Description.

"Berula erecta" occurs on poorly drained neutral and acidic soils of the lowlands and upland fringe. It is found in the South West of England, especially in Devon. It typically resides in shallow aquatic environments containing moderate nutrient levels. During the winter, its stem and body become completely submerged underwater. "Berula erecta" has been shown to survive and grow better after living in stressful conditions with either limiting or excess nutrients or mechanical stress.  "Berula erecta" has toothed leaves from one and a half to two inches across, each containing around twenty white flowers. The plant can grow from around one to three feet tall. The stalk has a pale ring at its base that makes the plant distinguishable, and has a scent of carrot or parsnip when crushed.  The natural communities for "Berula erecta" are as listed:

Uses.

The Zuni people use "Berula erecta" as an ingredient of "schumaakwe cakes" and used it externally for rheumatism. An infusion of the whole plant is used as wash for rashes and athlete's foot infection.  Some Native American peoples have been known to use "Berula erecta" for medicinal purposes.  "Berula erecta" has been studied for its essential oil that has been believed to possibly have medicinal uses. The plant's essential oil has been shown to contain polyacetylenes. Polyacetylenes have a wide range of beneficial medicinal effects. One is its nematodicidal effects that could potentially be beneficial in agriculture as well its positive effects on human health. Polyacetylenes also are antifungal, antibacterial, and have antiallergenic and anti-inflammatory properties.  However, medicinal use of pure polyacetylenes is not feasible due to their high chemical instability as well as a tendency to evoke allergic reactions. For this reason, consuming smaller and less pure amounts of polyacetylenes from the essential oil of "Berula erecta" may be viable.  Following the first cut of the season, "Berula erecta" will likely regrow and produce flowers several times again in the same growing season.

Conservation.

"Berula erecta" (lesser water parsnip) is a component of Purple moor grass and rush pastures - a type of Biodiversity Action Plan habitat in the UK.  The species is globally classified as a least-concern species, but is a threatened species in the United States. In Estonia, it is a near-threatened species and an endangered species in Norway.  The species is threatened by invasive wetland species such as watercress that can quickly destroy its habitat.  Recommended steps to promote conservation of "Berula erecta" are keeping an open canopy for the species as well as maintenance of groundwater sources that may include periodic controlled burns.

Berula erecta, known as lesser water-parsnip or cutleaf waterparsnip or narrow-leaved water-parsnip, is a member of the carrot family. Growing to around tall, it is found in or by water. It is widespread across much of Europe, Asia, Australia, and North America.


Competition speed climbing.

Competition speed climbing as governed by the International Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) takes place on 15m artificial walls. Competitors climb a 5 degree overhanging IFSC certified wall, with an auto-belaying system from the top of the wall. Since 2007 the IFSC has created a standard wall for the world record. The standard has a simple rule and it involves climbers competing on the same route, side by side, and whoever reaches the top first wins. The holds and order are always identical, and the difficulty rating is around F6b (approximately YDS 5.10c), which is a level most recreational climbers could complete. The IFSC also sanctions speed climbing competitions and those events that entail world record attempts. Speed climbing competitions is one of the three climbing modalities that will be included in Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games.  Time is determined by mechanical-electric timing (the competitor leaves the starting pad and strikes a switch at the top of the route). When mechanical-electric timing is used, the climbing time is displayed with an accuracy of one hundredth of a second. In the rules modification in 2018, the possibility to use manual timing was removed, and the mechanical-electric timing should record with a precision of 1/1000 second. This precision is only used for ranking in case of a tie. Further, the timing system needs to announce a false start, which is considered a start earlier than 0.1 seconds after the starting beep.

Standardized Speed Climbing Wall.

For such competitions, the speed climbing wall has been normed by the IFSC in a way that records are comparable.

Speed Climbing World Records and Champions.

The standard wall used is 15 meter tall. Speed World Record Requirement  As of 04/28/17, Iranian climber Reza Alipour Shenazandifar holds the men's 15 meter speed world record; 5.48 seconds. Aries Susanti Rahayu from Indonesia holds the women's record at 6.995 seconds and was the first woman to break the 7s barrier.  2018 Speed climbing World Champions are Reza Alipour from Iran (5.63 seconds) and Aleksandra Rudzinska from Poland (7.56 seconds). The IFSC Climbing World Championships took place in Innsbruck, Austria.

Outdoor Speed Climbing.

Pure speed climbing.

Full speed climbing is done in such a way that maximizes speed and minimizes danger. When climbing with a partner the climbers will alternate between regular free climbing, simul climbing, aiding, and at times sections of roped soloing. Speed climbing can also be done by an individual in which they alternate between forms of rope soloing, aiding, and free soloing. Strictly speaking, this type of speed climbing is not a style but a combination or perhaps a type of aid climbing. However, the complexity of combining all the styles together leads to what can be recognized as a separate style with its own particular techniques used in no other style.  Speed climbing offers a number of benefits and these include the opportunities to stress-proof learned climbing techniques and to learn more about pacing. Pacing is important since a broad array of paces contributes to the climber's versatility to navigate crags and rock types. A faster pace for most climbers is said to be less strenuous than climbing at their normal speed.

Style climbing.

Records can be recorded while climbing in a particular style. Each of the methods ultimately handicap the rate of progress with the exception of free soloing.

Free soloing.

The simplest way to increase the speed of climbing is to shed all safety precautions such as belaying and placing protection. For some climbers, this is the same as replacing the strength of the rope and the safety gears with mental toughness. This leads to free soloing as rapidly as possible. While strictly speaking this qualifies as full speed climbing or a type of style climbing it is different enough to be recognized as its own category of speed climbing.

Outdoor Records.

Most speed climbing records lack the standards normally associated with objective records. Hans Florine has written "I will be the first to say that climbing is silly. To make rules about it is just piling ridiculous on top of silly." There are no sanctioned speed climbing competitions on significant rock features. Nearly all climbing goals and records are self-designed, self-timed, and self-officiated; few are well documented, and many are disputed.  The collection that follows abides by these loose standards.  Time formate either hrs:min or hrs:min:sec.

California.

The Nose, El Capitan  Regular Northwest Route, Half Dome Snake Dike, Half Dome  Joshua Tree National Park  Jackson Falls, Illinois

Colorado.

Bastille Crack  Third Flatiron

Nevada.

Epinephrine  Cat In The Hat

New York.

The Gunks

Wyoming.

Grand Traverse

Speed climbing is a climbing discipline in which speed is the ultimate goal. Speed Climbing is done on rocks, walls and poles and is only recommended for highly skilled and experienced climbers. Some experts linked this activity to horizontal level walking and running wherein the higher the velocity, the shorter is the contact time and the higher are the reaction forces.


Biography.

Goltz was born in Züllichau, Brandenburg. A Major-General commanding the German infantry division of Guards on Foot in France, he was transferred to Finland in March 1918 to help the nationalist government in the civil war against the Finnish "Reds" and Soviet Russian troops. He commanded the German expedition unit ("Baltic Sea Division") which landed at Hanko, Finland, between 3 April and 5 April 1918, and then marched on the socialist-controlled capital Helsinki, which surrendered after the Battle of Helsinki on 13 April 1918. The German military intervention aided the nationalist government of Finland to gain control over most of the country by May 1918. Goltz stayed with his troops in Finland after the Civil War until December 1918 and was a major political influence in the country, described by the Quartermaster General of the White Army Hannes Ignatius as being the "true regent of Finland". In the summer of 1918, Goltz wanted to replace the Finnish White forces with a new Finnish conscript army, where all leadership positions were to be staffed by German officers and conscripts were to be trained according to German army standards. Finnish generals Ignatius, von Gerich and Theslöf resigned from the Finnish military staff in protest. The Germans wanted to use Finnish forces against the Allied units fighting in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk.  After the 11 November 1918, armistice, von der Goltz and his division left Helsinki on 16 December 1918. The Inter-Allied Commission of Control insisted that the German troops remain in the Baltic states to prevent the region from being re-occupied by the Red Army. As many of the demoralised German soldiers were being withdrawn from Latvia, a Freikorps unit called the Iron Division ("Eiserne Division") was formed and deployed in Riga and used to delay the Red advance. New volunteers arriving from Germany and remnants of the German 8th Army were subsequently added to the Iron Division, which was assigned under the command of Goltz. Also, Baltic Germans and some Latvians formed the "Baltische Landeswehr", led by Major Alfred Fletcher.  In late February 1919, only the seaport of Libau (Liepāja) remained in the hands of the German and Latvian forces. In March 1919, General von der Goltz was able to win a series of victories over the Red Army, first occupying Windau (Ventspils), the major port of Courland, and then advancing south and east to retake Riga.  After the Bolsheviks had been driven out from most of Latvia, the Allies ordered the German government to withdraw its troops from the Baltic region. However, the Germans succeeded in negotiating a postponement, arguing that this would have given the Bolsheviks a free hand. General von der Goltz then attempted to seize control of Latvia with the assistance of the local German population. The Latvian nationalist government was deposed while the Freikorps, Latvian and White Russian units moved on to capture Riga on May 23, 1919. The Latvian nationalists sought assistance from the Estonian army which had been occupying northern Latvia since earlier that year.  In June 1919, General von der Goltz ordered his troops not to advance east against the Red Army, as the Allies had been expecting, but north, against the Estonians. On June 19, the Iron Division and "Landeswehr" units launched an attack to capture areas around Wenden (Cēsis), but in the battles over the following few days, they were defeated by the 3rd Estonian Division (led by Ernst Põdder). On the morning of June 23, the Germans began a general retreat toward Riga. The Allies again insisted that the Germans withdraw their remaining troops from Latvia and intervened to impose a ceasefire between the Estonians and the Freikorps when the Latvians were about to march into Riga. The British insisted that General von der Goltz leave Latvia, and he turned his troops over to the West Russian Volunteer Army.  Count von der Goltz later claimed in his memoirs that his major strategic goal in 1919 had been to launch a campaign in cooperation with the White Russian forces to overturn the Bolshevik regime by marching on St. Petersburg and to install a pro-German anti-Bolshevist government in Russia.  As President of the United Patriotic Organizations he participated in the Harzburg Front in the early thirties.  From 1924 to 1930, he headed the German government department on the military education of young German youth. On 17 July 1931 he handed over the command of the Economic Policy Association Frankfurt am Main to the Reich President Paul von Hindenburg.  He was married to Hannah Caroline von Hase (1873–1941), a granddaughter of Karl Hase. He died on the Kinsegg estate, in the village of Bernbeuren, Germany, in 1946. His son of the same name, Rüdiger von der Goltz, became a lawyer.

