Anatomy.

The synchronized contraction of the heart occurs through a well coordinated electrical signal pathway. The initial electrical signal originates from the SA node located in the upper portion of the right atrium. The electrical signal then travels through both the right and left atrium, and causes the two atria to contract at the same time. This simultaneous contraction results in the P wave seen in an ECG tracing.  The electrical signal then travels to the AV node located on the lower portion of the interatrial septum. At the AV node there is a delay in the electrical signal, which allows the atria to contract and blood to flow from the atria to the ventricles. This delay accounts for the ECG period between the P wave and the QRS complex, and creates the PR interval.  From the AV nodes, the electrical signal travels through Bundle of His and divides into the right bundle and left bundle, which are located within the interventricular septum. Finally, the electrical signal travels into the Purkinje fibers. The division of the signal into a right and left bundle and then into the Purkinje fibers allows for a simultaneous depolarization and contraction of the right and left ventricles. The contraction of the ventricles results in the QRS complex seen on an ECG tracing. After contraction, the ventricles must repolarize, or reset themselves, in order to allow for a second depolarization and contraction. The repolarization creates the T wave in the ECG tracing.

Diagnosis.

An electrocardiogram, or ECG, is used to differentiate between the different types of AV block. In AV block, there is a disruption between the signal traveling from the atria to the ventricles. This results in abnormalities in the PR interval, as well as the relationship between P waves and QRS complexes on the ECG tracing. If the patient is symptomatic from their suspected AV block, it is important that an ECG is also obtained while having symptoms. Physicians may also order a continuous ECG (i.e. Holter monitor or implanted cardiac monitor) to monitor the patient for symptoms and conduction abnormalities over a longer period of time, as AV blocks can be intermittent.  Because some types of AV block can be associated with underlying structural heart disease, patients may also undergo echocardiogram to look at the heart and assess the function.  Laboratory diagnosis for AV blocks include electrolyte, drug level and cardiac enzyme level tests. Based upon clinical suspicion, the physician may do lab tests to assess for reversible causes of AV block, such as hypothyroidism, rheumatologic disorders, and infections (such as Lyme disease).

Classification.

There are three types, or degrees, of AV block: (1) first-degree, (2) second-degree, and (3) third-degree, with third-degree being the most severe. An ECG is used to differentiate between the different types of AV block.

First-degree Atrioventricular Block.

First-degree AV block occurs when there is a delay, but not disruption, as the electrical signal moves between the atrium and the ventricles through the AV node. On ECG, this is defined by a PR interval greater than 200 msec. Additionally, there are no dropped, or skipped, beats.

Second-degree Atrioventricular Block.

Second-degree AV block occurs when the electrical signal between the atria and ventricles is even more impaired than in a first-degree AV block. In a second-degree AV block, the impairment results in a failure to conduct an impulse, which causes a skipped beat.

Mobitz I.

Mobitz I is characterized by a progressive, yet, reversible block of the AV node. On ECG, this is defined by a progressive prolongation of the PR interval, with a resulting dropped beat (the PR interval gets longer and longer until a beat is finally dropped, or skipped).  Some patients are asymptomatic; those who have symptoms respond to treatment effectively. There is low risk of a Mobitz I AV block leading to heart attack and complete heart block.

Mobitz II.

Mobitz II is caused by a sudden, unexpected failure of the His-Purkinje cells to conduct the electrical impulse. On ECG, the PR interval is unchanged from beat to beat, but there is a sudden failure to conduct the signal to the ventricles, and a resulting random skipped beat.  The risks and possible effects of Mobitz II are much more severe than Mobitz I in that it can lead to severe heart attack.

Third-degree Atrioventricular Block.

Third-degree AV block occurs when the signal between the atria and ventricles is completely blocked, and there is no communication between the two. None of the signals from the upper chambers make it to the lower chambers. On ECG, there is no relationship between P waves and QRS complexes, meaning the P waves and QRS complexes are not in a 1:1 ratio.  Third-degree AV block is the most severe of the AV blocks. Persons suffering third-degree AV block need emergency treatment including but not limited to a pacemaker.

Etiology.

There are many causes of AV block, ranging from a normal variant among people to the result of a heart attack.  First-degree AV block and Mobitz I second-degree block are often thought to be just normal, benign, conditions in patients, and do not often result from a severe underlying condition.  Mobitz II second-degree block and third-degree AV block are not normal variants, and are associated with an underlying condition. Common causes include ischemia (lack of blood flow and oxygen to the heart muscle) or progressive fibrosis (excessive scaring) of the heart. It is also possible that high degree block can result after cardiac surgery during which the surgeon was in close proximity to the electrical conduction system and accidentally injured it. Reversible causes of Mobitz II and third-degree heart block include untreated Lyme disease, hypothyroidism, hyperkalemia (high levels of potassium), and drug toxicity. Drugs that slow the conduction of the electrical signal through AV node, such as beta-blockers, digoxin, calcium channel blockers, and amiodarone, can cause heart block if they are taken in excessive amounts, or the levels in the blood get too high.

Management.

Management is dependent upon the severity, or degree, of the blockage, the consistency of symptoms, as well as the cause of the AV block.  Patients with first-degree AV block do not have any resulting severe or life-threatening symptoms, such as symptomatic bradycardia or hypotension, and, thus, do not require treatment.  Similarly, patients with second-degree Mobitz I AV block rarely develop life-threatening symptoms, and patients who are asymptomatic do not require treatment. However, in some cases, patients with Mobtz I block can develop life-threatening symptoms that requires intervention. These patients often respond well to atropine, but make require temporary transcutaneous pacing or transvenous pacing until they are not longer symptomatic.  Patients with second-degree Mobitz II and third-degree heart block are much more likely to have symptomatic bradycardia and hemodynamic instability, such as hypotension. Additionally, there is an increased risk of patients with Mobitz II heart block developing third-degree heart block. Therefore, these patients often require temporary pacing with transcutaneous or transvenous pacing wires, and many will ultimately require a permanent implanted pacemaker.  If the heart block is found to be caused by a reversible condition, such as Lyme disease, the underlying condition should first be treated. Often, this will lead to resolution of the heart block and the associated symptoms.

Atrioventricular block (AV block) is a type of heart block that occurs when the electrical signal traveling from the atria, or the upper chambers of the heart, to ventricles, or the lower chambers of the heart, is impaired. Normally, the sinoatrial node (SA node) produces an electrical signal to control the heart rate. The signal travels from the SA node to the ventricles through the atrioventricular node (AV node). In an AV block, this electrical signal is either delayed or completely blocked. When the signal is completely blocked, the ventricles produce their own electrical signal to control the heart rate. The heart rate produced by the ventricles is much slower than that produced by the SA node.


Campaigns of Henry IV.

Both Pope Alexander II and Pope Gregory VII confirmed Vratislaus in the privilege of wearing the mitre and tunic which his predecessors had. Despite this, Vratislaus supported Henry in both the Investiture Controversy against the popes and the rebellions in Saxony that dominated his long reign. These actions would negate the significance of the mitre.  Vratislaus was often at odds with his brother Jaromír, the bishop of Prague. Jaromír, for his part, ignored the creation of a new Moravian diocese in Olomouc by Vratislaus in 1063. Jaromir even went so far as to retake, by arms, the relics removed from Prague and taken to Moravia. Despite the pope's support for Vratislaus' new see, the Bohemian duke was unswayed in his loyalty to the emperor.  The Saxons revolted under Duke Magnus of Saxony and Otto of Nordheim, Duke of Bavaria, in 1070 and Boleslaus of Poland attacked Bohemia in 1071. In August 1073, Henry responded with an invasion of Poland, but a new Saxon revolt drew him back in 1075. Vratislaus joined him, and they defeated the rebels on 9 June at the First Battle of Langensalza. The Bohemian troops showed conspicuous bravery. Henry then took Jaromír to Germany to be his chancellor under the name of Gebhard and Vratislaus was greatly relieved.  Vratislaus also took part in the wars against the anti-kings who opposed Henry's rule and were elected by a faction of the nobility to replace him. At the Battle of Flarchheim, only through the aid of Vratislaus' contingent was the imperial army capable of overcoming the rebels of the papally-approved claimant Rudolf of Rheinfelden, Duke of Swabia. Vratislaus even succeeded in seizing Rudolf's golden lance. The golden lance was then carried in front of Vratislaus on state occasions.

Relations with the papacy.

Vratislaus raised an army to serve in Henry's Italian campaign of 1081. In 1083, Vratislaus and his Bohemians were with Henry when they entered Rome itself.  Despite his serving an excommunicated emperor, Vratislaus maintained good relations with the papacy. Nonetheless, Gregory refused to grant Vratislaus permission to use the Slavonic liturgy. Never, however, did Vratislaus link his fate with that of Henry's antipope, Clement III.

Expansionism.

Vratislaus coveted the largely Slavic marches of Meissen and Lusatia, but, in spite of Henry's promises and Bohemian successes against the rebellious margraves, he never received them. He held Lower Lusatia between 1075 and 1086, but in 1088, with the insurrection of Egbert II of Meissen, Henry granted the region to Henry of Ostmark. Vratislaus was thereafter cool to Henry's military adventures. He never wavered in his loyalty, but he abstained from giving the emperor martial aid.

Internal affairs.

It was a Přemyslid tradition that Moravia would be entrusted to the younger brothers of the ruling prince. In Vratislaus' case, his two younger brothers Conrad and Otto inherited Brno and Olomouc and the youngest, Jaromír, entered the church. However, enmity grew between the brothers. It was then that Vratislaus founded the diocese of Olmütz (diocese of Olomouc), under the Archbishopric of Mainz, to counter Otto's authority within his province. Both pope and emperor took a hand in mediating the conflict, which was partially fixed with Henry's appointment of Jaromír as chancellor in 1077. In April 1085, a "reichstag" convened in Mainz suppressed the Moravian see, but Vratislaus later re-founded see. Jaromír protested in Rome to Pope Urban II, but died in 1090 before a pope ruled on the matter.  Sadly for Vratislaus, his last years were occupied by dynastic quarrelling. When his brother Otto died in 1086, he gave Olomouc to his son Boleslaus, which was seen to be an act against the interests of Conrad. Vratislaus raised an army against Conrad and sent it out under his other son Bretislaus. This son turned on him. Vratislaus, in keeping with Bohemian custom, designated an heir: Conrad. Thus reconciled, the two attacked Bretislaus, who fled to Hungary.  Vratislaus died of a hunting wound on 14 January 1092 after a reign of thirty years. He was buried in St. Peter and Paul′s Church, Vyšehrad.

