Playing career.

Los Angeles Kings (1990–2001).

Blake was selected 70th overall in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft by the Los Angeles Kings. He had completed his freshman year with Bowling Green State University of the Central Collegiate Hockey Association (CCHA) when he was drafted and went on to play three years total in the college ranks, earning CCHA and NCAA West First All-Star Team honours in 1990. Blake was also the first player to ever receive the CCHA Best Offensive Defenseman award. Foregoing his final season of college eligibility, Blake joined the Kings for the final four games of the 1989–90 season before scoring 46 points in his NHL rookie campaign in 1990–91 to be named to the NHL All-Rookie Team.  After a 59-point campaign in his third season, Blake helped lead the Kings to the 1993 Stanley Cup Finals, where they were defeated in five games by the Montreal Canadiens. The following season, in 1993–94, Blake improved to a career-high 48 assists and 68 points, but the Kings failed to qualify for the playoffs.  In a season where Blake was kept to just six games due to injury, the Kings traded captain Wayne Gretzky to the St. Louis Blues at the 1995–96 trade deadline, leaving the team's captaincy vacant. Blake was named the 11th captain in team history. He served as captain from 1996 to 2001. In 1997–98, Blake received the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the NHL's best defenceman after recording a career-high 23 goals to go with 50 points.  On February 21, 2001, with Blake about to become an unrestricted free agent in the 2001 off-season, the Kings traded him (along with Steven Reinprecht) to the Colorado Avalanche in exchange for Adam Deadmarsh, Aaron Miller, Jared Aulin and a first-round pick (used to select Dave Steckel).

Colorado Avalanche (2001–2006).

After 11 seasons in Los Angeles, Blake joined Colorado late in the 2000–01 season and made an immediate impact, scoring 10 points in the final 13 games of the regular season after being traded. In the 2001 playoffs, he played a second-round series against his former club, the Kings, before he won his first and only Stanley Cup with the Avalanche, adding 19 points in 23 playoff games. In totalling 59 points in 67 games in the regular season, Blake was selected to the NHL Second All-Star Team.  On July 1, 2001, Blake re-signed with the Avalanche in the off-season to a five-year contract with an optional sixth year. As the Avalanche's top defenceman, Blake recorded his highest total with the Avalanche in recording 56 points in 75 games, third amongst NHL defenceman, in the 2001–02 season, before falling in their defence of the Stanley Cup in the Western Conference finals to the Detroit Red Wings. For his third successive season, Blake was selected to the NHL Second All-Star Team.  In the following 2002–03 season, Blake recorded his 500th career point against the Minnesota Wild on October 29, 2002. In finishing fifth in Norris Trophy voting, Blake placed second amongst Avalanche defenceman with 45 points in 79 games. In each of his first three seasons with the Avalanche, he was selected to the NHL All-Star Game, and in the 2003–04 campaign, he was selected as a starter for the 2004 All-Star Game in Saint Paul, Minnesota. He finished the season with the Avalanche, placing ninth in the NHL amongst defenceman with 46 points.  After losing a season to the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Blake returned for his final season under contract with the Avalanche in 2005–06. He continued his scoring presence amongst the Avalanche in recording 51 points in 81 games, the seventh time in his career he surpassed the 50-point plateau. On April 3, 2006, against the Chicago Blackhawks, he scored his 200th career NHL goal to become just the 17th defenceman all-time to reach the mark.

Return to Los Angeles (2006–2008).

After five years with Colorado, the Avalanche chose not to pick up his contract option for the 2006–07 season, making him a free agent. On July 1, 2006, he re-signed with his former team, the Los Angeles Kings, for two years at $6 million per year.  Having come off a 51-point campaign with Colorado the previous year, Blake's production dipped upon his return to Los Angeles. He recorded 34 points in 2006–07 for his lowest total since 1996–97. Nevertheless, prior to the start of the 2007–08 season, Blake was renamed team captain on September 28, 2007, after previous captain Mattias Norström's departure to the Dallas Stars.

San Jose Sharks (2008–2010).

Becoming an unrestricted free agent once more in the 2008 off-season, on July 3, 2008, Blake signed a one-year, US$5 million contract with the Kings' Pacific Division rival San Jose Sharks. Blake reached the 40-point plateau once more with the Sharks, tallying 10 goals and 35 assists in his first season in San Jose.  Blake extended his contract with the Sharks, re-signing for another year at $3.5 million to avoid free agency. Blake would be named captain of the Sharks approximately six weeks after previous captain Patrick Marleau was stripped of the role by Sharks management.

Retirement.

On August 11, 2014, the Los Angeles Kings announced they would be retiring Blake's number 4 jersey on January 17, 2015. He was later selected to the Colorado Avalanche's 20th anniversary team honoured on December 8, 2015.

Executive career.

Before the 2013–14 season, the Los Angeles Kings hired Blake as assistant general manager. The Kings won the Stanley Cup in his first year. As the assistant general manager to the Kings, he also acted as the general manager for their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliates, the Manchester Monarchs (2013–2015) and the Ontario Reign (2015–).  Blake was also selected by Hockey Canada to be their general manager for the 2014 IIHF World Championship.  On April 10, 2017, the Kings named Blake the vice-president and general manager of the team.

Personal life.

Blake and his wife Brandy have three children, sons Jack and Max, and daughter Brooke. His best friend is former NHL goaltender Dwayne Roloson, with whom he grew up playing hockey in Simcoe, Ontario. He is also distantly related to Hall of Famer Red Kelly. In 2008, Blake appeared in the Mike Myers film "The Love Guru" as himself. A short street in his hometown of Simcoe, Rob Blake Way, is named after him.

