Nirvana:
The term "supramundane" [lokuttara] applies exclusively to that which transcends the world, that is the nine supramundane states: Nibbana, the four noble paths (magga) leading to Nibbana, and their corresponding fruits (phala) which experience the bliss of Nibbana.[web 12]
Mundane wisdom is the insight in the three marks of existence.[web 12] The development of this insight leads to four supramundane paths and fruits:
Each path is a momentary peak experience directly apprehending Nibbana and permanently cutting off certain defilements.[web 12]
Each path is followed by its supramundane fruit:
whereas the path performs the active function of cutting off defilements, fruition simply enjoys the bliss and peace that result when the path has completed its task. Also, where the path is limited to a single moment of consciousness, the fruition that follows immediately on the path endures for two or three moments. And while each of the four paths occurs only once and can never be repeated, fruition remains accessible to the noble disciple.[web 12]
Levels of attainment
Four levels of supramundane[web 12] wisdom can be attained:[web 14]
- Stream-Enterers: Those who have destroyed the first three fetters (false view of Self, doubt, and clinging to rites and rituals);[web 15][web 16]
- Once-Returners: Those who have destroyed the first three fetters and have lessened the fetters of lust and hatred;
- Non-Returners: Those who have destroyed the five lower fetters, which bind beings to the world of the senses;[62]
- Arahants: Those who have reached Enlightenment—realized Nirvana, and have reached the quality of deathlessness—are free from all the fermentations of defilement. Their ignorance, craving and attachments have ended.[62]
Nirvana (Sanskrit: निर्वाण, Nirvāṇa; Pali: निब्बान, Nibbāna; Thai: นิพพาน, Nípphaan) is the ultimate goal of Theravadins. It is a state where the fire of the passions has been 'blown out', and the person is liberated from the repeated cycle of birth, illness, aging and death. In the Saṃyojanapuggala Sutta of the Aṅgutarra Nikaya, the Buddha describes four kinds of persons and tells us that the last person - the Arahant - has attained Nibbana by removing all 10 fetters that bind beings to samsara:
"In the Arahant. In this person, monks, all of the fetters ['saṃyojanāni'] are gotten rid of that pertain to this world, give rise to rebirth, and give rise to becoming."[63]
According to the early scriptures, the Nirvana attained by Arahants is identical to that attained by the Buddha himself, as there is only one type of Nirvana.[web 17] Theravadins believe the Buddha was superior to Arahants because the Buddha discovered the path all by himself and taught it to others (i,e., metaphorically turning the wheel of Dhamma). Arahants, on the other hand, attained Nirvana due in part to the Buddha's teachings. Theravadins revere the Buddha as a supremely gifted person but also recognize the existence of other such Buddhas in the distant past and future. Maitreya (Pali: Metteyya), for example, is mentioned very briefly in the Pali Canon as a Buddha who will come in the distant future.
Pali Canon
The Theravāda school upholds the Pali Canon or Tipitaka as the most authoritative collection of texts on the teachings of Gautama Buddha. The Sutta and Vinaya portion of the Tipitaka shows considerable overlap in content to the Agamas, the parallel collections used by non-Theravāda schools in India which are preserved in Chinese and partially in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Tibetan, and the various non-Theravāda Vinayas. On this basis, both these sets of texts are generally believed to be the oldest and most authoritative texts on Buddhism by scholars. It is also believed that much of the Pali Canon, which is still used by Theravāda communities, was transmitted to Sri Lanka during the reign of Ashoka. After being orally transmitted (as was the custom in those days for religious texts) for some centuries, were finally committed to writing in the last century BC, at what the Theravāda usually reckons as the fourth council, in Sri Lanka. Theravāda is one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the whole complete set of its Buddhist canon into writing.[64]Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically "Theravādan," but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey:
The Theravādans, then, may have added texts to the Canon for some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period.[65]
The Pali Tipitaka consists of three parts: the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Of these, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is believed to be a later addition to the first two pitakas, which, in the opinion of many scholars, were the only two pitakas at the time of the First Buddhist Council. The Pali Abhidhamma was not recognized outside the Theravāda school.
The Tipitaka is composed of 45 volumes in the Thai edition, 40 in the Burmese and 58 in the Sinhalese, and a full set of the Tipitaka is usually kept in its own (medium-sized) cupboard.
In the 4th or 5th century Buddhaghosa Thera wrote the first Pali commentaries to much of the Tipitaka (which were based on much older manuscripts, mostly in old Sinhalese). After him many other monks wrote various commentaries, which have become part of the Theravāda heritage. These texts do not have the same authority as the Tipitaka does, though Buddhaghosas Visuddhimagga is a cornerstone of the commentarial tradition.
The commentaries, together with the Abhidhamma, define the specific Theravāda heritage. Related versions of the Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka were common to all the early Buddhist schools, and therefore do not define only Theravāda, but also the other early Buddhist schools, and perhaps the teaching of Gautama Buddha himself.
Theravāda Buddhists consider much of what is found in the Chinese and Tibetan Mahāyāna scriptural collections to be apocryphal, meaning that they are not authentic words of the Buddha.[66]
Lay and monastic life
Distinction between lay and monastic life
Traditionally, Theravāda Buddhism has observed a distinction between the practices suitable for a lay person and the practices undertaken by ordained monks (in ancient times, there was a separate body of practices for nuns). While the possibility of significant attainment by laymen is not entirely disregarded by the Theravāda, it generally occupies a position of less prominence than in the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna traditions, with monastic life being hailed as a superior method of achieving Nirvana.[67] The view that Theravāda, unlike other Buddhist schools, is primarily a monastic tradition has, however, been disputed.[h]
This distinction between ordained monks and laypeople — as well as the distinction between those practices advocated by the Pali Canon, and the folk religious elements embraced by many monks — have motivated some scholars to consider Theravāda Buddhism to be composed of multiple separate traditions, overlapping though still distinct. Most prominently, the anthropologist Melford Spiro in his work Buddhism and Society separated Burmese Theravāda into three groups: Apotropaic Buddhism (concerned with providing protection from evil spirits), Kammatic Buddhism (concerned with making merit for a future birth), and Nibbanic Buddhism (concerned with attaining the liberation of Nirvana, as described in the Tipitaka). He stresses that all three are firmly rooted in the Pali Canon. These categories are not accepted by all scholars, and are usually considered non-exclusive by those who employ them.
The role of lay people has traditionally been primarily occupied with activities that are commonly termed merit making (falling under Spiro's category of kammatic Buddhism). Merit making activities include offering food and other basic necessities to monks, making donations to temples and monasteries, burning incense or lighting candles before images of the Buddha, and chanting protective or merit-making verses from the Pali Canon. Some lay practitioners have always chosen to take a more active role in religious affairs, while still maintaining their lay status. Dedicated lay men and women sometimes act as trustees or custodians for their temples, taking part in the financial planning and management of the temple. Others may volunteer significant time in tending to the mundane needs of local monks (by cooking, cleaning, maintaining temple facilities, etc.). Lay activities have traditionally not extended to study of the Pali scriptures, nor the practice of meditation, though in the 20th Century these areas have become more accessible to the lay community, especially in Thailand.
