The Country Report points out that the Deaf are taught Lithuanian and one foreign language, only in the written forms. Sign language is mentioned as “the native language of the deaf”. Sign language as a first language was introduced almost 10 years ago and Lithuania has excellent legislation as compared to other European countries. The Norwegian system was copied and the Nordic Council gave and still gives financial support.
On the occasion of visiting a school for the Deaf the Expert Group was impressed by the quality of the teaching materials, the expertise the school demonstrated, the professionalism of the sign language department and its international contacts. The experience and knowledge teachers exchanged with other sign language specialists across Europe was directly implemented for the advantage of the pupils. All teachers at schools for the hearing impaired are supposed to know sign language. They are entitled to an 18 hours´ training39 programme.The Expert Group, however did not learn of special provisions in the education system for the teaching of the sign language to the non-deaf nor for the possible sign language training of teachers in mainstream education. This issue is of importance with regard to social inclusion.
A sign language interpreters´ centre was established three years ago in Vilnius because quality in interpretation was needed. In 2001 standards for translation were established, and provisions for translation in sign languages will be expended in a new programme for 2005-2008.
As stated earlier, the issues regarding the Lithuanian language and the national minorities’ languages are more readily formulated, sometimes in dramatic terms, than those concerning foreign languages. One can easily surmise that the area of foreign languages is, in general, one of fast, peaceful and positive development within the Lithuanian society and specifically in its education system. While this interpretation of the situation can be illustrated and favourably argued in various ways, some sensitive questions do still emerge.
These issues by and large are not limited to foreign languages and concern the initial and in service training of language teachers, the range of languages actually taught, the level and management of the final school exams and state exams, the continuity of the language curriculum and the valorisation of the second compulsory foreign language (in mainstream education). Some of these or other points have been touched upon earlier in this report, regarding Lithuanian (3.1.4.) or national minority languages (3.2.3).
This issue has already been mentioned for the teaching of the national language (native or second) as for the teaching of foreign languages. In the latter case, the difficulties seem to be of a qualitative as well as of a quantitative nature.
The lack of teachers of English is deeply felt in a period of growing demand; colleges and universities will probably, on the one hand, qualify enough students to respond to this new situation. The creation of colleges, the increase in the number of students entering university and the affirmative priority given to higher education in the society of knowledge are clearly positive factors. But, on the other hand, since the school population, whether “native” Lithuanian or from national minorities, has not expanded but rather diminished in the last decades, one may think that, if this demographic trend is confirmed, there will come a time when the need for more teachers will sharply be reduced.
The main problem seems to result from the abrupt change on the language scene when the early learning of Russian ceased to be compulsory. The “requalification” of many “no longer needed” specialists of this language was in many respects necessary but proved difficult to achieve. As in some other countries of the ex Soviet block, converting teachers of Russian (or of other sensitive subjects, such as history) into becoming teachers of English or other languages often resulted in creating some linguistic insecurity and methodological destabilisation, especially when, along with the new dominant language, there came a strong incitation to a radical change in the approach of the teaching process.
Somewhat similar tensions may have emerged, in quite a different context, at higher education level. The creation and growth of colleges, which have a function in preparing students for new social needs and national development, is perhaps perceived, in the older established institutions, as an acceleration of trends transforming higher education and creating some risks for its traditional missions of research and construction of scientific knowledge. Here again, as has been and is still the case in many European countries, teacher education is an issue within higher education itself, with regard to what should be the part of (“practical”) professional preparation and the role of (“theoretical”) academic instruction. Very often, the mere existence of institutions with different status and different traditions tends to enhance and artificially reinforce this disputable distinction. And such a potential or real conflict of models certainly has effects, if not on the intrinsic quality of the teachers, at least on the cohesion and self-image of the profession as a whole.
Moreover, differences are sometimes introduced among language teachers according to the language they teach. The teaching of English may be presented and “lived” as more dynamic or up to date than the teaching of Russian40. The image of the language, the kind of training received, the textbooks used and the rate at which new young teachers enter the profession (depending on the extension or reduction of the demand for the language they teach) are all elements which may have a part in the subjective, qualitative assessment of the teaching by the population concerned.