Robert Bowlby Blake (born December 10, 1969) is a Canadian professional ice hockey executive and former player. He is the current general manager of the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was originally drafted by the Kings in 1988, appearing in the 1993 Stanley Cup Finals, winning the James Norris Memorial Trophy and serving as team captain for five seasons in his initial 11-season stint with the club. In 2001, Blake was traded to the Colorado Avalanche and was a member of their 2001 Stanley Cup championship team. It was his only Stanley Cup as a player, though he won the Cup again as a member of the Kings' front office in 2014. After a two-season return to Los Angeles, Blake signed with the San Jose Sharks in 2008, retiring as its captain after the 2009–10 season. Four years later, in 2014, Blake was elected into the Hockey Hall of Fame.


History.

Alchemists in their pursuit of the philosopher's stone (to manufacture gold) found glassy shimmering pearls in fireplaces. Sand mixed with potash and heat coalesced into pearls of water glass. Small round panes of water glass were first industrially manufactured for used as windows in the 19th century by Van Baerle in Gernsheim and Johann Gottfried Dingler in Augsburg. Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs made the first attempts to create paints with water glass.  Around 1850, the painters Kaulbach and Schlotthauer applied facade paints of the Pinakothek in Munich. Due to use of earth pigments, which cannot be silicated, the paintings washed out of the water glass.  In 1878, the craftsman and researcher Adolf Wilhelm Keim patented "mineral paints". Since then, they have been manufactured by the successor company Keimfarben in Diedorf near Augsburg.  Keim depended on V. van Baerle as the source of water glass. Keim also attempted to manufacture silicate paints himself. His experiments took years to mature, but he finally achieved good results. The Silinwerk van Baerle in Gernsheim near the Rhine river and Keimfarben in Diedorf near Augsburg are well-known manufacturers.  The impetus for Keim's intense research originated from King Ludwig I. of Bavaria. The art-minded monarch was so impressed by the colorful lime frescoes in northern Italy that he desired to experience such artwork in his own kingdom Bavaria. But the weather north of the alps - known to be significantly more harsh - destroyed the artful paintings within short time. Therefore, he issued an order to Bavarian science to develop paint with the appearance of lime but greater durability.

Properties.

Mineral paint contains inorganic colorants, and potassium-based, alkali silicate ("water glass"), also known as "potassium silicate", "liquid potassium silicate", or "LIQVOR SILICIVM". A coat with mineral colors does not form a layer but instead permanently bonds to the substrate material (silicification).  The result is a highly durable connection between paint coat and substrate. The water glass binding agent is highly resistant to UV light. While dispersions based on acrylate or silicone resin over the years tend to grow brittle, chalky, and crack under UV, the inorganic binder water glass remains stable. The chemical fusion with the substrate and the UV stability of the binder are the fundamental reasons for the extraordinarily high lifetime of silicate paints.  Silicate paints require siliceous substrate for setting. For this reason they are highly suitable for mineral substrates such as mineral plasters and concrete. They are only of limited use for application on wood and metal. The permeability to water vapor of silicate paints is equivalent to that of the substrate, so silicate paints do not inhibit the diffusion of water vapor. Moisture contained in parts of a structure or in the plaster may diffuse outward without resistance: this keeps walls dry and prevents structural damage. This addition helps avoid condensation of water on the surface of building materials, reducing the risk of infestation by algae and fungi. The high alkalinity of the water glass binding agent adds to the inhibitory effect against infestation by microorganisms and completely eliminates the need for additional preservatives.  As mineral paint coats are not prone to static charging and thermo-plasticity (stickiness developing under heat), which is common for surfaces coated with dispersion or silicone resin, soiling happens less, so fewer dirt particles cling to the surface and are easier to wash off. Silicate paints are incombustible and free of organic additives or solvents (DIN 18363 Painting and coating work Section 2.4.1).  Silicate paints are highly color-tone stable. As they are solely colored with mineral pigments that do not fade with exposure to UV radiation, the silicate paint coats remain constant in color for decades.  Silicate paints are based upon mineral raw materials. They are environmentally compatible in manufacture and effect. Their high durability helps to preserve resources and their contaminant-free composition preserves health and environment. For this reason, silicate paints have gained popularity, especially in sustainable construction.

Types.

Commonly three types of silicate paints are distinguished: Pure silicate paint consisting of two components, a color powder in dry or water-paste form and the liquid binder water glass. (DIN 18363 "Painting and coating work" Section 2.4.1). The processing of pure silicate paints require great experience and know-how. These are especially common for the historic area.  Around the middle of the 20th century the first single-component silicate paint was developed. The addition of up to 5 mass percent of organic additives (e.g. acrylate dispersion, hydrophobisers, thickeners or similar) makes ready-to-use paint in containers possible. These are also called "dispersion silicate paints" (DIN 18363 "Painting and coating work" Section 2.4.1). The range of application for such silicate paints is significantly higher than for pure silicate paints as the dispersion allows coats for less solid substrates and/or organic composition. Above that handling and processing is simpler than pure silicate paint.  Since 2002 a third category of silicate paints is known: sol-silicate paint. The binder is a combination of silica sol and water glass. The organic fraction is limited to 5 mass percent similar to dispersion silicate paint allowing for chemical setting and retaining of the silicate specific advantages. The sol silicate paint allows use on non-mineral plaster. For these the bonding occurs chemically and physically. The sol-silicate paint has revolutionized the field of application of silicate paints. These paints can be applied easily and safely to nearly all common substrates.

Silicate mineral paints or mineral colors are paint coats with mineral binding agents. Two relevant mineral binders play a role in the field of colors: Lime and silicate.


History.

Lindos was founded by the Dorians led by the king Tlepolemus of Rhodes, who arrived in about the 10th century BC. It was one of six Dorian cities in the area known as the Dorian Hexapolis. The eastern location of Rhodes made it a natural meeting place between the Greeks and the Phoenicians, and by the 8th century Lindos was a major trading centre. In the 6th century it was ruled by Cleobulus, one of the Seven Sages of Greece. The importance of Lindos declined after the foundation of the city of Rhodes in the late 5th century BC.  In classical times the acropolis of Lindos was dominated by the massive temple of Athena Lindia, which attained its final form in around 300 BC. In Hellenistic and Roman times the temple precinct grew as more buildings were added. In early medieval times these buildings fell into disuse, and in the 14th century they were partly overlaid by a massive fortress built on the acropolis by the Knights of St John to defend the island against the Ottomans.

