The history of the major pathogenic species of rapidly growing mycobacteria (RGM) can be traced back to the early 20th century beginning with Friedmann&apos;s recovery of Mycobacterium chelonae from the lungs of two sea turtles. Currently, the RGM are grouped into six major taxonomic groups according to pigmentation and genetic relatedness. The major groups are the M. fortuitum group, the M. chelonae/M. abscessus group, the Mycobacterium smegmatis group (M. smegmatis and Mycobacterium goodii), the Mycobacterium mucogenicum group, the Mycobacterium mageritense/Mycobacterium wolinskyi group, and the pigmented RGM. The RGM are ubiquitous in the environment. The disease pathogenesis likely results from microtrauma caused by shaving the legs prior to pedicures and footbath water that is heavily contaminated with RGM due to failure to routinely clear the footbath filters. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) of mycolic acids may be used in large reference laboratories but it can identify only a few species adequately. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of selected gene targets such as hsp65 are currently used in some larger reference laboratories. Currently, the only nucleic acid probe available for identification of the RGM but not yet cleared by the Food and Drug Administration in the United States is the INNO- LiPA multiplex probe assay. Current antimicrobial regimens for treatment of disease caused by the RGM are based upon their unique in vitro susceptibility patterns. Finally, the chapter describes common clinical diseases caused due to RGM.
1. Adékambi, T.,, P. Berger,, D. Raoult, and, M. Drancourt. 2006. rpoB gene sequence-based characterization of emerging nontuberculous mycobacteria with descriptions of Mycobacterium bolletii sp. nov., M. phocaicum sp. nov. and Mycobacterium aubagnense sp. nov. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 56: 133– 143.
2. Adékambi, T.,, P. Colson, and, M. Drancourt. 2003. rpoB-based identification of nonpigmented and late pigmented rapidly growing mycobacteria. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 5699– 5708.
3. Adékambi, T.,, and M. Drancourt. 2004. Dissection of phylogenetic relationships among nineteen rapidly growing mycobacterium species by 16S rRNA, hsp65, sodA, recA, and rpoB gene sequencing. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 54: 2095– 2105.
4. Adékambi, T.,, M. Reynaud-Gaubert,, G. Greub,, M. J. Gevaudan,, B. La Scola,, D. Raoult, and, M. Drancourt. 2004. Amoebal coculture of “ Mycobacterium massiliense” sp. nov. from the sputum of a patient with hemoptoic pneumonia. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 5493– 5501.
5. Al Shaalan, M.,, B. J. Law,, S. J. Israels,, P. Pianosi,, A. G. Lacson, and, R. Higgins. 1997. Mycobacterium fortuitum interstitial pneumonia with vasculitis in a child with Wilms tumor. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 16: 996– 1000.
6. Bange, F.-C.,, B. A. Brown,, C. Smaczny,, R. J. Wallace, Jr., and, E. C. Böttger. 2001. Lack of transmission of Mycobacterium abscessus among patients with cystic fibrosis attending a single clinic. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32: 1648– 1650.
7. Brown, B. A.,, B. Springer,, V. A. Steingrube,, R. W. Wilson,, G. E. Pfyffer,, M. J. Garcia,, M. C. Menendez,, B. Rodriguez-Salgado,, K. C. Jost,, S. H. Chiu,, G. O. Onyi,, E. C. Böttger, and, R. J. Wallace, Jr. 1999. Mycobacterium wolinskyi sp. nov. and Mycobacterium goodii sp. nov., two new rapidly growing species related to Mycobacterium smegmatis and associated with human wound infections: a cooperative study from the International Working Group on Mycobacterial Taxonomy. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49: 1493– 1511.
8. Brown, B. A.,, R. J. Wallace, Jr.,, G. Onyi,, V. DeRosas, and, R. J. Wallace III. 1992. Activities of four macrolides including clarithromycin against Mycobacterium fortuitum, Mycobacterium chelonae, and Mycobacterium chelonae-like organisms. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36: 180– 184.
9. Brown-Elliott, B. A.,, M. McGlasson,, P. Painter,, L. Mann,, D. Hall,, L. Battee, and, R. J. Wallace, Jr. 2009. Comparison of antimicrobials including besifloxacin, ciprofloxacin, gatifloxacin, moxifloxacin, levofloxacin, azithromycin, clarithromycin, amikacin, imipenem, and tobramycin against ophthalmic isolates of nontuberculous mycobacteria, abstr. U-041, p. 583. 109th Gen. Meet. Am. Soc. Microbiol., Philadelphia, PA.
