## 1、 Nested function

Multiple functions nested together is called function nesting

When the function is called , Functions need to be defined before calling , If the function is defined after it is called , Cannot be called successfully .
When defining multiple functions , Function names cannot be the same , Otherwise, the later defined function will cover the previous function , That is, the previous function fails .

``` # Define a function , Draw a line
def printLine():
print('-'*30)
# Define a function , Call the previous function , And draw the specified number of horizontal lines according to the value entered by the user
def stringPrint(index):
i = 0
while i<index:
printLine()
i+=1
indexNum = int(input(' Please enter the number of lines in the horizontal line ：'))
stringPrint(indexNum)```

Be careful ：
The initial requirement is to draw a line , When it needs to be changed to set out according to user needs n When there is a horizontal line , Don't change the original function code directly , Because the original function may also be called elsewhere , Instead, a function should be redefined to implement the new function , When the function of the original function needs to be repeated , You can call the original function directly , Instead of writing the code of the original function repeatedly .

seek 3 The number and 、3 The average of the numbers

``` # Define a function , seek 3 The number and ：
def sum3Num(a,b,c):
sum = a+b+c
return sum
# Define a function , seek 3 The average of the numbers
def ava3Num(a,b,c):
sum = sum3Num(a,b,c)
ava = sum/3
return ava
a = int(input(' Please enter the first number ：'))
b = int(input(' Please enter the second number ：'))
c = int(input(' Please enter the third number ：'))
result = sum3Num(a,b,c)
ava = ava3Num(a,b,c)
print(' And for %d'%result)
print(' The average value is %d'%ava)```

## 2、 Higher order function

Since variables can point to functions , The parameters of the function can receive variables , Then one function can take another function as an argument , This kind of function is called higher order function .
One of the simplest higher-order functions ：

```1 def add(x, y, f):
2 return f(x) + f(y)```

When we call add(-5, 6, abs) when , Parameters x,y and f Receive separately -5,6 and abs
11

Write higher-order functions , It means that the parameters of the function can receive other functions .

There are two cases of higher order functions ：
1、 Pass the memory address of one function to another as a parameter
2、 One function returns another function as a return value

Example
Write a function calc_prod(lst), It receives a list, Returns a function , The return function calculates the product of the parameters .

``` def calc_prod(lst):
def lazy_prod():
def f(x, y):
return x * y
return reduce(f, lst, 1)
return lazy_prod
f = calc_prod([1, 2, 3, 4])
print f()```

In function calc_proc The internal function returns the value of the internal function , But no call to the inner function , So name variables globally f The function is not called lazy_prod()

When f() When it is called , You can choose to go through f() To call , Also known as deferred calls .

If the function calc_proc It's back inside lazy_prod() In this case, the variables will be defined globally f The internal function is called when the .

## 3、 Recursive function

Inside the function , You can call other functions . If a function calls itself internally , This function is a recursive function .

python The default recursive function can have at most 999 layer , You can also change the default value

```import sys
sys.setrecursionlimit(10000)
def func(x):
print(x)
x +=1
func(x)
func(1)```

Change the default limit level of recursive function to 10000, The actual execution of the test can be 8000 many times , Want to see PC Performance .

for instance , Let's calculate the factorial n! = 1 x 2 x 3 x ... x n, Use functions fact(n) Express , It can be seen that ：
fact(n) = n! = 1 x 2 x 3 x ... x (n-1) x n = (n-1)! x n = fact(n-1) x n
therefore ,fact(n) It can be expressed as n x fact(n-1), Only n=1 It needs special treatment .

If we calculate fact(5), You can see the calculation process as follows according to the function definition ：
===> fact(5)
===> 5 * fact(4)
===> 5 * (4 * fact(3))
===> 5 * (4 * (3 * fact(2)))
===> 5 * (4 * (3 * (2 * fact(1))))
===> 5 * (4 * (3 * (2 * 1)))
===> 5 * (4 * (3 * 2))
===> 5 * (4 * 6)
===> 5 * 24
===> 120

therefore ,fact(n) It's written recursively ：

``` def fact(num):
if num == 1:
return 1
return num*fact(num-1)
result = fact(5)
print('fact=%d'%result)```

perhaps

``` def fact(num):
if num>1:
return num*fact(num-1)
return 1```

Calculation 10 The factorial of can also be used reduce

``` from functools import reduce
def fact(n):
return reduce(lambda x,y:x*y, range(1,n+1) )
print(fact(10))
Or direct output ：

You can also use for Loop multiplication

``` def cal(n):
result = 1
for i in range(1,n+1):
result *=i
print(result)
cal(4)```

Or in reverse order