Acropolis.

Above the modern town rises the acropolis of Lindos, a natural citadel which was fortified successively by the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Knights of St John and the Ottomans. This makes the site difficult to excavate and interpret archaeologically. The acropolis has views of the surrounding harbours and coastline.  On the acropolis of Lindos today parts of the following buildings may still be seen:  Some scenes of the well-known film, "The Guns of Navarone", were filmed here.

Excavations.

Excavations were carried out at Lindos in the years 1900 to 1914 by the Carlsberg Institute of Denmark, directed by K.F. Kinch and Christian Blinkenberg. The acropolis site was excavated down to bedrock and the foundations of all the buildings were uncovered.  During the Italian occupation of the island (1912–1945) major restoration work was carried out on the Lindos acropolis, but it was poorly done and was harmful to the historic record. The north-east side of the Temple of Athena was restored. The monumental staircase to the propylaea was rebuilt and many of the columns of the Hellenistic stoa were re-erected. Large surfaces were covered with concrete. Bases and inscribed blocks were taken from their locations and placed along the restored walls.  Judged by modern standards, this work took insufficient note of the evidence available from the excavations and in its methods did damage to the remains themselves. In recent years Greek and international archaeologists under the supervision of the Greek Ministry of Culture have been working to restore and protect the ancient buildings on the site.

Climate.

Lindos has a very mild climate and according to the National Observatory of Athens station it registers a mean annual temperature of 21.8 °C.

Lindos (; ) is an archaeological site, a fishing village and a former municipality on the island of Rhodes, in the Dodecanese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Rhodes, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 178.9 km. It lies on the east coast of the island. It is about 40 km south of the town of Rhodes and its fine beaches make it a popular tourist and holiday destination. Lindos is situated in a large bay and faces the fishing village and small resort of Charaki.


History.

Creation by Empress Elizabeth.

The Achilleion property was originally owned by Corfiote philosopher and diplomat, and was known as "Villa Vraila". In 1888, the Empress of Austria after visiting the place decided that it was the ideal location for her own palace on Corfu. The palace was designed by Italian architect Raffaele Caritto and built on an area of 200,000 m. Elisabeth's husband, Emperor Franz Josef of Austria, had owned some nearby land as well. The German sculptor Ernst Herter was commissioned to create works inspired from Greek mythology. His sculpture "Dying Achilles" (Ancient Greek: Αχιλλεύς θνήσκων), created in Berlin in 1884 as inscribed in the statue, forms the centrepiece of the Achilleion Gardens.  The architectural design was intended to represent an ancient Phaeacian palace. The building, with the classical Greek statues that surround it, is a monument to platonic romanticism as well as escapism and was named after Achilles: "Achilleion." Paintings and statues of Achilles are abundant, both in the main hall and in the gardens, depicting contrasting heroic and tragic scenes of the Trojan war. The architectural style is Pompeian and has many parallels to that of the Livadia Palace, the Russian imperial residence in Crimea. Elisabeth wrote that "I want a palace with pillared colonnades and hanging gardens, protected from prying glances — a palace worthy of Achilles, who despised all mortals and did not fear even the gods." Sisi only used the Achilleion as a private palace, as a refuge from the world and her past. She only received her daughters Archduchess Marie Valerie and Archduchess Gisela with their husbands there. Elisabeth's husband, Emperor Franz Joseph, did not like sea voyages and never saw the palace.  The gardens on top of the hill provide a scenic view of the surrounding green hills and valleys, with the Ionian sea in the background.  Elisabeth frequently visited Achilleion until spring 1896. She lost interest in her palace though and even considered selling it. Much of the interior was moved back to Vienna. In September 1898 Elisabeth was assassinated by Italian anarchist Luigi Lucheni in Geneva.

The Kaiser.

Achilleion was inherited by Elisabeth's daughter, Archduchess Gisela, but was not used often. German Kaiser Wilhelm II purchased Achilleion in 1907 and used it as a summer residence. During Kaiser Wilhelm's visits substantial diplomatic activity occurred in Achilleion and it became a hub of European diplomacy. The Greek royal family, and particularly Wilhelm's sister Sophia of Prussia, the crown princess and later queen consort of Greece, often came to visit Corfu. The Kaiser also invited intellectuals like the German archaeologist Wilhelm Dörpfeld to his retreat. The Emperor had a great interest in the plants of the park and hired Carl Ludwig Sprenger, a renowned botanist, who would live in the palace for about three months every year. Wilhelm mainly came to Achilleion during the Easter season as he enjoyed the local festivities and cultural events. The German imperial family were staying on Corfu for about one month every year until the outbreak of World War I, except in 1910 and 1913 when they did not go there due to political conflicts on the Balkans. Wilhelm, expanding on the main theme of the grounds, commissioned his own Achilles statue from the sculptor Johannes Götz who created an imposing bronze sculpture that stands as guardian of the gardens, facing north toward the city.  Archaeologist Reinhard Kekulé von Stradonitz, who was also the Kaiser's advisor, was invited by the Kaiser to come to Corfu for advice as to where to position the huge statue. This tribute to Achilles from the Kaiser was inscribed at the statue's base, also by Kekulé: The inscription was subsequently removed after WWII.  The Kaiser's statue represents Achilles in full hoplite uniform with intricate detailing such as a relief of a gorgon's head at the shield, apparently to petrify any enemies. This tall statue is surrounded by palm trees that complement its graceful outline. Kaiser Wilhelm visited the place until 1914 when World War I was declared. The Kaiser also attended performances at the Municipal Theatre of Corfu while vacationing at the Achilleion.  The Kaiser, while vacationing at Achilleion and while Europe was preparing for war, had been involved in excavations at the site of the ancient temple of Artemis in Corfu. He also removed the statue of German poet Heinrich Heine which Empress Elisabeth had installed at Achilleion. Kaiser's actions became the subject of the film-poem "The Gaze of the Gorgon", written by British poet Tony Harrison.