Legacy.

Vratislaus frequently found himself in conflict with Bishop Jaromír of Prague and sought means to diminish the importance of the Bishop of Prague in domestic Bohemian politics. Among the actions he took were the re-establishment of the Bishopric of Olomouc in 1063 and the creation of the Vyšehrad Chapter in 1070. The latter was richly endowed independently of the Prague bishop, subject instead to the Holy See directly. His success in curbing the power of the Prague bishop helped to strengthen the Bohemian crown and enable later rulers to govern a more unified state. His policy towards the Holy Roman Empire set an example that would be followed in the twelfth century and would ultimately lead to the permanent elevation of Bohemia to the status of a kingdom at the beginning of the thirteenth century. The marriage alliances he was able to conclude with notable foreign princesses reflected the rising position of the Přemyslids among European dynasties. In contrast, Vratislaus's father Bretislaus in 1019 had to abduct his wife, the minor noblewoman Judith of Schweinfurt, to secure any suitable consort at all. His successor continued to cultivate dynastic bonds with notable courts in central and eastern Europe.

Family.

Vratislaus was married three times. His first wife Maria died during premature childbirth. He married the second time in 1057 to Adelaide, daughter of Andrew I of Hungary, who died in 1061. They had four children:  In 1062, Vratislaus married a third time to Swatawa of Poland, a daughter of Casimir I of Poland. They had five children:

Vratislaus (or Wratislaus) II () (d. 14 January 1092), the son of Bretislaus I and Judith of Schweinfurt, was the first King of Bohemia as of 15 June 1085, his royal title granted as a lifetime honorific from Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV that did not establish a hereditary monarchy. Before his elevation to the royal dignity, Vratislaus had ruled Bohemia as duke since 1061.


History.

The term "Digital Watermark" was coined by Andrew Tirkel and Charles Osborne in December 1992. The first successful embedding and extraction of a steganographic spread spectrum watermark was demonstrated in 1993 by Andrew Tirkel, Charles Osborne and Gerard Rankin.  Watermarks are identification marks produced during the paper making process. The first watermarks appeared in Italy during the 13th century, but their use rapidly spread across Europe. They were used as a means to identify the paper maker or the trade guild that manufactured the paper. The marks often were created by a wire sewn onto the paper mold. Watermarks continue to be used today as manufacturer's marks and to prevent forgery.

Applications.

Digital watermarking may be used for a wide range of applications, such as:

Digital watermarking life-cycle phases.

The information to be embedded in a signal is called a digital watermark, although in some contexts the phrase digital watermark means the difference between the watermarked signal and the cover signal. The signal where the watermark is to be embedded is called the "host" signal. A watermarking system is usually divided into three distinct steps, embedding, attack, and detection. In embedding, an algorithm accepts the host and the data to be embedded, and produces a watermarked signal.  Then the watermarked digital signal is transmitted or stored, usually transmitted to another person. If this person makes a modification, this is called an "attack". While the modification may not be malicious, the term attack arises from copyright protection application, where third parties may attempt to remove the digital watermark through modification. There are many possible modifications, for example, lossy compression of the data (in which resolution is diminished), cropping an image or video, or intentionally adding noise.  "Detection" (often called extraction) is an algorithm which is applied to the attacked signal to attempt to extract the watermark from it. If the signal was unmodified during transmission, then the watermark still is present and it may be extracted. In "robust" digital watermarking applications, the extraction algorithm should be able to produce the watermark correctly, even if the modifications were strong. In "fragile" digital watermarking, the extraction algorithm should fail if any change is made to the signal.

Classification.

A digital watermark is called "robust" with respect to transformations if the embedded information may be detected reliably from the marked signal, even if degraded by any number of transformations. Typical image degradations are JPEG compression, rotation, cropping, additive noise, and quantization. For video content, temporal modifications and MPEG compression often are added to this list. A digital watermark is called "imperceptible" if the watermarked content is perceptually equivalent to the original, unwatermarked content. In general, it is easy to create either robust watermarks—or—imperceptible watermarks, but the creation of both robust—and—imperceptible watermarks has proven to be quite challenging. Robust imperceptible watermarks have been proposed as a tool for the protection of digital content, for example as an embedded "no-copy-allowed" flag in professional video content.  Digital watermarking techniques may be classified in several ways.

Robustness.

A digital watermark is called "fragile" if it fails to be detectable after the slightest modification. Fragile watermarks are commonly used for tamper detection (integrity proof). Modifications to an original work that clearly are noticeable, commonly are not referred to as watermarks, but as generalized barcodes.  A digital watermark is called "semi-fragile" if it resists benign transformations, but fails detection after malignant transformations. Semi-fragile watermarks commonly are used to detect malignant transformations.  A digital watermark is called "robust" if it resists a designated class of transformations. Robust watermarks may be used in copy protection applications to carry copy and no access control information.

Perceptibility.

A digital watermark is called "imperceptible" if the original cover signal and the marked signal are perceptually indistinguishable.  A digital watermark is called "perceptible" if its presence in the marked signal is noticeable (e.g. Digital On-screen Graphics like a Network Logo, Content Bug, Codes, Opaque images). On videos and images, some are made transparent/translucent for convenience for consumers due to the fact that they block portion of the view; therefore degrading it.  This should not be confused with "perceptual", that is, watermarking which uses the limitations of human perception to be imperceptible.

Capacity.

The length of the embedded message determines two different main classes of digital watermarking schemes:

Embedding method.

A digital watermarking method is referred to as "spread-spectrum" if the marked signal is obtained by an additive modification. Spread-spectrum watermarks are known to be modestly robust, but also to have a low information capacity due to host interference.  A digital watermarking method is said to be of "quantization type" if the marked signal is obtained by quantization. Quantization watermarks suffer from low robustness, but have a high information capacity due to rejection of host interference.  A digital watermarking method is referred to as "amplitude modulation" if the marked signal is embedded by additive modification which is similar to spread spectrum method, but is particularly embedded in the spatial domain.

Evaluation and benchmarking.

The evaluation of digital watermarking schemes may provide detailed information for a watermark designer or for end-users, therefore, different evaluation strategies exist. Often used by a watermark designer is the evaluation of single properties to show, for example, an improvement. Mostly, end-users are not interested in detailed information. They want to know if a given digital watermarking algorithm may be used for their application scenario, and if so, which parameter sets seems to be the best.

Cameras.

Epson and Kodak have produced cameras with security features such as the Epson PhotoPC 3000Z and the Kodak DC-290. Both cameras added irremovable features to the pictures which distorted the original image, making them unacceptable for some applications such as forensic evidence in court. According to Blythe and Fridrich, "[n]either camera can provide an undisputable proof of the image origin or its author". A secure digital camera (SDC) was proposed by Saraju Mohanty, et al. in 2003 and published in January 2004. This was not the first time this was proposed. Blythe and Fridrich also have worked on SDC in 2004 for a digital camera that would use lossless watermarking to embed a biometric identifier together with a cryptographic hash.

Reversible data hiding.

"Reversible data hiding" is a technique which enables images to be authenticated and then restored to their original form by removing the digital watermark and replacing the image data that had been overwritten. This would make the images acceptable for legal purposes. The US Army also is interested in this technique for authentication of reconnaissance images.

Watermarking for relational databases.

Digital watermarking for relational databases has emerged as a candidate solution to provide copyright protection, tamper detection, traitor tracing, and maintaining integrity of relational data. Many watermarking techniques have been proposed in the literature to address these purposes. A survey of the current state-of-the-art and a classification of the different techniques according to their intent, the way they express the watermark, the cover type, granularity level, and verifiability was published in 2010 by Halder et al. in the Journal of Universal Computer Science..

A digital watermark is a kind of marker covertly embedded in a noise-tolerant signal such as audio, video or image data. It is typically used to identify ownership of the copyright of such signal. "Watermarking" is the process of hiding digital information in a carrier signal; the hidden information should, but does not need to, contain a relation to the carrier signal. Digital watermarks may be used to verify the authenticity or integrity of the carrier signal or to show the identity of its owners. It is prominently used for tracing copyright infringements and for banknote authentication.


Brewing the first pilsner.

In the late 1830s the people of Pilsen, Kingdom of Bohemia (today in the Czech Republic) started to prefer less expensive imported bottom-fermented beers to local top-fermented beers. As a result many of top-fermented beers from Pilsen were not being sold fast enough, got spoiled and the casks had to be poured out. In 1839 the burghers with brewing rights decided to build a new brewery capable of producing a bottom-fermented beer with a longer storage life. At the time, this was termed a Bavarian beer, since bottom-fermentation were popular mostly in Bavaria. For bottom-fermentation it is necessary to keep the fermentation tanks cool between 4 and 9 degrees Celsius. The climate in Bohemia is similar to that in Bavaria making it possible to store winter ice and sustain bottom-fermentation year-round. The burghers of Pilsen not only built a new brewery, but also hired Josef Groll, a Bavarian brewer with lager-brewing experience. Josef Groll's father owned a brewery in Vilshofen in Lower Bavaria and had long experimented with new recipes for bottom-fermented beer. On 5 October 1842, Groll brewed the first batch of "Urquell" beer. The use of soft Pilsen water, barley malt prepared in indirectly heated English-style kiln and Saaz hops, resulted in golden color and herbal, floral taste. The new beer was first served on 11 November 1842 and was very well received by the local populace. The demand for the Pilsner beer grew strongly. Soon the brewery expanded and started to export to many countries.  Josef Groll's contract with the brewery ended on 30 April 1845. Groll returned to Vilshofen and later inherited his father's brewery.

Death.

Josef Groll died on 22 November 1887, aged 74, of a heart attack in the house of his daughter Kathi Hutter in Vilshofen.

Brewery.

