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```LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THIS CHAPTER
span
linear independence
bases
dimension
© Springer International Publishing 2015
S. Axler, Linear Algebra Done Right, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-11080-6__2
27
28 CHAPTER 2 Finite-Dimensional Vector Spaces
2.A Span and Linear Independence
We have been writing lists of numbers surrounded by parentheses, and we will
continue to do so for elements of Fn; for example, .2;�7; 8/ 2 F3. However,
now we need to consider lists of vectors (which may be elements of Fn or of
other vector spaces). To avoid confusion, we will usually write lists of vectors
without surrounding parentheses. For example, .4; 1; 6/; .9; 5; 7/ is a list of
length 2 of vectors in R3.
2.2 Notation list of vectors
We will usually write lists of vectors without surrounding parentheses.
Linear Combinations and Span
Adding up scalar multiples of vectors in a list gives what is called a linear
combination of the list. Here is the formal deﬁnition:
2.3 Deﬁnition linear combination
A linear combination of a list v1; : : : ; vm of vectors in V is a vector of
the form
a1v1 C � � � C amvm;
where a1; : : : ; am 2 F.
2.4 Example In F3,
� .17;�4; 2/ is a linear combination of .2; 1;�3/; .1;�2; 4/ because
.17;�4; 2/ D 6.2; 1;�3/C 5.1;�2; 4/:
� .17;�4; 5/ is not a linear combination of .2; 1;�3/; .1;�2; 4/ because
there do not exist numbers a1; a2 2 F such that
.17;�4; 5/ D a1.2; 1;�3/C a2.1;�2; 4/:
In other words, the system of equations
17 D 2a1 C a2
�4 D a1 � 2a2
5 D �3a1 C 4a2
has no solutions (as you should verify).
SECTION 2.A Span and Linear Independence 29
2.5 Deﬁnition span
The set of all linear combinations of a list of vectors v1; : : : ; vm in V is
called the span of v1; : : : ; vm, denoted span.v1; : : : ; vm/. In other words,
span.v1; : : : ; vm/ D fa1v1 C � � � C amvm W a1; : : : ; am 2 Fg:
The span of the empty list . / is deﬁned to be f0g.
2.6 Example The previous example shows that in F3,
� .17;�4; 2/ 2 span�.2; 1;�3/; .1;�2; 4/�;
� .17;�4; 5/ … span�.2; 1;�3/; .1;�2; 4/�.
Some mathematicians use the term linear span, which means the same as
span.
2.7 Span is the smallest containing subspace
The span of a list of vectors in V is the smallest subspace of V containing
all the vectors in the list.
Proof Suppose v1; : : : ; vm is a list of vectors in V.
First we show that span.v1; : : : ; vm/ is a subspace of V. The additive
identity is in span.v1; : : : ; vm/, because
0 D 0v1 C � � � C 0vm:
Also, span.v1; : : : ; vm/ is closed under addition, because
.a1v1C� � �Camvm/C.c1v1C� � �Ccmvm/ D .a1Cc1/v1C� � �C.amCcm/vm:
Furthermore, span.v1; : : : ; vm/ is closed under scalar multiplication, because
�.a1v1 C � � � C amvm/ D �a1v1 C � � � C �amvm:
Thus span.v1; : : : ; vm/ is a subspace of V (by 1.34).
Each vj is a linear combination of v1; : : : ; vm (to show this, set aj D 1
and let the other a’s in 2.3 equal 0). Thus span.v1; : : : ; vm/ contains each vj .
Conversely, because subspaces are closed under scalar multiplication and
addition, every subspace of V containing each vj contains span.v1; : : : ; vm/.
Thus span.v1; : : : ; vm/ is the smallest subspace of V containing all the vectors
v1; : : : ; vm.
30 CHAPTER 2 Finite-Dimensional Vector Spaces
2.8 Deﬁnition spans
If span.v1; : : : ; vm/ equals V, we say that v1; : : : ; vm spans V.
2.9 Example Suppose n is a positive integer. Show that
.1; 0; : : : ; 0/; .0; 1; 0; : : : ; 0/; : : : ; .0; : : : ; 0; 1/
spans Fn. Here the j th vector in the list above is the n-tuple with 1 in the j th
slot and 0 in all other slots.