The World Wars.

During World War I, the Achilleion was used as a military hospital by French and Serbian troops. After World War I, it became the property of the Greek state according to the treaty of Versailles and the war reparations that followed in 1919.  From about 1921 to 1924, the palace housed an orphanage, which accommodated Armenian orphans from Constantinople. In the remaining years between the two world wars, the Achilleion property was used for various government functions and a number of artifacts were auctioned off.  During World War II, the Axis powers used the Achilleion as military headquarters. After the war, the Achilleion came under the management umbrella of the Hellenic Tourist Organisation (HTO).

Later.

In 1962, the Achilleion was leased to a private company that converted the upper level to a casino and the lower grounds to a museum. In 1983 the lease was terminated and the palace management was returned to the HTO.

Conference.

In September 1979, twelve historians from the United States, the UK, and Germany, assembled to discuss Kaiser Wilhelm's character and the historical role he played in German politics and society. The conference was held at what once was the Kaiser's bed-chamber and the proceedings were published in the book "Kaiser Wilhelm II New Interpretations: The Corfu Papers".

European role.

Briefly reclaiming the status of centre for European diplomacy that it possessed during the Kaiser years, the Achilleion has been used in recent times for the European summit meeting in 1994, and in 2003 it hosted the meeting of the European ministers for Agriculture. Lately it has been used as a museum while the casino function has been relocated to the Corfu Hilton.

Achilleion in film.

The casino scene of the James Bond film "For Your Eyes Only" (1981) was filmed at the Achilleion.  Achilleion is also featured Tony Harrison film-poem "The Gaze of the Gorgon" when a chorus of tourists says in rhyming verse:

Achilleion () is a palace built in Gastouri (Γαστούρι) on the Island of Corfu for the Empress () Elisabeth of Austria, also known as Sisi, after a suggestion by the Austrian consul Alexander von Warsberg. Elisabeth was deeply saddened by the tragic loss of her only son, Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria following the Mayerling incident in 1889, and a year later she had this summer palace built as a refuge.


Family.

Adela was the third child and first daughter of Theobald II, Count of Champagne and Matilda of Carinthia, and had nine brothers and sisters. She was named after her paternal grandmother Adela of Normandy. When Louis VII’s second wife, Constance of Castile, died in childbirth in 1160, he was devastated and became convinced that he would die young as well, fearing that the country would fall into chaos as he had no male heir. As he was desperate for a son, King Louis married 20-year-old Adela of Champagne five weeks later, on 13 November 1160. Adela's coronation was held the same day. She went on to give birth to Louis VII’s only son, Philip II, and to the future Byzantine empress Agnes.

Queenship.

The marriage between Adela and Louis VII served as a peace treaty between one of King Louis’ most rebellious vassals, Theobald II of Champagne who was an incredibly powerful feudal lord of France. The marriage was a way to ensure peace between the crown and Theobald. At the time of the marriage, the king was still mourning the death of his Spanish wife. This grief was very public on the part of the king, but Adela was praised greatly for conquering his heart "bit by bit". It took five years for Adela to give birth to Louis VII's only son, the future Philip Augustus, also called Philip "Dieu-Donne" or "God-given" because his birth was long awaited by a kingdom that had enjoyed a long unbroken lineage of undisputed male heirs to the throne. Philip’s birth meant the continuing rule of Capetian monarchs in France.  Adela was active in the political life of the kingdom, along with her brothers Henry I, Theobald V, and William of the White Hands. Henry and Theobald were married to daughters of Louis VII and his first wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine. Adela and her brothers kept their political power base after the succession of her son to the throne in September 1180.

Widowhood.

Adela and her brothers, Henry I of Champagne, Theobald V of Blois, Stephen I of Sancerre, and William White Hands, felt their position threatened when the heiress of Artois, Isabella of Hainault, married Adela's son Philip in April 1180. Adela formed an alliance with Hugh III of Burgundy and Philip I of Flanders, and even tried to interest Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. War broke out in 1181, and relations became so bad that Philip attempted to divorce Isabella in 1184. He called a council at Sens for the purpose of repudiating her. According to Gislebert of Mons, Isabella then appeared barefooted and dressed as a penitent in the town's churches to gain public support, which convinced Philip to change his mind. He gradually developed genuine respect and love for Isabella and was devastated by her early death in March 1190.  Philip appointed Adela as regent of France several months later before he left the country on the Third Crusade. She returned to the shadows when he returned in 1191 but participated in the founding of many abbeys.  Queen Adela died on 4 June 1206 in Paris and was buried in the church of Pontigny Abbey near Auxerre. Upon learning of her death, Philip reportedly refused to speak to anyone for two days afterwards.

Adela of Champagne (; c. 1140 – 4 June 1206), also known as Adelaide, Alix and Adela of Blois, was Queen of France as the third wife of Louis VII. She was regent of France from 1190-1191 while her son Philip II participated in the Third Crusade.


Design and development.