A number of senior monastics in the Thai Forest Tradition, including Ajahn Buddhadasa, Luang Ta Maha Bua, Ajahn Plien Panyapatipo, Ajahn Pasanno, and Ajahn Jayasaro, have begun teaching meditation retreats outside of the monastery for lay disciples.
Ajahn Chah, a disciple of Ajahn Mun, set up a monastic lineage called Cittaviveka with his disciple Ajahn Sumedho, at Chithurst in West Sussex, England. Ajahn Sumedho later founded the Amaravati Buddhist Monastery in Hertfordshire, which has a retreat center specifically for lay retreats. Sumedho extended this to Harnham in Northumberland as Aruna Ratanagiri under the present guidance of Ajahn Munindo, another disciple of Ajahn Chah.
Scholar monks and rural monks
Nirvana, the highest goal of Theravāda Buddhism, is attained through study and the practice of morality, meditation and wisdom (sila, samadhi, panna). The goal of Nirvana (and its associated techniques) have traditionally been seen as the domain of the fully ordained monastic, whereas many of the same techniques can be used by laypeople to generate happiness in their lives, without focusing on Nirvana. Monastic roles in the Theravāda can be broadly described as being split between the role of the (often urban) scholar monk and the (often rural or forest) meditation monk. Both types of monks serve their communities as spiritual teachers and officiants by presiding over spiritual ceremonies and providing instruction in basic Buddhist morality and teachings.
Scholar monks undertake the path of studying and preserving the Pali literature of the Theravāda. They may devote little time to the practice of meditation, but may attain great respect and renown by becoming masters of a particular section of the Pali Canon or its commentaries. Masters of the Abhidhamma, called Abhidhammika, are particularly respected in the scholastic tradition.
Meditation monks, often called forest monks because of their association with certain wilderness-dwelling traditions, are considered to be specialists in meditation. While some forest monks may undertake significant study of the Pali Canon, in general meditation monks are expected to learn primarily from their meditation experiences and personal teachers, and may not know more of the Tipitaka than is necessary to participate in liturgical life and to provide a foundation for fundamental Buddhist teachings. More so than the scholastic tradition, the meditation tradition is associated with the attainment of certain supernatural powers described in both Pali sources and folk tradition. These powers include the attainment of Nirvana, mind-reading, supernatural power over material objects and their own material bodies, seeing and conversing with gods and beings living in hell, and remembering their past lives. These powers are called abhiñña. Sometimes the remain of the cremated bone fragment of an accomplished forest monk is believed able to transform itself into crystal-like relics (sārira-dhātu).
The minimum age for ordaining as a Buddhist monk is 20 years, reckoned from conception. However, boys under that age are allowed to ordain as novices (samanera), performing a ceremony such as Shinbyu in Burma. Novices shave their heads, wear the yellow robes, and observe ten basic precepts. Although no specific minimum age for novices is mentioned in the scriptures, traditionally boys as young as seven are accepted. This tradition follows the story of the Lord Buddha's son, Rahula, who was allowed to become a novice at the age of seven. Monks follow 227 rules of discipline, while nuns follow 311 rules.
In most Theravāda countries, it is a common practice for young men to ordain as monks for a fixed period of time. In Thailand and Burma, young men typically ordain for the 3 month Rain Retreat (vassa), though shorter or longer periods of ordination are not rare. Traditionally, temporary ordination was even more flexible among Laotians. Once they had undergone their initial ordination as young men, Laotian men were permitted to temporarily ordain again at any time, though married men were expected to seek their wife's permission. Throughout Southeast Asia, there is little stigma attached to leaving the monastic life. Monks regularly leave the robes after acquiring an education, or when compelled by family obligations or ill health.
Ordaining as a monk, even for a short period, is seen as having many virtues. In many Southeast Asian cultures, it is seen as a means for a young man to "repay" his parents for their work and effort in raising him, because the merit from his ordination accrues to them as well. Thai men who have ordained as a monk may be seen as more fit husbands by Thai women, who refer to men who have served as monks with a colloquial term meaning "ripe" to indicate that they are more mature and ready for marriage. Particularly in rural areas, temporary ordination of boys and young men traditionally gave peasant boys an opportunity to gain an education in temple schools without committing to a permanent monastic life.
In Sri Lanka, temporary ordination is not practiced, and a monk leaving the order is frowned upon. The continuing influence of the caste system in Sri Lanka may play a role in the taboo against temporary ordination and leaving the monkhood. Though Sri Lankan monastic nikayas are often organized along caste lines, men who ordain as monks temporarily pass outside of the conventional caste system, and as such during their time as monks may act (or be treated) in a way that would not be in line with the expected duties and privileges of their caste.
Men and women born in Western countries, who become Buddhists as adults, wish to become monks or nuns. It is possible, and one can live as a monk or nun in the country they were born in, seek monks or nuns which has gathered in a different Western country or move to a monastery in countries like Sri Lanka or Thailand. It is seen as being easier to live a life as a monk or nun in countries where people generally live by the culture of Buddhism, since it is difficult to live by the rules of a monk or a nun in a Western country. For instance; a Theravāda monk or nun is not allowed to work, handle money, listen to music, cook and so on, which are extremely difficult rules to live by in cultures which do not embrace Buddhism. The recommendation is usually that to be able to live fully as a monk or nun you should move to a monastery in a country with a culture that embraces Theravāda Buddhism.
Some of the more well-known Theravādan monks are: Ajahn Mun Bhuridatta, Ajahn Chah, Ledi Sayadaw, Ajahn Plien Panyapatipo, Ajahn Sumedho, Ajahn Khemadhammo, Ajahn Brahm, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Buddhadasa, Mahasi Sayadaw, Nyanaponika Thera, Preah Maha Ghosananda, Sayadaw U Pandita, Ajahn Amaro, Ajahn Sucitto, Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Walpola Rahula, Bhante Henepola Gunaratana, and Bhante Yogavacara Rahula.
Monastic practices
The practices usually vary in different sub-schools and monasteries within Theravāda. But in the most orthodox forest monastery, the monk usually models his practice and lifestyle on that of the Buddha and his first generation of disciples by living close to nature in forest, mountains and caves. Forest monasteries still keep alive the ancient traditions through following the Buddhist monastic code of discipline in all its detail and developing meditation in secluded forests.
In a typical daily routine at the monastery during the 3 month vassa period, the monk will wake up before dawn and will begin the day with group chanting and meditation. At dawn the monks will go out to surrounding villages bare-footed on alms-round and will have the only meal of the day before noon by eating from the bowl by hand. Most of the time is spent on Dhamma study and meditation. Sometimes the abbot or a senior monk will give a Dhamma talk to the visitors. Laity who stay at the monastery will have to abide by the traditional eight Buddhist precepts.
The life of the monk or nun in a community is much more complex than the life of the forest monk. In the Buddhist society of Sri Lanka, most monks spend hours every day in taking care of the needs of lay people such as preaching bana,[69] accepting alms, officiating funerals, teaching dhamma to adults and children in addition to providing social services to the community.