10. Brown-Elliott, B. A.,, and R. J. Wallace, Jr. 2002. Clinical and taxonomic status of pathogenic nonpigmented or late-pigmenting rapidly growing mycobacteria. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 15: 716– 746.
11. Brown-Elliott, B. A.,, R. J. Wallace,, C. A. Petti,, L. B. Mann,, M. McGlasson,, S. Chihara,, G. L. Smith,, P. Painter,, D. Hail,, R. Wilson, and, K. E. Simmon. 2010. Mycobacterium neoaurum and Mycobacterium bacteremicum sp. nov. as causes of bacteremia. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48: 4377– 4385.
12. Brown-Elliott, B. A.,, R. J. Wallace, Jr.,, R. Blinkhorn,, C. J. Crist, and, L. M. Mann. 2001. Successful treatment of disseminated Mycobacterium chelonae infection with linezolid. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33: 1433– 1434.
13. Carson, L. A.,, L. A. Bland,, L. B. Cusick,, M. S. Favero,, G. A. Bolan,, A. L. Reingold, and, R. C. Good. 1988. Prevalence of nontuberculous mycobacteria in water supplies of hemodialysis centers. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54: 3122– 3125.
14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1998. Rapidly growing mycobacterial infection following liposuction and liposculpture—Caracas, Venezuela, 1996-1998. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 47: 1065.
15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2004. Nontuberculous mycobacterial infections after cosmetic surgery—Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, 2003-2004. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 53: 509.
16. Chetchotisakd, P.,, P. Mootsikapun,, S. Anunnatsiri,, K. Jirarattanapochai,, C. Choonhakarn,, A. Chaiprasert,, P. N. Ubol,, L. J. Wheat, and, T. E. Davis. 2000. Disseminated infection due to rapidly growing mycobacteria in immunocompetent hosts presenting with chronic lymphadenopathy: a previously unrecognized clinical entity. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32: 29– 34.
17. Cobbett, L. 1918. An acid-fast bacillus obtained from a pustular eruption. Br. Med. J. 2: 158.
18. Cooksey, R. C.,, J. H. de Waard,, M. A. Yakrus,, I. Rivera,, M. Chopite,, S. R. Toney,, G. P. Morlock, and, W. R. Butler. 2004. Mycobacterium cosmeticum sp. nov., a novel rapidly growing species isolated from a cosmetic infection and from a nail salon. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 54: 2385– 2391.
19. Cooksey, R. C.,, M. A. Jhung,, M. A. Yakrus,, W. R. Butler,, T. Adékambi,, G. P. Morlock,, M. Williams,, A. M. Shams,, B. J. Jensen,, R. E. Morey,, N. Charles,, S. R. Toney,, K. C. Jost, Jr.,, D. F. Dunbar,, V. Bennett,, M. Kuan, and, A. Srinivasan. 2008. Multiphasic approach reveals genetic diversity of environmental and patient isolates of Mycobacterium mucogenicum and Mycobacterium phocaicum associated with an outbreak of bacteremias at a Texas Hospital. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74: 2480– 2487.
20. Covert, T. C.,, M. R. Rodgers,, A. L. Reyes, and, G. N. Stelma, Jr. 1999. Occurrence of nontuberculous mycobacteria in environmental samples. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65: 2492– 2496.
21. Cullen, A. R.,, C. L. Cannon,, E. J. Mark, and, A. A. Colin. 2000. Mycobacterium abscessus infection in cystic fibrosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161: 641– 645.
22. da Costa Cruz, J. C. 1938. Mycobacterium fortuitum: um novo bacilo acido-resistente patogenico para o homen (new acid fast bacillus pathogenic for man). Acta Med. (Rio de Jåneiro) 1: 298– 301.
23. del Castillo, M.,, D. J. Palmero,, B. Lopez,, R. Paul,, V. Ritacco,, P. Bonvehi,, L. Clara,, M. Ambroggi,, L. Barrera, and, C. Vay. 2009. Mesotherapy-associated outbreak caused by Mycobacterium immunogenum. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 15: 357– 358.