In 1944, the U.S. War Department was aware of aviation advances in Germany and issued a requirement for a range of designs for medium bombers weighing from to more than. Other designs resulting from this competition, sometimes nicknamed "The Class of 45", included the North American XB-45 and the Convair XB-46. Production orders finally went to the North American B-45 Tornado, and even this airplane served only for a couple of years before again being replaced by the much more modern Boeing B-47 Stratojet, although the B-45 had the inherent performance – especially if it was not burdened with a payload – for it to then serve as a reconnaissance aircraft.  All of the bombers comprising the Class of '45 were transitional aircraft, which combined the power of turbojets with the aeronautical knowledge of World War II. The XB-48 was no exception, as its round fuselage and unswept wings showed a distinct influence of Martin's B-26 Marauder medium bomber. Still, where the B-26 had enough thrust with two massive 18-cylinder radial engines, the XB-48 needed no less than six of the new jet engines.  At the time of the XB-48's design, jet propulsion was still in its infancy. And, although it appeared superficially to have six separate engine nacelles – that is, three under each wing – the XB-48 actually had only two, unusually wide, three-engined nacelles. Each of these large nacelles also contained an intricate set of air ducts that constituted the engines' cooling system.  The XB-48 was the first aircraft designed with bicycle-type tandem landing gear, which had previously been tested on a modified B-26. The wing airfoil was too thin to house conventional landing gear mechanisms. The main landing gear was in the fuselage and small outriggers located on each wing were used to balance the aircraft.

Operational history.

The XB-48 made its first flight on 22 June 1947, a 37-minute, 73 mi (117 km) hop from Martin's Baltimore, Maryland plant to NAS Patuxent River, Maryland, but blew all four tires on its fore-and-aft mounted undercarriage on landing when pilot Pat Tibbs applied heavy pressure to the specially-designed, but very slow to respond, insensitive air-braking lever. Tibbs and co-pilot Dutch Gelvin were uninjured.

The Martin XB-48 was an American medium jet bomber developed in the mid-1940s. It competed with the Boeing B-47 Stratojet, which proved to be a superior design, and was largely considered as a backup plan in case the B-47 ran into development problems. It never saw production or active duty, and only two prototypes, serial numbers 45-59585 and 45-59586, were built.


History.

The Miller effect was named after John Milton Miller. When Miller published his work in 1920, he was working on vacuum tube triodes; however, the same theory applies to more modern devices such as bipolar and MOS transistors.

Derivation.

Consider an ideal inverting voltage amplifier of gain formula_3 with an impedance formula_6 connected between its input and output nodes. The output voltage is therefore formula_7. Assuming that the amplifier input draws no current, all of the input current flows through formula_6, and is therefore given by  The input impedance of the circuit is  If formula_6 represents a capacitor with impedance formula_12, the resulting input impedance is  Thus the effective or Miller capacitance "C" is the physical "C" multiplied by the factor formula_14.

Effects.

As most amplifiers are inverting (formula_3 as defined above is positive), the effective capacitance at their inputs is increased due to the Miller effect. This can reduce the bandwidth of the amplifier, restricting its range of operation to lower frequencies. The tiny junction and stray capacitances between the base and collector terminals of a Darlington transistor, for example, may be drastically increased by the Miller effects due to its high gain, lowering the high frequency response of the device.  It is also important to note that the Miller capacitance is the capacitance seen looking into the input. If looking for all of the RC time constants (poles) it is important to include as well the capacitance seen by the output. The capacitance on the output is often neglected since it sees formula_16 and amplifier outputs are typically low impedance. However if the amplifier has a high impedance output, such as if a gain stage is also the output stage, then this RC can have a significant impact on the performance of the amplifier. This is when pole splitting techniques are used.  The Miller effect may also be exploited to synthesize larger capacitors from smaller ones. One such example is in the stabilization of feedback amplifiers, where the required capacitance may be too large to practically include in the circuit. This may be particularly important in the design of integrated circuits, where capacitors can consume significant area, increasing costs.

Mitigation.

The Miller effect may be undesired in many cases, and approaches may be sought to lower its impact. Several such techniques are used in the design of amplifiers.  A current buffer stage may be added at the output to lower the gain formula_3 between the input and output terminals of the amplifier (though not necessarily the overall gain). For example, a common base may be used as a current buffer at the output of a common emitter stage, forming a cascode. This will typically reduce the Miller effect and increase the bandwidth of the amplifier.  Alternatively, a voltage buffer may be used before the amplifier input, reducing the effective source impedance seen by the input terminals. This lowers the formula_18 time constant of the circuit and typically increases the bandwidth.

Impact on frequency response.

Figure 2A shows an example of Figure 1 where the impedance coupling the input to the output is the coupling capacitor "C". A Thévenin voltage source "V" drives the circuit with Thévenin resistance "R". The output impedance of the amplifier is considered low enough that the relationship "V"= "-A""V" is presumed to hold. At the output "Z" serves as the load. (The load is irrelevant to this discussion: it just provides a path for the current to leave the circuit.) In Figure 2A, the coupling capacitor delivers a current jω"C"("V" − "V") to the output node.  Figure 2B shows a circuit electrically identical to Figure 2A using Miller's theorem. The coupling capacitor is replaced on the input side of the circuit by the Miller capacitance "C", which draws the same current from the driver as the coupling capacitor in Figure 2A. Therefore, the driver sees exactly the same loading in both circuits. On the output side, a capacitor "C" = (1 + 1/"A")"C" draws the same current from the output as does the coupling capacitor in Figure 2A.  In order for the Miller capacitance to draw the same current in Figure 2B as the coupling capacitor in Figure 2A, the Miller transformation is used to relate "C" to "C". In this example, this transformation is equivalent to setting the currents equal, that is or, rearranging this equation This result is the same as "C" of the "Derivation Section".  The present example with "A" frequency independent shows the implications of the Miller effect, and therefore of "C", upon the frequency response of this circuit, and is typical of the impact of the Miller effect (see, for example, common source). If "C" = 0 F, the output voltage of the circuit is simply "A v", independent of frequency. However, when "C" is not zero, Figure 2B shows the large Miller capacitance appears at the input of the circuit. The voltage output of the circuit now becomes  and rolls off with frequency once frequency is high enough that ω"CR" ≥ 1. It is a low-pass filter. In analog amplifiers this curtailment of frequency response is a major implication of the Miller effect. In this example, the frequency ω"" such that ω"" "CR" = 1 marks the end of the low-frequency response region and sets the bandwidth or cutoff frequency of the amplifier.  The effect of "C" upon the amplifier bandwidth is greatly reduced for low impedance drivers ("C" "R" is small if "R" is small). Consequently, one way to minimize the Miller effect upon bandwidth is to use a low-impedance driver, for example, by interposing a voltage follower stage between the driver and the amplifier, which reduces the apparent driver impedance seen by the amplifier.  The output voltage of this simple circuit is always "A v". However, real amplifiers have output resistance. If the amplifier output resistance is included in the analysis, the output voltage exhibits a more complex frequency response and the impact of the frequency-dependent current source on the output side must be taken into account. Ordinarily these effects show up only at frequencies much higher than the roll-off due to the Miller capacitance, so the analysis presented here is adequate to determine the useful frequency range of an amplifier dominated by the Miller effect.