The Groll brewery no longer exists. Parts of the brewery, however, were acquired by "Wolferstetter", another brewery located in Vilshofen. "Wolferstetter" still produces a "Josef Groll Pils".

Josef Groll (21 August 1813, Vilshofen an der Donau – 22 November 1887, Vilshofen) was a Bavarian brewer, best known for being the first brewer of Pilsner beer. He is sometimes called "the Father of the Pilsner". The world's first-ever pale lager, Pilsner Urquell was highly successful, and served as the inspiration for more than two-thirds of the beer produced in the world today.


Design and development.

Avia continued building Messerschmitt Bf 109G-6s after the war under the Avia S-99 name, at two aircraft factories in Czechoslovakia: one of them officially called "závod Avia" (Avia Plant) (1946–48) and "závod Avia-Jiřího Dimitrova" (Avia-George Dimitroff-Plant, 1948–49) in Čakovice near Prague, as a postwar corporative part of the "Automobilové závody, n.p." "[Automotive Works, National Corp.]". The other was named "závod Vysočany" ("Vysočany Plant", 1948–49) in Prague, as a corporative part of "Letecké závody, n.p." "[Aviation Works, National Corp.]" but soon ran out of the 109's Daimler-Benz DB 605 engine after many were destroyed during an explosion at a warehouse in Krásné Březno.  The S-199 continued to use the Bf 109G airframe but, with none of the original engines available, an alternative engine had to be used. It was decided that as a replacement for the original engine, the aircraft would use the same (Junkers Jumo 211 F) engine and propeller as the Heinkel He 111 bomber. The resulting combination of parts was an aircraft with extremely poor handling qualities. The substitute engine with the propeller lacked the responsiveness of the Daimler-Benz unit and the torque created by the massive paddle-bladed propeller made control very difficult. This, in combination with the 109's narrow-track undercarriage, made landings and takeoffs extremely hazardous.  The Daimler-Benz DB 605 engine allowed for a central cannon mount ("Motorkanone" in German) that fired through the propeller spinner. This was not possible with the Junkers Jumo 211, and so the S-199 used a version of the Luftwaffe's "Rüstsatz VI" modification kit, which consisted of a pair of MG 151 cannon, one each in a gun pod, beneath each wing. This further impinged on the aircraft's performance. A final hidden danger lay in the gun synchronizer for the cowl-mounted MG 131 machine guns, which did not work as it was meant to, leading a few Israeli aircraft to shoot off their own propellers.  Around 550 S-199s were built, including a number of conversion trainers designated CS-199 (armed) and C-210 (unarmed). The first flight took place in March 1947, and production ended in 1949. The last examples were withdrawn from Czechoslovak service (with their National Security Guard) in 1957. There may be some argument that the S-199's difficult handling was exacerbated by inadequately trained pilots in type, and was not as difficult to land and take off when flown by pilots competently trained in the type, considering the type was used for ten years in Czechoslovakia.

Operational history.

Israeli service.

Israeli agents negotiated the purchase of Avia S-199s from the Czechoslovak government in defiance of an arms embargo that Israel faced at the time. Twenty-five aircraft were obtained and all but two were eventually delivered. The price for a fully equipped plane was $190,000. The first examples arrived on 20 May 1948, six days after Israel's declaration of independence and five days after the commencement of hostilities by Egypt. Forming Israel's first fighter squadron, they were assembled and sent into combat for the first time on May 29, attacking the Egyptian army between Isdud and the Ad Halom bridge, south of Tel Aviv. A few days later, on 3 June, taking off from Herzliya Airport the type scored the Israeli Air Force's first aerial victories when Modi Alon shot down a pair of Royal Egyptian Air Force C-47s which had just bombed Tel Aviv.  The type proved unreliable and performed poorly in combat. However, the maintenance and flying difficulties may have been exacerbated by inexperience and the lack of training in type for both flying and maintenance. Furthermore, maintenance problems meant that no more than five were typically airworthy at any one time. The type scored victories over its opponents, including the Spitfire. The Avias were mostly withheld from service by the end of October, at which time only six remained operational. The S-199 continued making sporadic sorties until mid-December.

The Avia S-199 is a propeller-driven fighter aircraft built after World War II, notable as the first fighter obtained by the Israeli Air Force, and used during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.


Founding.

The last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, and his allies, the Latins, waged war on the infant Roman Republic. Before the battle, the Roman dictator Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis vowed to build a temple to the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) if the Republic were victorious.  According to legend, Castor and Pollux appeared on the battlefield as two able horsemen in aid of the Republic; and after the battle had been won they again appeared on the Forum in Rome watering their horses at the Spring of Juturna thereby announcing the victory. The temple stands on the supposed spot of their appearance.  One of Postumius’ sons was elected duumvir in order to dedicate the temple on 15 July (the ides of July) 484 BC.

History.

During the Republican period, the temple served as a meeting place for the Roman Senate, and from the middle of the 2nd century BC the front of the podium served as a speaker's platform. During the imperial period, the temple housed the office for weights and measures, and was a depository for the State treasury. Chambers located between the foundation piers of the temple were used to conduct this business. Based on finds from the drains, one of the chambers was likely used by a dentist.  The archaic temple was completely reconstructed and enlarged in 117 BC by Lucius Caecilius Metellus Dalmaticus after his victory over the Dalmatians. Gaius Verres again restored this second temple in 73 BC.  Commemorating the initial victory at Lake Regillus, a large calvary parade was held each year on July 15th and featured as many as 5,000 young men carrying shields and spears. Two young men, riding white horses, led the parade and represented Castor and Pollux.  In 14 BC a fire that ravaged major parts of the forum destroyed the temple, and Tiberius, the son of Livia by a previous marriage and adopted son of Augustus and the eventual heir to the throne, rebuilt it. Tiberius' temple was dedicated in 6 AD. The remains visible today are from the temple of Tiberius, except the podium, which is from the time of Metellus.  In conjunction with this imperial rebuilding, the cult itself became associated with the imperial family. Initially, the twins were identified with Augustus's intended heirs, Gaius and Lucius Caesar. After their premature deaths, however, the association with Castor and Pollux passed to Tiberius and his brother Drusus.  According to Edward Gibbon, the temple of Castor served as a secret meeting place for the Roman Senate. Frequent meetings of the Senate are also reported by Cicero. Gibbon said the senate was roused to rebellion against Emperor Maximinus Thrax and in favor of future emperor Gordian I at the Temple of Castor in 237 AD.  If still in use by the 4th-century, the temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire. The temple was possibly already falling apart in the fourth century, when a wall in front of the Lacus Juturnae was erected from reused material. Nothing is known of its subsequent history, except that in the 15th century, only three columns of its original structure were still standing. The street running by the building was called "via Trium Columnarum".  In 1760, the Conservatori, finding the columns in a state of imminent collapse, erected scaffolding for effecting repairs. Both Piranesi and the young English architect George Dance the Younger were able to climb up and make accurate measurements; Dance had "a Model cast from the finest Example of the Corinthian order perhaps in the whole World", as he reported to his father.  Today the podium survives without the facing, as do the three columns and a piece of the entablature, one of the most famous features in the Forum.

Architecture.

The octastyle temple was peripteral, with eight Corinthian columns at the short sides and eleven on the long sides. There was a single cella paved with mosaics. The podium measures and in height. The building was constructed in "opus caementicium" and originally covered with slabs of tuff which were later removed. According to ancient sources, the temple had a single central stairway to access the podium, but excavations have identified two side stairs.

Archaeology.

The temple complex was excavated and studied between 1983 and 1989 by a joint archaeological mission of the Nordic academies in Rome, led by Inge Nielsen and B. Poulsen.

Other Temples of Castor and Pollux.

The Roman temple is one of a number of known Dioscuri sites remaining from antiquity. Among others,  In his 1888 description of the Dioscuri temple in ancient Greek colonial city of Naucratis in Egypt, Ernest Arthur Gardner remarked that such temples were common enough to have a characteristic orientation. Temples to the gods tended to face east. Temples to heroes and demi-gods such as Castor and Pollux faced west.

The Temple of Castor and Pollux () is an ancient temple in the Roman Forum, Rome, central Italy. It was originally built in gratitude for victory at the Battle of Lake Regillus (495 BC). Castor and Pollux (Greek Polydeuces) were the Dioscuri, the "twins" of Gemini, the twin sons of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leda. Their cult came to Rome from Greece via Magna Graecia and the Greek culture of Southern Italy.


Biography.

Marey started by studying blood circulation in the human body. Then he shifted to analyzing heart beats, respiration, muscles (myography), and movement of the body. To aid his studies he developed many instruments for precise measurements. For example, in 1859, in collaboration with the physiologist Auguste Chauveau and the watch manufacturer Breguet, he developed a wearable "Sphygmograph" to measure the pulse. This sphygmograph was an improvement on an earlier and more cumbersome design by the German physiologist Karl von Vierordt. In 1869 Marey constructed a very delicate artificial insect to show how an insect flies and to demonstrate the figure-8 shape it produced during movement of its wings. He fixed a gold foil to an insect wing and shone light on it to study the flapping of the wing. He also used a soot covered glass-fibre introduced along the path of the insect wing to determine if it crossed with the wing in the upper stroke or lower stroke by examining the side on which the soot was cleared. Then he became fascinated by movements of air and started to study bigger flying animals, like birds. He adopted and further developed "animated photography" into a separate field of chronophotography in the 1880s. His revolutionary idea was to record several phases of movement on one photographic surface. In 1890 he published a substantial volume entitled "Le Vol des Oiseaux" ("The Flight of Birds"), richly illustrated with photographs, drawings, and diagrams. He also created stunningly precise sculptures of various flying birds.  Marey studied other animals too. He published "La Machine animale" in 1873 (translated as "Animal Mechanism"). The English photographer Eadweard Muybridge carried out his "Photographic Investigation" in Palo Alto, California, to prove that Marey was right when he wrote that a galloping horse for a brief moment had all four hooves off the ground. Muybridge published his photos in 1879 and received some public attention.  Marey hoped to merge anatomy and physiology. To better understand his chronophotographic images, he compared them with images of the anatomy, skeleton, joints, and muscles of the same species. Marey produced a series of drawings showing a horse trotting and galloping, first in the flesh and then as a skeleton.  The presence and activity of Marey in Naples is well documented, in particular thanks to the documentation preserved in the historical archive of the Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn. Marey began to travel to Naples presumably because of his relation with madame Vilbort, wife of Joseph Vilbort, the director of the French journal "Le Globe". Madame Vilbort moved to Naples to cure her illness, thanks to the warm climate, and Marey followed her. Marey and madame Vilbort bought villa Maria in Posillipo in 1880. Marey accomplished in Naples part of his studies aimed at the realization of his pre-cinematographic tools and in the Dohrn zoological station studied the movement of fishes hosted in the aquarium's tanks. In a letter dated 1 November 1876 Marey requested the Stazione Zoologica to provide live ray fishes for his studies. Among the documentation that witnesses the collaboration of Marey with Anton Dohrn is the archive at the zoological station which preserves photos where the two appear together during an excursion and show Marey on board Dohrn's boat. The usage of the chronophotographic gun, which Marey used to aim at birds, but without shooting, appeared unusual to local people who referred to Maray sometimes as the "silly from Posillipo" ("lo scemo di Posillipo").

