4. Unlike government departments and agencies, published reports of research carried out by most organizations, agencies and commercial outfits in the private sector are not made available for public consumption. However, non- profit organizations and agencies do make their publications available to those that need them. Some examples of agencies in the private sector or non profit category are: • The World Health Organization (WHO) – http://www.who.int/ • Joint United Nations Program on HIV and AIDS (UNAIDS) – http://www.unaids.org • Elsevier Publishers – http://www.elsevier.com • Cables News Network (CNN) – http://www.cnn.com Private Individuals Individuals also create information. Many print and web documents available today are created by private individuals, some of whom have their own Websites/pages. Some individuals disseminate information through Facebook, Twitter, Blogs, You-tube etc, while others publish information in print as text books, monographs or articles in journals, magazines or newsletters. On the other hand, some important information is not published rather, it is passed on from generation to generation. For example, some parents pass information to their children by word of mouth on how diseases were treated using traditional unorthodox methods in their communities. Exercises 1. List the various producers of information in a country. 2. Give three examples of the type of information each produces or creates.
12. made up by the author. Non-fiction books deals with information that is true, about real things, people, events and places. Non-Print Materials In addition to printed materials, information is also produced in other formats (non-print) including audio, audiovisual, multimedia, microform and electronic books, journals, images, texts/records from the Internet. Audio-Visual and Multimedia In the past decades, much of the information created by members of a given society is produced in audio, audio-visual and multimedia formats. Example of audio information is music recorded on CDs and books on audio or video tapes. Video information includes VCR tapes of TV shows, movies and documentaries . Other examples are information on CD-ROMs, DVDs, Flash drives and Web documents etc. Microform The American Heritage Dictionary defines microform as an arrangement of images reduced in size, as on microfilm or microfiche. Microforms are any form, either films or paper, containing micro reproductions  of documents for transmission, storage, reading, and printing. Microform images are commonly reduced about 25 times from the original document size, (miniaturized or compressed images) which cannot be read without special display devices (the reader). Archival materials are frequently placed in microform format because this medium is very stable and economical for storage of information for extended periods of time. There are two major types, namely: Microfilm and Microfiche. Microfilm Microfilm is a roll of transparent film (approximately 100 to 200 feet in length) used to store microscopic images of documents . A microfilm reader is required to read the images in the microfilm. Documents are recorded in microfilm because of the risk of damage to a fragile original or to save storage space. Microfilm when properly processed and stored within special envelopes and placed in a climate-controlled room, has a life expectancy of approximately 500 years [16, 17]. Most libraries have a collection of microfilm stored in their archives. Microfiche Is a small sheet of transparent photographic film usually 4 inches by 6 inches containing printed information in a size too small to be seen by the naked eye and needs a special device to read the images . The major advantages of microfiche include storage in a small space, stability of the format, and not needing knowledge to read it. As long as a microfiche machine is available to magnify the print to a readable size, anyone who can read the language can read the information on microfiche. When kept in a temperature-controlled environment, it can last for approximately 500 years; it is a good medium for saving and preserving cultural documents .
13. Unpublished sources- Indigenous Knowledge (IK) In local communities in Africa, there is a rich body of information or knowledge which has been handed down by word of mouth from generation to generation. This is known as indigenous knowledge. It is neither written nor published but provides people in the community with strategies for survival. Indigenous knowledge is the sum total of knowledge and skills which people in a particular geographical area possess that enables them to get the most out of their natural environment . This information/knowledge is not systematically documented. It is oral in nature, usually transmitted through personal communication; it is culture-specific and often generated within communities  for local level decision-making in agriculture, healthcare, food preparation, education, natural resources management and other activities . Examples of areas where indigenous knowledge has been very useful include, among others, African traditional medicine, conflict resolution and culture - dance steps and traditional attire . Exercises 1. What are the formats of information sources? 2. List 2 examples of the various formats? 3. How are indigenous knowledge /information conveyed to among members of a community? 4. What are the uses of indigenous knowledge/information? Where to Find Information Sources Places to begin looking for information are: 1. Human sources 2. Archives 3. Libraries 4. Internet Human Sources (Colleagues/Peers) Communication with peers and colleagues are a good way of obtaining vital information. For example, doctors have been found to rely on their colleagues for information in order to solve a patient’s problems. The value of informal sources of information especially colleagues and peers cannot be overstressed. The good side of it is that human sources (colleagues/peers) are readily available to provide needed information at the right time. If the right person is contacted, quality and up-to-date information will be obtained. The downside of using human sources is that there may be some element of bias in the information provided, or some people will say things from their own point of view or exaggerate it.
