who tried to evaluate attitude through the social distance
Emory S. Bogardus
title: Rensis Likert text: Rensis Likert Rensis Likert ( ; born August 5, 1903, Cheyenne, Wyoming, U.S.—died September 3, 1981, Ann Arbor, Michigan) was an American social psychologist who is primarily known for developing the 5-point Likert scale, a psychometric scale that allows people to respond to questions of interest, in order to measure people's attitudes (such as personality and attitude tests). In 1926, Likert received his B.A. in economics and sociology from the University of Michigan, and in 1932 he received a Ph.D. in psychology from Columbia University. Likert went on to work for the U.S. Department of Agriculture until 1946, when he title: Social distance text: to rid him of his supposed defilement caused by his touch. As a result of this strict formulation of his activities, the Brahmin child forms a prejudice in his mind that shudras are untouchable and impure. Some ways social distance can be measured include: direct observation of people interacting, questionnaires, speeded decision making tasks, route planning exercises, or other social drawing tasks (see sociogram). In questionnaires, respondents are typically asked members of which groups they would accept in particular relationships. For example, to check whether or not they would accept a member of each group as a neighbor, as a title: Social Distance Corollary text: as self-esteem, social-identity, and differentiation from others. Other researchers (e.g., Burger, 1981; Schlenker & Miller, 1977) suggested that self-serving biases consider close friends and relatives as an extension of self, whereas such a vague category as “other” might evoke stereotypes in people’s minds (Perloff & Fetzer, 1986). After several studies, the notion of social distance was enshrined as the “social distance corollary” (Meirick, 2005). According to Perloff’s review (1999), of the 11 studies that have tested the social-distance notion, 9 confirmed it, articulating this phenomenon as “another factor on which the strength of the third-person effect hinges.” Social Distance Corollary title: Carl Hovland text: Carl Hovland Carl Iver Hovland (June 12, 1912 – April 16, 1961) was a psychologist working primarily at Yale University and for the US Army during World War II who studied attitude change and persuasion. He first reported the sleeper effect after studying the effects of the Frank Capra's propaganda film "Why We Fight" on soldiers in the Army. In later studies on this subject, Hovland collaborated with Irving Janis who would later become famous for his theory of groupthink. Hovland also developed social judgment theory of attitude change. Carl Hovland thought that the ability of someone to resist persuasion title: Hard–easy effect text: produce underconfidence and better-than-average effects." The hard-easy effect falls under the umbrella of "social comparison theory", which was originally formulated by Leon Festinger in 1954. Festinger argued that individuals are driven to evaluate their own opinions and abilities accurately, and social comparison theory explains how individuals carry out those evaluations by comparing themselves to others. In 1980, Ferrell and McGoey called it the "discriminability effect"; in 1992, Griffin and Tversky called it the "difficulty effect". In a range of studies, participants have been requested to answer general knowledge questions, each of which had two possible answers, and also to estimate