24. Duarte, R. S.,, M. C. Silva Lourenço,, L. de Souza Fonseca,, S. C. Leão,, E. D. L. T. Amorim,, I. L. L. Rocha,, F. S. Coelho,, C. Viana-Niero,, K. M. Gomes,, M. G. da Silva,, N. S. de Oliveira Lorena,, M. B. Pitombo,, R. M. C. Ferreira,, M. H. de Oliveira Garcia,, G. P. de Oliveira,, O. Lupi,, B. R. Vilaça,, L. R. Serradas,, A. Chebato,, E. A. Marques,, L. M. Teixeira,, M. Dalcolmo,, S. G. Senna, and, J. L. M. Sampaio. 2009. Epidemic of postsurgical infections caused by Mycobacterium massiliense. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47: 2149– 2155.
25. Eid, A. J.,, F. Bergari,, I. G. Sia,, N. L. Wengenack,, D. R. Osmon, and, R. R. Razonable. 2007. Prosthetic joint infection due to rapidly growing mycobacteria: report of 8 cases and review of the literature. Clin. Infect. Dis. 45: 687– 694.
26. Falkinham, J. O., III. 2003. The changing pattern of nontuberculous mycobacterial disease. Can. J. Infect. Dis. 14: 281– 286.
27. Fauroux, B.,, B. Delaisi,, A. Clément,, C. Saizou,, D. Moissenet,, C. Truffot-Pernot,, G. Tournier, and, H. Vu Thien. 1997. Mycobacterial lung disease in cystic fibrosis: a prospective study. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 16: 354– 358.
28. Flor, A.,, J. A. Capdevila,, N. Martin,, J. Gavaldá, and, A. Pahissa. 1996. Nontuberculous mycobacterial meningitis: report of two cases and review. Clin. Infect. Dis. 23: 1266– 1273.
29. Forbes, B. A.,, N. Banaiee,, K. G. Beavis,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, P. Della Latta,, L. B. Elliott,, G. S. Hall,, B. Hanna,, M. D. Perkins,, S. H. Siddiqi,, R. J. Wallace, Jr., and, N. G. Warren. 2008. Laboratory Detection and Identification of Mycobacteria; Approved Guideline. CLSI Document M48-A. CLSI, Wayne, PA.
30. Friedman, N. D.,, and D. J. Sexton. 2001. Bursitis due to Mycobacterium goodii, a recently described, rapidly growing mycobacterium. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39: 404– 405.
31. Furuya, E. Y.,, A. Paez,, A. Srinivasan,, R. Cooksey,, M. Augenbraun,, M. Baron,, K. Brudney,, P. Della-Latta,, C. Estivariz,, S. Fischer,, M. Flood,, P. Kellner,, C. Roman,, M. Yakrus,, D. Weiss, and, E. V. Granowitz. 2008. Outbreak of Mycobacterium abscessus wound infections among “lipotourists” from the United States who underwent abdominoplasty in the Dominican Republic. Clin. Infect. Dis. 46: 1181– 1188.
32. Galassi, L.,, R. Donato,, E. Tortoli,, D. Burrini,, D. Santianni, and, R. Dei. 2003. Nontuberculous mycobacteria in hospital water systems: application of HPLC for identification of environmental mycobacteria. J. Water Health 1: 133– 139.
33. Galil, K.,, L. A. Miller,, M. A. Yakrus,, R. J. Wallace, Jr.,, D. G. Mosley,, B. England,, G. Huitt,, M. M. McNeill, and, B. A. Perkins. 1999. Abscesses due to Mycobacterium abscessus linked to injection of unapproved alternative medication. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 5: 681– 687.
34. Gira, A. K.,, H. Reisenauer,, L. Hammock,, U. Nadiminti,, J. T. Macy,, A. Reeves,, C. Burnett,, M. A. Yakrus,, S. Toney,, B. J. Jensen,, H. M. Blumberg,, S. W. Caughman, and, F. S. Nolte. 2004. Furunculosis due to Mycobacterium mageritense associated with footbaths at a nail salon. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 1813– 1817.
35. Gomila, M.,, A. Ramirez,, J. Gascó, and, J. Lalucat. 2008. Mycobacterium llatzerense sp. nov., a facultatively autotrophic, hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium isolated from haemodialysis water. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 58: 2769– 2773.
