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### Transcript of 12 Chi ktkuser/KURZUSOK/BMETE47MC38/2017_2018_1/1 · PDF file • Choose Chi square...

• Chi Square Tests

• Data files •  (Classdata.sav •  FamilyPet.sav) •  GSS2014 •  Handlebars.sav •  ResponseIncentive.sav •  ResearchBribes.sav

Homework •  Sonnentag(2012).sav •  Births.sav •  Eastenders.sav (make-up homework)

• Chi-Square Test (χ2)

•  Test for nominal variables –  These variables, also called "attribute variables" or

"categorical variables," classify observations into a small number of categories.

•  Examples? – The dependent variable: the count of observations in each category of the nominal variable

•  e.g. the number of men versus women; or the number of accidents in dry weather versus in wet weather

• Two uses of χ2 •  Chi Square Goodness of Fit: when we have one independent variable (e.g. weather) –  we compare the numbers of observations in the categories of this variable (e.g. wet and dry) to what we would expect if the variable did not make any difference (e.g. out of 100 accidents 50 in dry weather and 50 in wet weather)

–  Does the class have more dark-haired friends than light- haired friends?

•  Chi Square Test of Independence: when we have two or more independent variables –  we compare the numbers of observations in each category of each variable to the numbers we would expect if the variables were independent of each other

–  Are dark-haired people more likely to go out than light- haired people?

• Chi-Square Goodness of Fit •  The observed counts of numbers of observations in each category are

compared with the expected counts, which are calculated using some kind of theoretical expectation, such as a 1:1 sex ratio.

•  An example: –  An area of shore that has 59% of the area covered in sand, 28% mud and 13%

rocks; –  if seagulls were standing in random places, your null hypothesis would be that

59% of the seagulls were standing on sand, 28% on mud and 13% on rocks. –  the independent variable is type of shore, the dependent variable is the observed

number of seagulls

Sand 59%

Mud 28%

Rock 13%

• Tabulating Chi Square Goodness of Fit

Sand Mud Rocks

Observed seagulls (Total: 100)

35 8 57

Expected seagulls (Total: 100)

59 28 13

• Calculating the test value

ì The test statistic is calculated by taking an observed number (O), subtracting the expected number (E), then squaring this difference. The larger the deviation from the null hypothesis, the larger the difference between observed and expected.

ì Each squared difference is divided by the expected number, and these standardized ratios are summed: the more differences between what you would expect and what you get the bigger the number.

∑ ⎥ ⎦

⎤ ⎢ ⎣

⎡ − =

E EOΧ 2

2)(

• Calculate Chi square for the seagull data

(O – E)2 divided by E: Now check your answer on Graphpad: http://www.graphpad.com Or on Social Science Statistics: http://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/Default.aspx (this will also give you the steps of the calculation)

• Creating a data file

Two methods 1.  Each row represents a case, nominal

variables in columns 2.  Each row represents a unique combination of

the variables and a frequency column shows the frequency of that combination – to run an analysis, data must be weighted by frequency first

• Goodness of fit in SPSS •  Create a variable column (Surface) •  Create frequency column •  Type the observed frequencies for each category of the

independent variable •  From the data menu, weight cases by frequency •  Go to Analyse – Nonparametric – One Sample - Chi square •  Select Surface as test field •  In Options, you can set the expected values to be equal

percentages of the categories (33% here) or you can assign expected values

•  Run the analysis

• How the test works

1. Identify Pop. Distribution & Assumptions a)  Two populations, one distribution that matches

expected outcomes and another where distribution matches observed outcomes.

b)  Null hypothesis: the two distributions do not differ c)  Comparison distribution is chi-square

• Chi-Square Test for Goodness-of-Fit distribution

Characteristics of the comparison distribution •  Degrees of Freedom:

N of categories – 1

494 Chapter 19 Chi-Square

I should note that here, as in the analysis of variance, we are using a one-tailed test of a nondirectional null hypothesis. By that I mean that we reject only for large values of x2, not for small ones. In that sense the test is one-tailed. However, we will obtain large values of x2, in the two-category case, regardless of which category has the larger obtained frequency. In that sense the test is two-tailed. Multiple categories have a wide variety of patterns of differences that would lead to rejection, and the test could be thought of as multi-tailed or nondirectional.

Extension to the Multicategory Case

Many psychologists are particularly interested in how people make decisions, and they often present their subjects with simple games. A favorite example is called the Prisoner’s Dilemma, and it consists of two prisoners (players) who are being interrogated separately.3 The optimal strategy in this situation is for each player to remain silent rather than to plead guilty. However, people often depart from optimal behavior. Psychologists use such a game to see how human behavior compares with optimal behavior. Because I want an example with more than two categories, we are going to look at a different type of game, the universal

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Figure 19.1 Chi-Square distribution for df 5 1, 2, 4, and 8 with critical values for a 5 .05.

5 10

3.84

15

D en

si ty

[ f(

2 )]

Chi-square ( 2)

(a) df = 1

5 10

5.99

15

D en

si ty

[ f(

2 )]

Chi-square ( 2)

(b) df = 2

5 10

9.49

15

D en

si ty

[ f(

2 )]

Chi-square ( 2)

(c) df = 4

5 2010

15.51

15

D en

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[ f(

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Chi-square ( 2)

(d) df = 8

3See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner’s_dilemma for a more complete description of the Prisoner’s Dilemma.

76911_ch19_ptg01_hr_488-519.indd 494 17/01/13 12:39 M

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

• 1. Random and independent sampling. 2. Sample size must be sufficiently large (no

more than 20% of cells should have an expected value of less than 5)

3. Values of the variable are mutually exclusive and exhaustive. Every subject must fall in only one category.

Note: If these values are not met, the critical values in the chi-square table are not necessarily correct.

Chi-Square Goodness of Fit: Test Assumptions

• Exercise 1: Popularity •  A Psychology course is offered by three different professors.

•  The table shows the number of students enrolled in the course of each.

•  Is one professor more popular than another or are the different enrollment numbers due to chance?

•  Complete the table and run the analysis.

Prof A Prof B Prof C Prof D Observed 25 29 22 17 ?????

• Chi Square Test of Independence

•  Two or more nominal variables •  We test the independence of the variables (whether they affect each other)

• Chi-Square Test of Independence Example

A researcher wants to know if there is a difference in the probability of different family types having cats or rabbits as pets. The two variables are household type (Single, Children or Couple) and pet (rabbit or cat). Another way of putting our research question is: Is pet type independent of family type?

Contingency table for 91 families:

• The formula for chi-square is:

Where:

O is the observed frequency, and E is the expected frequency.

The degrees of freedom for the 2-D chi-square statistic is:

df = (Columns - 1) x (Rows - 1)

• Computing Expected Frequencies

Expected Frequency for each Cell:

The cell’s Column Total x the cell’s Row Total / Grand Total

• •  For practice: – Do you get the same results in Social Science Statistics? Are the two variables independent of each other?

• Fischer’s Exact Test

•  Chi square test is not accurate when we have a small n
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