``` def cal(n):
for i in range(n-1,0,-1):
n*=i
return n
print(cal(4))```

or

``` def cal(n):
result = 1
for i in range(n,0,-1):
result*=i
return result
print(cal(4))```

Example ： Generate a Fibonacci sequence

```def fib(max):
a = 0
b = 1
n = 0
while n<max:
print(b)
a, b = b, a+b
n+=1
fib(8)```

result ：

`1123581321`

Outputs the number of the specified subscript in the Fibonacci sequence

```def fib2(n):
if n == 1 or n == 2:
return 1
elif n > 2:
return fib2(n-2) + fib2(n-1)
print(fib2(5))```

result ：5

Example ： Put... In the list 3 Become a string ‘101’

lis = [2, 3, "k", ["qwe", 20, ["k1", ["tt", 3, "1"]], 89], "ab", "adv"]
# Create a list loop function , If the element is still a list , Call the list loop function again , Until the element is not a list type , Then judge if the element is equal to 3 Just replace it with '101'

``` def change(li, old, new):
for i in range(len(li)):
if isinstance(li[i], list):
change(li[i],old,new)
if li[i] == old:
li[i] = new
change(lis, 3, '')
print(lis)```

## 4、 Two points search

li = [1,2,3,5,6,8,10,12,15,16,17,18,20]
#li_1 = list(range(1,10000000))# I tried and looked up 22 I can check 1000 ten thousand , check 1 We need 25 Time , The computer is going to crash. I don't know why

``` def find(find_str, lst, count):
mid = len(lst) // 2
if len(lst) == 1:
if find_str == lst:
count +=1
print(' Look for it. ' + str(count) + ' I found it once ')
elif mid > 0:
if lst[mid] == find_str:
count += 1
print(' Look for it. ' + str(count) + ' I found it once ')
elif lst[mid] > find_str:
find(find_str, lst[:mid], count + 1)
else:
find(find_str, lst[mid + 1:], count + 1)
else:
print(' Look for it. ' + str(count) + ' I didn't find it twice ')
find(200,li, 0)```

## 5、 Function return value

Python Not only does the function return int、str、list、dict And so on , You can also return functions ！

for example , Define a function f(), Let's let it return a function g, It can be written like this ：

```def f():
print 'call f()...'
def g():
print 'call g()...'
return g```

Take a closer look at the function definition above , We are in function f There's another function defined inside g. Due to function g It's also an object , Function name g It's pointing to the function g The variable of , therefore , The outermost function f You can return variables g, That's the function g In itself .

Call function f, We will get f A function that returns ：
>>> x = f()   # call f()
call f()...
>>> x # Variable x yes f() Return function ：
<function g at 0x1037bf320>
>>> x()       #x Pointing function , So you can call
call g()...     # call x() Is to perform g() Function defined code

Note the distinction between return functions and return values ：

```def myabs():
return abs # Return function
def myabs2(x):
return abs(x) # Returns the result of a function call , The return value is a numeric value ```

The return function can delay some calculations . for example , If you define a normal summation function ：

```def calc_sum(lst):
return sum(lst)```

call calc_sum() Function time , Will immediately calculate and get the results ：
>>> calc_sum([1, 2, 3, 4])
10

however , If you return a function , Can “ Delay calculation ”：

```def calc_sum(lst):
def lazy_sum():
return sum(lst)
return lazy_sum ```

# call calc_sum() It didn't work out , It's a return function :
>>> f = calc_sum([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> f
<function lazy_sum at 0x1037bfaa0>

# When calling the returned function , Just calculated the result :
>>> f()
10

Because you can return a function , We can decide whether to call this function or not in the following code .

Example ：
Write a function calc_prod(lst), It receives a list, Returns a function , The return function calculates the product of the parameters .

```from functools import reducedef calc_prod(lst):
def lazy_prod():
def f(x, y):
return x * y
return reduce(f, lst, 1)
return lazy_prod
a = calc_prod([1, 2, 3, 4])
print(a())```

result ：24

## 6、 Closure

Functions defined inside functions are the same as functions defined outside , It's just that they can't be accessed from outside ：

```def g():
print 'g()...'
def f():
print 'f()...'
return g```

take g Move the definition of into the function f Inside , Prevent other code calls g：

