## Writing Efficient Programs

An engineer will do for a dime what any fool will do for a dollar.

– Paul Hilfinger

• Efficiency comes in two flavors, programming cost and execution cost. Today we’ll deal with the latter:
• How much time does your program take to execute?
• How much memory does your program require?

### Example Problem 1

Objective: Given a sorted array A, determine if it contains any duplicates.

• A silly algorithm is to consider every possible pair and return true if there’s any match.
• A better algorithm is: for each number A[i], compare with A[i + 1]. Return true if see a match, false otherwise.

Our Goal Today: Introduce a formal technique to compare algorithmic efficiency.

## Intuitive Runtime Characterizations

### Runtime Characterizations

Characterizations should:

• be simple and mathemtically rigorous
• demonstrate superiority of one algorithm over another

From the example problem 1, how can we characterize runtime to show that dup2 is better than dup1?

public static boolean dup1(int[] A) {
for (int i = 0; i < A.length; i += 1) {
for (int j = i + 1; j < A.length; j += 1) {
if (A[i] == A[j]) {
return true;
}
}
}
return false;
}

public static boolean dup2(int[] A) {
for (int i = 0; i < A.length - 1; i += 1) {
if (A[i] == A[i + 1]) {
return true;
}
}
return false;
}


### Techniques for Measuring Computational Cost

• Technique 1: Measure execution time
• Unix has a built in time command to measure execution time. e.g. time java Dup1 20000
• Princeton StdLib has a Stopwatch class
• Physical timewatch
• Technique 2A: Count possible operations for an array of size N = 10,000 (what we’ll use often)
• Consider worst case and best case scenarios
• Pros: Machine independent. Input dependence is captured in model.
• Cons: Tedious to compute. Array size is arbitrary, so doesn’t tell actual time (nope, really can’t tell actual time).
• Technique 2B: Count possible operations in terms of input array size N
• Pros:
• Cons: Even more tedious to compute. Doesn’t tell actual time.

#### Counting Operations

For dup1:

Operation Count for N = 10000
i = 0 1
j = i + 1 1 ~ 10,000
less than (<)
increment (+= 1)

For dup2:

Operation Systematic Count Count for N = 10000
i = 0 1
less than < 0 ~ N
increment += 1 0 ~ N - 1
equals == 1 ~ N - 1 1
array accesses 2 ~ 2N - 2

### Comparing Algorithms

A better algorithm scales better in the worse case.

So, suppose we have two algorithms that zerpify a collection of N items, and zerp1 takes 2N^2 operations while zerp2 takes 500N operations. While zerp1 may be faster for smaller inputs, it doesn’t scale well, so zerp2 is a better algorithm.

#### Asymptotic Behavior

In most cases, we only care about asymptotic behavior, i.e. what happens for very large N. How this is important in real life? Think about bitcoins, NASA, etc.

## Worse Case Order of Growth

### Duplicate Finding

Our goal is to charactertize the runtime of dup1 and dup2. What we’ve been doing so far indeed demonstrates the superiority of dup2, but is it simple? Not at all.

Simplifications

1. Only consider the worst case.
2. Pick one representation operation as a proxy for overall runtime.
3. Ignore lower order terms.
4. Ignore multiplicative constant.

With these simplifications, for dup2, we can pick “array accesses” as our cost model, and derive that the order of growth is just N.

#### Picking the representative operation (a.k.a the cost model)

• Good choice: increment
• Bad choice: i = 0
• We call our choice the “cost model

## Big-Theta

Formal Definition:

$$R(N) \in \Theta(f(N))$$ if $$\exists k_1, k_2 \in \mathbb{Z}^+$$ such that $$k_1 \cdot f(N) \leq R(N) \leq k_2 \cdot f(N)$$

### Formalizing Order of Growth

$$N^3 + 3N^4 \in \Theta(N^4)$$

$$Ne^N + N \in \Theta(Ne^N)$$

Now that we’re familiar with Big O, we’ll revisit the dup1 and realize it is $$\Theta(N^2)$$ time.

### Tricky For Loop Example

public static void printParty(int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i *= 2) {
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
System.out.println("Party time!")
}
}
}


This actually has $$\Theta(N)$$ not $$\Theta(N \log N)$$ runtime.