Gustav Adolf Joachim Rüdiger Graf von der Goltz (8 December 1865 – 4 November 1946) was a German army general during the First World War. He commanded the Baltic Sea Division, which successfully intervened in the Finnish Civil War in the spring of 1918. Goltz stayed with his troops in Finland until December 1918 representing German interests, and in practise ruled the country as a military dictator during this period. After the Armistice of 11 November 1918, Goltz commanded the army of the Baltic German-established Government of Latvia, which in 1919 was instrumental in the defeat of the Russian Bolsheviks and their local allies in Latvia, but suffered a defeat against Estonia and was eventually unsuccessful in retaining German control over the Baltic region after the War.


Plot.

"The Alchemist" follows the journey of an Andalusian shepherd boy named Santiago. Believing a recurring dream to be prophetic, he asks a Gypsy fortune teller in the nearby town about its meaning. The woman interprets the dream as a prophecy telling the boy that he will discover a treasure at the Egyptian pyramids.  Early into his journey, he meets an old king named Melchizedek, or the king of Salem, who tells him to sell his sheep, so as to travel to Egypt, and introduces the idea of a Personal Legend. Your Personal Legend "is what you have always wanted to accomplish. Everyone, when they are young, knows what their Personal Legend is."  Early in his arrival to Africa, a man who claims to be able to take Santiago to the pyramids instead robs him of what money he had made from selling his sheep. Santiago then embarks on a long path of working for a crystal merchant so as to make enough money to fulfill his personal legend and go to the pyramids.  Along the way, the boy meets an Englishman who has come in search of an alchemist and continues his travels in his new companion's company. When they reach an oasis, Santiago meets and falls in love with an Arabian girl named Fatima, to whom he proposes marriage. She promises to do so only after he completes his journey. Frustrated at first, he later learns that true love will not stop nor must one sacrifice to it one's personal destiny, since to do so robs it of truth.  The boy then encounters a wise alchemist who also teaches him to realize his true self. Together, they risk a journey through the territory of warring tribes, where the boy is forced to demonstrate his oneness with "the soul of the world" by turning himself into a simoom before he is allowed to proceed. When he begins digging within sight of the pyramids, he is robbed yet again, but accidentally learns from the leader of the thieves that the treasure he sought all along was in the ruined church where he had his original dream.

Background.

Coelho wrote "The Alchemist" in only two weeks in 1987. He explained that he was able to write at this pace because the story was "already written in [his] soul."  The book's main theme is about finding one's destiny, although according to "The New York Times", "The Alchemist" is "more self-help than literature". The advice given Santiago that "when you really want something to happen, the whole universe will conspire so that your wish comes true" is the core of the novel's philosophy and a motif that plays throughout it.  "The Alchemist" was first released by Rocco, an obscure Brazilian publishing house. Albeit having sold "well", the publisher after a year decided to give Coelho back the rights. Needing to "heal" himself from this setback, Coelho set out to leave Rio de Janeiro with his wife and spent 40 days in the Mojave Desert. Returning from the excursion, Coelho decided he had to keep on struggling and was "so convinced it was a great book that [he] started knocking on doors".

Adaptations.

In 1994, a comic adaptation was published by Alexandre Jubran. HarperOne, a HarperCollins imprint, produced an illustrated version of the novel, with paintings by the French artist Mœbius, but failed to convince Coelho "to consent to the full graphic-novel treatment." "The Alchemist: A Graphic Novel" was published in 2010, adapted by Derek Ruiz and with artwork by Daniel Sampere.  In 2002, a theatrical adaptation of "The Alchemist" was produced and performed in London. Since then there have been several productions by the Cornish Collective. In 2009 an Indian adaptation of the novel was staged by Ashvin Gidwani Productions.  In music, "The Alchemist" has inspired numerous bands of the same name. In 1997 RCA Red Seal released The Alchemist's Symphony by composer and conductor Walter Taieb with the support of Paulo Coelho, who wrote an original text for the CD booklet. In September 2009, an orchestral performance was conducted at the Ansche Chesed Synagogue in New York. Inspired by "The Alchemist", "an orchestral performance" was composed by One World Symphony for composer and conductor Sung Jin Hong's wedding.

The Alchemist () is a novel by Brazilian author Paulo Coelho that was first published in 1988. Originally written in Portuguese, it became a widely translated international bestseller. An allegorical novel, "The Alchemist" follows a young Andalusian shepherd in his journey to the pyramids of Egypt, after having a recurring dream of finding a treasure there.


Clearcutting.

Clearcutting, or clearfelling, is a method of harvesting that removes essentially all the standing trees in a selected area. Depending on management objectives, a clearcut may or may not have reserve trees left to attain goals other than regeneration, including wildlife habitat management, mitigation of potential erosion or water quality concerns. Silviculture objectives for clearcutting, (for example, healthy regeneration of new trees on the site) and a focus on forestry distinguish it from deforestation. Other methods include shelterwood cutting, group selective, single selective, seed-tree cutting, patch cut, and retention cutting.

Logging methods.

The above operations can be carried out by different methods, of which the following three are considered industrial methods:

/ stem-only harvesting.

Trees are felled and then delimbed and topped at the stump. The log is then transported to the landing, where it is bucked and loaded on a truck. This leaves the slash (and the nutrients it contains) in the cut area, where it must be further treated if wild land fires are of concern.

Whole-tree logging.

Trees and plants are felled and transported to the roadside with top and limbs intact. There have been advancements to the process which now allows a logger or harvester to cut the tree down, top, and delimb a tree in the same process. This ability is due to the advancement in the style felling head that can be used. The trees are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be treated at the landing. In areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can be chipped and used for the production of electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also refers to utilization of the entire tree including branches and tops. This technique removes both nutrients and soil cover from the site and so can be harmful to the long term health of the area if no further action is taken, however, depending on the species, many of the limbs are often broken off in handling so the end result may not be as different from tree-length logging as it might seem.

Cut-to-length logging.

Cut-to-length logging is the process of felling, delimbing, bucking, and sorting (pulpwood, sawlog, etc.) at the stump area, leaving limbs and tops in the forest. Harvesters fell the tree, delimb, and buck it, and place the resulting logs in bunks to be brought to the landing by a skidder or forwarder. This method is routinely available for trees up to in diameter. Harvesters are employed effectively in level to moderately steep terrain. Harvesters are highly computerized to optimize cutting length, control harvesting area by GPS, and use price lists for each specific log to archive most economical results during harvesting.

Transporting logs.

Felled logs are then generally transported to a sawmill to be cut into lumber, to a paper mill for paper pulp, or for other uses, for example, as fence posts. Many methods have been used to move logs from where they were cut to a rail line or directly to a sawmill or paper mill. The cheapest and historically most common method is making use of a river's current to float floating tree trunks downstream, by either log driving or timber rafting. (Some logs sink because of high resin content; these are called deadheads.) To help herd the logs to the mill, in 1960 the Alaskan Lumber and Pulp Mill had a specially designed boat that was constructed of steel. In the late 1800s and the first half of the 1900s, the most common method was the high-wheel loader, which was a set of wheels over ten feet tall that the log or logs were strapped beneath. Oxen were at first used with the high-wheel loaders, but in the 1930s tractors replaced the oxen. In 1960 the largest high wheel loader was built for service in California. Called the Bunyan Buggie, the unit was self-propelled and had wheels high and a front dozer blade that was across and high. Log transportation can be challenging and costly since trees are often far from roads or watercourses. Road building and maintenance may be restricted in National Forests or other wilderness areas since it can cause erosion in riparian zones. When felled logs sit adjacent to a road, heavy machinery may simply lift logs onto trucks. Most often, special heavy equipment is used to gather the logs from the site and move them close to the road to be lifted on trucks. Many methods exist to transport felled logs lying away from roads. Cable logging involves a yarder, which pulls one or several logs along the ground to a platform where a truck is waiting. When the terrain is too uneven to pull logs on the ground, a skyline can lift logs off the ground vertically, similar to a ski lift. Heli-logging, which uses heavy-lift helicopters to remove cut trees from forests by lifting them on cables attached to a helicopter, may be used when cable logging is not allowed for environmental reasons or when roads are lacking. It reduces the level of infrastructure required to log in a specific location, reducing the environmental impact of logging. Less mainstream or now for the most part superseded forms of log transport include horses, oxen, or balloon logging.

Safety considerations.

Logging is a dangerous occupation. In the United States, it has consistently been one of the most hazardous industries and was recognized by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.  In 2008, the logging industry employed 86,000 workers, and accounted for 93 deaths. This resulted in a fatality rate of 108.1 deaths per 100,000 workers that year. This rate is over 30 times higher than the overall fatality rate. Forestry/logging-related injuries (fatal and non-fatal) are often difficult to track through formal reporting mechanisms. Thus, some programs have begun to monitor injuries through publicly available reports such as news media. The logging industry experiences the highest fatality rate of 23.2 per 100,000 full-time equivalent (FTE) workers and a non-fatal incident rate of 8.5 per 100 FTE workers. The most common type of injuries or illnesses at work include musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), which include an extensive list of "inflammatory and degenerative conditions affecting the muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, peripheral nerves, and supporting blood vessels." Loggers work with heavy, moving weights, and use tools such as chainsaws and heavy equipment on uneven and sometimes steep or unstable terrain. Loggers also deal with severe environmental conditions, such as inclement weather and severe heat or cold. An injured logger is often far from professional emergency treatment.  Traditionally, the cry of "Timber!" developed as a warning alerting fellow workers in an area that a tree is being felled, so they should be alert to avoid being struck. The term "widowmaker" for timber that is neither standing nor fallen to the ground demonstrates another emphasis on situational awareness as a safety principle.  In British Columbia, Canada, the BC Forest Safety Council was created in September 2004 as a not-for-profit society dedicated to promoting safety in the forest sector. It works with employers, workers, contractors, and government agencies to implement fundamental changes necessary to make it safer to earn a living in forestry.  The risks experienced in logging operations can be somewhat reduced, where conditions permit, by the use of mechanical tree harvesters, skidders, and forwarders.

Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. Logging is the process of cutting trees, processing them, and moving them to a location for transport. It is the beginning of a supply chain that provides raw material for many products societies worldwide use for housing, construction, energy, and consumer paper products. Logging systems are also used to manage forests, reduce the risk of wildfires, and restore ecosystem functions.


Design.

The hull is constructed with a sandwich design consisting of a PVC core with a carbon fibre and vinyl laminate (see also the Oceanic-Creations spin-off). There are multiple advantages to using composite materials in ship hulls. Good conductivity and surface flatness means a low radar signature, while good heat insulation lowers the infrared signature and increases survivability in case of fire. The composite sandwich used is also non-magnetic, which lowers the magnetic signature. Composites are also very strong for their relative weight, and less weight means a higher top speed and better maneuverability. The composite weighs roughly 50% less than the equivalent strength steel.  "Visby"s angular tumblehome design reduces its radar signature. Jan Nilsson, one of the designers, told BBC News Online: "We are able to reduce the radar cross section by 99%. That doesn't mean it's 99% invisible, it means that we have reduced its detection range." The 57 mm cannon barrel can be folded into the turret to reduce its cross section. There are plans for additional improvements in this area, especially for the deck rails and masts.

History.

Much of the design was based on the experiences learned from the experimental ship HSwMS "Smyge". The class was originally designed to be divided into two subcategories where some ships were optimized for surface combat and others for submarine hunting; however, this was changed due to cutbacks.  A helicopter, such as the Agusta Westland A109M selected by Sweden, can land, take off, and refuel on the upper deck. A helicopter hangar was originally planned but was considered to be too cramped and was removed.  The ships took an exceptionally long time from launch to delivery and the construction has been fraught with repeated delays. In 2008, the only weapons system that had been integrated and tested in "Visby" was the gun.  Finally, on 16 December 2009, the first two of the corvettes were delivered to the Swedish Navy by the Försvarets materielverk (FMV). The two ships, K32 and K33, were delivered with underwater and surface/air sensors fully integrated. However, the only weapon that had been integrated and test fired on the ships was still the Bofors 57 Mk3 gun. The FMV calls this version 4, which aims to get the ships into service and start training crews.  Version 5 is due in 2012, and is intended to supplement the ships with mine clearance systems, helicopter landing capability (only K31 is certified to date), anti-surface ship missiles and additional stealth adaptation. "Visby" was the first of the corvettes to be upgraded to Version 5. On 22 March 2012 FMV reported that the ship had been modified and that the system would be tested before reentering the Swedish Navy by the end of 2012.  Although the design of the ships originally called for the installation of surface-to-air missiles, on 18 September 2008 the Genomförandegruppen cancelled the project in order to rationalize the procurement of defence materiel for the Swedish defence.

Units.

All systems for the ship "Uddevalla" were acquired, but the ship was later canceled, so there are now plans to build a full "Visby" class simulator.  PTK Visby is the designation of the formation doing system tests and readying the ships for active service within the Swedish Navy. The formation is under the 3rd Naval Warfare Flotilla but takes its orders from the FMV. The system tests are taking a long time partly because of funding issues and partly because of the novel and cutting-edge nature of the platform.

The "Visby" class is the latest class of corvette to be adopted by the Swedish Navy after the and corvettes. The ship's design heavily emphasizes low visibility, radar cross-section and infrared signature. The first ship in the class is named after Visby, the main city on the island of Gotland. The class has received widespread international attention because of its capabilities as a stealth ship.


Description.

The main east-west avenue of Vinohrady is Vinohradská Avenue leading from Wenceslas Square to Žižkov and Strašnice. Along this street stand headquarter building of Czech Radio, old Vinohrady Market Hall and Vinohrady Water Tower and several stations of Prague Metro Line A (Náměstí Míru, Jiřího z Poděbrad, Flora, Želivského). Parallel to Vinohradská street, there is Slezská street, Korunní street (from Peace Square to Flora) and Francouzská street (from Peace Square to Vršovice]. In the east part of Vinohrady near Strašnice are situated the large Královské Vinohrady Teaching Hospital and Vinohrady Cemeteries.  In the south-north direction, Legerova street as a part of North-South Artery leads at the west margin of Vinohrady, which is a boundary of New Town, along C metro line from Nusle Bridge to the main railway station (Praha hlavní nádraží). Next south-north streets (Bělehradská with Tyl's Square, Italská and many others) are narrower and surmount broken relief crosswise valleys.  The main square of west Vinohrady is "náměstí Míru" (Peace Square) with Prague 2 town hall, Vinohrady Theatre, Gothic Revival Saint Ludmila Church (Josef Mocker, 1892) and a station of A metro line. In the central part of Vinohrady near Vinohradská street, there lies "náměstí Jiřího z Poděbrad" (George of Poděbrady Square) with a modern "Church of the Most Sacred Heart of Our Lord" by Jože Plečnik built in 1932. In Vinohrady is also situated center of the Czech gay scene, including a number of gay-friendly bars.  Famous Czech artists such as Jakub Schikaneder, Otto Gutfreund, Hugo Boettinger and Karel Špillar are buried in Vinohrady Cemetery.

Parks.

There are several parks in Vinohrady. Havlíčkovy sady ("Havlíček's Orchards") is Prague's second-largest park. Villa Gröbe served as summerhouse of the nobility, it is inspired by Italian Renaissance suburban villas and is surrounded by vineyards still in production, founded by Charles IV in the second half of the 14th century. The vineyards and the house deteriorated towards the end of the 20th century, but were renewed. The vineyards now have an area of 1.7 ha and annually produce 4000 liters of wine. There are grown varieties of Müller Thurgau, Rhine Riesling, Dornfelder, Pinot Gris and Pinot Noir, and since 1997 there are annual "Vinohrady vintage celebrations", usually in September.  In the north-west part of Vinohrady, near Italská street, are the Riegrovy sady ("Rieger's Orchards") with a great view over Prague, Vinohrady Sokol House and a large beer garden. Folimanka Park is situated at the Vinohrady side of Nusle Valley under the large Nusle Bridge. Smaller parks are situated in central Vinohrady: sady Svatopluka Čecha (Svatopluk Čech's Orchards) near Vinohradská street, Bezručovy sady (Petr Bezruč's Orchards) between Slezská and Francouzská street and parks at all main Vinohrady squares.

Královské Vinohrady (in English literally "Royal Vineyards" ) is a cadastral district in Prague. It is so named because the area was once covered in vineyards dating from the 14th century. Vinohrady lies in the municipal and administrative districts of Prague 2 (west part), Prague 3 (north-east part) and Prague 10 (south-east part), little parts also of Prague 1 (Prague State Opera and Federal Assembly of Czechoslovakia) and Prague 4 (near Nusle). Between 1788–1867 it was called "Viničné Hory" (Vineyard Mountains). From 1867 to 1968 it was called Královské Vinohrady ("Royal Vineyards"). In 1875, Královské Vinohrady was divided into two parts, Královské Vinohrady I and Královské Vinohrady II, the part I was renamed to Žižkov and the part II to Královské Vinohrady in 1877. In 1922 Královské Vinohrady was made part of Prague as district XII. In 1949, the west part was conjoined with Prague 2 and the east part remain separate district Prague 12. In 1960, where Prague division was reduced from 16 to 10 administrative districts, the north part of Prague 12 was conjoined with Žižkov into Prague 3 and the south part was joined to Prague 10. Local patriots say that the real reason was that Královské Vinohrady was known as a "bourgeois" district and thus politically unreliable for the then-ruling Communist Party of Czechoslovakia.


Life.

William of Rosenberg was a member of the influential noble House of Rosenberg. He was the son of Jošt III of Rosenberg and his second wife Anna of Roggendorf (d. 1562). His father died when William was four years old. William and his younger brother Peter Vok then stood under the guardianship of their uncle Peter V. From age seven, he studied at the Protestant private school of Arnošt Kraiger von Kraigk in Mlada Boleslav. In 1544, at the age of nine, he switched to a Catholic school for young nobles at the court of Bishop Wolfgang of Passau.  On 23 April 1551, at the age of sixteen, William was declared an adult by a decree of Emperor Ferdinand I. He took up the administration of the family's possessions and chose as his residence Český Krumlov Castle, which he remodeled in a Renaissance style. From 1552 to 1556, he fought a court case against Henry IV of Plauen, the High Chancellor of Bohemia, about their precedence in Bohemian society. William won. In 1560, he was appointed High Treasurer by King Ferdinand. In 1566, he was appointed commander of the Bohemian army and on 10 June 1566, he began forming an army at Znojmo to fight a war against the Ottoman Empire. Their aim was to recapture Szigetvár, which William's brother-in-law Nikola Šubić Zrinski had lost to the Turks. The Habsburg armies were to meet at Győr. However, the Turks retreated south after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent and no battle ensued.  On 26 May 1570, William was appointed High Burgrave of Bohemia, the highest office in the Kingdom. In this position, he was repeatedly given diplomatic duties, for example, he was sent to Germany twice. In 1572, he negotiated with Emperor Maximilian II, the leader of the Holy League about the next step to take in the ongoing war with then Ottoman Empire. In 1574, he was involved in the negotiations about electing King Rudolf II of Bohemia as the new emperor. In Poland, he represented the interests of Archduke Ernest of Austria, who aimed to be elected King of Poland. His efforts were in vain, although he gained so much sympathy that when King Henry fled, he was considered as a candidate to be the next king. As it happened, King Rudolf was also interested and out of loyalty, William withdrew. Eventually Stephen Bathory, a Transylvanian prince, was elected. However, he died shortly after his election. William was honored with the order of the Golden Fleece for his diplomatic mediation.  In 1587, Sigismund III Vasa was elected as the new King of Poland, defeating the Habsburg candidate Maximilian III. Maximilian then tried to grab power in Poland by invading the country. His army was defeated by the Polish general Jan Zamoyski and he was taken prisoner. William was sent to Poland to negotiate his release. These negotiations led to a peace treaty in March 1589, and Maximilian's release.  In addition to his high political office, William was actively promoting science, literature, music and architecture. Both he and his younger brother Peter Vok acted as patrons of the arts. They supported the Charles University in Prague and founded secondary schools in their territories. They created a library with a vast collection of precious manuscripts and incunables. With its approximately volumes, it was one of the largest libraries of its time. Many humanists such as the Flemish mineralogist, physician and naturalist Anselmus de Boodt were active at his court.  William also supported economic and cultural development in his territories. His Třeboň Castle was expanded and remodeled in a renaissance style by the architect Antonio Ericer between 1565 and 1575. He added the southwest wing, a tower and the entrance gate. In 1573, William expanded the Rosenberg Palace his uncle Peter V had built inside the Prague Castle, using designs made by the architect Ulrico Aostalli. In the town of Roudnice nad Labem, which he acquired in 1577, he renewed the castle and the bridge across the Elbe.  In 1580, William exchanged some territory with his business manager Jakub Krčín of Jelčan: he transferred Sedlčany and Křepenice to Jakub and received a large deer parc and the Leptáč manor near Netolice in return. Between 1583 and 1589, William built his Kratochvíle Castle at Netolice. This castle is one of the most important Renaissance buildings in southern Bohemia. In 1584, he invited the Jesuits to his Český Krumlov Castle and between 1586 and 1588, they constructed a large college building there. The castle, which was his main residence, was extensively remodeled during his reign and he equipped a number of state rooms in the upper castle. In 1580, he added a tower, connected to the castle with a Renaissance arcade. In 1589 he took part in the negotiations of the Treaty of Bytom and Będzin. Around 1590, he added the Little Castle. He gave town rights to Borovany, which was located in his land, and in Libějovice he expanded the old castle into another renaissance castle. In Třeboň, he promoted carp breeding and constructed the Rožmberk Pond.  William died in 1592 and was buried in the St. Vitus Church in Český Krumlov, next to his third wife, Anna Maria of Baden. Since he was childless, his younger brother Peter Vok inherited his possessions. When Peter vok died in 1611, the House of Rosenberg died out in the male line.