After the end of the Vassa period, many of the monks will go out far away from the monastery to find a remote place (usually in the forest) where they can hang their umbrella tents and where it is suitable for the work of self-development. When they go wandering, they walk barefoot, and go wherever they feel inclined. Only those requisites which are necessary will be carried along. These generally consist of the bowl, the three robes, a bathing cloth, an umbrella tent, a mosquito net, a kettle of water, a water filter, razor, sandals, some small candles, and a candle lantern.
The monks do not fix their times for walking and sitting meditation, for as soon as they are free they just start doing it; nor do they determine for how long they will go on to meditate. Some of them sometimes walk from dusk to dawn whereas at other times they may walk from between two to seven hours. Some may decide to fast for days or stay at dangerous places where ferocious animals live in order to aid their meditation.
Those monks who have been able to achieve a high level of attainment will be able to guide the junior monks and lay Buddhists toward the four degrees of spiritual attainment.
Lay devotee
In Pali the word for a male lay devotee is Upasaka. Upasika is its female equivalent. One of the duties of the lay followers, as taught by the Buddha, is to look after the needs of the monk/nuns. They are to see that the monk/nuns do not suffer from lack of the four requisites: food, clothing, shelter and medicine. As neither monks nor nuns are allowed to have an occupation, they depend entirely on the laity for their sustenance. In return for this charity, they are expected to lead exemplary lives.
In Burma and Thailand, the monastery was and is still regarded as a seat of learning. In fact today about half of the primary schools in Thailand are located in monasteries. Religious rituals and ceremonies held in a monastery are always accompanied by social activities. In times of crisis, it is to the monks that people bring their problems for counsel.
Traditionally, a ranking monk will deliver a sermon four times a month: when the moon waxes and wanes and the day before the new and full moons. The laity also have a chance to learn meditation from the monks during these times.
It is also possible for a lay disciple to become enlightened. As Bhikkhu Bodhi notes, "The Suttas and commentaries do record a few cases of lay disciples attaining the final goal of Nirvana. However, such disciples either attain Arahantship on the brink of death or enter the monastic order soon after their attainment. They do not continue to dwell at home as Arahant householders, for dwelling at home is incompatible with the state of one who has severed all craving."[70]
Monastic orders within Theravāda
Theravāda monks typically belong to a particular nikaya, variously referred to as monastic orders or fraternities. These different orders do not typically develop separate doctrines, but may differ in the manner in which they observe monastic rules. These monastic orders represent lineages of ordination, typically tracing their origin to a particular group of monks that established a new ordination tradition within a particular country or geographic area.
In Sri Lanka caste plays a major role in the division into nikayas. Some Theravāda Buddhist countries appoint or elect a sangharaja, or Supreme Patriarch of the Sangha, as the highest ranking or seniormost monk in a particular area, or from a particular nikaya. The demise of monarchies has resulted in the suspension of these posts in some countries, but patriarchs have continued to be appointed in Thailand. Burma and Cambodia ended the practice of appointing a sangharaja for some time, but the position was later restored, though in Cambodia it lapsed again.
- Bangladesh:
- Burma (Myanmar):
- Thudhamma Nikaya
- Shwekyin Nikaya
- Dvara Nikaya
- Sri Lanka:
- Siam Nikaya
- Rohana
- Malwaththa
- Asgiriya
- Waturawila (or Mahavihara Vamshika Shyamopali Vanavasa Nikaya)
- Amarapura Nikaya has many Sub orders including
- Dharmarakshitha
- Kanduboda (or Swejin Nikaya)
- Tapovana (or Kalyanavamsa)
- Ramañña Nikaya
- Sri Kalyani Yogasrama Samstha (or 'Galduwa Tradition')
- Delduwa
- Siam Nikaya
- Thailand and Cambodia
Festivals and customs
- Magha Puja
- Vesakha Puja
- Asalha Puja
- Uposatha
- Vassa (Rain Retreat)
List of Theravāda majority countries
|Buddhist %
|Buddhist total
|Importance of religion
|23x15px Thailand
|66,720,153[web 18]
|94.6%[web 19]
|97%[web 20]
|23x15px Burma
|60,280,000[web 21]
|89%[web 22]
|96%[web 20]
|23x15px Sri Lanka
|100%[web 20]
|23x15px Cambodia
|14,701,717[web 23]
|96.4%[web 23]
|95%[web 20]
|23x15px Laos
|6,477,211[web 24]
|67%[web 24]
|98%[web 20]
- Shwedagon-Pagoda-Night.jpg
Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, the most sacred pagoda in Burma.
- Saraburi Wat Phra Buddha Baat.jpg
Wat Phra Phutthabat, the most important temple in central Thailand.
- Ac.buddhists.jpg
Buddhists at the Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep, near Chiang Mai, Thailand.
- Sunset at Phnom Bakheng.JPG
Khmer monk in meditation at Phnom Bakheng in Angkor, Cambodia.
- Diksha Bhumi.jpg
Deekshabhoomi, 380,000 followers converted to Buddhism along with Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar On October 14, 1956. Deekshabhoomi is a major centre of the Buddhist movement in India.
- Ruwanwelisaya.jpg
Ruwanwelisaya in Anuradhapura, the most sacred stupa in Sri Lanka.
- Dambulla-buddhastupa.jpg
Dambulla cave temple in Sri Lanka, one of the oldest Buddhist temples.
- Sri Lanka - 029 - Kandy Temple of the Tooth.jpg
Temple of the Tooth in Kandy, the most important temple in Sri Lanka.
- Kuthodaw paya.JPG
Kuthodaw Pagoda in Mandalay, Burma.
- Shwemawdaw Pagoda, Bago.jpg
Shwemawdaw Paya in Bago, the tallest pagoda in Burma.
- Shwezigon.jpg
Shwezigon Pagoda in Nyaung-U, a prototype of Burmese stupas.
- Uppatasanti Pagoda, Naypyidaw.jpg
Uppatasanti Pagoda, a landmark in the Burmese capital Naypyidaw.
- HtukKanThein.jpg
Htukkanthein, one of the most famous temples in Mrauk U, Burma.
- Wat Phra Chetuphon Vimolmangklararm Rajwaramahaviharn 06.jpg
Wat Pho, one of the largest and oldest temples in Bangkok, Thailand.
- Grand Palace Bangkok.jpg
Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok, the most sacred temple in Thailand.
- Buddhist monks in front of the Angkor Wat.jpg
Angkor Wat in Cambodia, the world's largest religious building.
- Pha That Luang, Vientiane, Laos.jpg
Pha That Luang in Vientiane, the national symbol of Laos.
- Pagoda at Mumbai.jpg
See also
- ^ John Bullit: "In the last century, however, the West has begun to take notice of Theravāda's unique spiritual legacy and teachings of Awakening. In recent decades, this interest has swelled, with the monastic Sangha from the various schools within Theravāda establishing dozens of monasteries across Europe and North America."[web 1]
- ^ Hiuen Tsiang refers to the Buddhists in Sri Lanka as "They principally follow the teaching of Buddha, according to the dharma of the Sthavira (Shang-tso-pu) school".[5]
- ^ I-tsing refers to the situation in Sri Lanka as "In Sri Lanka the Sthavira school alone flourishes; the Mahasanghikas are expelled"[6]
- ^ It is used in the Dipavamsa (quoted in Debates Commentary, Pali Text society, page 4), which is generally dated to the 4th century.