```def f():
print 'f()...'
def g():
print 'g()...'
return g```

however , For example, as defined below calc_sum function ：

```def calc_sum(lst):
def lazy_sum():
return sum(lst)
return lazy_sum```

Be careful : Found it impossible to lazy_sum Move to calc_sum The outside of the , Because it quotes calc_sum Parameters of lst.

Inner functions like this refer to variables of outer functions （ Parameters are also variables , And it's a non global variable ）, Then return the inner function layer by layer , It's called closure （Closure）.

The characteristic of closures is that the returned function also refers to the local variables of the outer function , therefore , To use closures correctly , It is necessary to ensure that the referenced local variables cannot change after the function returns . Examples are as follows ：
# Hope to return once 3 A function , Separate calculation 1x1,2x2,3x3:

def count():
fs = []
for i in range(1, 4):
def f():
return i*i
fs.append(f)
return fs

f1, f2, f3 = count()
print(f1(),f2(),f3())

You might think that calling f1(),f2() and f3() The result should be 1,4,9, But the actual results are all 9（ Can verify ）.
The reason is when count() Function returned 3 When functions , this 3 Variables referenced by two functions i The value of has become 3. because f1、f2、f3 Not called , therefore , At this point they did not calculate i*i, When f1 When called ：
>>> f1()
9 # because f1 Now it's time to calculate i*i, But now i The value of has changed to 3
therefore , Return functions do not reference any loop variables , Or variables that will change in the future .

Return closures cannot refer to loop variables , Please rewrite count() function , Let it return correctly to be able to calculate 1x1、2x2、3x3 Function of .

```def f(j):
def g():
return j*j
return g```

It can correctly return a closure g,g Variables quoted j It's not a loop variable , So it's going to work .

stay count Inside the loop of a function , If with the help of f function , You can avoid referring to loop variables i.

```def count():
fs = []
for i in range(1, 4):
def f(j):
def g():
return j*j
return g
r = f(i)
fs.append(r)
return fs
f1, f2, f3 = count()
print(f1(), f2(), f3())```

or

```def count():
fs = []
for i in range(1, 4):
def f(j):
return j*j
fs.append(f(i))
return fs
f1,f2,f3=count()
print(f1,f2,f3)```

The result is 1,4,9

Example 2

```li = []
for i in range(10):
def func():
return i
li.append(func)
for j in li:
print(j())```

The result is all 9, Because in the loop, only the function name or memory address is added to the list , Instead of calling the function , because i The value of is not added to the list # And when the function in the loop list , It's called one by one i Value , At this time i by 9

print(li)

You can see that the list is just the memory address of the function [<function func at 0x02781A50>, <function func at 0x027818A0>, <function func at 0x02781A98>, <function func at 0x02781B28>,
<function func at 0x02781B70>, <function func at 0x02781BB8>, <function func at 0x02781C00>, <function func at 0x02781C48>,
<function func at 0x02781C90>, <function func at 0x02781CD8>]

```li = []
for i in range(10):
def func():
return i
li.append(func())
print(li)```

result ： [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

This time the function is called in the loop func(), So the result is that i The value loop of is added to the list

```l1 = [lambda x:x+i for i in range(10)]
for j in l1:
print(j(1))```

# The result is all 10, Because the list is 10 A function memory address , Calling j() The final i=9 Passing in functions

print(l1)

#[<function <listcomp>.<lambda> at 0x02151A98>, <function <listcomp>.<lambda> at 0x02151AE0>, <function <listcomp>.<lambda> at 0x02151A50>,
<function <listcomp>.<lambda> at 0x021518A0>, <function <listcomp>.<lambda> at 0x02151BB8>, <function <listcomp>.<lambda> at 0x02151C00>,
<function <listcomp>.<lambda> at 0x02151C48>, <function <listcomp>.<lambda> at 0x02151C90>, <function <listcomp>.<lambda> at 0x02151CD8>,
<function <listcomp>.<lambda> at 0x02151D20>]

```l2 = (lambda x:x+i for i in range(10))
for j in l2:
print(j(1))```

# The result is 1-10, Because with () A generator expression is generated , Return value only when called

print(l2)

#<generator object <genexpr> at 0x0215EB70>

Example 3

Python Encounter closures , Space doesn't disappear with the end of function execution , Saving closure data does not destroy it

```def wrapper(x):
n = 1
def inner():
nonlocal n
n += x
print(n)
return inner
ret = wrapper(5)
ret()
ret()
ret()
ret()```

6
11
16
21

The method of judging closure function __closure__

```# Output __closure__ Yes cell Elements ： It's a closure function
def func():
name = 'eva'
def inner():
print(name)
print(inner.__closure__)
return inner
f = func()
f()
# Output __closure__ by None ： It's not a closure function
name = 'egon'
def func2():
def inner():
print(name)
print(inner.__closure__)
return inner
f2 = func2()
f2()```
```from urllib.request import urlopen
def index():
url = "http://www.xiaohua100.cn/index.html"
def get():
return get
xiaohua = index()
content = xiaohua()
print(content)```

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