Marriages.

William married four times. All four marriages were childless. By marrying German imperial princesses, he gained political influence outside Bohemia, which benefitted his diplomatic efforts. He married:

William of Rosenberg (; 10 March 1535 – 1592), was a Bohemian nobleman. He served as High Treasurer and High Burgrave of Bohemia.


Early life.

Ackles was born in Dallas, Texas, the son of Donna Joan (née Shaffer) and Alan Roger Ackles, an actor. He has a brother, Josh, and a sister, Mackenzie. Ackles had planned to study sports medicine at Texas Tech University and to become a physical therapist, but instead moved to Los Angeles to start his acting career. He has English, Irish, Scottish, and German ancestry.

Career.

After modelling on and off since the age of four, Ackles began to concentrate on an acting career in 1996. He appeared in several guest roles on "Mr. Rhodes", "Sweet Valley High", and "Cybill" before joining the cast of the NBC soap opera "Days of Our Lives" as Eric Brady in 1997. He won a 1998 Soap Opera Digest Award for Best Male Newcomer and went on to be nominated three times (in 1998, 1999, and 2000) for a Daytime Emmy Award for "Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series" for his work on "Days of our Lives". Ackles departed "Days of our Lives" in 2000 and went on to appear in the mini-series "Blonde", about the life of Marilyn Monroe. He also auditioned for the role of the young Clark Kent on "Smallville", a role offered to actor Tom Welling instead. Next he appeared in a guest role on the James Cameron television series "Dark Angel" on Fox in 2001 as serial killer Ben/X5-493, the brother of main character Max/X5-452 (played by Jessica Alba). His character died in the episode, but Ackles returned to the show as a series regular in the second season as Ben's sane clone, Alec/X5-494. He remained with the show until its cancellation in 2002. Ackles worked steadily throughout 2003. He joined the cast of the WB's hit show "Dawson's Creek" during its final season, playing CJ, Jen Lindley's lover. Afterward, Ackles filmed several episodes of the unaired series "Still Life" for Fox before it was abruptly dropped. He also had a small role in the 2004 short film "The Plight of Clownana". Ackles was the producer's first choice to play Eliza Dushku's love interest on the second season of "Tru Calling"; Ackles turned down the role, which was then offered to Eric Christian Olsen and the character's name was changed to "Jensen" because the producers of "Tru Calling" liked Ackles' name. Ackles returned to Vancouver (where "Dark Angel" was filmed) in 2004 to become a regular on "Smallville" playing the assistant football coach Jason Teague, who was also the newest romantic interest for Lana Lang (played by Kristin Kreuk). He also had a lead role in the 2005 film "Devour" in which Ackles' father, actor Alan Ackles, also had a role playing the father of Ackles' character, Jake Gray.  In 2005, Ackles joined the cast of the WB show horror/action series "Supernatural" where he stars as Dean Winchester. Dean and his brother Sam (Jared Padalecki) drive throughout the United States hunting paranormal predators, fighting demons and angels, and showcasing fantasy & sci-fi pop culture. The show is currently in its fourteenth season on the CW. It owns the title of the longest-running North American sci-fi series in history. In the summer of 2007, Ackles took on the role of Priestly in the independent comedy "Ten Inch Hero". The film began hitting the film festival circuit in early 2007 and Ackles received high praise for his comedic timing in the role. In February 2009, the film was released on DVD exclusively by Blockbuster Home Video. He also appeared on stage from June 5–10, 2007 with Lou Diamond Phillips in "A Few Good Men" at Casa Mañana Theatre in Fort Worth, Texas, as Lt. Daniel Kaffee. Ackles received strong praise for his work in this role, which was also his professional theatre debut.  In the summer of 2008, Ackles was cast in the remake of the cult film "My Bloody Valentine 3D", which opened nationwide on January 16, 2009.  In summer of 2010, Ackles provided the voice for the Red Hood (Jason Todd) in the animated film, "", which was released to DVD and Blu-ray on July 27.  On October 22, 2010, Disney Interactive Studios announced that he would be voicing a character named Gibson in the video game, "", which was released on December 7, 2010.  After years of performing at Supernatural Conventions, Ackles has released his first original recorded song as a professional singer titled "Sounds of Someday” which is the first track from an album due for release. In 2018, Ackles collaborated with musician Steve Carlson to form Radio Company. Together Ackles and Carlson completed a debut album entitled "Radio Company Vol. 1". The album's first single was released on iTunes with the album set for a November 2019 release.

Personal life.

After three years of dating, Ackles became engaged to actress and model Danneel Harris in November 2009. The couple married on May 15, 2010 in Dallas, Texas. Their first child, a daughter, was born in May 2013. In August 2016, the couple announced that they were expecting twins, a boy and a girl, who were born in December.  Ackles is a co-owner of a brewery in Dripping Springs, Texas, Family Business Beer Company, with his wife and in-laws. The brewery's name is a reference to "Supernatural" ("family business" being a tagline for the series).  Ackles and "Supernatural" co-stars Jared Padalecki and Misha Collins supported Beto O'Rourke for the 2018 Senate election in Texas.  In 2019, Ackles was chosen to serve as King Bacchus LI in the Krewe of Bacchus parade.

Jensen Ross Ackles (born March 1, 1978) is an American actor, singer and director. He has appeared on television as Dean Winchester in The CW horror fantasy series "Supernatural", Eric Brady in "Days of Our Lives", which earned him several Daytime Emmy Award nominations, Alec/X5-494 in "Dark Angel" and Jason Teague in "Smallville". He also starred as the lead in the box office success "My Bloody Valentine 3D" and provided the voice of Jason Todd in the popular animated film "".


Marriage.

Background.

Before he ascended the throne, Alexander II of Russia was sent to Baden in order to present himself as a suitor for Alexandrine's hand in marriage. Alexandrine already regarded herself as his betrothed, as all the preliminary negotiations had taken place. On the journey there, however, Alexander visited the court of Hesse-Darmstadt and met Princess Marie of Hesse and eventually married her instead.  At the urging of his brother Prince Albert, Hereditary Prince Ernst of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (born 1818) began to search for a suitable bride. Albert believed that a wife would be good for his brother: "Chains you will have to bear in any case, and it will certainly be good for you... The heavier and tighter they are, the better for you. A married couple must be chained to one another, be inseparable, and they must live only for one another." With this advice in mind (although Albert was reprimanded for presuming to counsel his elders), Ernest began searching.  Around this time, Ernest was suffering from a venereal disease brought on by his many affairs; Albert consequently counseled him against marrying until he was fully recovered. He also warned that continued promiscuity could leave Ernest unable to father children. Ernest waited a few years before marrying as a result.  On 13 May 1842, in Karlsruhe, Ernest married Princess Alexandrine. To the consternation of his brother and sister-in-law Queen Victoria, the marriage failed to "settle down" Ernest. Alexandrine accepted all his faults cheerfully enough, however, and began a fierce devotion to Ernest that became increasingly baffling to the outside world.

Succession and childlessness.

He succeeded his father, Ernst I, as Duke in 1844. The couple traveled to Windsor to visit their relations. Lady Eleanor Stanley, one of Victoria's maids-of-honour, commented to her mother: "...the Duke is not well, they say, and he certainly looks dreadfully ill... he however shook hands with us very civilly at meeting, and seemed in great spirits at being with his brother. The Duchess [Alexandrine] told Lady Duoro she had been at Ems in hopes of producing a son and heir, but it had no effect as yet; we were rather amused at her saying it so simply, but she seems a very nice person and very pretty."  The couple's relationship at this stage was "as unclouded as it would ever be", in the words of historian Charlotte Zeepvat. While touring some farms in Windsor, Alexandrine caught a cold; they left soon after. Lady Eleanor commented again that "[Alexandrine] was very sweet at parting, and kissed us all round; she looked very delicate, as white as a sheet, and more fit to be in her bed than undertaking a long journey. The parting of the Royalty was not so sorrowful as I expected; plenty of kissing, but no tears". Victoria was sorry to see them leave, as she loved Ernest loyally for Albert's sake, and had come to see Alexandrine as a sister.  Victoria chose Ernest to be the godfather of her second daughter Princess Alice, and he was consequently expected in England in April 1859 for her confirmation. Though Victoria was eager to see his wife again, and though plans had been arranged the previous year for her to visit, Ernest chose to not bring her along. It was clear that as the chances of producing children had faded, Ernest was taking less and less interest in his wife. The marriage proved to be childless. Though it was most likely that the fault lay with Ernest (due to the venereal disease he contracted before his marriage), Alexandrine seems to have accepted without question that their childlessness was her fault.

Affairs.