- ^ The Mahasanghika had the doctrine of ekaksana-citt, "according to which a Buddha knows everything in a single thought-instant".[55] The same stance is taken in Chán, although the Chán-school harmonized this point of view with the need for gradual training after the initial insight. This "gradual training" is expressed in teachings as the Five ranks of enlightenment, Ten Ox-Herding Pictures which detail the steps on the Path, The Three mysterious Gates of Linji, and the Four Ways of Knowing of Hakuin.
- ^ Gombrich writes: "In Ceylonese tradition, Buddhism (the Sasana) has three constituents: learning, practice and realization".[58] In the sequence given by Buddhaghosa in his Visuddhimagga, the sequence of training is sila, samadhi, prajna.
- ^ Dan Lusthaus specifically discusses early Buddhism as well as Yogacara.[web 7]
- ^ Ron Epstein: "Some Western scholars have erroneously tried to claim that Mahāyāna is primarily a religion for laymen and Theravāda is a priamarily monastic religion. Both Mahāyāna and Theravāda have as their foundation strong monastic communities, which are almost identical in their regulations. Schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism without monastic communities of fully ordained monks and nuns are relatively recent and atypical developments, usually based on cultural and historical considerations rather than differences in fundamental doctrine. Both Mahāyāna and Theravāda also provided a clear and important place for lay followers."[68]
Book references
- ^ Skilton, Andrew. A Concise History of Buddhism. 2004. p. 49, 64
- ^ See "On the Vibhajjavādins", Lance Cousins, Buddhist Studies Review 18, 2 (2001)
- ^ Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner), A History Of India Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, page 109.
- ^ a b Crosby, Kate (2013), Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity, Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 1–3, ISBN 9781405189071
- ^ Samuel Beal, "Si-Yu-Ki — Buddhist Records of the Western World — Translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang AD 629", published by Tuebner and Co, London (1884), reprint by the Oriental Book Reprint Corporation, New Delhi, (1983), Digital version: Chung-hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies, Taipei.
- ^ Samuel Beal, "The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang: By the Shaman Hwui Li. With an introduction containing an account of the works of I-tsing", published by Tuebner and Co, London (1911), Digital version: University of Michigan.
- ^ Warder 2000, p. 278.
- ^ a b c d Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. 2000. p. 280
- ^ "Golden Temple of Dambulla - UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
- ^ a b c Hirakawa, Akira. Groner, Paul. A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna. 2007. p. 121
- ^ Hirakawa, Akira. Groner, Paul. A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna. 2007. p. 124
- ^ Gombrich, Richard Francis. Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History. 1988. p. 158
- ^ Baruah, Bibhuti. Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism. 2008. p. 53
- ^ Hirakawa, Akira. Groner, Paul. A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna. 2007. p. 257
- ^ Kalupahana 1994, p. 206-208.
- ^ Hirakawa, Akira. Groner, Paul. A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna. 2007. pp. 125-126
- ^ "Esoteric Buddhism in Southeast Asia in the Light of Recent Scholarship" by Hiram Woodward. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 35, No. 2 (Jun., 2004), p. 341
- ^ Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, page 187.
- ^ Hirakawa, Akira. Groner, Paul. A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna. 2007. p. 125
- ^ Sujato, Bhikkhu. Sects & Sectarianism: The Origins of Buddhist Schools. 2006. p. 59
- ^ Hirakawa, Akira. Groner, Paul. A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna. 2007. p. 126
- ^ a b Williams, Duncan. Queen, Christopher. American Buddhism: Methods and Findings in Recent Scholarship. 1999. p. 134
- ^ Gombrich, Richard. Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History From Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. 1988. p. 159
- ^ a b Gombrich, Richard. Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. 1988. p. 159
- ^ Sujato, Bhikkhu. Sects & Sectarianism: The Origins of Buddhist Schools. 2006. p. 69
- ^ See the article on this subject in Buddhist Studies Review, 24.2 (2007)
- ^ Mahavamsa: The great chronicle of Ceylon tr. Wilhelm Geiger. Pali Text Society, 1912, Page 82 and 86
- ^ a b Sujato, Bhikkhu. Sects & Sectarianism: The Origins of Buddhist Schools. 2006. p. 72
- ^ a b Baruah, Bibhuti. Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism. 2008. p. 131
- ^ Smith, Huston & Novak, Philip. Buddhism: A Concise Introduction. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2003
- ^ Gombrich, Richard Francis. Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History. 1988. p. 137
- ^ Gombrich, Richard Francis. Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History. 1988. p. 3
- ^ Bob Hudson, The Origins of Bagan, Thesis for University of Sydney,2004, page 95.
- ^ Bob Hudson, The Origins of Bagan, Thesis for University of Sydney,2004, page 36.
- ^ Elizabeth Moore, "Interpreting Pyu material culture: Royal chronologies and finger-marked bricks," Myanmar Historical Research Journal, No(13) June 2004, pp.1-57, page 6 & 7. Available [1]
- ^ Professor Janice Stargardt, "Historical Geography of Burma: Creation of enduring patterns in the Pyu period" IIAS Newsletter Online, No 25,Theme Burmese Heritage. Available [2]
- ^ Cousins, L.S. (1997), "Aspects of Southern Esoteric Buddhism"
- ^ a b McMahan 2008.
- ^ Edmund F. Perry's introduction to Walpola Rahula's The Heritage of the Bhikkhu: A Short History of the Bhikkhu in the Educational, Cultural, Social, and Policital Life. Grove Press, New York, 1974, page xii.
- ^ Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, Buddhism Betrayed? The University of Chicago Press, 1992, pages 35-36.
- ^ a b Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, Buddhism Betrayed? The University of Chicago Press, 1992, page 28.
- ^ Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, Buddhism Betrayed? The University of Chicago Press, 1992, page 29.
- ^ Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, Buddhism Betrayed? The University of Chicago Press, 1992, pages 63-64.
- ^ Gombrich 1996, p. 177-181.
- ^ Gombrich 1996, p. 172-197.
- ^ Tiyavanich 1997.
- ^ Chapman 2011.
- ^ Indian Insights, ed Connolly & Hamilton, Luzac, London, 1997, pages 187-9
- ^ Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, volume 28 (part 2), page 302 (2005)
- ^ Dutt, p. 211-217.
- ^ Warder 2000, p. 217.
- ^ a b c Warder 2000, p. 288.
- ^ Warder 2000, p. 283.
- ^ Warder 2000, p. 284.
- ^ Gomez 1991, p. 69.
- ^ Warder 2000, p. 308.
- ^ Warder 2000, p. 308-309.
- ^ Gombrich 1996, p. 150.
- ^ P.A. Payutto (2012), Buddha-Dhamma, Bangkok: Pet & Home Publishing House, ISBN 978-616-7585-10-9, Page 13.
- ^ "The Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary". Dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
- ^ Gunaratana 1994, p. 143-174.
- ^ a b Shaw, Sarah. "Buddhist Meditation Practices in the West" (PDF). Department of Continuing Education, Oxford University. p. 8. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
- ^ Woodward, F.L. (2008). The Book of Gradual Sayings (Aṇguttara Nikāya). Pali Text Society - Oxford. p. 137. ISBN 0860130150.
- ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 3.
- ^ Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press, 1995, page 9.
- ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004 (Volume Two), page 756
- ^ "Glossary of Buddhism". Buddhist Art and the Trade Routes. Asia Society. 2003. Retrieved 2010-09-17.
- ^ Epstein, Ron (1999–02). "Clearing Up Some Misconceptions about Buddhism". Vajra Bodhi Sea: A Monthly Journal of Orthodox Buddhism (Dharma Realm Buddhist Association): 41–43. Check date values in:
- ^ PUBLICATIONSMahinda Deegalle, Popularizing Buddhism: Preaching as Performance in Sri Lanka, State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, 2006.
- ^ Bhikkhu Bodhi, In the Buddha's Words, Wisdom Publications 2005; page 376
Web references
- ^ Bullitt, John. "What is Theravāda Buddhism?". BuddhaNet. Retrieved 2010-08-15.
- ^ Adherants.com - See the citations under 'Theravāda Buddhism — World'
- ^ "Plan your trip to Bagan (Pagan), Myanmar". AsiaExplorers. 2003-11-25. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
- ^ "The 7 Tallest Statues in the World". Blog.hotelclub.com. 2009-02-06. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
- ^ "Modern Theravāda".
- ^ Bhikkhu Bodhi. "The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering". Buddhist Publication Society. Retrieved 2009-06-16.
- ^ Dan Lusthaus, What is and isn't Yogacara
- ^ Magga-vibhanga Sutta: An Analysis of the Path
- ^ "The Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary". Dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
- ^ "The Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary". Dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
- ^ "The Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary". Dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
- ^ a b c d e f Henepola Gunaratana, The Jhanas in Theravāda Buddhist Meditation
- ^ "A Sketch of the Buddha's Life". Access to Insight. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
- ^ "Lohicca Sutta". Access to Insight. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
- ^ S Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Into the Stream A Study Guide on the First Stage of Awakening
- ^ http://www.ajahnchah.org/book/Opening_Dhamma_Eye1.php Ajahn Chah, Opening the Dhamma Eye
- ^ Bodhi. "A Treatise on the Paramis: From the Commentary to the Cariyapitaka". Retrieved 2007-07-31.
- ^ http://220.127.116.11/stat/pk/pk53/pk_53.pdf
- ^ "CIA - The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
- ^ a b c d e GALLUP WorldView - data accessed on 2012-09-07
- ^ Retrieved 8 July 2010.
- ^ "CIA - The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
- ^ a b "CIA - The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
- ^ a b "CIA - The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
- Chapman, David (2011), Theravāda reinvents meditation
- Dutt, Nalinaksha (1998), Buddhist Sects in India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
- Gombrich, Richard F. (1996), Theravāda Buddhism. A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo, London and New York: Routledge
- Gomez, Luis O. (1991), Purifying Gold: The Metaphor of Effort and Intuition in Buddhist Thought and Practice. In: Peter N. Gregory (editor)(1991), Sudden and Gradual. Approaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Thought<span />, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
- Gunaratana, Henepola (1994), The Path of Serenity and Insight, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
- Kalupahana, David J. (1994), A history of Buddhist philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
- McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195183276
- Tuchrello, William P. (n.d.), The Society and Its Environment. (Religion: Historical Background section), Federal Research Division, Library of Congress
- Tiyavanich, K. (1997), Forest Recollections: Wandering Monks in Twentieth-Century Thailand, University of Hawaii Press
- Warder, A.K. (2000), Indian Buddhism, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
External links
|This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. (September 2013)
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Theravada.
- Access to Insight - Readings in Theravāda Buddhism
- Theravāda Spirituality in the West
- Dhamma talk downloads at Dharma Seed - A vast collection of Theravāda Dhamma Talks from over 40 centers worldwide
- Saranaloka Foundation - Supporting nuns in America (Thai Forest tradition; Ajahn Sumedho lineage)
- Theravada Buddhism in America by Wendy Cadge
- David Chapman, Theravāda reinvents meditation
- David Chapman, The King of Siam invents Western Buddhism
- S. Dhammika, The Broken Buddha/Critical Reflections on Theravāda and a Plea for a New Buddhism
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2013 First Sutra 40 Day Sadhana
Welcome to the First Sutra 40 Day Solstice Sadhana meditation. We did this Global Sadhana 40 days before the start of the Summer Solstice Sadhana Celebration 2013. Even though the 40 days have passed, you can still listen to all 40 days of inspiring messages from 40 Kundalini Yoga teachers.
Each day a different teacher shared his or her reflections on the First Sutra: Recognize that the Other Person is You. At the end of each recording, we chant the Humee Hum Tumee Tum Waheguru mantra for 11 minutes.
First Sutra 40 Day Global Sadhana Recordings
First Sutra Summer Solstice Video

subset: commoncrawl


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Enabling the Greatest Racing Spectacle on the Planet
Legendary drivers, racing teams with a rich tradition and racing at the highest level: Formula 1 is the pinnacle of motorsports. In the 2019 season, 20 drivers are competing for the world championship title in 21 ultra-fast races on five continents – from Australia to Monaco and from Brazil to Abu Dhabi. Hundreds of millions of fans all over the world follow the spectacle on television, online and at the race track.
Top performances are also achieved behind the scenes of a Grand Prix, for example in logistics. DHL is the sport's longest-standing global partner and has been ensuring the smooth delivery of race cars and equipment for over 35 years – since 2014 as Official Logistics Partner of Formula 1. The 1,000th Grand Prix in April 2019 was the 287th that DHL had been involved in as Official Logistics Partner. Some members of the DHL Motorsports Team, however, have provided logistics services at well over 500 races.
DHL's involvement is far from being limited to logistics. As a global partner, DHL also helps fans experience unforgettable moments on and off the track. As of 2017, the thrill of Formula 1 can also be experienced at Fan Festivals held in major cities around the world, offering a varied entertainment program away from the race track. DHL is also a founding partner of the F1 Esports Series, which sees gamers of nine Formula 1 teams competing in the 2019 season. To mark DHL's 50th anniversary, in 2019, the company is organizing the DHL 50 Fastest competition, which gives six participants the opportunity to qualify for the F1 Esports Series Pro Draft.
Last but not least, DHL awards two coveted prizes: at the end of each season, the driver with the fastest laps is presented with the DHL Fastest Lap Award, while the DHL Fastest Pit Stop Award goes to the team that most consistently achieves the fastest pit stops over the course of the championship.


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Ainsworth & Prin Heart's End Hat
Heart's End is inspired by the astonishingly decorative Watts Chapel in Compton Surrey the walls of which are covered in Celtic inspired symbolic patterns and what is more symbolic than a heart.
One size: 54cm / 21in circumference.
Length from brim to crown – about 23cm / 9in.
It can be knit as a beanie or with extra rows for a slouchy style.
For a smaller hat knit on smaller needles and omit the additional rows.
51cm / 20in circumference
Length from brim to crown 19.5cm / 7 1/2in.
1 x 3mm circular needle 40cm/16in long.
1x 3.5mm/US 4 circular needle 40cm/16in long.