For foreign languages as for the other languages considered in this document, the initial and in-service training of teachers is a priority on the list of recurring issues. The Country Report and the visit in Lithuania progressively brought the Expert Group’s full attention on this question. Obviously, the Lithuanian authorities are well aware of the problem. Regional Education centres have a role to play in teacher training and, in Vilnius, a Teacher Development Centre is part of the strategic planning of the Minsitry of Education. Teachers are encouraged to participate in INSET: money from the student’s basket is allocated to five days of training per year for the teachers. Heads of school are expected to facilitate this program in connection with the local centres. There is as well a possibility for some teachers to take part in workshops set up in Graz by the ECML (European Centre for Modern Languages). Teachers are required to prove their regular participation in INSET in order to progress in their career.
the role of higher education institutions in continuing education.
The trends described as far as the choice of languages is concerned are not specific to Lithuania, when one considers the situation in Europe today. English becoming the principal and nearly the only first foreign language, especially when introduced early in the school program, is a widespread movement. In some countries, this dominance has been fully acknowledged by officially making English the compulsory required (first) foreign language, and opening a wider choice for the second (compulsory or optional) foreign language scheduled in the curriculum. In Lithuania, this possible orientation was once considered but presently set aside.
The importance of English has become an issue in Lithuania, with regard to its alleged consequences on the image, the learning and on the very corpus of the national language. English appears to certain important political forces and institutions as the prime vehicle for the globalisation of economy and culture and as the main agent of the loss of prestige affecting the Lithuanian language in some parts of the population. Moreover, it is perceived as a source of contamination for the very linguistic essence of a language in need of regeneration and development. These elements create a tension regarding matters of ideology and identity.
At the same time, the curricular provision for a second compulsory foreign language (at least in general education and in the schools where Lithuanian is the language of instruction) allows Russian to maintain a position and a role in the educative system, while German, though regressing as a first choice, remains present and of some importance in the foreign language scene.
Provided its present distribution is maintained, the combination of English, Russian and German might present many advantages for the “language assets” of Lithuania in Europe and for its population. The key issue then is to lessen the conflicting emotional dimension historically attached to these languages in the country. This is not an easy task.
There seems to be a consensus that ways should be found to enhance the interest for other foreign languages, both at the level of compulsory education and at university level. Certain sources indicate that Romance languages other than French, as well as Scandinavian languages, recently benefited from a small progression. This might be due to the entry of Lithuania in the European Union41.
One cannot but be aware of the fact that Polish (as opposed to Russian) is hardly taught to non native speakers. As a minoriry language, with a strong historical relation to Lithuania and as a neighbouring language across the border, it could be in a situation similar to that of Russian if it were chosen as a second “foreign” language by part of the school population. This is not the case42. Polish can, of course, be considered by families as less useful than Russian for international relations; other attitudinal factors may be important43. Indeed, the situation of other “neighbouring” (though not all linguistically close to Lithuanian) languages such as Latvian, Estonian and Ukrainian can be considered as well in this respect44.
feed back information on classroom quality and effectiveness to the school and to the individual teacher.
These two systems differ in purpose, assessment principle and level of skills.
Until 1999 most universities required students to sit entrance exams. The results in these exams plus the student´s average marks in school-leaving exams were used to decide whether the applicant could enter university in the desired field of study.
After 1999 the National Examination Centre45 (founded in 1996) introduced a new twofold school-leaving exam system and took up responsibility for the professional quality of the two exam systems. Since then the centre is responsible for setting the tasks centrally for both types of examination and for preparing teacher guidelines. Marking/grading of school-based exam papers is done locally on a criteria-referenced basis (examination syllabus, 1 – 10 scale). State exams are administered in regional exam-centres (e.g. universities) and papers are marked/graded centrally under the responsibility of the National Examination Centre with trained subject specialists at their disposal. Tasks are based on expanded curricula. Test points are translated into a 1-100 point scale; i.e. State exam results are norm-referenced since they serve a selective function (= identify eligibility for a limited number of vacancies at university entrance). Those who fail the State exam can take the school-based exam in the same year.
