How to account for hallucinations in the interpretation of the antidepressant effects of psychedelics a translational framework.
Recent trials with psychedelics in major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant depression showed remarkable improvements in depressive symptoms that can last for up to several months after even a single administration. The lack of an appropriate placebo control group-as patients are often able to discriminate the subjective effects of the drug-and an incomplete understanding of the role of the hallucinogenic and mystical experience, hampers the interpretation of these therapeutic effects. To control for these factors, we developed a translational framework based on establishing pharmacokineticpharmacodynamic (PKPD) relationships in rodents and humans for hallucinogenic (i.e., discriminative stimulus effects in rodents and humans head twitch responses in rodents questionnaires in humans) and therapeutic effects. For the latter, we selected the pattern separation and attentional set-shifting tasks as measures for cognitive flexibility because of their high translational value. We predict that these PKPD analyses will lead to a more objective evaluation of improvements in patients compared to relying only on the currently used self-reported questionnaires. We hypothesize that-if the role of the hallucinogenic experience is not central in the antidepressant effects of psychedelics-the ED Our framework will help to inform future studies that aim at the elucidation of the mechanism(s) of action of psychedelics in depression, and the role of the acute subjective andor hallucinogenic experience in their effects.