1 set of 3.5mm double pointed needles.
1 skein of Ainsworth & Prin BFL Masham DK: 75% British BFL, 25% British Masham approx 100g / 240 m.
Shown in colours 'At Sea' and 'Ointment'.
Brighton Cowl by Thea Coleman
Bold, round leaves and soft, squishy garter and contrasting leaf panels create a bold and luxurious cowl.
Comes with a download code.
Yarn: DK, 450 – 500 yards (411 – 457 m)
Needles: 4.5mm
Size: Width = 13″/33cm, Length of loop = 38″/96.5cm
Crochet Yeah!
Crochet Yeah!
Six simple, colourful crochet accessories from The Crochet Project. Using the beautifully soft CoopKnits Socks Yeah! yarn there are patterns for two hats, mittens a scarf, a cowl and even crocheted socks.
Patterns are written using UK crochet terms with American terms in the abbreviations section, all are charted and come with a schematic.
Erika Knight Studio Linen – Amalfi
An oversized lace, cable and bobble stitch sweater in three sizes.
Needles 3.75 mm and 4 mm needles, 3.75 mm circular
|Finished chest
|128 cm
|154 cm
|180 cm
|50.5 inches
|60.5 inches
|71 inches
|58 cm
|61 cm
|64 cm
|22.75 inches
|24 inches
|25.5 inches
|Yarn (skeins)
Erika Knight Studio Linen – Capri
A wide fitting short-sleeved, cropped sweater knitted in broad two-colour stripes.
Needles 3.25 mm and 3.75 mm
|Finished chest
|124 cm
|132 cm
|142 cm
|150 cm
|160 cm
|49 in
|52 in
|56 in
|59 in
|63 in
|45.5 cm
|47.5 cm
|49.5 cm
|51.5 cm
|53.5 cm
|18 in
|18.75 in
|19.5 in
|20.25 in
|21 in
|Sleeve length
|13 cm
|13 cm
|15 cm
|15 cm
|16 cm
|Yarn A (skeins)
|Yarn B (skeins)
Erika Knight Studio Linen – Palermo
A short-sleeved round neck, edge to edge cardigan knitted in stocking stitch, with integral front and sleeve bands and side vents.
Needles 3.25 mm and 3.75 mm
|Finished chest
|86 cm
|96 cmm
|108 cm
|122 cm
|134 cm
|34 in
|37.75 in
|42.5 in
|48 in
|52.75 in
|55 cm
|57 cm
|59 cm
|61 cm
|63 cm
|21.75 in
|22.5 in
|23.25 in
|24 in
|24.75 in
|Yarn (skeins)
Erika Knight Studio Linen – Positano
A simple vest top knitted in stocking stitch with a soft scoop necking little side vent details.
Needles 3.25 mm and 3.75 mm
|Finished chest
|82 cm
|88 cm
|92 cm
|98 cm
|104 cm
|32.5 in
|34.75 in
|36.25 in
|38.5 in
|41 in
|47 cm
|49 cm
|51 cm
|54 cm
|56 cm
|18.5 in
|19.25 in
|20 in
|21.25 in
|22 in
|Yarn (skeins)
Erika Knight Studio Linen – Ravello
A sleeveless tunic knitted in stocking stitch with contrast rib neck and armholes, side vent and longer back hem.
Needles 3.25 mm and 3.75 mm
(Sizes for Ravello taken from errata)
|Finished chest
|94 cm
|99 cm
|104 cm
|110 cm
|116 cm
|47 in
|49.5 in
|52 in
|55 in
|58 in
|Length front
|57 cm
|59 cm
|60 cm
|62 cm
|63 cm
|22.5 in
|23.5 in
|23.75 in
|24.5 in
|24.75 in
|Length back
|66 cm
|68 cm
|69 cm
|71 cm
|72 cm
|26 in
|26.75 in
|27.25 in
|28 in
|28.25 in
|Yarn (skeins)
Erika Knight Studio Linen – Sicily
A summer sweatshirt worked in stocking stitch and reverse stocking stitch with a raised stitch centre front detail, shaped side vents and a longer back tail.
Needles 3.75 mm and 3.25 mm circular
|Finished chest
|116 cm
|122 cm
|128 cm
|134 cm
|142 cm
|45.5 in
|48 in
|50.5 in
|53 in
|56 in
|Length front
|60 cm
|61 cm
|63 cm
|65 cm
|66 cm
|23.5 in
|24 in
|25 in
|25.5 in
|26 in
|Length back
|65 cm
|66 cm
|68 cm
|70 cm
|71 cm
|25.5 in
|26 in
|26.75 in
|27.5 in
|28 in
|Sleeve length
|39 cm
|40 cm
|40 cm
|42 cm
|42 cm
|15.25 in
|15.75 in
|15.75 in
|16.5 in
|16.5 in
|Yarn (skeins)
Erika Knight Studio Linen – Siena
A simple short-sleeved top knitted in stocking stitch with a subtle sheer yoke.
Needles 3.75mm, 5 mm and 5 mm circular
|Finished chest
|86 cm
|96 cm
|108 cm
|120 cm
|134 cm
|34 in
|37.75 in
|42.5 in
|47.25 in
|52.75 in
|51 cm
|53 cm
|55 cm
|57 cm
|59 cm
|20 in
|21 in
|21.75 in
|22.5 in
|23.25 in
|Yarn (skeins)
Erika Knight Studio Linen – Sorrento
A jacket style edge to edge cardigan worked in reverse stocking stitch and stocking stitch with yarn used double and intergral rib front selvedge bands, reverse collar and patch pockets.
Needles 5 mm and 5.5 mm
|Finished chest
|98 cm
|104 cm
|110 cm
|116 cm
|122 cm
|38.5 in
|41 in
|43.75 in
|46 in
|48.25 in
|58 cm
|61 cm
|64 cm
|67 cm
|70 cm
|23 in
|24 in
|25.25 in
|26.5 in
|27.5 in
|Sleeve length
|38 cm
|39 cm
|40 cm
|41 cm
|42 cm
|15 in
|15.5 in
|15.75 in
|16 in
|16.5 in
|Yarn (skeins)
Erika Knight Studio Linen – Taormina
A simple sweater knitted in a four row lace stitch pattern with a soft, low fee neckline and three quarter length sleeves.
Needles 4 mm
|Finished chest
|88 cm
|98 cm
|110 cm
|126 cm
|136 cm
|34.75 in
|38.5 in
|43.25 in
|49.5 in
|53.5 in
|56 cm
|58 cm
|60 cm
|63 cm
|66 cm
|22 in
|23 in
|23.75 in
|24.25 in
|26 in
|Sleeve length
|33 cm
|35 cm
|37 cm
|39 cm
|41 cm
|13 in
|13.75 in
|14.5 in
|15.25 in
|16 in
|Yarn (skeins)
Gin & Tonic by Baby Cocktails
Seamless raglan construction worked from the bottom up with cables each side of the body and a cosy cowl.
Comes with a download code.
Yarn: DK
Sizes: 34(36,38,40,44)(46,50,53,56)" / 85(90,95,100,110)(115,125,132.5,145)cm. Shown worn with 3" of ease.
