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```Some epistemological question addressed by school mathematics
to mathematicians
Viviane DURAND-GUERRIER
Université de Lyon : IUFM de Lyon et LEPS-LIRDHIST
Abstract
I will start from the main question addressed in the draft of the working group:
“How do (should) the goals of school mathematics reflect the nature of
disciplinary thinking and practice?”
Then I will propose to move from this question to another one, which is:
“How school mathematics reveal or enlighten some mathematical practises that
have to be overcame together by both students and teachers in mathematical
classroom?”
I will illustrate this point of view through logical questions concerning truth, validity,
certainty and contingency. Mainly, I will show that some ‘expert mathematical practises’ may
lead to deep misunderstandings with students, due in particular to the fact that mathematicians
as teachers control proofs by their mathematical knowledge, while for students as learners,
proving and mastering mathematical contents are closely intertwined. Finally, I hope this will
support the thesis that school mathematics may address epistemological questions to
mathematicians themselves.
Introduction
It is generally admitted that school mathematics ought to remain as near as possible of
mathematics. Nevertheless, many authors claim that there is an incompressible distance
between them, and even that it is necessary to operate a transposition from mathematics to
school mathematics (Chevallard, 1985, 1991). On another hand, some authors, referring in
particular to Lakatos (1984), try to recreate in classroom the conditions for practising
mathematics as professional mathematicians do (for example, in France: Arsac and al.1992,
Balacheff, 1987, Legrand, 1993; Grenier & Payan, 1998). So the main question addressed in
the draft of the working group “How do (should) the goals of school mathematics reflect the
nature of disciplinary thinking and practice?” is an ancient question with rather different
answers. Certainly, the questions concerning proof and proving are crucial in this perspective:
which is an acceptable proof in a given level at school? Which role for logic in proof and
proving? Which level of rigor is due, from students? from teachers? How can students
develop abilities in proof and proving? When and why introducing formalism in mathematics
curriculum?
Among these questions, I will principally discuss the first one “Which is an acceptable proof
in a given level at school?” that I will examine at the very beginning of tertiary level. On an
example, I ought to show that this question is not only addressed to students, but also to
teachers, and I will stress the fact that in classroom, ordinary mathematical practises may
introduce didactical obstacles for an adequate development of abilities in proof and proving.
The analysis I will propose rely on the distinction made in logic between truth in an
interpretation and logical validity in a semantic point of view.
A rather elliptic proof
The theorem to prove concerns the limit of a sum of two functions:
“Given two functions f and g define in a subset A of the set of real number, and a an adherent
element of A, if f(t) and g(t) have h and k respectively for limit as t tends to a remaining in A,
then f+g has h+k for limit in a”.
The proof proposed is the following one1:
“ By hypothesis, for all >0, there exists >0 such that t A et ta  imply f(t) - h
and g(t) - k ; then we have
f(t) + g(t) – (h + k)   f(t) – h + g(t) - kf(t) - hg(t) – k  ”
This proof can be considered as an elegant one, rather concise, and seems to suits the
standards for proof in French school.
Try now to imagine in which context this proof is given: produced by a students during a
mathematical course; produced by a student in a personal work; produced by a student during
an exam; produced by a teacher during a course; produce by a teacher as a correction; written
in a textbook?
In which cases, if there are, would you consider that this proof is acceptable?
Coming back to the proof, we can read at the beginning “By hypothesis”. A priori, there are
two hypotheses that can be formalized by:
For all >0, there exists >0 such that t A et ta  imply f(t) - h (1)
For all >0, there exists >0 such that t A et ta  imply g(t) - k (2)
Following the author of the proof, theses two hypothesis can be collapsed in a unique one:
For all >0, there exists >0 such that t A et ta  imply f(t) - h and g(t) - k (3)
In this precise example, (1), (2) and (3) are true. Does the author suggest that (3) is a logical
consequence of (1) and (2) ; that means that as soon as “for all x there exists y F(x,y)”, and
1
Our translation
“for all x, there exists y G(x, y)”, then we can assert that “for all x there exist y F(x,y) and
G(x, y)”. ? Does he believe that this is a general rule or does he know why in this particular
case it is possible to assert (3). Does he know in which cases it is possible to assert (3) from
(1) and (2)? Could you imagine that in some cases, following this rule, the author could
produce an incorrect proof for a wrong statement, or an incorrect proof for a true statement?