Miller approximation.

This example also assumes "A" is frequency independent, but more generally there is frequency dependence of the amplifier contained implicitly in "A". Such frequency dependence of "A" also makes the Miller capacitance frequency dependent, so interpretation of "C" as a capacitance becomes more difficult. However, ordinarily any frequency dependence of "A" arises only at frequencies much higher than the roll-off with frequency caused by the Miller effect, so for frequencies up to the Miller-effect roll-off of the gain, "A" is accurately approximated by its low-frequency value. Determination of "C" using "A" at low frequencies is the so-called Miller approximation. With the Miller approximation, "C" becomes frequency independent, and its interpretation as a capacitance at low frequencies is secure.

In electronics, the Miller effect accounts for the increase in the equivalent input capacitance of an inverting voltage amplifier due to amplification of the effect of capacitance between the input and output terminals. The virtually increased input capacitance due to the Miller effect is given by where formula_2 is the voltage gain of the inverting amplifier (formula_3 positive) and formula_4 is the feedback capacitance.


History.

Nidaros Cathedral was built beginning in 1070 to memorialize the burial place of Olav II of Norway, the king who was killed in 1030 in the Battle of Stiklestad. He was canonized as Saint Olav a year later by Grimketel, the Bishop of Nidaros (the canonization was later confirmed by the pope). It was designated the cathedral of the Catholic Archdiocese of Nidaros from its establishment in 1152 until its abolition in 1537 under the Reformation.  Since the Reformation, it has served as the cathedral of the Lutheran bishops of Trondheim (or Nidaros) in the Diocese of Nidaros. The architectural style of the cathedral is Romanesque and Gothic. Historically it has been an important destination for pilgrims coming from all of Northern Europe.  Along with Vår Frue Church, the cathedral is part of the "Nidaros og Vår Frue" parish in the Nidaros deanery in the Diocese of Nidaros.

Building and restoration.

Work on the cathedral as a memorial to St. Olav started in 1070. It was finished some time around 1300, nearly 150 years after being established as the cathedral of the diocese. The cathedral was badly damaged by fires in 1327 and again in 1531. The nave was destroyed and was not rebuilt until the restoration in early 1900s.  In 1708, the church burned down completely except for the stone walls. It was struck by lightning in 1719, and was again ravaged by fire. Major rebuilding and restoration of the cathedral started in 1869, initially led by architect Heinrich Ernst Schirmer, and nearly completed by Christian Christie. It was officially completed in 2001. Maintenance of the cathedral is an ongoing process.  The oldest parts of the cathedral consist of the octagon with its surrounding ambulatory. This was the site of the original high altar, with the reliquary casket of Saint Olav, and choir. Design of the octagon may have been inspired by the Corona of Canterbury Cathedral, although octagonal shrines have a long history in Christian architecture. Similarly, the choir shows English influence, and appears to have been modeled after the Angel Choir of Lincoln Cathedral.  It is joined to the octagon by a stone screen that fills the entire east side of the choir. The principal arch of this screen is subdivided into three subsidiary arches: the central arch frames a statue of Christ the Teacher, standing on the top of a central arch of three subsidiary arches below him. The space above the principal arch, corresponding to the vault of the choir, contains a crucifix by the Norwegian sculptor Gustav Vigeland, placed between statues of the Virgin Mary and the Apostle John. Built into the south side of the ambulatory is a small well. A bucket could be lowered to draw up water drawn from the spring that originated from St. Olav's original burial place. (This was covered over by the construction of later cathedrals).  The present cathedral has two principal altars. At the east end of the chancel in the octagon is an altar at the site of the medieval high altar, behind which stood the silver reliquary casket containing the remains of St. Olav. This silver-gilt reliquary casket was melted down for coinage by Christian II and St. Olav's remains buried in an unknown location under the cathedral. The only relic known to have survived is a femur in a silver-gilt reliquary. Shaped as a forearm, it was given by Queen Josephine to St. Olav Catholic Cathedral in Oslo. The original reliquary casket was in the form of a church, with dragon heads on its gables. The dragons are similar to those carved on the gables of Norwegian stave churches. Surviving medieval reliquary caskets in Norway frequently also bear such dragon heads, for instance, that at Heddal Stave Church. He was the church's and the kingdom's patron saint. The current altar was designed to recall in marble sculpture the essential form of this reliquary casket. It replaces the previous baroque altar, which was transferred to Vår Frue Church.  The second altar is in the crossing, where the transept intersects the nave and the chancel. It bears a large modern silver crucifix. It was commissioned and paid for by Norwegian American emigrants in the early twentieth century, and the design was inspired by the memory of a similar silver crucifix in the medieval church. The medieval chapter house may also be used as a chapel for smaller groups of worshipers.  All the stained glass in the cathedral dates from its rebuilding in the 19th and 20th centuries. The windows on the north side of the church depict scenes from the Old Testament against a blue background, while those on the south side of the church depict scenes from the New Testament against a red background.

Organs.