Chronophotography.

Marey's chronophotographic gun was made in 1882, this instrument was capable of taking 12 consecutive frames a second, with all the frames recorded on the same picture. Using these pictures he studied horses, birds, dogs, sheep, donkeys, elephants, fish, microscopic creatures, molluscs, insects, reptiles, etc. Some call it Marey's "animated zoo". Marey also conducted the famous study about cats always landing on their feet. He conducted very similar studies with a chicken and a dog and found that they could do almost the same. Marey also studied human locomotion. He published another book "Le Mouvement" in 1894.  Marey also made movies. They were at a high speed (60 images per second) and of excellent image quality. His research on how to capture and display moving images helped the emerging field of cinematography.  Towards the end of his life he returned to studying the movement of quite abstract forms, like a falling ball. His last great work was the observation and photography of smoke trails. This research was partially funded by Samuel Pierpont Langley under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, after the two met in Paris at the Exposition Universelle (1900). In 1901 he was able to build a smoke machine with 58 smoke trails. It became one of the first aerodynamic wind tunnels.

Étienne-Jules Marey (; 5 March 1830, Beaune, Côte-d'Or – 15 May 1904, Paris) was a French scientist, physiologist and chronophotographer.


Life.

Caccini was born in Florence, and received a humanistic education (Latin, some Greek, as well as modern languages and literature, mathematics) in addition to early musical training with her father. According to Liliana Panella, the first well-founded testimony of Francesca's singer's activity, together with her sister Settimia, at the Medici court, is 1602: in his diary Cesare Tinghi notes that on 3 April 1602 St. Nicholas church in Pisa, where the court moved every year during Lent, polychoral music was directed by "Giulio Romano [Giulio Caccini], having the wife (the second wife, Margherita) and the two daughters singing well".  In her early life, Caccini performed with her parents, her half-brother Pompeo, her sister Settimia, and possibly other unnamed Caccini pupils in an ensemble contemporaries referred to as "le donne di Giulio Romano". After she was hired by the court, she continued to perform with the family ensemble until Settimia's marriage and resulting move to Mantua caused its breakup. Caccini served the Medici court as a teacher, chamber singer, rehearsal coach and composer of both chamber and stage music until early 1627. By 1614 she was the court's most highly paid musician, in no small part because her musical virtuosity so well exemplified an idea of female excellence projected by Tuscany's de facto Regent, Grand-Duchess Christina of Lorraine. By 1623 she earned 240 scudi.  Caccini is believed to have been a quick and prolific composer, equal in productivity to her court colleagues Jacopo Peri and Marco da Gagliano. Very little of her music survives. Most of her stage music was composed for performance in comedies by poet Michelangelo Buonarroti the Younger (grand-nephew of the artist) such as "La Tancia" (1613), "Il passatempo" (1614) and "La fiera" (1619). In 1618 she published a collection of thirty-six solo songs and soprano/bass duets ("Il primo libro delle musiche") that is a compendium of contemporary styles, ranging from intensely moving, harmonically adventurous laments to joyful sacred songs in Italian and Latin, to witty strophic songs about the joys and perils of romantic love. For most of these songs, Caccini used her own poetry.  In winter 1625 Caccini composed all the music for a 75-minute "comedy-ballet" entitled "La liberazione di Ruggiero dall'isola d'Alcina" which was performed for the visiting crown prince of Poland, Ladislaus Sigismondo (later Władysław IV). Combining witty parodies of early opera's stock scenes and self-important characters with moments of surprising emotional intensity, the score shows that Caccini had mastered the full range of musico-theatrical devices in her time and that she had had a strong sense of large-scale musical design. "La liberazione" so pleased the prince that he had it performed in Warsaw in 1628.  After Caccini's first husband (Giovanni Battista Signorini, with whom she had one daughter, Margherita, in 1622) died in December 1626, she quickly arranged to marry again in October 1627, this time to a melophile nobleman in Lucca, Tommaso Raffaelli. She lived in Raffaelli's Lucchese homes, apparently bearing a son (also Tommaso, in 1628), and having some musical relationship to the Buonvisi family in Lucca, until his death in 1630. Although as the wife of a nobleman she had declined at least one request to perform (in Parma, in 1628), once she was widowed Caccini immediately tried to return to Medici service. Her return delayed by the plagues of 1630–33, by 1634 Caccini was back in Florence with her two children, serving the court as music teacher to her daughter Margherita and to the Medici princesses who lived at or frequently visited the convent of La Crocetta, and composing and performing chamber music and minor entertainments for the women's court. Caccini left Medici service on 8 May 1641, and disappeared from the public record.

Works.

Francesca Caccini wrote some or all of the music for at least sixteen staged works. All but "La liberazione di Ruggiero" and some excerpts from "La Tancia" and "Il passatempo" published in the 1618 collection are believed lost. Her surviving scores reveal Caccini to have taken extraordinary care over the notation of her music, focusing special attention on the rhythmic placement of syllables and words, especially within ornaments, on phrasing as indicated by slurs, and on the precise notation of often very long, melodically fluid vocal melismas. Although her music is not especially notable for the expressive dissonances made fashionable by her contemporary Monteverdi, Caccini was a master of dramatic harmonic surprise: in her music it is harmony, more than counterpoint, that most powerfully communicates affect.

References.

Notes Sources

Francesca Caccini (; 18 September 1587 – after 1641) was an Italian composer, singer, lutenist, poet, and music teacher of the early Baroque era. She was also known by the nickname "La Cecchina", given to her by the Florentines and probably a diminutive of "Francesca". She was the daughter of Giulio Caccini. Her only surviving stage work, "La liberazione di Ruggiero", is widely considered the oldest opera by a woman composer.


Geography.

The Yenisey proper, from the confluence of its source rivers Great Yenisey and Little Yenisey at Kyzyl to its mouth in the Kara Sea, is long. From the source of its tributary Selenga, it is long. It has a drainage basin of. The Yenisey flows through the Russian federal subjects Tuva, Khakassia and Krasnoyarsk Krai. The city of Krasnoyarsk is situated on the Yenisey.

Tributaries.

The largest tributaries of the Yenisey are, from source to mouth:

Lake Baikal.

The, partly navigable Upper Angara River feeds into the northern end of Lake Baikal from the Buryat Republic but the largest inflow is from the Selenga which forms a delta on the southeastern side.

Flora and fauna.

The Yenisey basin (excluding Lake Baikal and lakes of the Khantayka headwaters) is home to 55 native fish species, including two endemics: "Gobio sibiricus" (a gobionine cyprinid) and "" (a grayling). The grayling is restricted to Khövsgöl Nuur and its tributaries. Most fish found in the Yenisey basin are relatively widespread Euro-Siberian or Siberian species, such as northern pike ("Esox lucius"), common roach ("Rutilus rutilus"), common dace ("Leuciscus leuciscus"), Siberian sculpin ("Cottus poecilopus"), European perch ("Perca fluviatilis") and Prussian carp ("Carassius gibelio"). The basin is also home to many salmonids (trout, whitefish, charr, graylings, taimen and relatives) and the Siberian sturgeon ("Acipenser baerii").  The Yenisey valley is habitat for numerous flora and fauna, with Siberian pine and Siberian larch being notable tree species. In prehistoric times Scots pine, "Pinus sylvestris", was abundant in the Yenisey valley circa 6000 BC. There are also numerous bird species present in the watershed, including, for example, the hooded crow, "Corvus cornix".

Taimyr reindeer herd.

The Taimyr reindeer herd, a migrating tundra reindeer ("R.t. sibiricus"), the largest reindeer herd in the world, migrated to winter grazing ranges along the Yenisey.

Navigation.

River steamers first came to the Yenesei River in 1864 and were brought in from Holland and England across the icy Kara Sea. One was the SS Nikolai. The SS Thames attempted to explore the river, overwintered in 1876, but was damaged in the ice and eventually wrecked in the river. Success came with the steamers Frazer, Express in 1878, and the next year, Moscow hauling supplies in and wheat out. The Dalman reached Yeneisisk in 1881.  Imperial Russia placed river steamers on the massive river in an attempt to free up communication with land-locked Siberia. One boat was the SS St. Nicholas which took the future Tsar Nicholas II on his voyage to Siberia, and later conveyed Vladimir Lenin to prison.  Engineers attempted to place river steamers on regular service on the river during the building of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The boats were needed to bring in the rails, engines and supplies. Captain Joseph Wiggins sailed the Orestes with rail and parted out river steamers in 1893. However, the sea and river route proved very difficult with several ships lost at sea and on the river. Both the Ob and Yenisey mouths feed into very long inlets, several hundred kilometres in length, which are shallow, ice bound and prone to high winds and thus treacherous for navigation. After the completion of the railway, river traffic reduced only to local service as the Arctic route and long river proved much too indirect a route.  The first recreation team to navigate the Yenisey's entire length, including its violent upper tributary in Mongolia, was an Australian-Canadian effort completed in September 2001. Ben Kozel, Tim Cope, Colin Angus and Remy Quinter were on this team. Both Kozel and Angus wrote books detailing this expedition, and a documentary was produced for National Geographic Television.  A canal inclined plane was built on the river in 1985 at the Krasnoyarsk Dam.