36. Griffith, D. E.,, T. Aksamit,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, A. Catanzaro,, C. Daley,, F. Gordin,, S. M. Holland,, R. Horsburgh,, G. Huitt,, M. F. Iademarco,, M. Iseman,, K. Olivier,, S. Ruoss,, C. F. von Reyn,, R. J. Wallace, Jr., and, K. Winthrop. 2007. An official ATS/IDSA statement: diagnosis, treatment and prevention of nontuberculous mycobacterial diseases. American Thoracic Society statement. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 175: 367– 416.
37. Gubler, J. G. H.,, M. Salfinger, and, A. von Graevenitz. 1992. Pseudoepidemic of nontuberculous mycobacteria due to a contaminated bronchoscope cleaning machine: report of an outbreak and review of the literature. Chest 101: 1245– 1249.
38. Hector, J. S. R.,, Y. Pang,, G. H. Mazurek,, Y. Zhang,, B. A. Brown, and, R. J. Wallace, Jr. 1992. Large restriction fragment patterns of genomic Mycobacterium fortuitum DNA as strain-specific markers and their use in epidemiologic investigation of four nosocomial outbreaks. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30: 1250– 1255.
39. Hennessee, C. T.,, J.- S. Seo,, A. M. Alvarez, and, Q. X. Li. 2009. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-degrading species isolates from Hawaiian soils: Mycobacterium crocinum sp. nov., Mycobacterium pallens sp. nov., Mycobacterium rutilum sp. nov., Mycobacterium rufum sp. nov., and Mycobacterium aromaticivorans sp. nov. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 59: 378– 387.
40. Jiménez, M. S.,, M. I. Campos-Herrero,, D. García,, M. Luquin,, L. Herrera, and, M. J. García. 2004. Mycobacterium canariasense sp. nov. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 54: 1729– 1734.
41. Jönsson, B. E.,, M. Gilljam,, A. Landblad,, M. Ridell,, A. E. Wold, and, C. Welinder-Olsson. 2007. Molecular epidemiology of Mycobacterium abscessus with focus on cystic fibrosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45: 1497– 1504.
42. Kim, H.-Y.,, Y. Kook,, Y.- J. Yun,, C. G. Park,, N. Y. Lee,, T. S. Shim,, B.- J. Kim, and, Y.-H. Kook. 2008. Proportion of Mycobacterium massiliense and Mycobacterium bolletii in strains among Korean Mycobacterium chelonae-Mycobacterium abscessus group isolates. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46: 3384– 3390.
43. Kim, H.-Y.,, Y.- J. Yun,, C. G. Park,, D. H. Lee,, Y. K. Cho,, B. J. Park,, S.- I. Joo,, E.- C. Kim,, Y. J. Hur,, B.- J. Kim, and, Y. H. Kook. 2007. Outbreak of Mycobacterium massiliense infection associated with intramuscular injections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45: 3127– 3130.
44. Koh, W.-J.,, J. Kyeongman,, N.- Y. Lee,, B.- J. Kim,, Y.- H. Kook,, S.- H. Lee,, Y. K. Park,, C. K. Kim,, S. J. Shin,, G. A. Huitt,, C. L. Daley, and, D. J. Kwon. 2011. Clinical significance of differentiation of Mycobacterium massilense from Mycobacterium abscessus. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 183: 405– 410.
45. Kusunoki, S.,, and T. Ezaki. 1992. Proposal of Mycobacterium peregrinum sp. nov., nom. rev., and elevation of Mycobacterium chelonae subsp. abscessus (Kubica et al.) to species status: Mycobacterium abscessus comb. nov. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 42: 240– 245.
46. Lai, K. K.,, B. A. Brown,, J. A. Westerling,, S. A. Fontecchio,, Y. Zhang, and, R. J. Wallace, Jr. 1998. Long-term laboratory contamination by Mycobacterium abscessus resulting in two pseudo-outbreaks: recognition with use of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) polymerase chain reaction. Clin. Infect. Dis. 27: 169– 175.
47. Lamy, B.,, H. Marchandin,, K. Hamitouche, and, F. Laurent. 2008. Mycobacterium setense sp. nov., a Mycobacterium fortuitum group organism isolated from a patient with soft tissue infection and osteitis. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 58: 486– 490.