Two organs are installed in the Cathedral. The main organ was built by the Steinmeyer firm in 1930, and was erected in the north transept. It then had 125 stops. Installation of the Steinmeyer organ was commissioned in 1930 for the 900th anniversary of the Battle of Stiklestad. The organ was funded mostly by donations, particularly by Elias Anton Cappelen Smith. In 1962, the organ was heavily rebuilt and moved to the west nave. Many stops were removed; some of them were used to build a new choir organ. This organ was fully restored in 2014.  The old Baroque organ built by noted German organ builder Johann Joachim Wagner (1690–1749) during the period 1738–40 was carefully restored by Jürgen Ahrend between 1993–94. It has 30 stops and is located at a gallery in the north transept.

Tourist attraction.

Today, the cathedral is a popular tourist attraction. Nidaros Cathedral is the site of the observation of Olav's Wake (). This religious and cultural festival is centered upon the anniversary of the death of Saint Olav at the Battle of Stiklestad. Tourists often follow the historic Pilgrim's Route () to visit the cathedral for this and other events.

Alleged Bombing plot.

The cathedral is also familiar to enthusiasts of Norwegian black metal, as it is featured on the cover artwork of "De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas", the 1994 studio album by Mayhem. It was rumored that members of the band who had already been associated with the burnings of other Christian churches in Norway had planned to destroy the cathedral in relation to the release of the album. When police arrested former Mayhem bassist Varg Vikernes on 19 August 1993 they had found 150 kg of explosives in his home.

Nidaros Cathedral () is a cathedral of the Church of Norway located in the city of Trondheim in Trøndelag county. It is built over the burial site of King Olav II (c. 995-1030, reigned 1015-1028), who became the patron saint of the nation, and is the traditional location for the consecration of new kings of Norway. It was built over a 230 year period, from 1070 to 1300 when it was substantially completed. However additional work, additions and renovations have continued intermittently since then; the most recent changes were completed in 2001. Nidaros was designated as the cathedral for the Diocese of Nidaros in 1152. After experiencing the turmoil and controversies of the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, it was taken from the Catholic Church by the newly established state Church of Norway in 1537, which adopted the teachings and reforms of Martin Luther, Phillip Melancthon and others, becoming an Evangelical Lutheran church. Nidaros is the northernmost medieval cathedral in the world.


Description.

The common name derives from the bright orange tips of the male's forewings. The males are a common sight in spring, flying along hedgerows and damp meadows in search of the more reclusive female which lacks the orange and is often mistaken for other species of butterfly. The undersides are mottled green and white and create a superb camouflage when settled on flowerheads such as cow parsley and garlic mustard ("Alliaria petiolata").  Males display a variation in body size, which is attributed to their host plant. Males reared on "C. pratensis" become the smaller of the two variants, and those reared on "A. petiolata" become the larger.

Distribution and habitat.

"A. cardamines" can be found throughout Europe and from temperate Asia to China.  The habitats of males and females differ significantly. Males are restricted to edges and clearings of forests for their entire lives. On rare occurrences, males will leave forest edges and enter meadows, but this is only to cross and reach another forest edge. They prefer to fly in bright sunlight and avoid areas of shade in the forest. Females are mainly found in open meadows and dry hillocks for a majority of their lives. Females only spend short period of time in forests before reentering nearby meadows. In Armenia the species inhabits not only forests and woodlands, but also meadows, where males occur together with females.  Female "A. cardamines" feed on the flowers listed above, in addition to all species of flowers located in the habitats where their host plants are found. They do not interrupt host plant search to find foraging habitats; instead, they visit available flowers in host plant habitats.

Parental care.

Oviposition.

Females will tend to only deposit eggs on crucifers if they are in bloom. Furthermore, they prefer to oviposit on young inflorescences, and there have been instances of "A. cardamines" that refuse to deposit eggs on inflorescences that had aged. If the stem of the inflorescence is not strong enough to support the weight of the female "A. cardamines", they will cease egg laying.

Egg guarding.

Initially, it was believed that the bright orange color of "A. cardamines" egg deterred further egg laying. However, new studies have discovered another deterrent. To prevent other females from laying eggs on the same flowerhead, female "A. cardamines" will deposit a pheromone during egg laying. This pheromone will deter other females from also laying an egg on that flower head. Flower heads with more than one egg can still be found because the pheromone is water-soluble and relatively short-lived.

Host plant learning and selection.

When choosing host plants, female "A. cardamines" only lay eggs on host plants growing in the sun. Those in the shade are completely avoided, and plants partially covered in shade are only selected if the female does not have to travel through shaded areas to reach the plant. Females are extremely selective for host plant size, and larger flower heads are preferred to smaller ones. Even when smaller flower heads are overly abundant, female "A. cardamines" will completely ignore them in search of larger flower heads. Females will also ignore flower heads already containing a conspecific egg. This is because larva from the already laid eggs will hatch first and cannibalize any other present eggs.

Life history.

Life cycle.

Egg.

Eggs of "A. cardamines" are always deposited on inflorescences of crucifers. When first laid, eggs are a white pigment and eventually change to orange and then brown after a few days. Eggs are also covered with a pheromone that detracts other females from ovipositing on the same crucifer.

Larva.

When hatched, the larva consumes its egg shell before eating host plant and its seed pods. The fully grown larva leaves the food plant after its five larval instars and pupates on lower vegetation. If more than one egg had been laid on the same host plant, then the larva to first hatch will cannibalize its sibling. This is the major reason why Orange tip females avoid eggs laying on the same crucifer.

Pupa.

While the earlier stages of "A. cardamines" are easy to find since most individuals develop on a single plant, the pupa is very difficult to locate.

Migration.

Regional dispersal.

In Britain, there have been patterns found relating weather and "A. cardamines" appearances. From data collected from 1976 to 1998, spring and summer temperatures were found to have increased by approximately 1 degree Celsius. This has affected first appearance of "A. cardamines", which has advanced by 17.3 days with the increasing temperature. The increased temperature has also been to connected to increases in duration of flight period of "A.cardamines" in Britain.