History.

Nomadic tribes such as the Ket people and the Yugh people have lived along the banks of the Yenisey since ancient times, and this region is the location of the Yeniseian language family. The Ket, numbering about 1000, are the only survivors today of those who originally lived throughout central southern Siberia near the river banks. Their extinct relatives included the Kotts, Assans, Arins, Baikots and Pumpokols who lived further upriver to the south. The modern Ket lived in the eastern middle areas of the river before being assimilated politically into Russia during the 17th through 19th centuries.  Some of the earliest known evidence of Turkic origins was found in the Yenisey Valley in the form of stelae, stone monoliths and memorial tablets dating from between the 7th and 9th centuries AD, along with some documents that were found in China's Xinjiang region. The written evidence gathered from these sources tells of battles fought between the Turks and the Chinese and other legends. There are also examples of Uyghur poetry, though most have survived only in Chinese translation.  Wheat from the Yenisey was sold by Muslims and Uighurs during inadequate harvests to Bukhara and Soghd during the Tahirid era.  Russians first reached the upper Yenisey in 1605, travelling from the Ob, up the Ket, portaging and then down the Yenisey as far as the Sym.  During World War II, Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire agreed to divide Asia along a line that followed the Yenisey to the border of China and then along the border of China and the Soviet Union.

Pollution.

Studies have shown that the Yenisey suffers from contamination caused by radioactive discharges from a factory that produced bomb-grade plutonium in the secret city of Krasnoyarsk-26, now known as Zheleznogorsk.

The Yenisey (, "Yeniséy";, "Yenisei mörön"; Buryat: Горлог мүрэн, "Gorlog müren"; Tyvan: Улуг-Хем, "Uluğ-Hem"; Khakas: Ким суғ, "Kim suğ"), also romanised as Yenisei, Enisei, or Jenisej, is the fifth-longest river system in the world, and the largest to drain into the Arctic Ocean. Rising in Mungaragiyn-gol in Mongolia, it follows a northerly course before draining into the Yenisey Gulf in the Kara Sea. The Yenisey divides the Western Siberian Plain in the west from the Central Siberian Plateau to the east; it drains a large part of central Siberia.


Succession in Hungary, Poland and Naples.

In 1374, Louis was betrothed to Catherine, heir presumptive to the throne of Hungary.  Louis and Catherine were expected to reign either over Hungary or over Poland, as Catherine's father, Louis I of Hungary, had no sons. Catherine's father also planned to leave them his claim to the Crown of Naples and the County of Provence, which were then held by his ailing and childless cousin Joanna I. However, Catherine's death in 1378 ended the marriage negotiations. In 1384, Elizabeth of Bosnia started negotiating with Louis' father about the possibility of Louis marrying her daughter Mary, notwithstanding Mary's engagement to Sigismund of Luxembourg. If Elizabeth had made this proposal in 1378, after Catherine's death, the fact that the French king and the Hungarian king did not recognise the same pope would have presented a problem. However, Elizabeth was desperate in 1384 and was not willing to let the schism stand in the way of the negotiations. Antipope Clement VII issued a dispensation which annulled Mary's betrothal to Sigismund and a proxy marriage between Louis and Mary was celebrated in April 1385. Nonetheless, the marriage was not recognised by the Hungarian noblemen who adhered to Pope Urban VI. Four months after the proxy marriage, Sigismund invaded Hungary and married Mary, which ultimately destroyed Louis' chances to reign as King of Hungary.

Role in court and the Hundred Years' War.

Louis played an important political role during the Hundred Years' War. In 1392 his elder brother Charles the Mad (who may have suffered from either schizophrenia, porphyria, paranoid schizophrenia or bipolar disorder) experienced the first in a lifelong series of attacks of 'insanity'. It soon became clear that Charles was unable to rule independently. In 1393 a regency council presided over by Queen Isabeau was formed, and Louis gained powerful influence.  Louis disputed the regency and guardianship of the royal children with John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy. The enmity between the two was public and a source of political unrest in the already troubled France. Louis had the initial advantage, being the brother rather than the first cousin of the king, but his reputation as a womanizer and the rumour of an affair with the queen consort Isabeau of Bavaria made him extremely unpopular. For the following years, the children of Charles VI were successively kidnapped and recovered by both parties, until the Duke of Burgundy managed to be appointed by royal decree to be the guardian of Louis, the Dauphin and regent of France.  Louis did not give up and took every effort to sabotage John's rule, including squandering the money raised for the relief of Calais, then occupied by the English. After this episode, John and Louis broke into open threats and only the intervention of John of Valois, Duke of Berry and uncle of both men, avoided a civil war.  Louis was reportedly responsible for the deaths of four dancers at a disastrous 1393 masquerade ball that became known as the "Bal des Ardents" (Ball of the Burning Men). The four victims were burnt alive when a torch held by Louis came too close to their highly flammable costumes. Two other dancers wearing the same costumes (one of whom was Charles VI himself) narrowly escaped a similar fate.

Murder.

On Sunday 20 November 1407, the contending Dukes exchanged solemn vows of reconciliation before the court of France. But only three days later, Louis was brutally assassinated in the streets of Paris, by the orders of the Duke of Burgundy John the Fearless. Louis was stabbed while mounting his horse by fifteen masked criminals led by Raoulet d'Anquetonville, a servant of the Duke of Burgundy. An attendant was severely wounded.  John was supported by the population of Paris and the University. He could even publicly admit the killing. Rather than deny it, John had the scholar Jean Petit of the Sorbonne deliver a peroration justifying the killing of tyrants.  Louis' murder sparked a bloody feud and civil war between Burgundy and the French royal family which divided France for the next twenty-eight years, ending with the Treaty of Arras in 1435.

Marriage and issue.

In 1389, Louis married Valentina Visconti, daughter of Gian Galeazzo, Duke of Milan. The union produced eight children:  By Mariette d'Enghien, his mistress, Louis had an illegitimate son:

Louis I of Orléans (13 March 1372 – 23 November 1407) was Duke of Orléans from 1392 to his death. He was also, Duke of Touraine (1386–1392), Count of Valois (1386?–1406) Blois (1397–1407), Angoulême (1404–1407), Périgord (1400–1407) and Soissons (1404–07).


Career.

Flamenco.

Gades's most notable works included dance adaptations of Prosper Mérimée's "Carmen" and Federico García Lorca's "Blood Wedding" ("Bodas de Sangre"), as well as a feature-length adaptation of Manuel de Falla's 23-minute ballet "El amor brujo".  In the 1990s, he toured the world with his show "Fuenteovejuna", based on Lope de Vega's play of the same name.

Film.

Gades collaborated with the Spanish director Carlos Saura in the filming of the adaptations of "Carmen" and "Blood Wedding", which also featured Cristina Hoyos.

Ballet.

Gades co-founded and became the artistic director of the Spanish National Ballet (Ballet Nacional de España) in 1978.

Personal life and death.

Gades was prominent as a political activist in Alicante, where he proclaimed self-determination for the Catalan nation during the Spanish Transition between the late 1970s and early 1980s. He was a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Peoples of Spain, a Marxist–Leninist organization. In 1987 he was a member of the jury at the 15th Moscow International Film Festival.  He was married to the Spanish actress and singer Marisol for four years; they had three daughters.  He died in Madrid from cancer.

Awards.

About six weeks before his death, Gades received the "Order of José Martí", one of the highest honors of Cuba, from Fidel Castro, in Havana, Cuba.  In 2004 his ashes were interred at the Mausoleum of the Frank País Second Eastern Front, a memorial cemetery in Santiago de Cuba.

Antonio Esteve Ródenas or Antonio Gades (14 November 1936 in Elda, Alicante – 20 July 2004 in Madrid, Spain) was a Spanish flamenco dancer and choreographer. He helped to popularise the art form on the international stage. He was father of actress María Esteve and singer Celia Flores, daughters of his ex-partner Marisol, a popular actress and singer.


History.

In 1783–84 a Frenchman named Gilles-Louis Chrétien invented the "physionotrace" to aid in the production of silhouette portraits which became popular during the reign of Louis XVI. Within a few minutes a "grand trait" was produced. This life-size drawing was completed by an artist. Chrétien's device used the mechanics of the pantograph to transmit the tracing (via an eyepiece) of the subject's profile silhouette to an engraving needle. Thus it enabled the production of multiple portrait copies. Chrétien's first partner, Edme Quenedey, made a drawing of the instrument in 1788, which now sits in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. When Quenedey started his own business in Germany, Chrétien cooperated with the artist Jean-Baptiste Fouquet, and Jean Simon Fournier. Chrétien's workshop was taken over by Edme Bouchardy.  In 1802, John Isaac Hawkins, who was born in England in 1772 and who lived in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, patented the second official physiognotrace, and partnered with Charles Willson Peale to market it to prospective buyers. John Hawkins's machine differed from Chrétien's in that it traced around the actual face with a small bar connected to a pantograph that reduced the silhouette to less than 2 inches. At that time, many versions of these instruments were being used all over the East Coast in the United States, some of which predated Hawkins's, and which were capable of quickly making machine-made profiles.  By 1802, in response to the popularity of silhouettes, which were invented in the late eighteenth century, Peale introduced the British inventor John Hawkins’s (1772–1855) physiognotrace at his museum in Philadelphia. While the operator traced the sitter’s head, the mechanism impressed the image onto a piece of paper that was often folded to produce multiple portraits. The operator then cut away the center of the paper, leaving a “hollow cut” image. These silhouettes, or profiles as they were also called, could be kept loose, framed, or compiled in albums; a black or blue piece of paper or fabric placed behind the image provided contrast.  Peale sent the watercolor sketch of this instrument to Thomas Jefferson, along with a detailed explanation. The drawing now sits with the Jefferson Papers in the Library of Congress. In April 1805, Mr. Peale wrote his friend, Dr. William Thornton to request a certified copy of a patent of a physiognotrace that was issued to John J. Hawkins. Peale, who had an interest in the instrument and who kept the original in his museum, "needed the certified copy to bring suit against a person who was making the device without authority. John J. Hawkins had been in England, where he sold patent rights to the polygraph (duplicating device) and drawing machine for 1,600 guineas. Mr. Peale also wrote to Dr. Thornton in May 1805 to record an assignment of the Hawkins invention to Mr. Peale for the City of Philadelphia." James Sharples, an itinerant British portrait artist, who also lived for a time in Philadelphia, used a physiognotrace to draw profiles of such famous subjects as George Washington and Dolly and James Madison.