48. Leao, S. C.,, E. Tortoli,, C. Viana-Niero,, S. Y. M. Ueki,, K. V. B. Lima,, M. L. Lopes,, J. Yubero,, M. C. Menendez, and, M. J. Garcia. 2009. Characterization of mycobacteria from a major Brazilian outbreak suggests a revision of the taxonomic status of members of the Mycobacterium chelonae-abscessus group. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47: 2691– 2698.
49. Leao, S. C.,, E. Tortoli,, J. P. Euzeby, and, M. J. Garcia. 2010 (Epub ahead of print). Proposal that the two species Mycobacterium massilense and Mycobacterium bolletii be reclassified as Mycobacterium abscessus subsp. bolletii comb. nov., designation of Mycobacterium abscessus subsp. abscessus subsp. nov., and emendation of Mycobacterium abscessus. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.023770-0.
50. Levendoglu-Tugal, O.,, J. Munoz,, A. Brudnicki,, M. F. Ozkaynak,, C. Sandoval, and, S. Jayabose. 1998. Infections due to nontuberculous mycobacteria in children with leukemia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 27: 1227– 1230.
51. Macheras, E.,, A.- L. Roux,, F. Ripoll,, V. Sivadon-Tardy,, C. Gutierrez,, J.- L. Gaillard, and, B. Heym. 2009. Inaccuracy of single-target sequencing for discriminating species of the Mycobacterium abscessus group. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47: 2596– 2600.
52. McNabb, A.,, D. Eisler,, K. Adie,, M. Amos,, M. Rodrigues,, G. Stephens,, W. A. Black, and, J. Isaac-Renton. 2004. Assessment of partial sequencing of the 65-kilodalton heat shock protein gene ( hsp65) for routine identification of Mycobacterium species isolated from clinical sources. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 3000– 3011.
53. Meyers, H.,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, D. Moore,, J. Curry,, C. Truong,, Y. Zhang,, R. J. Wallace, Jr. 2002. An outbreak of Mycobacterium chelonae infection following liposuction. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34: 1500– 1507.
54. Moore, M.,, and J. B. Frerichs. 1953. An unusual acid fast infection of the knee with subcutaneous, abscess-like lesions of the gluteal region: report of a case study with a study of the organism, Mycobacterium abscessus. J. Investig. Dermatol. 20: 133– 169.
55. Nash, K. A. 2003. Intrinsic macrolide resistance in Mycobacterium smegmatis is conferred by a novel erm gene, erm( 38). Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47: 3053– 3060.
56. Nash, K. A.,, N. Andini,, Y. Zhang,, B. A. Brown-Elliott, and, R. J. Wallace, Jr. 2006. Intrinsic macrolide resistance in rapidly growing mycobacteria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 3476– 3478.
57. Nash, K. A.,, B. A. Brown-Elliott, and, R. J. Wallace, Jr. 2009. A novel gene, erm( 41), confers inducible macrolide resistance to clinical isolates of Mycobacterium abscessus but is absent from Mycobacterium chelonae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53: 1367– 1376.
58. Nash, K. A.,, Y. Zhang,, B. A. Brown-Elliott, and, R. J. Wallace, Jr. 2005. Molecular basis of intrinsic macrolide resistance in clinical isolates of Mycobacterium fortuitum. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 55: 170– 177.
59. Olivier, K. N.,, D. J. Weber,, R. J. Wallace, Jr.,, A. R. Faiz,, J.- H. Lee,, Y. Zhang,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, A. Handler,, R. W. Wilson,, M. S. Schechter,, L. J. Edwards,, S. Chakraborti, and, M. R. Knowles for the Nontuberculous Mycobacteria in Cystic Fibrosis Study Group. 2003. Nontuberculous mycobacteria. I. Multicenter prevalence study in cystic fibrosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167: 828– 834.
60. Petti, C. A.,, P. P. Bosshard,, M. E. Brandt,, J. E. Clarridge III,, T. V. Feldblyum,, P. Foxall,, M. R. Furtado,, N. Pace, and, G. Procop. 2007. Interpretive Criteria for Microorganism Identification by DNA Target Sequencing: Proposed Guideline. CLSI Document MM18-P. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, PA.
61. Phillips, M. S.,, and C. F. von Reyn. 2001. Nosocomial infections due to nontuberculous mycobacteria. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33: 1363– 1374.