Knowing now that this proof is in a French textbook (Houzel, 1996, p.27) for beginners, you
can answer no for some questions, and yes for others, and you can imagine that the author
knows that given a real strictly positive number , assertions (1) and (2) ought to consider two
real numbers 1 and 2, on which it is possible to build a third real number 3 such that
F(,3) be true. Doing this, it is necessary to get rid of quantifiers: given , we can assert
“there exists y F(,y)” and “there exists y G(,y)” ; that means, it is possible to consider 1
and 2 such that F(,1) and G(,2) are both true. At this point, nothing tells us that it is
possible to go further. Logically, it is not possible to assert (3). What allows us to conclude is
a specific property of real number ordered. So we have here closely intertwined a logical
argument and a mathematical argument.
Truth in an interpretation and logical validity
Some authors are Dieudonné (1987) or Thurston (1994), claim that logic is seemingly useless
for mathematicians. Opposite, authors developing a model theoretic point of view as initiated
by Tarski (1969) show that methods of logic may be fruitful for various mathematics fields.
This is developed in Sinaceur (1991) who shows that the model theoretic point of view has
contributed deeply to the development of algebraic geometry. This author assumes that, in this
model theoretic perspective, logic is a relevant tool for understanding mathematics. A main
distinction made by Tarski (1933) for quantified logic, and before him by Wittgenstein
(1921) for propositional calculus, is between truth in an interpretation (that means for
example a mathematical theory) and logical validity2. Tarski (1933) said that he wants to
propose a definition of truth in formalized languages formally correct and materially
adequate. For him, an interpretation is a model of the formula if the sentence that interprets it
is true. Given a formula in predicate calculus, we can interpret it in various fields by defining
the discourse universe and the extension of the predicates involved in the formula. For
example, a formula as ‘x (p(x)  q(x))” (F) can be interpreted in standard elementary
2
arithmetic : the universe of discourse is the integer set ; “p” is interpreted by “to be divisible
by 2” and “q” by “to have a primary number as successor” ; that means that F is interpreted “
For all x, if x is divisible by 2, then its successor is a primary number”. This sentence is false;
it is a mathematical result; as told Wittgenstein, it is not to logic to state if the sentence that
interprets a formula is true or false. Consequently, this interpretation is not a model of F. Most
formulae are true under some interpretations and false under others. Some of them are false
under any relevant interpretation (often named contradiction), others are true under any
relevant interpretation; Wittgenstein (1921) named them tautologies in propositional calculus;
Quine (1950) said that they are “universally valid”. Theses particular formulae play a
prominent role in the logical system: they are the logical theorem; these formulae are
interpreted by sentences that are true because of there particular form. More over, those in
form “F G” where F and G are formulae are related with most of the classical inference
rule (Quine 1950). For example “(((x (p(x)  q(x)))  p(y))  q(y))” is logically valid. It
is associated to the most common inference rule in mathematics: given a universal theorem on
a domain and an element of this domain that satisfies the antecedent of the theorem, then this
element satisfies the consequent. In case you are in presence of such a universally valid
formula, you can make a deduction as soon as premises are true. In other cases, you cannot.