Before and during their marriage, Ernest carried on countless affairs. Alexandrine remained a loyal wife, however, and chose to ignore those relationships of which she was aware. At one point, Ernest had two mistresses, and was living with them and Alexandrine "in an improbable ménage which made the couple a laughing-stock to all but their family". Although she loved Alexandrine, Victoria was appalled by her willingness to accept his affairs: "Uncle E.'s conduct is perfectly monstrous and I must blame Aunt very much. They have not written to me yet - but when they do I shall have to write very strongly."

Later life.

As the years went by, Ernest's behavior and manner of dress increasingly became a joke to younger generations. Marie, a daughter of Ernest's nephew and successor Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh later recalled Ernest as "an old beau, squeezed into a frock-coat too tight for his bulk and uncomfortably pinched in at the waist', sporting a top hat, lemon-coloured gloves, and a rosebud in his lapel". Prince Ernest Louis of Hesse recalled how Alexandrine used to trail behind her husband calling, "Ernst, my treasure"; this caused particular embarrassment at the 1887 Windsor jubilee when Prince Alfred's nephew-in-law Grand Duke Sergei imitated Alexandrine, calling out to Ernest Louis "Ernst, my treasure", not realizing that the Duke was approaching from the other end of the room: "He saw my aghast expression and turned, then we both fled, escaping into different rooms. I burst out laughing but for a long time Sergei was desperately worried, because he didn't know if Uncle had heard him."  Ernest died on 22 August 1893 after a short illness. Alexandrine died on 20 December 1904, having survived her husband by eleven years.  Alexandrine is buried in the ducal mausoleum at "", Coburg.

Princess Alexandrine of Baden (Alexandrine Luise Amalie Friederike Elisabeth Sophie; 6 December 1820 – 20 December 1904) was the Duchess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha as the wife of Ernest II. She was the eldest child of Leopold, Grand Duke of Baden, and his wife Princess Sophie of Sweden.


Career.

Formula Three.

Educated at Gresham's School between 1988 and 1993, Firman went straight into motor racing on leaving school. Despite leading much of the 1995 British F3 championship, he lost the title at the final round to Oliver Gavin. However, he continued in the championship in 1996 and captured the title at his second attempt.

Macau Grand Prix controversy.

Firman won the prestigious Macau Grand Prix in 1996 under controversial circumstances. At the end of round 1, Firman finished ahead of German Formula 3 champion Jarno Trulli. In round 2, he was overtaken by Trulli on the last lap. Firman was running with a broken front wing. Just as Jarno Trulli was on the way to victory, Firman crashed at the hairpin corner, blocked the track and caused a red flag. The race officials counted the results to the previous lap when Firman was ahead of Trulli, thus giving him the win.

Formula Nippon.

Firman then moved to Japan, culminating in the 2002 Formula Nippon championship, before returning to Europe.

Formula One.

Firman secured a seat in Formula One for the season at the Jordan team, alongside Giancarlo Fisichella. He participated in 14 Formula One Grands Prix, debuting at the 2003 Australian Grand Prix. He scored one championship point, in the 2003 Spanish Grand Prix. He was injured in a huge crash during practice for the 2003 Hungarian Grand Prix which forced him to sit out that and the next race, in which he was replaced by Zsolt Baumgartner.  In November 2003, Firman drove a Jordan-Ford EJ13 at Macau's Guia Circuit as part of the Macau Grand Prix's 50th anniversary celebrations, the first time that a contemporary F1 machine had been seen in action around the tight and tricky Guia circuit. Firman clocked an impressive 1:59.4 seconds lap, 13 seconds quicker than F3 poleman Fabio Carbone managed on the same day.

Post-Formula One.

Firman has also competed in the 24 Hours of Le Mans, and was an official test driver for the A1 Grand Prix series in August 2004.  In August 2005, it was announced that he would be the driver for A1 Team Ireland. He had previously been seen to be in competition for the Great Britain seat.  In 2007, Firman, along with Daisuke Ito, won the Japan Super GT GT500 class championship with the Aguri Suzuki co-owned ARTA team. Firman and Ito won the championship before the final race of the season, a first in the series' competitive history.

Retirement from racing.

Firman retired from racing in 2013, and now runs a British engineering company.

Ralph David Firman Jr. (born 20 May 1975) is an English-born former racing driver who raced under Irish citizenship (his mother Angela is from Ireland) and an Irish-issued racing licence. Earlier in his career he raced under a British licence. His father, Ralph Firman Sr., co-founded the Van Diemen racecar constructor with Ross Ambrose, father of V8 Supercars champion Marcos, then more recently founded RFR. He is married to Aldís Kristín Árnadóttir, an Icelandic UK-educated lawyer. Ralph's sister, Natasha, is also a racing driver.


Selection process.

An international panel of cultural experts is in charge of assessing the proposals of cities for the title according to criteria specified by the European Union.  For two of the capitals each year, eligibility is open to cities in EU member states only. From 2021 and every three years thereafter, a third capital will be chosen from cities in countries that are candidates or potential candidates for membership, or in countries that are part of the European Economic Area (EEA)– an example of the latter being Stavanger in Norway, which was a European Capital of Culture in 2008.  A 2004 study conducted for the Commission, known as the "Palmer report", demonstrated that the choice of European Capital of Culture served as a catalyst for the cultural development and the transformation of the city. Consequently, the beneficial socio-economic development and impact for the chosen city are now also considered in determining the chosen cities.  Bids from five United Kingdom cities to be the 2023 Capital of Culture were disqualified in November 2017, because by 2023 the UK is no longer an EU member.

History.

The European Capital of Culture programme was initially called the European City of Culture and was conceived in 1983, by Melina Mercouri, then serving as minister of culture in Greece. Mercouri believed that at the time, culture was not given the same attention as politics and economics and a project for promoting European cultures within the member states should be pursued. The European City of Culture programme was launched in the summer of 1985 with Athens being the first title-holder. During the German presidency of 1999, the European City of Culture programme was renamed to European Capital of Culture.

List of European Capitals of Culture.

A new framework makes it possible for cities in candidate countries, potential candidates for EU membership or EFTA member states to hold the title every third year as of 2021. This will be selected through an open competition, meaning that cities from various countries may compete with each other.

A European Capital of Culture is a city designated by the European Union (EU) for a period of one calendar year during which it organises a series of cultural events with a strong pan-European dimension.


Biography.

His father Karel was co-owner of a successful farm-machine factory and small car plant but Otto chose science for his career. After finishing high school in Prostějov, Wichterle began to study at the Chemical and Technological Faculty of the Czech Technical University (now the independent University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague) but he was also interested in medicine. He graduated in 1936 and stayed at the university. In 1939 submitted his second doctorate thesis on chemistry, but the Protectorate regime blocked any further activity at the university. However, Wichterle was able to join the research institute at Baťa's works in Zlín and continue his scientific work. There he led the technical preparation of plastics, namely polyamide and caprolactam. In 1941, Wichterle's team invented the procedure to throw and spool polyamide thread thus making the first Czechoslovak synthetic fiber under the name "silon" (the invention came independently of the original American nylon procedure in 1938). Wichterle was imprisoned by the Gestapo in 1942 but was released after a few months.

Chemistry background.

After World War II Wichterle returned to the university, specializing in organic chemistry, and was active in teaching general and inorganic chemistry. He wrote an inorganic chemistry textbook, the concept of which was ahead of its time, and also wrote a German and Czech organic chemistry textbook. In 1949 he expanded his second doctorate with the technology of plastics and devoted himself fully to the establishment of a new department of plastics technology. In 1952 he was made the dean of the newly established Institute of Chemical Technology in Prague.

Prototype development.

From that time he devoted himself to studying of the synthesis of cross-linking hydrophilous gels, with the aim of finding a material suitable for employment in permanent contact with living tissues. Wichterle accepted the help of one of his colleagues, Drahoslav Lím, and together they succeeded in preparing a cross-linking gel which absorbed up to 40% of water, exhibited suitable mechanical properties and was transparent. This new material was the Poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA), that they patented in 1953. Wichterle thought pHEMA might be a suitable material for contact lenses and gained his first patent for soft contact lenses. On 1954 this material was first used as an orbital implant. On 1957 Wichterle produced around 100 soft lenses from closed polystyrene molds but the edges split and tore as the lenses were removed. In addition, they required hand finishing. He was determined to find a better way. Unfortunately, Wichterle and other prominent teachers had to leave the Institute of Chemical Technology after a political purge staged by its Communist leadership 1958. Research into contact eye lenses at the Institute of Chemical Technology came to an end. The International Symposium on Macromolecular Chemistry held in Prague in 1957 convinced the state leadership of the need to establish a centre for research into synthetic polymers. The Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (CSAS) came into being in 1958, with Professor Wichterle appointed its director. Since the institute's building was under construction at that time, Professor Wichterle conducted the decisive experiments to transform hydrogels into a suitable shape of a contact lens at his own home.

Early contact lenses.

By late 1961 he succeeded in producing the first four hydrogel contact lenses on a home-made apparatus built using a children's building kit (Merkur) and a bicycle dynamo belonging to one of his sons, and a bell transformer. All the moulds and glass tubing needed to dose them with monomer were also individually made by himself. On Christmas afternoon, with the help of his wife Linda, using the machine on his kitchen table, he finally succeeded. He tried the lenses in his own eyes and although they were the wrong power they were comfortable. Thus, he invented a new way of manufacturing the lenses using a centrifugal casting procedure. A few days later, he completed his patent application and produced over 100 lenses by spin casting. He built several new prototype machines using Merkur toys with increasing numbers of spindles which required the stronger motor taken from his gramophone. With these rudimental devices, in the first four months of 1962 they made 5,500 lenses. The early experimental lenses were called Geltakt and the later production lenses Spofalens after the state enterprise SPOFA which manufactured them.  In 1965 National Patent Development Corporation (NPDC) bought the American rights to produce the lenses and then sublicensed the rights to Bausch & Lomb which started to manufacture them in the USA. In 1977 the patents were challenged, mainly by Continuous Curve Contact Lenses and in May 1977 the CSAS sold these patents to avoid any liability if the court case failed. However, Wichterle and NPDC won the court case in 1983.

Other achievements.