The universities soon began to replace their own entrance exams by the new prestigious centrally administered State exams.
Rules, regulations and practice of assessment and examinations stimulate – as in any other educational system - a lot of attention and apprehension from the teachers´ and administrators´ as well as from the politicians´ and parents´ side. In many contacts during their visit, the experts experienced both satisfaction with a professional approach to exams at the level of the National Examination Centre as well as cautious reminders and open criticism in a number of different areas. The Lithuanian situation can be set into a broader international perspective.
Obviously, the practical routines of preparing and administering exams as well as evaluating results year after year are mastered in a very professional way: e.g. exam content is communicated to the schools two years ahead of the actual exam, schools receive guidelines, model tasks and feedback on the general results, there are contracted experienced task authors, proposals are possible; etc.
However, the way the system is run presently, it could be geared to be more effective concerning the management of change in the educational sector. The Lithuanian government – as expressed in the Law on Education (1991/1992 and various subsequent amendments) – intends to strengthen the responsibility of the individual school and supports diversity of school profiles. At the same time, the administration is very much concerned with the setting of standards and the assessment of quality in education. This approach would call for (a) a closer functional interrelationship of the National Centre for School Development and the National Examination Centre, (b) the empirical validation of standards and of modelling examination results into a subject-based system of competence levels, (c) convergence of the two exam systems under the priority of criteria-reference, (d) coordination of general education standards and exam syllabuses.
As far as foreign languages are concerned the general structure of the exam papers is comparable to international standards with tasks focusing different communicative skills (e.g. 2003 for L1 = German: listening comprehension, reading comprehension, text production, vocabulary and grammar). All three possible answer formats are being used (closed, open, half-open formats), and for the different language domains the National Examination Centre uses several tasks aligned according to increase in difficulty. This fact given, school-based exams and State exams could be converted into a uniform system that allows for overlap in proficiency. However, such a system would require empirical calibration of exams including piloting and pre-piloting of tasks, which presently is not part of the National Examination Centre´s technical routines. A uniform system for both areas (school, State) allowing for a broader spectrum of abilities and proficiency levels would facilitate implementation of change and development of classroom quality.
Reference is being made to the levels of the Common European Framework for Languages (CEF) with maturity exams aiming at B2 for comprehension and B1 for writing (extended courses). This is – as in many educational contexts across Europe - rather an assumption than a reliable fact substantiated by empirical evidence. The Examination Centre should be encouraged to participate in the international process initiated by the Council of Europe which is intended to harmonise exam systems with the standards of the CEF on the basis of exemplary tasks for various Framework levels and skill areas.
There are three further areas for which language teachers met by the experts expressed concern: (a) Up to now, exams for languages focus on written skills only. On the other side national educational standards give a lot of weight to spoken production and interaction. The two systems should be brought together more closely by including oral skills into formal assessment46; (b) At the end of lower secondary (i.e. basic) education (age 15/16) language competences are not formally assessed, neither in first nor in further foreign languages; (c) In many European educational systems two foreign languages are required for enrolment at a university, and students have to demonstrate their command of two foreign languages in exams or in formal assessment at the end of upper secondary education.
Statistics concerning the choice of foreign language maturity examination (at School and State level) show the increasing dominance of English as a foreign language. In 2001 48,46% of language exams taken were in English, in 2003 English accounts for 61,73%. Less than 3% of the exams were in French.
The experts experienced intense and controversial discussions concerning the role of the Lithuanian language (as first or second/State language) in maturity exams. It became quite clear that the “philosophy” (purpose, function) of the State exam as opposed to the school-based exam is – to a certain extent - ambiguous. If the State exam is supposed to guarantee that young people can successfully do academic work without running into language difficulties, then two distinct exam papers for Lithuanian as a native resp. second language would not be very functional. If the State exam primarily serves a somewhat selective purpose, then it would make sense to have different text papers for those candidates being taught according to different curricular programmes (minority schools, different courses in Lithuanian for pupils with a minority background at so-called mixed schools). However, if this is the dominant approach taken, there could be a considerable overlap between the two test papers concerning functional communicative skills. And again: standardisation of exams would make things more transparent47.