Yardage: 1350(1400,1450,1550,1650)(1750,1800,1850,1900) yds / 1234(1280,1325,1417,1508)(1600,1645,1691,1737) meters
Needles: 4mm, 4.5mm, 5mm
Island a collection
Island a collection
Five patterns from Jane Richmond; Grace a classic cardigan, Arbutus a tiered cowl, Renfrew a cabled beanie, Strathcona a v-shaped scarf and Rathtrevor a pair of beaded ribbed mittens. All inspired by life on Vancouver Island.
An ebook code is included with this book.
Max & Bodhi's Wardrobe
Max & Bodhi's Wardrobe
Max & Bodhi's Wardrobe by Alexa Ludeman and Emily Wessel of Tin Can Knits.
A book full of classic, practical patterns to swaddle a baby in woolly loveliness. Three of the patterns; Bumble, Playdate and Little Squirrel go up to adult sizes so the whole family can be co-ordinated. Uses a range of yarn weights from sock to DK.
An ebook code is included with this book.
A collection of crochet patterns that celebrates the beauty of British wool and also celebrates the fact that crochet needn't just be blankets. The patterns include a cardigan and sweater plus four accessories hat, mittens, socks and a shawl, with easy to follow directions and clear charts.
The Accessories Project Book One
What's better than a nice handmade hat? A handmade hat with matching accessories to keep your hands and neck warm too. Four accessory sets so you can chose whether you want a complete matching set or a bohemian mix. There's a wealth of interesting techniques and constructions and one set is even made from our own hand dyed Ainsworth & Prin Blue Faced Leicester DK.
Patterns are written using UK crochet terms with American terms in the abbreviations section, all are charted and come with a schematic.
The Crochet Project Altair Shawl
A light as a feather, easy to wear shawl…whether you wear it in the day to keep the sun off your shoulders or in the evening to battle the chills. It is named for the Altair geometric colouring books, the forerunners of the modern adult colouring obsession because the striking geometric lace pattern reminded me of my love for them.
One Size: 145 cm / 57" long x 65 cm / 25½" across at widest point after blocking
Yarn: Lace weight; 754 m / 825 yds per 115 g skein
Tension: 5 patt reps & 13 rows = 10 cm / 4" over lace pattern
Hook: 2.5 mm crochet hook
Note: There is no direct US conversion for a 2.5 mm hook so if you can't find this size, work with either a US B/1 or C/2 depending on whether your gauge is loose or tight, and always use a hook size that will result in the correct gauge after blocking.
Notes: Altair starts at one point and is worked in a pattern that increases on the neck edge towards the shortest edge. RS and WS are notional as pattern is fully reversible. As the pattern starts at a point it makes sense to start the pattern as your swatch. Stop, wash and block the piece to check tension and drape then if satisfied you can continue to work.
UK crochet terminology used throughout.
The Crochet Project Antracita
A top down triangular shawl with a wonderful graphic feel. Using three colours of DK weight yarn it is an easily memorable pattern that looks more complicated than it is.
Difficulty rating: intermediate
Size: Wingspan 142cm
Depth 63 cm
Can easily be adjusted
Hook size 4.5 mm
The Crochet Project Doris
With stripes, short row wedges and alternating stitches there's something to always keep you interested in this shawl pattern.
2 x 100g (380 m each) 4ply yarn
Hook 4mm
Stitch markers
Difficulty rating: easy
Skills needed: basic crochet, working in rounds, increasing, short rows (fully explained)
Size: Wingspan 214 cm
Depth 59 cm
The Crochet Project Flag Iris
A lightly textured and patterned shawl that can be worked in vibrant stripes but would look equally beautiful in neutral or muted shades.
2 x 100g (500m each) fine 4ply
Hook 3.5mm
Difficulty rating: easy
Skils needed: basic crochet, working in rows
Size: Wingspan 145 cm, Depth 56 cm
The Crochet Project Lake of Menteith Shawl
Fan motifs are used to create a wide narrow shape and open drape for this shawl. It starts at the bottom with three adjoining motifs and then builds up in rows. The motifs are joined in as they go, with outer edges using foundation stitches where there is no motif to work into.
1 x 50g skein in 4 colours (202m each) 4ply yarn
Hook 5mm
Stitch markers
Difficulty rating: easy
Skills needed: basic crochet, working in rows, increasing, joining motifs on
Size: Wingspan 182 cm
Depth 66 cm
The Crochet Project Riley & Saunders
Whether you want to treat a loved one or yourself, these quick to make crochet socks are a hug for your feet. Riley and Saunders are two complimentary sock patterns into yarn weights. With a wide range of sizes from baby to size 13 adults you can make them for every member of the family and the length is fully adjustable for a great fit. Both are worked cuff down.
For Riley most sock weight yarns
Hooks: 2.5mm, 3mm, 3.5mm
For Saunders a plump DK, worsted or aran weight
Hooks: 4.5mm, 5mm, 6mm
2 stitch markers
Difficulty rating: easy
Skills needed: basic crochet, working in rounds, decreasing, short rows (fully explained), slip stitching, missing stitches
The Crochet Project Two Row Tee
A figure flattering top is as easy to make as it is to throw on.The sideways construction means there are only two rows to the pattern and the seamed (but no sew) construction means that you literally can't get the fit wrong.
Finished bust: Fully adjustable . Designed to be worn with 10% negative ease at the bust. Eg. for a 40in bust finished size will be approx. 36in.
Finished length: For underarm depth S (M, L) total length from shoulder to hip is = 53 (58, 62)cm/21 (23, 25) in.
To fit bust measuring up to:
80:90:100:110:125:140:155 cm/32:36:40:44:50:56:62 in
4:5:5:6:7:8:8 50g skeins Coop Knits Socks Yeah! (4ply weight, 75% Merino Superwash Wool,25%nylon, 212m/50g)
3.5mm (US E) hook.
Because the top is sized to exact fit, yarn amounts may vary.
2 pattern repeats and 12 rows in pattern to 10 cm/4 in using 3.5mm
hook (or size needed to achieve tension)
23 sts and 19 rows in half treble (US half double) in back loop only, blocked but unstretched to 10 cm/4 in using 3.5mm hook (or size needed to achieve tension)
Difficulty Rating
Skills Needed
Basic crochet stitches, working in rows, foundation double crochet
(optional), missing stitches, working into chain spaces.
Worked sideways in two pieces, joined with crochet rather than sewing. The top is designed to be worn with a lot of negative ease in the bust and hips (ie stretch to fit).
Pattern is written and charted using standard UK terms (US conversions given in abbreviations)
The Learn to Crochet Project – A Beginners Course
As makers and designers we have always been more interested in things to wear than things for the home. And it is fair to say that we get very frustrated with some of the useless items that beginners get given to make (mug cosies we are looking at you!) That's why in this book we have focussed on wearable items. There is something very wonderful about being able to make something to wear right from the beginning. There's no better feeling than being able to respond to a comment about your clothing by saying "Thanks, I made it!"
So let's get you crocheting! We have written the book as though it is a course so it is best to start at the beginning and work your way through the text and the projects in order.