Back to our example
We have said that the proof we discuss could be considered as an application of the rule “for
all x there exists y F(x,y)”, and “for all x, there exists y G(x, y)”, then we can deduce that “for
all x there exist y F(x,y) and G(x, y)”. But of course, this rule is not a valid inference rule; the
formula ((xy F(x, y))  (xy G(x, y)) (xy (F(x, y)  G(x, y))) is not universally
valid. It is true in some interpretation and false in others. So, the fact that the conclusion is
true is contingent. The certainty, for the teacher, comes from his mathematical knowledge. At
the same time students encounter this elliptic proof, they may be asked to proof the Cauchy
mean value theorem that asserts that “If f and g are differentiable in an interval (a, b) and
continuous on a ; b, then :
f’(c) g(b) - g(a) = g’(c) f(b) - f(a)
A very common proof produced by students consists precisely in deducing implicitly from the
premise that
“There exist an element c such that f(b) – f(a) = f’(c) (b-a) and g(b) – g(a) = g’(c) (b-a)”
Opposite with the previous example, this sentence is false except for some particular
functions such as polynomials under degree two. Due to the fact that there is no obvious way
to prove this result, many students discovering that for some pair of functions it was
impossible to get a common element conclude that the sentence was false; it is then an
occasion to recall some properties of quotients.
This offers also the opportunity to clarify with students the specificity of mathematical
reasoning: that means that the deduction from a true premise to a true conclusion is valid if
and only if we are in a case where the conditional relying the premises and the conclusion is
an interpretation of a formula universally valid. Following Aristotle, in that case the truth of
the conclusion is necessary. It might happens that the premise and the conclusion are both
true and the corresponding formula is not universally valid, as it is the case for the elliptic
proof. In that case, the truth of the conclusion does not rely only on the premises; it is
contingent in the sense that in another interpretation, we could have true premises and false
conclusion, as it is the case with Cauchy mean value theorem. In that case (the truth is
contingent), asserting directly the conclusion from the premise does not provide an acceptable
proof; it is necessary to complete the proof, generally by adding premises. In our case, it is
necessary to add two premises: the first one is that if an element satisfies the condition, then
any inferior number satisfies it also; the second one is that less than is a total ordering on the
real numbers set. We can see here a fundamental difference between novices and experts: an
expert is able to control the use of “invalid” rules by its mathematical knowledge. He knows
that in the first case, it is mathematically possible to complete the proof, but not in the second
case. More over, he might consider that it is no use to explicit completely the mathematical
argument, and of course, for a mathematician or an advanced student, this seems rather
reasonable. He also knows that in the second case, applying this invalid rule might lead to a
false intermediate result, on which if it were true, it would be possible to conclude to the true
conclusion. Consequently, he would not accept such a proof. For a novice, that means here a
student, who does not master the mathematical knowledge involved in the proof, it might be
difficult to understand why in one case, it seems to be correct to apply (implicitly) the invalid
rule, while in the other case, it is not.
Conclusion
In Durand-Guerrier and Arsac 2003 and 2005, we show from an empirical enquiry addressed
to university teachers that they use preferably contextualised mathematical rules rather than
logical valid rules. In particular concerning the statement in form “for all, there exists”, we
have shown the prominence of the dependence rule and the introduction of a notation for
recalling dependence when it would be dangerous to forgot it; very few teachers consider that
logical tools might help students to overcome their difficulties, and finally our results confirm
the importance of mathematical knowledge for controlling the validity of a proof, especially
with respect to the availability of relevant examples and counter-examples (Durand-Guerrier
and Arsac, 2005, p.). Considering the persistent difficulties faced by students at tertiary level,
we share with other authors the thesis that it would be necessary to reconsider the place of
logic in proof and proving, and hence in elaborating mathematics knowledge (for example:
Dubinsky & Yparaki 2000, Selden and Selden 1995, Rogalski and Rogalski 2003, Epp 2004,
Chellougui 2003). Due to the fact that, at tertiary level, most teachers are professional
mathematicians, this epistemological question is addressed from school mathematics to
mathematicians.
Références
Aristote, Organon : I. Catégories- II De l’interprétation, Traduction nouvelle et notes
par Jean Tricot, Librairie philosophique J. Vrin, 1989.