A physiognotrace is an instrument, designed to trace a person's physiognomy to make semi-automated portrait aquatints. It was invented in France in 1783–84 and popular for some decades. The sitter climbed into a wooden frame (1.75m high x 6.5m wide), sat and turned to the side to pose. A pantograph connected to a pencil produced within a few minutes a "grand trait", a contour line on a piece of paper. With the help of a second scaling down pantograph, the basic features of the portrait were transferred from this sheet in the form of dotted lines to a copper plate which had previously been prepared with a ground for etching. One week later the sitter received an etched plate and twelve little prints. Not only this device, but also the aquatint prints, are called physionotraces.


Biography.

Early life.

Paul Würdig was born to a German father and a Sinti mother. Würdig stated in an interview with the radio station "BigFM" that he's one-eighth Iranian. At the age of eight years Sido and his younger sister were brought up by their mother in East Berlin in the Prenzlauer Berg neighbourhood. In 1988, the family moved to West Berlin, where they first lived in emergency accommodation in Wedding along with many asylum seekers. They then moved into Märkisches Viertel, a high-rise residential area in the Berlin borough of Reinickendorf. During his childhood and youth, Märkisches Viertel had a high proportion of migrants and low-income families. There he attended the Bettina-von-Arnim-Oberschule and afterwards began an apprenticeship as an educator, which he never completed.

Career.

1997–2002: Early career.

Sido has been active in the music business since 1997. Together with his best friend B-Tight he released several EPs and demos under the name Royal TS, which were never officially published, at the Berlin underground hip hop label Royal Bunker. SIDO had been friends with DJ Tomekk for a long time. The two made a dubplate from "Arschficksong" and DJ Tomekk played them in clubs all over Germany, presenting SIDO to a wider audience for the first time. Specter was Art Director for DJ Tomekk at that time. At a concert the duo got the attention of Halil, Specter and Spaiche - the later founders of the Aggro Berlin label.

2003–2004: First successes and "Maske".

Sido's solo career began in 2002 with the "Arschficksong" ("Ass-fuck song") on the sampler "Aggro Ansage Nr. 1" and the "Weihnachtssong" ("Christmas song") on "Aggro Ansage Nr. 3".  In 2004, Sido's debut album "Maske" was released, reaching #3 on the German charts and selling more than 180,000 copies to date, achieving gold status. The lead single "Mein Block" (My block) reached #13 on the German charts, the second single "Fuffies im Club" (€50 notes in the club) reached #18 and the third single "Mama ist stolz" (Mum is proud) reached #25. The original album was indexed because of the song "Endlich Wochenende" ("Finally weekend") which, according to the BPjM, glorified the use of drugs. The album was rereleased under the name "Maske X" with the song "Arschficksong" in replacement of "Endlich Wochenende". The song was also published (with the video slightly censored), for the first time as a single.  In September of the same year, he won a prestigious German music award for "Best Newcomer." The best-known song from that album, "Mein Block", describes life from a resident's perspective in the Märkisches Viertel, a low-income neighborhood of Berlin, detailing the narcotics trade, alcoholism, problems with police, and poverty in Sido's "Block", or building.

2005–2006: Other projects and "Ich".

After this debut album, together with his Label colleagues B-Tight and Fler, he released two label samplers: "Aggro Ansage Nr. 4" and "Aggro Ansage Nr. 5" (which featured the new label artists Tony D and G-Hot).  In 2005, Sido performed with and represented Berlin in the Bundesvision Song Contest 2005 with the song "Mama ist stolz", placing 3rd with 113 points.  Later he collaborated with rapper Harris, as the rap duo "Deine Lieblings Rapper" ("Your favourite rappers"). In 2005, they released their debut album "Dein Lieblings Album" ("Your favourite album"), with "Steh wieder auf" (get up again) as the only single.  In December 2006, Sido released his second album "Ich", which reached #4 in the German album charts. Three singles: "Strassenjunge", "Ein Teil von mir" and "Schlechtes Vorbild" were released. The album achieved gold status.

2007: Sektenmusik.

2007 Sido and B-Tight (alias A.i.d.S. (=Alles ist die Sekte, engl. "Everything is the sect") formed their label Sektenmuzik and a rap-crew named Die Sekte (with Rhymin Simon and Vokalmatador). Tony D joined later.

2008: "Ich und meine Maske" and Popstars.

His third album "Ich und meine Maske" was released at the end of May 2008. It reached #1 in the German album charts. The singles "Augen auf"/Halt dein Maul", "Carmen", "Herz", "Nein!" and "Beweg dein Arsch" had success in the charts.  On August 2008, Sido joined the seventh season of Popstars, called "Just 4 Girls", as a jury member, along with Detlef D! Soost and Loona. Many people were surprised, wondering why Sido, the Aggro-rapper with his provocative and aggressive lyrics, would join a TV show like Popstars? At the end of Popstars the band Queensberry was formed.

2009: "Aggro Berlin".

On 1 April 2009, the label Aggro Berlin was closed. Sido was then signed by Urban Records, a division of Universal Music Germany.  On October, 30th 2009 Sido released his fourth studio album "Aggro Berlin". The lead single "Hey du!" ranked #4 in the German Charts. In this song Sido talks about growing up in GDR and his later life in West Berlin. He reported that he kept his East Berlin origins secret for a long time for fear of bullying.

Personal life.

Family.

Würdig has a son, whose name and date of birth are not known publicly, but he references him in the songs "Aggro Gold", "Ein Teil von mir" and "2010", amongst others.  He began dating former Nu Pagadi lead singer Doreen Steinert in mid-2005 and on 14 February 2010 they became engaged. But in April 2012 they broke off their engagement. Just a few weeks later, in early May 2012, Würdig confirmed rumors that he had started dating German TV presenter Charlotte Engelhardt. Sido had a second son with Engelhardt in 2013.  Würdig is the second cousin of the German DSDS participant Menowin Fröhlich.

Controversy.

The perceived rebellious tendencies of Sido's label affiliates B-Tight, Fler, and G-Hot, whose persona emphasize embittered racial or class standpoints, have garnered additional discussion in widely circulated publications.

MTV HipHop Open.

July 2004, Sido performed live in Stuttgart for the festival MTV HipHop Open. During his performances he insulted Frankfurt rapper Azad's mother saying: "If we had a bed right here, I'd bang Azad's mother". A week later Sido and Azad met each other backstage and after a short dispute it escalated into a brawl that involved the artists of Aggro Berlin and Bozz Music. The security and the police arrived to stop the conflict, but Azad and his crew had fled already.

Paul Würdig (born 30 November 1980), better known as Sido, is a German rapper. He interprets his artist name as "super-intelligentes Drogenopfer" (super-intelligent drug victim). It used to stand for "Scheiße in dein Ohr" (shit into your ear), a line from his track "Terroarr." Sido is currently signed to Urban/Universal Music Group.


Life.

He was born Jean de Hollingue either in 1459 or earlier, but records of his early life, as is so often the case with Renaissance composers, are scant. Most likely he was from the village of Haut-Wignes (now Wirwignes), near Boulogne-sur-Mer, in Samer. He probably began his first job, singer and teacher at the collegiate church in Saint Omer, then moved to Nesle (southeast of Amiens) in 1477, and in 1483 was made "maître de chapelle" there. Sometime around this time he became a priest, and in 1500 he was in charge of choirboys at the cathedral in Amiens. In 1501 he was in Grenoble, teaching choirboys, but he left the next year, most likely entering the service of Queen Anne of Brittany, and in 1509 he was granted a position again in Grenoble which he could hold "in absentia". Mouton was now the principal composer for the French court. For the remainder of his life he was employed by the French court in one capacity or another, often writing music for state occasions—weddings, coronations, papal elections, births and deaths.  Mouton composed a motet, "Christus vincit", for the election of Leo X as pope in 1513. Leo evidently liked Mouton's music, for he rewarded him with the honorary title, "apostolic notary" on the occasion of a motet he composed for the pope in 1515; the pope made this award during a meeting in Bologna between the French king and the pope after the Battle of Marignano. This trip to Italy was the first, and probably only trip that Mouton made outside France.  Sometime between 1517 and 1522 the Swiss music theorist Heinrich Glarean met Mouton, and praised him effusively; he wrote that "everyone had copies of his music." Glarean used several examples of Mouton's music in his influential treatise, the "Dodecachordon".  Mouton may have been the editor of the illuminated manuscript known as the "Medici Codex," one of the primary manuscript sources of the time, which was a wedding gift for Lorenzo de' Medici.  It is considered to be possible that Mouton was in charge of the elaborate musical festivities by the French at the meeting between François I and Henry VIII at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, based on the similarity to the festivities five years earlier after the Battle of Marignano.  Near the end of his life, Mouton moved to Saint-Quentin. According to the engraving on his tombstone, he became a canon at the collegiate church of Saint-Quentin, taking over for Loyset Compère who died in 1518. Mouton died in Saint-Quentin and is buried there. The headstone, now missing, was engraved as follows:

Music and influence.