62. Raad, I. I.,, S. Vartivarian,, A. Khan, and, G. P. Bodey. 1991. Catheter-related infections caused by the Mycobacterium fortuitum complex: 15 cases and review. Rev. Infect. Dis. 13: 1120– 1125.
63. Regnier, S.,, E. Cambau,, J.- P. Meningaud,, A. Guihot,, L. Deforges,, A. Carbonne,, F. Bricaire, and, E. Caumes. 2009. Clinical management of rapidly growing mycobacterial cutaneous infections in patients after mesotherapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 49: 1358– 1364.
64. Reviglio, V.,, M. L. Rodriguez,, G. S. Picotti,, M. Paradello,, J. D. Luna, and, C. P. Juárez. 1998. Mycobacterium chelonae keratitis following laser in situ keratomileusis. J. Refract. Surg. 14: 357– 360.
65. Richter, E.,, S. Rüsch-Gerdes, and, D. Hillemann. 2006. Evaluation of the GenoType Mycobacterium assay for identification of mycobacterial species from cultures. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44: 1769– 1775.
66. Roux, A.-L.,, E. Catherinot,, F. Ripoll,, N. Soismier,, E. Macheras,, S. Ravilly,, G. Bellis,, M.- A. Vibet,, E. Le Roux,, L. Lemonnier,, C. Gutierrez,, V. Vincent,, B. Fauroux,, M. Rottman,, D. Guillemot,, J.- L. Gaillard, and, J.-L. Herrman for the OMA Group. 2009. Multicenter study of prevalence of nontuberculous mycobacteria in patients with cystic fibrosis in France. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47: 4124– 4128.
67. Runyon, H. 1972. Conservation of the specific epithet fortuitum in the name of the organism known as Mycobacterium fortuitum da Costa Cruz. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 22: 50– 51.
68. Saluja, A.,, N. T. Peters,, L. Lowe, and, T. M. Johnson. 1997. A surgical wound infection due to Mycobacterium chelonae successfully treated with clarithromycin. Dermatol. Surg. 23: 539– 543.
69. Sampaio, J. L.,, E. Chimara,, L. Ferrazoli,, M. A. da Silva Telles,, V. M. Del Guercio,, Z. V. Jericó,, K. Miyashiro,, C. M. Fortaleza,, M. C. Padoveze, and, S. C. Leão. 2006. Application of four molecular typing methods for analysis of Mycobacterium fortuitum group strains causing post-mammaplasty infections. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12: 142– 149.
70. Schinsky, M. F.,, R. E. Morey,, A. G. Steigerwalt,, M. P. Douglas,, R. W. Wilson,, M. M. Floyd,, W. R. Butler,, M. I. Daneshvar,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, R. J. Wallace, Jr.,, M. M. McNeil,, D. J. Brenner, and, J. M. Brown. 2004. Taxonomic variation in the Mycobacterium fortuitum third-biovariant complex: description of Mycobacterium boenickei sp. nov., Mycobacterium houstonense sp. nov., Mycobacterium neworleansense sp. nov., Mycobacterium brisbanense sp. nov., and recognition of Mycobacterium porcinum from human clinical isolates. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 54: 1653– 1667.
71. Schulze-Röbbecke, R.,, B. Janning, and, R. Fischeder. 1992. Occurrence of mycobacteria in biofilm samples. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 73: 141– 144.
73. Sudesh, S.,, E. J. Cohen,, L. W. Schwartz, and, J. S. Myers. 2000. Mycobacterium chelonae infection in a corneal graft. Arch. Ophthalmol. 118: 294– 295.
74. Telenti, A.,, F. Marchesi,, M. Balz,, F. Bally,, E. C. Böttger, and, T. Bodmer. 1993. Rapid identification of mycobacteria to the species level by polymerase chain reaction and restriction enzyme analysis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31: 175– 178.
75. Tiwari, T. S. P.,, B. Ray,, K. C. Jost, Jr.,, M. K. Rathod,, Y. Zhang,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, K. Hendricks, and, R. J. Wallace, Jr. 2003. Forty years of disinfectant failure: outbreak of postinjection Mycobacterium abscessus infection caused by contamination of benzalkonium chloride. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36: 954– 962.
76. Tortoli, E. 2003. Impact of genotypic studies on mycobacterial taxonomy: the new mycobacteria of the 1990s. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 16: 319– 354.