Arsac & al.: 1992 Initiation au raisonnement déductif, Presses universitaires de Lyon &
IREM de Lyon
Balacheff, N. :1987, Processus de preuve et situations de validation, Eudicational
Stuides, Vol.18, n°2
Chellougui, F.: 2003, ‘Approche didactique de la quantification dans la classe de
mathématiques dans l’enseignement tunisien’, Petit X 61, 11-34.
Dieudonné,
J.:1987, Pour l’honneur de l’esprit humain. Les mathématiques
aujourd’hui. Collection Pluriel, Hachette
Dubinsky, E. and Yiparaki, O.: 2000, On students understanding of AE and EA
quantification. Research in Collegiate Mathematics Education IV, CBMS Issues in
Mathematics Education 8, 239-289. American Mathematical Society, Providence.
Durand-Guerrier, V. and Arsac, G.: 2003, 'Méthodes de raisonnement et leurs
modélisations logiques. Le cas de l’analyse. Quelles implications didactiques?', Recherches
en Didactique des Mathématiques 23(3), 295-342.
Durand-Guerrier, V. & Arsac, 2005 An epistemological and didactic study of a specific
calculus reasoning rule, Educational Studies in Mathematic, 60 : 149-172
Epp, S. :2003 The role of logic in teaching proof, American Mathematical Monthly,
110,10, 886-899
Grenier D. et Payan C. (1998) Spécificités de la preuve et de la. modélisation en
mathématiques discrètes, Recheches en Dicdactique des Mathématiques n°18-1, pp59-100. ...
Houzel C.: 1996, Analyse mathématique. Cours et exercices, Belin, Paris.
Lakatos, I.:1976 Proofs and refutations, Cambridge university Press, Cambridge
Lakatos, I.: 1984 Preuves et refutations, essai sur la logique de la découverte
scientifique, translated by N. Balacheff & J.M. Laborde, Paris :Hermann
Legrand, M. (1993) Débat scientifique en cours de mathématique et spécificité de
l’analyse in Repères n°10 123-158
Quine, W.V.O.: 1950, Methods of logic. Holy, Rinehart & Winston, New-York.
Quine, W.V.O.: 1972, Méthodes de logique, translated by M. Clavelin, Armand Colin,
Paris.
Rogalski, M. & Rogalski, J.: 2004, Contribution à l’étude des modes de traitement de
l’implication par de futurs enseignants de mathématiques, in Annales de Didactique et de
Sciences Cognitives, Vol.9, Actes du colloque Argentorum de juillet 2002, 175-203
Selden, J. and Selden, A.: 1995, 'Unpacking the logic of mathematical statements', in
Educational Studies in Mathematics 29, 123-151.
Sinaceur, H.: 1991, Corps et Modèles, Paris : Vrin
Sinaceur, H.: 2001, 'Alfred Tarski, semantic shift, heuristic shift in metamathematics', in
Synthese 126, 49-65.
Tarski, A.:1933, The concept of truth in the language of deductive science, English
translation in Tarski 1983
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Logique, sémantique et métamathématique, volume 1 : 157-269. Armand Colin, 1972.
Tarski, A: 1969, Introduction à la logique, Gauthier-Villard, Paris.
Tarski, A.: 1994, Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of Deductive Sciences,
4th edition, Oxford University Press.
Thurston W. P. (1994) On proof and progress in mathematics. Bulletin of the American
Mathematical Society 30(2) 161-177.Traduction française de Jean Brette, avec une
introduction de Régine Douady :(1995) Preuve et progrès en mathématiques. Repères-IREM
21, 5-26.
Wittgenstein, L.(1921) Tractatus logico-philosophicus. Annalen der naturphilosophie,
Leipzig; french translation Gallimard, 1961, english translation London: Routledge &Kegan
Paul Ltd, 1961.
```
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