It contains 4 projects over 80 pages:
The Burwell Cowl is the first project in the book and is designed to help you practice your basic stitches.
The Wicken Mitts are an introduction to working into row ends, following a pattern and making something to fit.
The Bottisham Hat introduces you to working in the round, making a traditional motif, working seamlessly and decreasing.
The Quy Shawl introduces you to reading charts, working lace patterns, picots, understanding special stitches, increasing in pattern.
The book is written in UK standard crochet terminology and has a full discussion of the differences between the UK and US standards and makes references to the US terms throughout.
The Shawl Project Book Three
The Shawl Project Book Three
Five shawl patterns based on mini-skein sets. The patterns work well whether you want to invest in a mini skein set or if you want to use up small amounts of yarn left over from other projects, with each pattern using either a 100g pack of 4ply mini skeins or a pack of skeins and an additional 100g.
Patterns are written using UK crochet terms with American terms in the abbreviations section, all are charted and come with a schematic.
The Shawl Project Book Two
The Shawl Project Book Two
Five new designs from The Crochet Project for stunning shawls all using two 100g skeins of 4ply yarn.
Patterns are written using UK crochet terms with American terms in the abbreviations section, all are charted and come with a schematic and if you're feeling adventurous there's a section on designing your own shawl.
The Shetland Trader – Flukra
FLUKRA – snow falling in large flakes Shetland.
This shawl begins with a Shetland construction method to create the center triangle. Stitches are then easily picked up from the yarn over loops that are formed down two sides and the border is worked outwards from the triangle. The shawl is finished with an edging that is knitted sideways and attached to the live sts of the border as it is being worked.
Lace is worked on both sides of the knitting, however there is no right or wrong side to the knitting.
Yarn: 640m lace weight yarn
Needles: 4mm 80cm circular needle
Size: Approx 153cm across the top of shawl and 69cm depth at centre
The Shetland Trader – Hansel
This pattern is for a full or half sized version of a traditional Shetland Hap shawl.
The shawl is constructed in 3 parts. It begins with the centre worked in garter st. Yarn overs are formed at the beginning of every row during the centre section. Stitches are then easily picked up from the very visible yarn over loops along the edges and the border is worked outwards. The shawl is finished with an edging that is knitted sideways and attached to the live sts of the border as it is being worked.
Yarn: Fingering weight yarn
550 (1100) yards of MC, 82 (164) yards of CC1, 82 (164) yards of CC2, 66 (132) yards of CC3 and 66 (132) yards of CC4
Needles:5mm 24, 32, 40 inch circular
5mm DPN (one only)
Size: Half: 54¾ inches wide and 28½ deep
Full: 54¾ inches square
The Shetland Trader Book Two
The Shetland Trader Book Two
Designer Gudrun Johnston draws inspiration from the Shetland Islands in this collection of nine patterns that feature fairisle and lace techniques. There are five sweater patterns, a cardigan and three accessories using a range of yarn weights the sweaters and cardigan come in a wide range of adult sizes.
An ebook code is included with this book.
Three From The Top
Three From The Top
Three From the Top from The Crochet Project has three patterns for top down, crocheted cardigans that will fit any one from new born baby to a 60 inch bust. There's Aberfoyle a simple, circular yoke cardigan with eyelets and contrast stripes at the yoke, hem and cuff. Callander, a raglan with textured edgings and a single button at the neck. And Kippen a shawl collared cardigan with ribbed collar, hem and cuffs.
All the patterns are well written with detailed instructions using standard UK terms.
Tin can knits – Bounce
Tin can knits – Bounce
A modern heirloom blanket in wonderful combination of lace and stripes. The lace pattern is both charted and written out.
Yarn: DK or worsted weight yarn in MC one or more CCs
MC: 260 (400) yds or approx 15 (18) yds per stripe
CC: 480 (735) yds or approx 30 (35) yds per stripe
Needles: 4.5mm 60cm circular needle
Size: Pram (throw / crib) sized blanket measures 27 (32)" wide by 33 (43)" long. The sample shown is the throw / crib size. Blanket width can be adjusted by adding or subtracting a multiple of 12 sts (2.75").


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- 5 Beds
- 5 Full, 2 Half Baths
Property TypeResidential – Single Family
SubdivisionSky Legend F2
Listing Date04/16/19
Year Built2009
AreaCotton Ranch and Chatfield Corners
Lot Size0.51 Acres (22,216 SqFt)
Parking2 Car Garage, 1/2 Car Additional, Multi-Heated
Property Description
This remarkable custom home in the Sky Legend neighborhood of Cotton Ranch boasts expansive views while every unique detail was carefully thought out inside this crafted masterpiece. Viking appliances and high end finishes throughout, and the quality speaks for itself. Soak in the specially designed private spa room with jetted hot tub.
Presented By
- Golf Course
- Golf Course
- Mountains
- Valley
- Clubhouse
- Fitness Center
- Golf-Public
- Pets
- Pool
- Air Conditioning
- Cable Available
- Deck
- Elevator
- Fireplace - Gas
- Hot Tub / Spa
- Patio
- Cable TV
- City Sewer
- City Water
- Electricity Avail.
- Natural Gas Avail.
- Phone Available
- Snow Removal
- Trash Pickup
- Natural Gas
- Radiant
- Swamp Cooler(s)
- Wall Units
- Dryer
- Washer
Financial Information
5 Beds 7 Baths
4 Beds 4 Baths
We get asked this question a lot. Below is a tool that gives you the ability to see what the market is like in your community. Find out what homes like your own are selling for right in your back yard. Simply enter in your address, choose the proximity of the search and find out market data for other homes that are selling near you.
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Until then, enjoy the tools!
The data relating to the real estate for sale on this website comes in part from the Internet Data Exchange program of the Vail Multi-List Service, Inc.
Copyright © 2020 Vail Multi List, Inc. (VMLS). The information displayed herein was derived from sources believed to be accurate, but has not been verified by VMLS. Buyers are cautioned to verify all information to their own satisfaction. This information is exclusively for viewers' personal, non- commercial use. Any republication or reproduction of the information herein without the express permission of the VMLS is strictly prohibited.
Listing courtesy of Slifer Smith & Frampton/Bridge


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Marcus and Millichap closes more real estate investment sales than any other brokerage firm—over 60% of which involve a 1031 Exchange.
Our leading market position, coupled with extensive investor relationships, gives us access to the largest pool of qualified buyers, including exchange buyers.
Through its long-standing relationships and market knowledge, Marcus and Millichap secured difficult financing for its buyer where other mortgage brokerage firms had failed.
Learn more about what made this case especially complex and how Marcus and Millichap overcame the financing obstacles.
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The Palo Alto office of Marcus & Millichap provides real estate investment sales, research information and advisory services for multifamily, retail, office, single-tenant net-lease, self-storage, seniors housing, manufactured homes, hospitality, land and special assets. Palo Alto agents leverage the firm's national marketing platform to provide real estate investors with access to the industry's largest inventory of deliverable commercial property as well as to the largest pool of qualified private and institutional buyers and sellers. Investment specialists conduct business within Palo Alto and the surrounding Bay Area. CA Broker License No.: 00530854Marcus & Millichap Capital Corporation License No.: 01204293
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