So far minority languages are not on the agenda of State exams. Again experts noticed a considerable degree of ambiguity concerning status and function of the State exam in the discussions they had with representatives from minority groups, who want their first language to be equally treated and valued. Thus there is a definite demand for Russian and Polish to be part of the prestigious State exam programme. On the other side it is argued that minority languages are not the media of instruction at university level and therefore should not be part of the exam programme. Again, if State exams primarily serve a selective purpose, minority languages should not be excluded since there is a considerable number of young people who have ambitiously studied “their” language at school level. Why should they not be allowed to demonstrate their achievement in high-stake assessment? In a considerable number of educational systems around Europe school-leaving exam systems at maturity level include minority languages either alongside the State language or in some cases even as a “substitute” for a foreign language48.
The Country Report stresses the need for a reconsideration of some aspects of the foreign language strategy following the General Curriculum Framework and Educational Standards which Lithuania has adopted.
This could imply, according to the same report, a revision of the language and examinations syllabuses that would perhaps take into further consideration some general trends observed in Europe. Languages and language policy have a key place in the educational process in a society stressing the importance of acquiring knowledge along with achieving economic development, keeping in mind the emphasis on democratic citizenship, social inclusion and cohesion, and the rights of national minorities. And while the Country Report presents the national language, minority languages and foreign languages as separate issues, they are clearly interrelated, even interdependant, when it comes to dealing with the general aims of language education as well as with the detailed organisation of the school curriculum.
The fact that Lithuanian as a national language, whether first or second, has become a matter of social concern and of political debate cannot but affect the status and the position of the minority languages, recognised and officially protected as they are and differenciated among themselves as they can be. It cannot but affect as well some attitudes toward early foreign language learning, bilingual teaching or, more generally, toward the place and space given to foreign languages in the curriculum. It may be difficult to find the balance between “national” and “foreign”, when number of hours are to be determined.
Moreover, continuity and coherence in the curriculum have to do with approaches to language and to different languages49. In this respect, one has already noted that Lithuanian as a native language tends to be taught in schools and observed in its public usage with a rather normative approach, whereas English, as the first foreign language “par excellence”, is presented and perceived as a freer new communicative use, contrasting with the seemingly “defensive” and more constrained approach which apparently prevails for the national language and perhaps with the teaching of other foreign languages.
Even though the school alone cannot reduce all these possible tensions, potentially detrimental to the learning of the different languages present and to language education as a whole, it plays an important role. The Expert Group felt that a number of its interlocutors were hoping for a more global language policy, which would provide an integrated setting for the relations among languages deemed important for Lithuania and its citizens. This point, to be discussed in the next section (4) of the Report, has to do with different aspects of the curriculum, of teacher training and probably harmonisation of the strategies recently specified by legislation and normative measures.
The case of the second foreign language is obviously a part of the general question of curriculum. It can however be considered in itself, since it was often mentioned as an important issue during the visit of the Expert Group and in the Country Report. The main concern is that the second foreign language is no longer compulsory beyond grade 10 in the general education schools. Its teaching starts for all students of basic school in grade 6 and only students with the humanities profile are required to go on with this second foreign language in grades 11 and 12. For instance, more than 60% of the students drop the study of Russian at the end of basic school50, as shown in the figures quoted in the Country Report.
The situation is worsened by the fact that this second foreign language is not subjected to a final assessment of the level attained. It is then twice devalued : as an optional matter and as a subject not fully assessed. The motivation for second language learning is probably affected by these circumstances. Similar situations do exist in other countries, with the same ambiguous consequences: an important investment is made for the teaching of a second foreign language within the school system (at least for general education), but the absence of continuity and the lack of recognition and validation of results can be counterproductive51.
Another factor mentioned as possibly detrimental is the variable and often very small number of hours alloted to the second foreign language during the years where its study is required.