Mouton was hugely influential both as a composer and as a teacher. Of his music, 9 Magnificat settings, 15 masses, 20 chansons, and over 100 motets survive; since he was a court composer for a king, the survival rate of his music is relatively high for the period, it being widely distributed, copied, and archived. In addition, the famous publisher Ottaviano Petrucci printed an entire volume of Mouton's masses (early in the history of music printing, most publications contained works by multiple composers).  The style of Mouton's music has superficial similarities to that of Josquin des Prez, using paired imitation, canonic techniques, and equal-voiced polyphonic writing: yet Mouton tends to write rhythmically and texturally uniform music compared to Josquin, with all the voices singing, and with relatively little textural contrast. Glarean characterized Mouton's melodic style with the phrase "his melody flows in a supple thread."  Around 1500, Mouton seems to have become more aware of chords and harmonic feeling, probably due to his encounter with Italian music. At any rate this was a period of transition between purely linear thinking in music, in which chords were incidental occurrences as a result of correct usage of intervals, and music in which the harmonic element was foremost (for example in lighter Italian forms such as the frottola, which are homophonic in texture and sometimes have frankly diatonic harmony).  Mouton was a fine musical craftsman throughout his life, highly regarded by his contemporaries and much in demand by his royal patrons. His music was reprinted and continued to attract other composers even later in the 16th century, especially two joyful Christmas motets he wrote, "Noe, noe psallite noe," and "Quaeramus cum pastoribus", which several later composers used as the basis for masses.  He also influenced posthumously the outstanding music theorist Gioseffo Zarlino, himself a pupil of Willaert, who referred to him, somewhat enthusiastically as his "precettore".

Jean Mouton (c. 1459 – 30 October 1522) was a French composer of the Renaissance. He was famous both for his motets, which are among the most refined of the time, and for being the teacher of Adrian Willaert, one of the founders of the Venetian School.


History.

Early years and first three albums (1997–2002).

Yellowcard was formed in 1997 in Jacksonville, Florida, after meeting at Douglas Anderson School of the Arts. The band got its name from a phrase its members used in high school: whenever somebody did something stupid at a party, such as spilling a beer on the carpet, they cited soccer laws and gave the offender a "yellow card" for committing a "party foul".  Yellowcard's original lineup featured Ben Dobson on vocals, Todd Clary on guitar and vocals, Ben Harper on guitar, Warren Cooke on bass, and Longineu Parsons III on drums. Modern Amusement frontman Ryan Key appeared as a guest, on background vocals, as did violinist Sean Mackin. Key had also been in California band Craig's Brother.  Yellowcard recorded its first EP, "Midget Tossing", at the Music Factory in Jacksonville

"Ocean Avenue" (2003–05).

Shortly after releasing "The Underdog EP", Yellowcard signed with Capitol Records, which was looking to sign pop punk groups at the time. The group began recording its major-label debut in February 2003, and the production of the record, titled "Ocean Avenue," was finished in the spring of 2003. During the recording of the album, Mosely left Yellowcard, devoting his time to his first band, Inspection 12, and finishing the band's album, "Get Rad". The members of Yellowcard began the search for a new bass

"Lights and Sounds" (2005–06).

After almost two years of touring, Yellowcard took a few months off at the beginning of 2005. Ryan Key and Peter Mosely moved to New York City to write the songs for the group's next album. The rest of the band remained in Los Angeles. The band regrouped in LA in the spring and began pre-production for the follow-up to "Ocean Avenue" in March. Recording and production was finished in September, and advertising began for the album. The band had originally announced that the album was expected for August

"Paper Walls" (2006–08).

On October 16, 2006, Yellowcard announced via its website that the group was back in the studio recording a new album. Guitarist Ryan Mendez posted on the official Yellowcard message board on October 21, 2006, that three songs had been completed and stated, "I really think fans of both older and newer Yellowcard are going to be very happy." Pre-production began in October 2006, and tracking began in January 2007. Between the months of January and March 2007, studio footage labeled "Yellowcard Sessions" regarding the band's progress on making the album was posted on their Myspace, with a new video added every Thursday. In total, 10 videos were posted, with additional footage released on the deluxe CD/DVD edition of "Paper Walls". Additionally, in January

Hiatus (2008–10).

Yellowcard announced in an interview in April 2008 that the group would be going on an "indefinite hiatus." The band's European tour set for 2008 was canceled, and they instead embarked on an acoustic tour in the spring of 2008 before going on hiatus. Among the reasons for the band's hiatus were individual member situations. Longineu Parsons took some time off in the winter to spend time with family and joined a side project band based in Jacksonville, Florida. Sean Mackin got married in 2008 and wanted to take some time off to spend with his family. Ryan Key stated that the members needed some time to figure out their personal lives. The band members were unsure of the hiatus' length, but they assured their fans they planned to return as a group. In May 2008, Yellowcard left Capitol Records and was left unsigned. On June 16, 2009, Capitol released an EP titled "Deep Cuts", which consists of four previously released tracks.  The original Yellowcard members, Ben Harper, Warren Cooke, Todd Clary, Longineu Parsons, and Ben Dobson, announced they would be performing tracks from

Reformation and "When You're Through Thinking, Say Yes" (2010–12).

Longineu Parsons mentioned in a YouTube video that Yellowcard had started talking about a new record. Yellowcard's official Facebook page announced on August 1, 2010, that the band had reformed and would be working on a new record. Regarding the direction of the new album, Key said on the Hopeless Records website on August 2, "We're talking about a ton of different ideas, and we're itching to start as soon as possible. Ultimately, we want to make something the fans will love. What we love to do most is look out from the stage and see people exploding with energy, and I think we keep that in mind while we are writing. We miss being out on the road playing for Yellowcard fans all around the world, and without their support, we wouldn't have a career."  Josh Portman,

"Southern Air" and "Ocean Avenue Acoustic" (2012–14).

Yellowcard announced at several shows in November 2011 that the group would be returning to the studio in early 2012 to record a new record. Ryan Key stated that the positive reception from "When You're Through Thinking, Say Yes" and the overall positive energy that the band was generating was inspiration to begin writing again. The band had already begun to write material for the new record. On February 10, it was announced that all the new music had been demoed, and Key would start writing lyrics.  On February 3, 2012, Sean O'Donnell posted a message on Yellowcard's website stating he was leaving the band because he was getting married and wanted to focus on his family. On the 17th of the same month, also on the band's website, it was announced

Longineu Parsons III departure and "Lift a Sail" (2014–15).

On February 12, 2014, it was announced that Yellowcard would be playing the entire 2014 Vans Warped Tour. On March 13, 2014, the band announced that drummer and founding member Longineu Parsons III had left the band. By this point, Parsons had been the only remaining member of the original lineup. On March 20, Yellowcard announced it had left Hopeless Records after three years and three albums to sign a worldwide multi-album deal with Razor & Tie. It was then announced that a new record would be released in the fall of 2014. On March 24, the band announced that Nate Young from Anberlin would be playing drums on the new album and on April 14, further confirmed that he would perform with the band at the Warped Tour.  On August 4, 2014,

Eponymous final album and break-up (2016–2017).

On February 24, 2016, Hopeless Records announced that Yellowcard had rejoined the label and that the band was recording an album, which was to be released in late 2016. Nate Young was confirmed to be playing drums on the new record. On April 6, 2016, Ryan Key confirmed on his Twitter account that the name of one of the new tracks would be "I'm a Wrecking Ball", which was written and demoed in 2008 with Ryan Mendez and Dan McLintock. On June 7, 2016, the band announced on Facebook that its new album would be self-titled; "Yellowcard" was released on September 30, 2016. On June 24, 2016, the band released the lead single off of the album titled "Rest In Peace". On August 17, 2016, the

Musical style.

Yellowcard's musical style has mainly been described as pop punk, alternative rock, emo pop, and hardcore punk.

Yellowcard was an American rock band that formed in Jacksonville, Florida, in 1997 and were based in Los Angeles beginning in 2000. The band is well known for its singles "Ocean Avenue", "Only One", and "Lights and Sounds". The group's music is distinctive within its genre because it features the prominent use of a violin. The band released ten studio albums, with its most recent and final one, "Yellowcard", released on September 30, 2016. The band played its final show on March 25, 2017, at the House of Blues in Anaheim, California.


History.

In the aftermath of World War II, one of the proposals to revitalize the economy and the reputation of Sanremo was to create an annual music festival to be held in the city. During the summer of 1950, the administrator of the Sanremo Casino, Piero Bussetti, and the conductor of the RAI orchestra, Giulio Razzi, rediscussed the idea, deciding to launch a competition among previously unreleased songs. Officially titled "Festival della Canzone Italiana" ("Italian song festival"), the first edition of the show was held at the Sanremo Casino on 29, 30, and 31 January 1951. The final round of the competition was broadcast by Rete Rossa, the second most important RAI radio station. Twenty songs took part in the competition, performed by three artists only–Nilla Pizzi, Duo Fasano, and Achille Togliani.  Starting from the third edition of the festival, held in 1953, each song was performed by two different artists with different orchestras and arrangements. Two years later, in 1955, the festival made its first appearance on television, since part of the final night was also broadcast by RAI's channel Programma Nazionale. The last night of the show was also broadcast in Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland.  In 1964, Gianni Ravera, who organized the 14th Sanremo Music Festival, slightly changed the rules of the contest, requiring each song to be performed once by an Italian artist and once by an international singer, who was allowed to perform the song in any language. The same rule was applied in the following year's contest. Between 1967 and 1971, entries were not forced to be interpreted by foreign artists, but double performances were kept. Starting from 1972, each entry was sung by one artist only. The competing artists were split for the first time into "Big artists" and "Young artists" during the Sanremo Music Festival 1974. The competition had one winner only, but the entries in the "Young artists" category had to go through an elimination round, while "Big artists" were directly admitted to the final round.  In 1977, the Sanremo Casino, which hosted all the previous editions of the contest, was closed for renovations, therefore the show moved to the Teatro Ariston. The theater later became the usual location for the annual contest, hosting it every year except in 1990, when the show was held at the Nuovo Mercato dei Fiori, also known as Palafiori.  In 1980, pre-recorded backing tracks replaced the orchestra, while playback performances were allowed in 1983 during the final round. In 1984 and 1985, all the artists were forced to perform in playback, while live performances with the orchestra were reintroduced in 1990. During the same years, several other changes were introduced in the contest. In 1982, accredited music journalists decided to create an award to recognise the best song competing in the festival. Starting from 1983, the prize was officially awarded during the event. The critics' prize was later named after Mia Martini, who was the first artist receiving it in 1982 for her entry "E non finisce mica il cielo".  Moreover, starting from 1984, the separation between newcomers and established artists was marked, introducing two different competitions with separate winners. In 1989, a third category, the Upcoming Artists Section, was introduced, but it was removed the following year. Only in 1998 were the top three artists in the newcomer section allowed to compete in the main competition. This led to the victory of the debuting Annalisa Minetti, which generated some controversy and led to the reintroduction of completely separate competitions starting from 1999.  The distinction among different categories was abolished again in 2004. The following year, the contest included five different categories—Newcomers, Men, Women, Groups, and Classics. The winner of each category competed for the final victory of the contest. The category Classic was abolished in 2006, while starting from 2007, the festival came back to the rules used in the 1990s, with two completely separate competitions for established artists and newcomers.  In 2009, a new competition, held entirely online, was introduced by the president of the 59th edition of the contest, Paolo Bonolis. Titled "Sanremofestival.59", the contest was not held in the following years.