77. Tortoli, E. 2006. The new mycobacteria: an update. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 48: 159– 178.
78. Tortoli, E.,, A. Nanetti,, C. Piersimoni,, P. Cichero,, C. Farina,, G. Mucignat,, C. Scarparo,, L. Bartolini,, R. Valentini,, D. Nista,, G. Gesu,, C. Passerini Tosi,, M. Crovatto, and, G. Brusarosco. 2001. Performance assessment of new multiplex probe assay for identification of mycobacteria. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39: 1079– 1084.
79. Tortoli, E.,, M. Pecorari,, G. Fabio,, M. Messinò, and, A. Fabio. 2010. Commercial DNA probes for mycobacteria incorrectly identify a number of less frequently encountered species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48: 307– 310.
80. Turenne, C. Y.,, L. Tschetter,, J. Wolfe, and, A. Kabani. 2001. Necessity of quality-controlled 16S rRNA gene sequence databases: identifying nontuberculous Mycobacterium species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39: 3637– 3648.
81. van Dissel, J. T.,, and E. J. Kuijper. 2009. Rapidly growing mycobacteria: emerging pathogens in cosmetic procedures of the skin. Clin. Infect. Dis. 49: 1365– 1368.
82. Viana-Nicro, C.,, K. V. B. Lima,, M. L. Lopes,, M. C. da Silva Rabello,, L. R. Marsola,, V. C. R. Brilhante,, A. M. Durham, and, S. C. Leão. 2008. Molecular characterization of Mycobacterium massiliense and Mycobacterium bolletii in isolates collected from outbreaks of infections after laparoscopic surgeries and cosmetic procedures. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46: 850– 855.
83. Villanueva, A.,, R. V. Calderon,, B. A. Vargas,, F. Ruiz,, S. Aguero,, Y. Zhang,, B. A. Brown, and, R. J. Wallace, Jr. 1997. Report on an outbreak of post-injection abscesses due to Mycobacterium abscessus, including management with surgery and clarithromycin therapy and comparison of strains by random amplified polymorphic DNA polymerase chain reaction. Clin. Infect. Dis. 24: 1147– 1153.
84. Vugia, D. J.,, Y. Jang,, C. Zizek,, J. Ely,, K. L. Winthrop, and, E. Desmond. 2005. Mycobacteria in nail salon whirlpool footbaths, California. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11: 616– 618.
85. Wallace, R. J., Jr. 2004. Infections due to nontuberculous mycobacteria, p. 461–478. In W. M. Scheld,, R. J. Whitley, and, C. M. Marra (ed.), Infections of the Central Nervous System, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.
86. Wallace, R. J., Jr.,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, C. J. Crist,, L. Mann, and, R. W. Wilson. 2002. Comparison of the in vitro activity of the glycylcycline tigecycline (formerly GAR-936) with those of tetracycline, minocycline, and doxycycline against isolates of nontuberculous mycobacteria. Antimicrob. Agents. Chemother. 46: 3164– 3167.
87. Wallace, R. J., Jr.,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, J. M. Brown,, A. G. Steigerwalt,, L. Hall,, G. Woods,, J. Cloud,, L. Mann,, R. W. Wilson,, C. Crist,, K. C. Jost, Jr.,, D. E. Byrer,, J. Tang,, J. Cooper,, E. Stamenova,, B. Campbell,, J. Wolfe, and, C. Turenne. 2005. Polyphasic characterization reveals that the human pathogen Mycobacterium peregrinum type II belongs to the bovine pathogen species Mycobacterium senegalense. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43: 5925– 5935.
88. Wallace, R. J., Jr.,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, L. Hall,, G. Roberts,, R. W. Wilson,, L. B. Mann,, C. J. Crist,, S. H. Chiu,, R. Dunlap,, M. J. Garcia,, J. T. Bagwell, and, K. C. Jost, Jr. 2002. Clinical and laboratory features of Mycobacterium mageritense. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40: 2930– 2935.
89. Wallace, R. J., Jr.,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, S. C. Ward,, C. J. Crist,, L. B. Mann, and, R. W. Wilson. 2001. Activities of linezolid against rapidly growing mycobacteria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45: 764– 767.