Wichterle came to be well-known beyond the frontiers of his country not only through his achievements but also because of his activities in international organizations, chief among which was the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). He took part in the preparations for its Prague symposia in 1957 and 1965, which were much applauded by participants; he had a hand in the inauguration of its fifth, macromolecular, division, of which he was to become the first president, and he gained further credit by combining within it what were for normal administrative purposes the separate fields of pure and applied chemistry.  Wichterle is the author of a large number of studies both great and small as well as several independent books on various aspects of organic, inorganic and macromolecular chemistry, polymer science and biomedical materials, while he had an even higher number of patents out for organic synthesis, polymerization, fibres, the synthesis and shaping of biomedical materials, production methods and measuring devices related to biomedical products. He is the author or co-author of approximately 180 patents and over 200 publications. This was typical of his attitude to scientific research which, he considered, ought to serve society and its requirements by any means possible, without distinction as to "pure" and "applied" science.  In 1970, Wichterle was expelled again from his position in the institute, this time for signing "The Two Thousand Words" — a manifesto asking for the continuation of the democratization process begun in 1968 during the Prague Spring. Punishment by the regime included removing him from his executive positions and making his research more and more difficult mainly by cutting off contacts from abroad and limiting his teaching opportunities. Full recognition did not come until the Velvet Revolution in 1989. In 1990, he was made president of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences till the dissolution of Czechoslovakia and was the honorary president of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic after that. Wichterle was a member of a number of foreign academies of science, he received many awards and honorary doctorates from several universities.  The asteroid number 3899 was named after Wichterle in 1993. Furthermore, a high school in Ostrava (in the district of Poruba) in the Czech Republic was named after him on September 1, 2006.

Otto Wichterle (; 27 October 1913 – 18 August 1998) was a Czech chemist, best known for his invention of modern soft contact lenses.


Design and development.

After the Japanese military attaché in Germany witnessed trials of the Messerschmitt Me 262 in 1942, the Imperial Japanese Navy issued a request to Nakajima to develop a similar aircraft to be used as a fast attack bomber. Among the specifications for the design were the requirements that it should be able to be built largely by unskilled labor, and that the wings should be foldable. This latter feature was to enable the aircraft to be hidden in caves and tunnels around Japan as the navy began to prepare for the defense of the home islands. Nakajima designers Kazuo Ohno and Kenichi Matsumura laid out an aircraft that bore a strong but superficial resemblance to the Me 262.  The "Kikka" was designed in preliminary form to use the Tsu-11, a very crude motorjet style of jet engine that was little more than a ducted fan with an afterburner. Subsequent designs were planned around the Ne-10 (TR-10) centrifugal-flow turbojet, and the Ne-12, which added a four-stage axial compressor to the front of the Ne-10. Tests of this powerplant soon revealed that it would not produce anywhere near the power required to propel the aircraft, and the project was temporarily stalled. It was then decided to produce a new axial flow turbojet based on the German BMW 003.  Development of the engine was troublesome, based on little more than photographs and a cut-away drawing; but a suitable unit, the Ishikawajima Ne-20, was finally built. By mid-1945, the "Kikka" project was making progress once again and at this stage, reflecting the deteriorating war situation, it is possible that the Navy considered employing the "Kikka" as a "kamikaze" weapon although the prospect was questionable due to the high cost and complexity associated with contemporary turbojet engines. As well, other more economical projects meant specifically for the role such as the simple Nakajima Tōka (designed to absorb Japanese stock of obsolete engines), the pulsejet-powered Kawanishi Baika, and the infamous Yokosuka Ohka, were either underway or already in mass production.  Compared to the Me 262, the "Kikka" airframe was noticeably smaller and even more conventional in design, with straight wings (lacking the slight sweepback of the Me 262) and tail surfaces. The triangular fuselage cross section characteristic of the German design was less pronounced, due to smaller fuel tanks. The main landing gear of the "Kikka" was taken from the A6M Zero and the nose wheel from the tail of a Yokosuka P1Y bomber.

Aircraft designation clarification.

The "Kikka" is often identified as the Nakajima J9N1, or occasionally J9Y, which according to a researcher at the National Air and Space Museum is incorrect. The official name given to the aircraft was 橘花 "Kitsuka," pronounced Kikka in Kanji used traditionally by the Japanese. Like other Japanese aircraft intended for use in suicide missions, it received only a name. Imperial Japanese Naval aircraft were designated similar to U.S. Naval aircraft of the time frame. A first letter, denoting the role/type of aircraft, separated by a number that denotes where in the series of aircraft of the same role the aircraft resides, followed by a second letter denoting the design and manufacturing firm, and finally, a second number denoting the aircraft subtype. The first three characters remain constant through all the sub-variants an aircraft might be built to.

Operational history.

The first prototype commenced ground tests at the Nakajima factory on 30 June 1945. The following month it was dismantled and delivered to Kisarazu Naval Airfield where it was re-assembled and prepared for flight testing. The first flight took place on 7 August 1945 (the day after Hiroshima was bombed by atomic bomb), with Lieutenant Commander Susumu Takaoka at the controls. The aircraft performed well during a 20-minute test flight, with the only concern being the length of the takeoff run. For the second test flight, four days later (4 days prior to Japan's declaration of surrender), rocket assisted take off (RATO) units were fitted to the aircraft. The pilot had been uneasy about the angle at which the rocket tubes had been set, but with no time to correct them they decided to simply reduce the thrust of the rockets from 800 kg to only 400 kg. Four seconds into take off the RATO was actuated, immediately jolting the aircraft back onto its tail leaving the pilot with no effective tail control. After the nine-second burning time of the RATO ran out the nose came down and the nose wheel contacted the runway, resulting in a sudden deceleration, however both engines were still functioning normally. At this point the pilot opted to abort the take off, but fighting to brake the aircraft and perform a ground loop only put him in danger of running it into other installations. Eventually the aircraft ran over a drainage ditch which caught the tricycle landing gear, the aircraft continued to skid forward and stopped short of the water's edge. Before it could be repaired Japan had surrendered and the war was over.  At this point, the second prototype was close to completion, and approximately 23 more airframes were under construction. One of these was a two-seat trainer. Other follow-on versions proposed had included a reconnaissance aircraft, and a fighter armed with two 30 mm Type 5 cannons with 50 rounds per gun. These were expected to be powered by more advanced developments of the Ne-20, known as Ne-20-Kai 5.59 kN (570 kgf) or Ne-130 8.826 kN (900 kgf) or Ne-230 8.679 kN (885 kgf) or Ne-330 13.043 kN (1330 kgf), which were planned to have approximately 15% to 140% better thrust than the Ne-20.

Postwar.

After the war, airframes 3, 4, and 5 (and possibly other partial airframes) were brought to the U.S. for study. Today, only a single example survives in the National Air and Space Museum: a "Kikka" that was taken to the Patuxent River Naval Air Base, Maryland for analysis. This aircraft is very incomplete and is believed to have been patched together from a variety of semi-completed airframes.  Two Ne-20 jet engines had been taken to the US and sent for analysis to the Chrysler Corporation in 1946. This was only revealed in 2005 by W. I. Chapman, who was in charge of the project at the time. A working engine was assembled with the parts of the two Ne-20s, and tested for 11 hours and 46 minutes. A report was issued on 7 April 1947, titled "Japanese NE-20 turbo jet engine. Construction and performance". The document is now on display at the Tokyo National Science Museum.

Variants.

Nakajima Aircraft Company developed some variants of the aircraft:  There was also a modified version of the design to be launched from a 200 m long catapult, the "Nakajima "Kikka-kai" Prototype Turbojet Special Attacker". This differed in having a projected total weight of 4,080 kg and a maximum speed of 687 km/h at 6,000 m.

The was Japan's first jet aircraft. It was developed late in World War II and the first prototype had only flown once before the end of the conflict. It was also called.


Princely abbeys and imperial abbeys of the Holy Roman Empire

Princely abbeys and imperial abbeys.

The distinction between a princely abbey and an imperial abbey was related to the status of the abbot: while both prince-abbots and the more numerous imperial abbots sat on the ecclesiastical bench of the College of ruling princes of the Imperial Diet, prince-abbots cast an individual vote while imperial abbots cast only a curial (collective) vote alongside his or her fellow imperial abbots and abbesses. Eight princely abbeys (including similar status priories) and roughly 40 imperial abbeys survived up to the mass secularisation of 1802–03 when they were all secularized. The head of an Imperial abbey was generally an Imperial abbot ("Reichsabt") or Imperial abbess ("Reichsäbtissin"). (The head of a "Reichspropstei"—an Imperial provostry or priory—was generally a "Reichspropst"). Collectively, Imperial abbots, provosts and priors were formally known as "Reichsprälaten" (Imperial Prelates). A small number of the larger and most prestigious establishments had the rank of princely abbeys ("Fürstsabtei"), and were headed by a prince-abbot or a prince-provost ("Fürstabt", "Fürstpropst"), with status comparable to that of Prince-Bishops. Most however were imperial prelates and as such participated in a single collective vote in the Imperial Diet as members of the Bench of Prelates, later (1575) divided into the Swabian College of Imperial Prelates and the Rhenish College of Imperial Prelates. Despite their difference of status within the Imperial Diet, both the Imperial Prelates and the Prince-Abbots exercised the same degree of authority over their principality. Some abbeys, particularly in Switzerland, gained the status of princely abbeys ("Fürstsabtei") during the Middle Ages or later but they either didn't have a territory over which they ruled or they lost that territory after a short while. This was the case with Kreuzlingen, Allerheiligen, Einsiedeln, Muri and Saint-Maurice abbeys. One major exception was the large and powerful Abbey of St. Gall which remained independent up to its dissolution during the Napoleonic period, despite the fact that, as a Swiss abbey, it had stopped taking part in the Imperial Diet and other institutions of the Holy Roman Empire once the independence of the Swiss Confederacy was recognized in 1648. Elsewhere, the Prince-Abbot of St. Blaise's Abbey in the Black Forest held that title, not on account of the status of the abbey, which was not immediate, but because it was conferred on him by the abbey's ownership of the immediate County of Bonndorf.

Lists of Imperial abbeys.

List of Imperial abbeys with seat and voice at the Imperial Diet of 1792.

The following list includes the Imperial abbeys which had seat and voice at the Imperial Diet of 1792. They, along with the two Teutonic Order commanderies whose commanders ranked as prelates, are listed according to their voting order on the two Benches of Prelates of the Diet. Not shown are the abbeys of Stablo, Kempten and Corvey, whose abbots had princely status and sat on the Ecclesiastical Bench of the College of Ruling Princes. For additional information on individual abbeys, see: "List A: Imperial abbeys named in the Matrikel" below this list.