14. Archives Archives are places where records of all types and formats are kept and made accessible for research and other purposes. They are a good place to find primary sources, both unpublished materials and those that have been published for their parent institution's members or constituencies. Personal and institutional records of all types can be found in archives, as well as media, ephemera, oral histories, and even artifacts. The term archivescan also refer to the records themselves . The materials housed in the archives are unique, usually one of a kind items. Archives store, preserve and make accessible records of enduring value that have not been produced in great quantities for the general public for research and understanding. Archival materials are rare and irreplaceable and therefore they are not loaned out to users. Library When you think about libraries, the first things that come to mind are probably printed materials such as books, journals and magazines. Libraries also provide access to resources such as full- text journal and magazine articles, periodical indexes, and online encyclopedias. Libraries collect quality information in a wide variety of formats. Academic libraries purchase these sources for their "community" of students, faculty, and staff. Unlike archives, libraries have mass produced items such as books, government reports, CDs, DVDs, magazines and journals. The exceptions are rare books, manuscripts, map and other special collections. These resources are different from most of the information that is freely available to you over the Web because they have been reviewed and recommended by the library with input from the faculty members. Like archives, libraries have primary source materials in many forms: historical newspapers, published letters, diaries, and government reports are just a few of the types of primary sources that can be found in libraries. In addition, some libraries are similar to archives in that they specialize in information materials such as rare books and unpublished manuscripts. Why Go to a Library for Information? The main purpose of libraries, particularly those situated in University campuses, is to collect a large quantity of scholarly materials from different time periods and on diverse topics to make research easier for members of the community they serve (staff and students in the case of a university.) Library resources are free for use by members of the community. Libraries purchase materials that are normally too expensive for library patrons. Library materials, unlike those found on the Internet, go through a review process. Librarians select books, magazines, journals databases and even Websites for use by their patrons. This selection process enables the library to collect resources considered to be reliable, relevant and valuable. In addition, library resources are organized by subjects thus making them easy to find. For easy access, each item of library material has a call number that indicates where it is located on the stack/shelf. Libraries have collections with in-depth information that has been published over time. Both current and out of print books and magazines are stocked in libraries most of which are in print formats. With the advent of the electronic age, some of these are now accessible through digital libraries collections on the Web.
17. Reference Sources These are authoritative works that provide specific answers or information. As you go through school, you will need to use reference sources to find information about topics, locate facts, and answer questions. There are many types of reference sources, including atlases, dictionaries, encyclopedias, thesauri, directories, almanacs, manuals, biographies, and handbooks, among others. Each type is available either in print, on CD-ROMs and the Internet. Reference information sources can be general or subject specific. For example, The Encyclopedia Britannica is general while The Encyclopedia of Stem-Cell Research, The Encyclopedia of Pain, and The Gale encyclopedia of Medicine are subject encyclopedias. Other reference sources such as dictionaries, atlases, directories also have both general and subject categories. A set of Encyclopedia BritannicaGale Encyclopedia of Medicine • Monographs A monograph is a scholarly piece of writing in form of an essay or book on a specific, often limited subject . It is a book that stands on its own rather than being part of a series. According to The National Research Council (NRC), a monograph is a specialized scientific book. Monographs are written by specialists for the benefit of other specialists and demand the highest standards of scholarship. Most monographic manuscripts are critically reviewed and edited resulting in books that are expected to have a reasonably long shelf life . Monographs serve as an important means for conveying basic background information, such as a narrative description of a disease, path-physiology, diagnostic techniques and common therapeutic regimes etc. This trend remains true today, whether the monograph is in the print or electronic format . Monographs can be located using bibliographies that list references of books with detailed bibliographic information (author, title, year of publication, publisher and date of publication). Bibliographies serve as tools for verification, location and selection of monographs. Today, many print sources for monographs are now in electronic formats. To locate monographs in a library collection requires using the library catalog and most libraries now have Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC). A good example is the National Library of Medicine LOCATORplus.