90. Wallace, R. J., Jr.,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, R. W. Wilson,, L. Mann,, L. Hall,, Y. Zhang,, K. C. Jost, Jr.,, J. M. Brown,, A. Kabani,, M. F. Schinsky,, A. G. Steigerwalt,, C. J. Crist,, G. D. Roberts,, Z. Black-lock,, M. Tsukamura, and, V. Silcox, and, C. Turenne. 2004. Clinical and laboratory features of Mycobacterium porcinum. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 5689– 5697.
91. Wallace, R. J., Jr.,, A. Meier,, B. A. Brown,, Y. Zhang,, P. Sander,, G. O. Onyi, and, E. C. Böttger. 1996. Genetic basis for clarithromycin resistance among isolates of Mycobacterium chelonae and Mycobacterium abscessus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40: 1676– 1681.
92. Washer, L. L.,, J. Riddell IV,, J. Rider, and, C. E. Chenoweth. 2007. Mycobacterium neoaurum bloodstream infection: report of 4 cases and review of the literature. Clin. Infect. Dis. 45: e10– e13.
93. Whipps, C. M., W. R. Butler,, F. Pourahmad,, V. G. Watral, and, M. L. Kent. 2007. Molecular systematics support the revival of Mycobacterium salmoniphilum (ex Ross 1960) sp. nov., nom. rev., a species closely related to Mycobacterium chelonae. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 57: 2525– 2531.
94. Wilson, R. W.,, V. A. Steingrube,, E. C. Böttger,, B. Springer,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, V. Vincent,, K. C. Jost, Jr.,, Y. Zhang,, M. J. Garcia,, S. H. Chiu,, G. O. Onyi,, H. Rossmoore,, D. R. Nash, and, R. J. Wallace, Jr. 2001. Mycobacterium immunogenum sp. nov., a novel species related to Mycobacterium abscessus and associated with clinical disease, pseudo-outbreaks, and contaminated metalworking fluids: an international cooperative study on mycobacterial taxonomy. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 51: 1751– 1764.
95. Winthrop, K. L.,, K. Albridge,, D. South,, P. Albrecht,, M. Abrams,, M. C. Samuel,, W. Leonard,, J. Wagner, and, D. J. Vugia. 2004. The clinical management and outcome of nail salon-acquired Mycobacterium fortuitum skin infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38: 38– 44.
96. Winthrop, K. L.,, E. Chang,, S. Yamashita,, M. F. Iademarco, and, P. A. LoBue. 2009. Nontuberculous mycobacteria infections and anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha therapy. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 15: 1556– 1561.
97. Wolinsky, E. 1979. State of the art: nontuberculous mycobacterial and associated disease. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 119: 107– 159.
98. Woo, P. C. Y.,, K.- W. Leung,, S. S. Y. Wong,, K. T. K. Chong,, E. Y. L. Cheung, and, K.-Y. Yuen. 2002. Relatively alcohol-resistant mycobacteria are emerging pathogens in patients receiving acupuncture treatment. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40: 1219– 1224.
99. Woods, G. L.,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, E. P. Desmond,, G. S. Hall,, L. Heifets,, G. E. Pfyffer,, M. R. Ridderhof,, R. J. Wallace, Jr.,, N. G. Warren, and, F. G. Witebsky. 2003. Susceptibility Testing of Mycobacteria, Nocardia, and Other Aerobic Actinomycetes; Approved Standard M24-A. NCCLS, Wayne, PA.
100. Zelazny, A. M.,, J. M. Root,, Y. R. Shea,, R. E. Colombo,, I. C. Shamputa,, F. Stock,, S. S. Conlan,, S. McNulty,, B. A. Brown-Elliott,, R. J. Wallace, Jr.,, K. N. Olivier,, S. M. Holland, and, E. P. Sampaio. 2009. Cohort study of molecular identification and typing of Mycobacterium abscessus, Mycobacterium massiliense and Mycobacterium bolletii. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47: 1985– 1995.
101. Zhang, Y.,, M. Rajagopalan,, B. A. Brown, and, R. J. Wallace, Jr. 1997. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA PCR for comparison of Mycobacterium abscessus strains from nosocomial outbreaks. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35: 3132– 3139.
102. Zhibang, Y.,, Z. Bixia,, L. Qishan,, C. Lihao,, L. Xiangquan, and, L. Huaping. 2002. Large-scale outbreak of infection with Mycobacterium chelonae subsp. abscessus after penicillin injection. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40: 2626– 2628.