Notable foreign duet singers.

Notable guest artists of that time were, among others:

Hosts.

The first edition of the Sanremo Music Festival was hosted by Nunzio Filogamo. He also hosted the next three editions of the musical event. In 2003, Pippo Baudo hosted for the eleventh time, matching the record previously held by Mike Bongiorno. He later overtook this record, hosting the Sanremo Music Festival in 2007 and in 2008. The 70th edition is hosted for the first time by Amadeus, who hosted "I Soliti Ignoti" on the same network.  Full list of festival hosts:

Controversy.

In 2009, the song "Luca era gay" ("Luca Was Gay"), written and sung by Povia, was considered by some gay rights organizations as an anti-gay song. The controversy was also based on the name of the song's character: according to Aurelio Mancuso, president of the Arcigay, the name refers to Luca Tolvi, who claimed that Joseph Nicolosi cured his homosexuality. Povia denied this thesis and claimed that the song is about a man he met on a train, whose real name is Massimiliano. The song won second place at the Festival.

The Festival della canzone italiana di Sanremo ("Italian song festival of Sanremo") is the most popular Italian song contest and awards ceremony, held annually in the town of Sanremo, Liguria, and consisting of a competition amongst previously unreleased songs. Usually referred to as Festival di Sanremo, or outside Italy as Sanremo Music Festival, it was the inspiration for the Eurovision Song Contest.


History.

The origin of the city's name (Iglau in German) is unclear. Most common theory has it derived from the German word "Igel", meaning hedgehog, usually in reference to the city's coat of arms. However, the name was in use since before the symbol of a hedgehog was. It is more likely the city is named for the river that flows through it, the name of which is also unclear in its origin, either being derived from the German word "Igel" as the first theory suggests, or from Slavic word "jehla", referring to sharp stones in Jihlava river bed. According to legend, silver was mined in Iglau as early as 799. King Ottokar I established a mint, and Iglau was granted extensive privileges already during these early times.  An old Slavic settlement upon a ford was moved to a nearby hill where the mining town was founded (ca. 1240) by king Wenceslaus I. In the Middle Ages the town was inhabited mostly by Germans (mostly from Northern Bavaria and Upper Saxony). Medieval mines surrounded by mining settlements were localized outside the walls of the medieval town (named Staré Hory).  In the era of the Hussite Wars, Jihlava remained a Catholic stronghold and managed to resist a number of sieges. Later at Jihlava, on 5 July 1436, a treaty was made with the Hussites, whereby the emperor Sigismund was acknowledged king of Bohemia. A marble relief near the town marks the spot where Ferdinand I, in 1527, swore fidelity to the Bohemian estates.  During the Thirty Years' War Jihlava was twice captured by the Swedes. In 1742, it fell into the hands of the Prussians, and in December 1805 the Bavarians under Wrede were defeated near the town. In 1860, it became the childhood home of Bohemian-Austrian composer Gustav Mahler, who retained his ties to the town until the death of both of his parents in 1889.  Until World War I the town was an important Austro-Hungarian Army military center. In 1914, the First, Second and Third Battalions of the Moravian Infantry Regiment No. 81 ("Bataillon des Mährischen Infanterie-Regiments Nummer. 81") and the Second Battalion of the Landwehr infantry regiment number 14 ("II. Bataillon des Landwehr-Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 14") were the garrison troops.  After World War I the town constituted a German language island ("Sprachinsel") within Slavic speaking Moravia. This affected local politics, as it remained the center of the second largest German-speaking enclave in the republic of Czechoslovakia (after Schönhengstgau/Hřebečsko). After the Czechoslovak Republic was proclaimed on 28 October 1918, the indigenous Germans of Bohemia and Moravia, claiming the right to self-determination according to the 10th of President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, demanded that their homeland areas remain with the new Austrian State. The Volksdeutsche of Iglau relied on peaceful opposition to the Czech military occupation of their region, a process that started on 31 October 1918 and was completed on 28 January 1919. Unsuccessful in getting their right to self-determination recognized and incorporated into the new Czechoslovakian state, many of the indigenous Germans instead took to more nationalistic politics. Thereafter extremist political figures like Hans Krebs, editor of the "Iglauer Volkswehr" newspaper, became prominent with the rise of Nazism and the Nazi occupation (1939–1945).  Until the end of World War II, Iglau was the center of a distinctive regional folk culture reflecting hundreds of years of local customs. The local dialect of German was a unique branch of "Mitteldeutsch". Musicians often used homemade instruments and original groups of four fiddles ("Vierergruppen Fiedeln") and "Ploschperment". Typical folk dances were the "Hatschou", "Tuschen" and "Radln". Peasant women wore old ""pairische" Scharkaröckchen" costumes with shiny dark skirts and big red cloths.  Most of Jihlava's Jewish population was deported and killed due to the Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia.  After the end of World War II, and following the Beneš decrees, the German speakers were evicted; it is estimated that hundreds died on the arduous trek to Austria. The town was repopulated with Czech and Moravian settlers favored by the new Communist regime. After 1951, the town was the site of several Communist show trials, which were directed against the influence of the Roman Catholic Church on the rural population. In the processes eleven death sentences were passed and 111 years of prison sentences imposed. All the convicted persons were rehabilitated after the Velvet Revolution.  In protest against the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1969 Evžen Plocek set himself on fire in the town marketplace in emulation of others in Prague. Today there is a memorial plaque to him.  Since the collapse of Communism in the 1990s the share of employment in agriculture has steadily declined. The industrial sector of the town now employs 65 percent of all workers. In 2004, the Jihlava Polytechnic was set up and now has about 2,600 students.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Jihlava is twinned with:

Jihlava (; ) is a city in the Czech Republic. Jihlava is the capital of the Vysočina Region, situated on the Jihlava river (German "Igel") on the historical border between Moravia and Bohemia, and is the oldest mining town in the Czech Republic, approximately 50 years older than Kutná Hora.


History.

The invention of the climbing harness has been attributed to Jeanne Immink, a Dutch climber in the late nineteenth century. Some of the first climbing harnesses were devised in the U.K. in the early 1960s by Alan Waterhouse, Paul Seddon and Tony Howard who went on to form the Troll climbing equipment manufacturers. A harness designed by British climber Don Whillans was made by Troll for the 1970 Annapurna South Face Expedition. It went into mass production shortly afterwards and soon became popular worldwide.  The sit or seat harness was invented in the 1960s by Yosemite climbers. The first innovation was the Swami Belt, which was multiple loops of webbing around the waist. Then quickly came the Swami Seat, a sit harness tied from webbing, including leg loops and an integrated waist loop. Once the seat/sit harness came to be, suppliers of climbing gear started making them with stitching replacing the knots. The Swami Seat was revealed to the climbing world thru an article in Summit Magazine in the mid-60s. Sewn harnesses came later.

Types.

A sit harness consists of a waist belt and two leg loops which are normally connected in the front of the hips through a permanent webbing loop called a "belay loop". Belay loops are extremely strong, but nonetheless still a single point of failure that caused at least one notorious death. For rock climbing, the rope typically goes through the two "tie-in loops" that are above and below the "belay loop". The figure-eight knot is mostly used for rock climbing. These are the most commonly used harnesses for recreational activities such as abseiling and rock climbing, as they afford a wide range of movement while still maintaining a high level of safety. Ensuring the harness fits correctly is key to avoiding pain in the upper thigh area caused by the leg loops being too tight around the upper legs and groin area, while at the same time ensuring that a climber flipped over in a fall does not slip out. The waist belt should be tightened snugly. Leg loops should not be particularly tight, but for obvious reasons neither should they have enough slack to allow extraneous parts of a male climber to get caught inside them.  A chest harness is worn around the shoulders, usually with a sit harness so as to provide an additional attachment point. This attachment point allows for better balance in some situations such as when carrying a heavy pack (as the centre of mass is below the connection to the rope) and when the person in the harness may be unable to maintain an upright position (due to injury or other influences).  A full-body harness is the combination of a sit harness and a chest harness which are permanently or semi-permanently connected to each other. This kind of harness normally offers a wide range of attachment points. It is most commonly used in industrial/rescue situations, and also commonly used by small children instead of a sit harness which is easier to slip out of.  In a study conducted, researchers came to a conclusion that there was no statistically significant evidence revealing a pattern between harness type and severity of climbing accidents. Direct rock contact in rock climbing was the main reason for injury, not the type of climbing harness used.

Materials.

Most harnesses are generally made from webbing. This webbing is often nylon webbing as polyester webbing doesn't hold triglides and d-rings as well, and it's easier to untie nylon webbing. Specifically, Nylon 66 is the most common type of nylon used for this webbing. The webbing is often also tubular webbing, instead of flat webbing. Within a single harness, there are many different weaves of nylon based on the intended function of the specific part of the harness. These weaves sometimes include polyester. The buckles are typically made of anodized aluminum. For the leg loops and waist belt, companies use various methods to make the harness comfortable. The most common method is cushioning the harness with foam and mesh. However, for more lightweight harnesses, some companies use wider waist belts and unidirectional fibers going along the waist belt to distribute the weight evenly and minimize pressure points. Harness designers use increasingly advanced materials such as Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE), aramid fibers (Kevlar, Vectran, etc.), and sailcloth (e.g. the Black Diamond Vision harness) in order to make harnesses lighter and more comfortable. Different harnesses use different materials for these fibers across the leg loops and waist belt.

A climbing harness is an item of climbing equipment for rock-climbing, abseiling, or other activities requiring the use of ropes to provide access or safety such as industrial rope access, working at heights, etc. A harness secures a person to a rope or an anchor point.