24. topics with abstracts back to 1974 and it is updated daily with pharmacological information. The database indexes more than 7000 journals, has over 18 million records. It has more than the 11 million EMBASE records from 1974 to date and 7 million for unique MEDLINE records from 1966 to the present. This database can be accessed through subscription at http://www.embase.com Note: All the above bibliographic databases except EMBASE are accessible free through HINARI (http://www.who.int/hinari) • Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM) Resources/Databases Evidence-Based Medicine is about using information from the medical literature in making informed decision about patient care. Many EBM databases are now accessible online including, among others: • Clinical Queries • Cochrane Library • Clinical Evidence • DynaMed • Best Evidence In this module, Clinical Queries and the Cochrane Library will be discussed 1. Clinical Queries: This is accessible through PubMed and covers three main areas namely: • Clinical study category Query: This filters citations to a specific clinical study category and scope • Systematic Reviews: These filter citations for systematic reviews, meta-analyses, reviews of clinical trials, evidence-based medicine, consensus development conferences, and guidelines. • Medical genetics: filter citations to topics in medical genetics.
26. Consumer Health Information Resources/Databases 1. MEDLINEPlus 2. National Institute of Health (NIH) Senior Health 3. New York Online Access to Health (NOAH) 4. HealthyRoadsMedia 5. Toxtown 6. Toxnet 7. Household products database • Medline Plus Medline Plus is a product of the National Library of Medicine (NLM). Medline Plus offers information on selected, organized links to online consumer health information on hundreds of topics about diseases, conditions, and wellness issues in language you can understand. Medline Plus offers reliable, up-to-date health information, anytime, anywhere for free. You can use Medline Plus to learn about the latest treatments, look up information on a drug or supplement, find out the meanings of words, or view medical videos or illustrations. You can also get links to the latest medical research on your topic or learn about clinical trials on a disease or condition. It also includes tutorials.
28. language links for that topic. It is well-organized and easy to browse; browsing is often more efficient than using the search engine . Can be accessed at: http://www.noah-health.org/ • HealthyRoadsMedia A collaborative effort of many different public health agencies, social services organizations, and librarians, HealthyRoadsMedia collects, creates and provides free online access to multilingual health information overviews on various topics in a variety of formats: audio, audiovisual, and written. Health topics provided in English and 8 other languages: Arabic, Bosnian, Hmong, Khmer, Russian, Somali, Spanish, and Vietnamese. It is best for patients with lower literacy English and / or need for information in a language other than English. Focus is on prevention and wellness, and safety. Not all topics are available in all languages . To access this resource go to: http://www.healthyroadsmedia.org/ • Household Products Database This database links over 10,000 consumer brands to health effects from Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) provided by manufacturers and allows scientists and consumers to research products based on chemical ingredients . Household product database was developed by the Specialized Information Services Division at the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA. The database is designed to help answer the following typical questions: • What are the chemical ingredients and their percentage in specific brands? • Which products contain specific chemical ingredients? • Who manufactures a specific brand? How do I contact this manufacturer? • What are the acute and chronic effects of chemical ingredients in a specific brand? • What other information is available about chemicals in the toxicology-related databases of the National Library of Medicine?