Solution Suppose .x1; : : : ; xn/ 2 Fn. Then
.x1; : : : ; xn/ D x1.1; 0; : : : ; 0/C x2.0; 1; 0; : : : ; 0/C � � � C xn.0; : : : ; 0; 1/:
Thus .x1; : : : ; xn/ 2 span
�
.1; 0; : : : ; 0/; .0; 1; 0; : : : ; 0/; : : : ; .0; : : : ; 0; 1/
�
, as
desired.
Now we can make one of the key deﬁnitions in linear algebra.
2.10 Deﬁnition ﬁnite-dimensional vector space
A vector space is called ﬁnite-dimensional if some list of vectors in it
spans the space.
Recall that by deﬁnition every list
has ﬁnite length.
Example 2.9 above shows that Fn
is a ﬁnite-dimensional vector space for
every positive integer n.
The deﬁnition of a polynomial is no doubt already familiar to you.
2.11 Deﬁnition polynomial, P.F/
� A function p W F ! F is called a polynomial with coefﬁcients in F
if there exist a0; : : : ; am 2 F such that
p.z/ D a0 C a1z C a2z2 C � � � C amzm
for all z 2 F.
� P.F/ is the set of all polynomials with coefﬁcients in F.
SECTION 2.A Span and Linear Independence 31
With the usual operations of addition and scalar multiplication, P.F/ is a
vector space over F, as you should verify. In other words, P.F/ is a subspace
of FF , the vector space of functions from F to F.
If a polynomial (thought of as a function from F to F) is represented by
two sets of coefﬁcients, then subtracting one representation of the polynomial
from the other produces a polynomial that is identically zero as a function
on F and hence has all zero coefﬁcients (if you are unfamiliar with this fact,
just believe it for now; we will prove it later—see 4.7). Conclusion: the
coefﬁcients of a polynomial are uniquely determined by the polynomial. Thus
the next deﬁnition uniquely deﬁnes the degree of a polynomial.
2.12 Deﬁnition degree of a polynomial, degp
� A polynomial p 2 P.F/ is said to have degree m if there exist
scalars a0; a1; : : : ; am 2 F with am ¤ 0 such that
p.z/ D a0 C a1z C � � � C amzm
for all z 2 F. If p has degree m, we write degp D m.
� The polynomial that is identically 0 is said to have degree �1.
In the next deﬁnition, we use the convention that �1 < m, which means
that the polynomial 0 is in Pm.F/.
2.13 Deﬁnition Pm.F/
For m a nonnegative integer, Pm.F/ denotes the set of all polynomials
with coefﬁcients in F and degree at most m.
To verify the next example, note that Pm.F/ D span.1; z; : : : ; zm/; here
we are slightly abusing notation by letting zk denote a function.
2.14 Example Pm.F/ is a ﬁnite-dimensional vector space for each non-
negative integer m.
2.15 Deﬁnition inﬁnite-dimensional vector space
A vector space is called inﬁnite-dimensional if it is not ﬁnite-dimensional.
32 CHAPTER 2 Finite-Dimensional Vector Spaces
2.16 Example Show that P.F/ is inﬁnite-dimensional.
Solution Consider any list of elements of P.F/. Let m denote the highest
degree of the polynomials in this list. Then every polynomial in the span of
this list has degree at most m. Thus zmC1 is not in the span of our list. Hence
no list spans P.F/. Thus P.F/ is inﬁnite-dimensional.
Linear Independence
Suppose v1; : : : ; vm 2 V and v 2 span.v1; : : : ; vm/. By the deﬁnition of span,
there exist a1; : : : ; am 2 F such that
v D a1v1 C � � � C amvm:
Consider the question of whether the choice of scalars in the equation above
is unique. Suppose c1; : : : ; cm is another set of scalars such that
v D c1v1 C � � � C cmvm:
Subtracting the last two equations, we have
0 D .a1 � c1/v1 C � � � C .am � cm/vm:
Thus we have written 0 as a linear combination of .v1; : : : ; vm/. If the only
way to do this is the obvious way (using 0 for all scalars), then each aj � cj
equals 0, which means that each aj equals cj (and thus the choice of scalars
was indeed unique). This situation is so important that we give it a special
name—linear independence—which we now deﬁne.
2.17 Deﬁnition linearly independent
� A list v1; : : : ; vm of vectors in V is called linearly independent if
the only choice of a1; : : : ; am 2 F that makes a1v1 C � � � C amvm
equal 0 is a1 D � � � D am D 0.
� The empty list . / is also declared to be linearly independent.
The reasoning above shows that v1; : : : ; vm is linearly independent if and
only if each vector in span.v1; : : :```
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