Because Sharia, as applied by Saudi courts, is uncodified and because judges are not bound by judicial precedent, the scope and content of the law is uncertain. A study published by the Albert Shanker Institute and Freedom House has criticized a number of aspects of the administration of justice in Saudi Arabia and concluded that the country's practices diverge from the concept of the rule of law. The study goes on to assert that qadis (judges) reach decisions without following due process and only the bravest of lawyers ... challenge decisions of the qadis; usually appeals to the king are based on mercy, not on justice or innocence. It also claimed that members of the Saudi royal family are not forced to appear before Saudi courts.