List A: Imperial abbeys named in the "Matrikel".

The religious houses listed here as List A are those named in the "Matrikel", or lists of those eligible to vote in the Imperial Diet, including those whose votes were collective rather than individual. Three of these lists survive and are accessible, from 1521, 1755 (or thereabouts) and 1792. This list includes the Principalities, Imperial abbeys ("Reichsabteien" and "-klöster"), Imperial colleges ("Reichsstifte"), Imperial provostries or priories ("Reichspropsteien") and the single Imperial charterhouse ("Reichskartause").  The word "Stift", meaning a collegiate foundation or canonry, possibly belonging to a variety of different orders or to none at all, and either with or without rules and vows, for either men ("Herrenstift") or for women (Frauenstift), has been left untranslated, except when it specifically refers to the chapter of a church. Some of the imperial abbeys were dissolved during the Reformation; others were absorbed into other territories at various times in the general course of political life. Those in Alsace and Switzerland passed out of the Empire in 1648, when Alsace was ceded to France and Switzerland became independent. The great majority of these religious bodies however were secularized during the brief period that included the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, and their aftermath, especially as a result of the German mediatization ("Reichsdeputationshauptschluss") of February 1803. Any that survived lost their Imperial status when the Holy Roman Empire was wound up in 1806.

List B: "Reichsmatrikel" 1521.

The "Matrikel" of 1521 included a number of religious houses which have not been identified:  Inclusion in the 1521 "Reichsmatrikel" is not by itself conclusive evidence that a particular religious house was in fact an Imperial abbey, and the status of the following abbey listed in the "Matrikel" is questionable in the absence of further confirmation from other sources:

List C: Imperial abbeys not named in the "Matrikel".

For a variety of reasons a quantity of religious houses that possessed, or claimed, the status of Imperial immediacy either did not attend the Imperial Diet, or were not listed in the surviving Matrikel. The following list is very far from complete, and possibly some of those listed may not in fact have been immediate ("reichsunmittelbar").

Bibliography.

In German:

Princely abbeys (, "Fürststift") and Imperial abbeys (, "Reichskloster", "Reichsstift", "Reichsgotthaus") were religious establishments within the Holy Roman Empire which enjoyed the status of imperial immediacy ("Reichsunmittelbarkeit") and therefore were answerable directly to the Emperor. The possession of imperial immediacy came with a unique form of territorial authority known as "Landeshoheit", which carried with it nearly all the attributes of sovereignty.


Description.

Individual plants measure, with lanceolate leaves. The costa is wide and occupies about half the leaf width. The plants are found in dense mats and extensive carpets and are yellowish to olive green. They are acrocarpous and perennial. Multiple sporophytes are often present in one plant. The seta are between 7 and 12 millimeters in length, and are yellowish brown to brownish. The capsules are brown and 1.5 millimeters long. It produces spores of 12–14 μm in size.  This species will sometimes reproduce asexually by means of stem tips that break off and are distributed by the wind. Even whole cushions can be relocated by wind, animals, and humans to colonize new isolated or remote locations. Once established, they can cover several hundred square meters within ten years.  In the Netherlands and in Belgium, it is called "tankmos" (tank moss) due to its likely spread by tanks during the Second World War.

Habitat and distribution.

It has a native southern hemisphere distribution in southern South America, southern part of Africa, southern and eastern Australia, and Atlantic and Pacific islands such as New Zealand, New Caledonia and the South Sandwich Islands.  It is a neophyte in Europe and coastal western North America. In some parts of Europe and North America the species has become mildly invasive, as it temporarily may have a negative and local impact on the diversity. It was first discovered in Britain in 1941, and its spread has been well documented since. In Europe alone, this species has spread in over a thousand mile radius within the span of 70 years. This correlates to around a 14 mile extension of "C. introflexus" territory every year since its discovery. This does not include its introduction to the Faroe Islands in 1973, the United States in 1975, and British Columbia in 1994. It currently ranges between approximately 35°N (California) and 66°N (Iceland). It can be found in a variety of settings, often in decalcified habitats such as bogs and dunes. It is a pioneer species found on bare peat after peat-cutting or on bare soils after burning or ploughing. It may also grow on rotting logs, old fence posts, roadsides, mining deposits, and roof shingles.

Ecological effects.

The effects of the spread of "Campylopus introflexus" have been well studied in the Netherlands. A 14 year study found that a lichen dominated grassland became overwhelmingly covered with dense mats of "C. introflexus". However, this state was found to be only temporary, with lichens re-colonizing areas with 15-20 years. Studies have also shown that while these "C. introflexus" mats inhibit germination of "Calluna vulgaris" plants by up to 60%, seedlings germinated under the carpet grow quicker and mature faster.  Since moss carpets add more humus to the soil, the soil ecology changes. Many fly species prefer the moister microclimate produced by "C. introflexus" to protect their larvae from desiccation, and they are found more often around the moss beds. However, species such as ground beetles and spiders are less active and found less often in the moss-encroached dunes, most likely due to a loss of food abundance. As a result, birds such as the tawny pipit which eat arthropods have disappeared from the mossy dunes.

Taxonomy.

"Campylopus introflexus" is closely related to "Campylopus pilifer". The name "C. introflexus" was used previously for "C. pilifer", thus all old references for "C. introflexus" in North America must be referred to that species.

Campylopus introflexus, also known as the heath star moss, is a species of moss. The first description of the species was made by Johannes Hedwig as "Dicranum introflexum" in 1801.


Life.

Nikolai Lobachevsky was born either in or near the city of Nizhny Novgorod in the Russian Empire (now in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia) in 1792 to parents of Polish origin – Ivan Maksimovich Lobachevsky and Praskovia Alexandrovna Lobachevskaya. He was one of three children. His father, a clerk in a land surveying office, died when he was seven, and his mother moved to Kazan. Lobachevsky attended Kazan Gymnasium from 1802, graduating in 1807 and then received a scholarship to Kazan University, which was founded just three years earlier in 1804.  At Kazan University, Lobachevsky was influenced by professor Johann Christian Martin Bartels, a former teacher and friend of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Lobachevsky received a master's degree in physics and mathematics in 1811. In 1814, he became a lecturer at Kazan University, in 1816 he was promoted to associate professor. In 1822, at the age of 30, he became a full professor, teaching mathematics, physics, and astronomy. He served in many administrative positions and became the rector of Kazan University in 1827. In 1832, he married Varvara Alexeyevna Moiseyeva. They had a large number of children (eighteen according to his son's memoirs, while only seven apparently survived into adulthood). He was dismissed from the university in 1846, ostensibly due to his deteriorating health: by the early 1850s, he was nearly blind and unable to walk. He died in poverty in 1856.  On his religious views, he was said to be an atheist..

Career.

Lobachevsky's main achievement is the development (independently from János Bolyai) of a non-Euclidean geometry, also referred to as Lobachevskian geometry. Before him, mathematicians were trying to deduce Euclid's fifth postulate from other axioms. Euclid's fifth is a rule in Euclidean geometry which states (in John Playfair's reformulation) that for any given line and point not on the line, there is only one line through the point not intersecting the given line. Lobachevsky would instead develop a geometry in which the fifth postulate was not true. This idea was first reported on February 23 (Feb. 11, O.S.), 1826 to the session of the department of physics and mathematics, and this research was printed in the UMA (Вестник Казанского университета) in 1829–1830. Lobachevsky wrote a paper about it called "A concise outline of the foundations of geometry" that was published by the "Kazan Messenger" but was rejected when it was submitted to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences for publication.  The non-Euclidean geometry that Lobachevsky developed is referred to as hyperbolic geometry. Lobachevsky replaced Playfair's axiom with the statement that for any given point there exists "more than" one line that can be extended through that point and run parallel to another line of which that point is not part. He developed the angle of parallelism which depends on the distance the point is off the given line. In hyperbolic geometry the sum of angles in a hyperbolic triangle must be less than 180 degrees. Non-Euclidean geometry stimulated the development of differential geometry which has many applications. Hyperbolic geometry is frequently referred to as "Lobachevskian geometry" or "Bolyai–Lobachevskian geometry".  Some mathematicians and historians have wrongfully claimed that Lobachevsky in his studies in non-Euclidean geometry was influenced by Gauss, which is untrue. Gauss himself appreciated Lobachevsky's published works very highly, but they never had personal correspondence between them prior to the publication. Although three people—Gauss, Lobachevsky and Bolyai—can be credited with discovery of hyperbolic geometry, Gauss never published his ideas, and Lobachevsky was the first to present his views to the world mathematical community.  Lobachevsky's magnum opus "Geometriya" was completed in 1823, but was not published in its exact original form until 1909, long after he had died. Lobachevsky was also the author of "New Foundations of Geometry" (1835–1838). He also wrote "Geometrical Investigations on the Theory of Parallels" (1840) and "Pangeometry" (1855).  Another of Lobachevsky's achievements was developing a method for the approximation of the roots of algebraic equations. This method is now known as the Dandelin–Gräffe method, named after two other mathematicians who discovered it independently. In Russia, it is called the Lobachevsky method. Lobachevsky gave the definition of a function as a correspondence between two sets of real numbers (Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet gave the same definition independently soon after Lobachevsky).

Impact.

E. T. Bell wrote about Lobachevsky's influence on the following development of mathematics in his 1937 book "Men of Mathematics":  The boldness of his challenge and its successful outcome have inspired mathematicians and scientists in general to challenge other "axioms" or accepted "truths", for example the "law" of causality which, for centuries, have seemed as necessary to straight thinking as Euclid's postulate appeared until Lobachevsky discarded it. The full impact of the Lobachevskian method of challenging axioms has probably yet to be felt. It is no exaggeration to call Lobachevsky the Copernicus of Geometry, for geometry is only a part of the vaster domain which he renovated; it might even be just to designate him as a Copernicus of all thought.

Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (; – ) was a Russian mathematician and geometer, known primarily for his work on hyperbolic geometry, otherwise known as Lobachevskian geometry and also his fundamental study on Dirichlet integrals known as Lobachevsky integral formula.


Life.