### Sums that’re Good to Know

• $$1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + N = \frac{N(N + 1)}{2} \in \Theta(N^2)$$
• $$1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ... + N = 2N - 1 \in \Theta(N)$$
• $$1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ... + 2^{N - 1} = 2\times(2^{N - 1}) - 1 = 2^{N} - 1 \in \Theta(N)$$

### Recursion Example

public static int f3(int n) {
if (n <= 1) {
return 1;
}
return f3(n - 1) + f3(n - 1);
}


Answer: $$\Theta(2^N)$$

Interesting fact: bug in Java’s implementation of binary search found in 2006.

static int binarySearch(String[] sorts, String x, int lo, int hi) {
if (lo > hi) return -1;
int m = (lo + hi) / 2;
int cmp = x.compareTo(sorted[m]);
if (cmp < 0) return binarySearch(sorted, x, lo, m - 1);
else if (cmp > 0) return binarySearch(sorted, x, m + 1, hi);
else return m;
}


Runtime: $$\Theta(\log_2 N)$$

For exact solution, see this video.

## Mergesort

We have talked about Selection Sort:

• Find the smallest unfixed item, move it to the front and “fix” it.
• Sort the remaining unfixed items using selection sort.
• Runtime: $$\Theta(N^2)$$

Merge Sort Basic:

• Selection sort the left half: $$\Theta(N^2)$$
• Selection sort the right half: $$\Theta(N^2)$$
• Merge the two arrays: $$\Theta(N)$$

Overall, it’s still $$\Theta(N^2)$$. ($$N + 2 \cdot (\dfrac N 2)^2$$ to be exact).

Merge Sort:

• If array is of size 1, return.
• Mergesort the left half.
• Mergesort the right half.
• Merge the results: $$\Theta(N)$$

Overall runtime: $$\Theta(N \log N)$$

## Big O Notation

While we can think of Big Theta as “equals”, Big O is something like “less than or equal”.

### Formal Definition

$$R(N) \in O(f(N))$$ means there exists some positive constant $$k$$ such that $$R(N) \leq k \cdot f(N)$$.

### Big O vs Big Theta

$$\Theta(f(N))$$ means the order of growth is $$f(N)$$.

$$O(f(N))$$ means the order of growth is less than or equal to $$f(N)$$.

## Limitations of Big Theta

Consider this question:

public boolean dup4(int[] a) {
int N = a.length;
for (int i = 0; i < N; i += 1) {
for (int j = i + 1; j < N; j += 1) {
if (a[i] == a[j]) {
return true;
}
}
}
return false;
}


In this example, using Big Theta requires us to qualify what we’re talking about exactly:

• The best case runtime of dup4 is $$\Theta(1)$$.
• The worst case runtime of dup4 is $$\Theta(N^2)$$.

A big theta is a strong statement, because it implies “equals”. This means that if runtime depends on more factors than just N, then we may need different Big Theta notation for every interesting condition.

In these case, we can just use Big O and avoid qualifying our statment. e.g. the runtime of dup4 is $$O(N^2)$$.

### A Subtle Distinction

1. The worst case runtime is $$\Theta(N^2)$$.
2. The runtime is $$O(N^2)$$.

### Usefulness of Big O

Although Big O doesn’t provide a tight bound, it is still useful:

• Allows us to make simple blanket statements. e.g. we can just say “binary search is O(log N)” instead of “binary search is Θ(log N) in the worst case”.

## Big Omega $$\Omega$$

Big Omega is “greater than or equal”.

### Formal Definition

$$R(N) \in O(f(N))$$ means there exists some positive constant $$k$$ such that $$R(N) \geq k \cdot f(N)$$.

### Usefulness of Big Omega

Two common uses of Big Omega:

• Very careful proofs of Big Theta runtime
• Providing lower bounds for the hardness of a problem
• e.g. The time to find wheather an array has duplicates is $$\Omega(N)$$ in the worse case or any algorithm.

## Geometric Array Resizing

For ArrayLists, most add additions are constant time, but some operations are very expensive.

## Amortized Analysis (Rigorous)

• Pick a cost model
• Compute the amortized (a.k.a average) cost of the ith insertion.

### Cost Model: Array Accesses

Consider the cost for the 5th insert into an ArrayList.

We have 4 array reads + 4 array writes + 1 array write for new value = 9 array accesses in total.

### Potentials and Amortized Cost Bounds

For operation $$i$$, choose an arbitrary “amortized cost” $$a_i$$. This cost may be more or less than the “actual cost” $$c_i$$ of that operation.

• Let $$\Phi_i$$ be the potential at time $$i$$. THe potential represents the cumulative difference between arbitrary amortized costs and actual costs over time.
• $$\Phi_{i+1} = \Phi_i + (a_i - C_i)$$
• If we select $$a_i$$ such that potential $$\Phi_i$$ is never negative, then amortized cost is an upper bound on the actual cost.

Side Note: Take CS 170 for full rigor.

Hey, kudos for making it this far! If you've liked this, you might also like tmux Cheatsheet and Shortcuts.
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