Józef Elsner was born in Grottkau (Grodków), Herzogtum Neisse (Duchy of Nysa), near Breslau (Wrocław), Kingdom of Prussia, on 1 June 1769, to German Silesian Catholic parents Franz Xaver Elsner. His mother was from the famous Matzke family of Glatz, which had intensive contacts with Czech culture in Bohemia. Józef Elsner was initially educated for the priesthood at Breslau's Dominican monastery school, St. Matthew's "Gymnasium", and a local Jesuit college, but chose the music field. In 1832–37 he would compose nineteen religious pieces for Breslau Cathedral.  After completing his studies at Breslau (Wrocław) and being a violinist at Brünn (Brno), in 1792 he became 2nd "Kapellmeister" at the German Opera in Austrian-ruled Lemberg (Lviv/Lwów). There in 1796 he married Klara Abt, who died a year later. In 1799, with Wojciech Bogusławski, he went to New East Prussia (Prussian-ruled Poland) and became the principal conductor, first at the German Theatre, then at the Polish National Theatre in Warsaw.  Elsner traveled to Paris, Dresden and Posen (Poznań), where he met E.T.A. Hoffmann. Together they founded the "Musikressource" in 1805. In 1802 he had married a second wife, Karolina Drozdowska. Due to complaints that he preferred Germans, he resigned from theater work.  During his decades in Warsaw, Elsner's name and family life gradually polonized. Elsner's ethnicity should not be evaluated in terms of 19th- and 20th-century national identity, as he continued to refer to himself primarily as a Silesian.  In 1799-1824 Elsner was the principal conductor at Warsaw's National Theater, where he premiered a number of his operas. Elsner also taught at the Warsaw Lyceum, housed in the Kazimierz Palace.  Elsner taught the composers Ignacy Feliks Dobrzyński and Frédéric Chopin. There are also indications that he privately tutored piano composer and virtuoso Maria Szymanowska. Chopin dedicated to Elsner his Piano Sonata No. 1 in C minor, Op. 4 (1828), composed while he was studying with Elsner. As Chopin's only piano teacher in 1823-29, Elsner taught him music theory and composition; Elsner diaried of Chopin: "Chopin, Fryderyk, third-year student, amazing capabilities, musical genius."  On 18 April 1854, Elsner died at his estate named for himself, Elsnerów, which now lies within the Warsaw city limits.

Works - summary.

Elsner's compositions included  Elsner was one of the first composers to weave elements of Polish folk music into his works.  He also wrote "Sumariusz moich utworów muzycznych" ("Summary of My Musical Works", published 1957).

Works - detailed list.

List of the most important compositions:

Concertos.

Opus Key Solo instrument Date of composition Date of premiere

Symphonies.

Opus Key Date of composition Date of premiere

Józef Antoni Franciszek Elsner (sometimes "Józef Ksawery Elsner"; baptismal name, "Joseph Anton Franz Elsner"; 1 June 176918 April 1854) was a composer, music teacher, and music theoretician, active mainly in Warsaw. He was one of the first composers in Poland to weave elements of folk music into his works.


History.

The company was founded in 1882 by C. Gustav Putsch as a forge. In the early days manufacturing was focused on pincers and blacksmith’s tongs, initially handmade then increasingly produced using drop forging hammers and various machines. In 1942 Carl Putsch, the second generation representative, registered the “Knipex“ brand. Especially since the 1950s the program has constantly had additional types of pliers added to it. Karl Putsch took over as manager in 1954. Manufacturing operations became increasingly automated and product innovation took ever greater importance. Starting in the 1990s various subsidiaries joined the Knipex Group. The fourth generation took over the company’s reins. Foreign sales offices were established, and nowadays more than 60 percent of output is exported to numerous countries worldwide.

Product line.

The program currently comprises approximately 100 types of pliers, totalling more than 900 different variants in terms of length, shape and finish. These include commonly used types of pliers such as combination pliers, side cutters and water pump pliers as well as more specialized pliers for use in electrical and plumbing installation and electronics. The range also includes special tools for cutting, stripping and crimping including tools for applications in aerospace, solar power technology and optical fiber installation. Knipex also offers a broad program of high-voltage insulated tools. Knipex has built up a reputation of being a strong innovator in its field with products like self-locking water pump pliers ("Alligator" pliers), precision push-button water pump pliers ("Cobra" pliers), high-leverage mini bolt cutters ("Cobolt" cutters) and parallel jaw, ratchet action wrenches ("Pliers Wrench").

Employment and training.

More than 1,000 staff are employed at the Wuppertal site, including more than 40 trainees in different apprenticeships. There is a dedicated training workshop for industrial trainees. All trainees are offered additional works classes.

Manufacturing.

In addition to specializing in pliers, the company strategy includes complete in-house manufacturing. The intention here is to directly influence all the products' quality based characteristics, like precision, hardness and ease of operation. In addition to drop forging with its own tool manufacturing the production offering also includes machining (broaching, drilling, milling and grinding) as well as laser machining. The joining of the two pliers shanks - typically by riveting – is followed by repeated heat treatment (heating and tempering) as well as various surface treatments (chrome-plating, painting, polishing).

KNIPEX Tools LP.

KNIPEX Tools LP is the North American Sales and Marketing branch of KNIPEX. Located in Arlington Heights, Illinois the company supports their markets in the United States and Canada with a professional sales, marketing, customer service and administrative staff.

Knipex Group.

Knipex is the original parent company of the Knipex group, with a total of over 1,600 employees in four German production companies ("KNIPEX-Werk" in Wuppertal, "RENNSTEIG Werkzeuge" in Viernau, "OrbisWill" in Ahaus and "Will" in Neustadt) as well as a number of sales companies abroad, including the USA, Russia, China, the Middle East and Mexico.

Knipex museum.

The company is home of a two story museum exhibiting machinery, tools, workplaces and everyday objects showing what working and living conditions were like in the region's tool industry in the past. The museum is open to the general public once a year as part of the Wuppertal-24h-live event.

Knipex () is a German manufacturer of pliers for professional use. The headquarters are located in Wuppertal-Cronenberg. For four generations, Knipex has been an independent, owner-managed family company.


History.

A first St. Mary's Church was erected in about 875 during the Christianization in former Carantania, led by the Bishops of Freising based at Innichen Abbey. It was first mentioned in an 894 deed as "Maria Werd"—because the site was at that time an island. (The Old High German term "Wörth" or "Werder", like the Slovene "Otok", denotes a piece of land surrounded by water.) The church served for the translation of the relics of Saints Primus and Felician and played an important role within the Christian mission in the Duchy of Carinthia.  In about 1150 Bishop Otto of Freising founded a college of canons here, and had the small "Winterkirche" chapel built beside the collegiate church. In 1399 both churches were destroyed by fire, and afterwards rebuilt in the present late Gothic style. The Freising Prince-Bishops gradually lost their influence in Carinthia, and about 1500 the college finally became an annex of Millstatt Abbey, led from 1598 by Jesuits.  With the Suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1773, Millstatt Abbey was dissolved and Maria Wörth passed to the re-established Bendectine St. Paul's Abbey in the Lavanttal in 1809. Not until 1903 the present-day municipality was established on territory of neighbouring Schiefling and Keutschach.

Sights.

Maria Wörth is a centre of Austrian and European summer tourism, with 330,000 arrivals (although these numbers have declined sharply since the 1950s). Today's parish church Saints Primus and Felician stands on the highest point of the peninsula, with the neighbouring "Winterkirche" beneath it. It is a major pilgrimage site and, due to its romantic setting, a popular wedding church. Another tourist attraction is the nearby Pyramidenkogel, an 851-meter high mountain with a 54-meter high observation platform, the Pyramidenkogel Tower.  In 1901 the composer Gustav Mahler built a villa near the hamlet of Maiernigg, on the lakeside in the east of the municipality, where he was already using a "composing hut" in which most of his works written between 1900 and 1907 were composed, including his Symphonies No. 5-8. The hut is now open as a small museum. Through his friendship with Alma Mahler, the composer's widow, Alban Berg also composed at Maiernigg, which was visited by many of the Viennese artistic elite.

Maria Wörth is a municipality in the district of Klagenfurt-Land in the Austrian state of Carinthia. The centre of the resort town is situated on a peninsula at the southern shore of the Wörthersee. In the east, the municipal area borders the Carinthian capital Klagenfurt. The municipality consists of the two Katastralgemeinden Maria Wörth and Reifnitz.


Adoration of the Magi (Botticelli, 1475)

Inserted Medici portraits.

In the scene numerous characters are present, among which are several members of the Medici family: Cosimo de' Medici (the Magus kneeling in front of the Virgin, described by Giorgio Vasari as "the finest of all that are now extant for its life and vigour"), his sons Piero (the second Magus kneeling in the centre with the red mantle) and Giovanni (the third Magus), and his grandsons Giuliano and Lorenzo. The three Medici portrayed as Magi were all dead at the time the picture was painted, and Florence was effectively ruled by Lorenzo.  Whether Botticelli's intimate relations with the Medici brothers allowed the wealthy Gaspare to introduce the portraits of their kinsmen in his altar-piece, or Gaspare was glad for this opportunity to pay a graceful compliment to these powerful personages is hard to tell. It is, however, apparent from the great pains Botticelli took with these figures, that this formed an important part of the task.  Also Gaspare himself is said to be included in the painting, as the old man on the right with white hair and a light blue robe looking and pointing at the observer. Furthermore, Botticelli is alleged to have made a self-portrait as the blonde man with yellow mantle on the far right.

Style.

In his "Lives", Vasari describes the "Adoration" in the following way: of the heads in this scene is indescribable, their attitudes all different, some full-face, some in profile, some three-quarters, some bent down, and in various other ways, while the expressions of the attendants, both young and old, are greatly varied, displaying the artist's perfect mastery of his profession. Sandro further clearly shows the distinction between the suites of each of the kings. It is a marvelous work in colour, design and composition.  The attention to details, such as the garments rendering, shows the acquisition by the Florentine artist of the influences from the Flemish school at this point of his career.  <br

The Adoration of the Magi is a painting by the Italian Renaissance master Sandro Botticelli, dating from 1475 or 1476, early in his career. The work is on display at the Uffizi in Florence. Botticelli was commissioned to paint at least seven versions of "The Adoration of the Magi". This version was commissioned by Gaspare di Zanobi del Lama for his funerary chapel in Santa Maria Novella.