Enemies.

Predation.

Corpses of "A. cardamines" caterpillars are often found with darkening around a wound near the tail. These injuries are consistent with damage inflicted by spiders, which are their main predators.  The host plants of "A. cardamines" are often grazed by Muntjac deer. The deer favor plants with young flowers, which corresponds to the preferred plants of "A. cardamines" for egg laying. As a result, Muntjac deer are responsible for consuming up to nineteen percent of "A. cardamines" young through indirect predation.

Mating.

Courting.

The result of male courting depends heavily on the location of the female when courted. Females found in flight are immediately pursued by males, and the encounter almost always results in acceptance of the male mating attempt. When males encounter females already perched on vegetation, their mating attempts are usually met by a raised abdomen.  Both mated and virgin females respond to males with a raised abdomen, but the signals take different meanings. When a male encounters a mated female with a raised abdomen, it is taken as a signal of rejection, and he quickly leaves. When virgin females raise their abdomen, the signal takes on a male detention function instead of rejection. Males will continue to court a perched, virgin female with a raised abdomen until she acquiesces or flees.

Pheromone.

While a specific pheromone has not been identified in "A. cardamines", since both the rejection signal and detention signal in females are visually identical scientists hypothesize that a chemical signal distinguish the two. Mated females tend to track the males with their abdomens during the courting attempt, and this is behavioral evidence that mated females have an anti-aphrodisiac, and that the raised abdomen presents the pheromone as close as possible to the male.

Anthocharis cardamines, the orange tip, is a butterfly in the family Pieridae, which contains 1100 species of butterfly. "A. cardamines" is mainly found throughout Europe and temperate Asia (Palearctic) The males feature wings with a signature orange pigmentation, which is the origin of "A. cardamines"' common name.


Possible rights.

Roman citizenship was required in order to enlist in the Roman legions, but this was sometimes ignored. Citizen soldiers could be beaten by the centurions and senior officers for reasons related to discipline. Non-citizens joined the Auxilia and gained citizenship through service.

Classes of citizenship.

The legal classes varied over time, however the following classes of legal status existed at various times within the Roman state:

Cives Romani.

The "cives Romani" were full Roman citizens, who enjoyed full legal protection under Roman law. "Cives Romani" were sub-divided into two classes:

Latini.

The "Latini" were a class of citizens who held the Latin Right ("ius Latii"), or the rights of "ius commercii" and "ius migrationis", but not the "ius conubii". The term "Latini" originally referred to the Latins, citizens of the Latin League who came under Roman control at the close of the Latin War, but eventually became a legal description rather than a national or ethnic one. Freedmen slaves, those of the "cives Romani" convicted of crimes, or citizens settling Latin colonies could be given this status under the law.

Socii.

"Socii" or "foederati" were citizens of states which had treaty obligations with Rome, under which typically certain legal rights of the state's citizens under Roman law were exchanged for agreed levels of military service, i.e. the Roman magistrates had the right to levy soldiers for the Roman legions from those states. However, "foederati" states that had at one time been conquered by Rome were exempt from payment of tribute to Rome due to their treaty status.  Growing dissatisfaction with the rights afforded to the "socii", and with the growing manpower demands of the legions (due to the protracted Jugurthine War and the Cimbrian War) led eventually to the Social War of 91–88 BC in which the Italian allies revolted against Rome.  The Lex Julia (in full the "Lex Iulia de Civitate Latinis Danda"), passed in 90 BC, granted the rights of the "cives Romani" to all "Latini" and "socii" states that had not participated in the Social War, or who were willing to cease hostilities immediately. This was extended to all the Italian "socii" states when the war ended (except for Gallia Cisalpina), effectively eliminating "socii" and "Latini" as legal and citizenship definitions.

Provinciales.

"Provinciales" were those people who fell under Roman influence, or control, but who lacked even the rights of the "Foederati", essentially having only the rights of the "ius gentium".

Peregrini.

A peregrinus (plural "peregrini") was originally any person who was not a full Roman citizen, that is someone who was not a member of the "cives Romani". With the expansion of Roman law to include more gradations of legal status, this term became less used, but the term "peregrini" included those of the "Latini", "socii", and "provinciales", as well as those subjects of foreign states.

Citizenship as a tool of Romanization.

Roman citizenship was also used as a tool of foreign policy and control. Colonies and political allies would be granted a "minor" form of Roman citizenship, there being several graduated levels of citizenship and legal rights (the Latin Right was one of them). The promise of improved status within the Roman "sphere of influence", and the rivalry with one's neighbours for status, kept the focus of many of Rome's neighbours and allies centered on the "status quo" of Roman culture, rather than trying to subvert or overthrow Rome's influence.  The granting of citizenship to allies and the conquered was a vital step in the process of Romanization. This step was one of the most effective political tools and (at that point in history) original political ideas (perhaps one of the most important reasons for the success of Rome).  Previously Alexander the Great had tried to "mingle" his Greeks with the Persians, Egyptians, Syrians, etc. in order to assimilate the people of the conquered Persian Empire, but after his death this policy was largely ignored by his successors.  The idea was not to assimilate, but to turn a defeated and potentially rebellious enemy (or their sons) into Roman citizens. Instead of having to wait for the unavoidable revolt of a conquered people (a tribe or a city-state) like Sparta and the conquered Helots, Rome tried to make those under its rule feel that they had a stake in the system.

The Edict of Caracalla.

The Edict of Caracalla (officially the Constitutio Antoniniana in Latin: "Constitution [or Edict] of Antoninus") was an edict issued in AD 212 by the Roman Emperor Caracalla, which declared that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship and all free women in the Empire were given the same rights as Roman women. Before 212, for the most part only inhabitants of Italia held full Roman citizenship. Colonies of Romans established in other provinces, Romans (or their descendants) living in provinces, the inhabitants of various cities throughout the Empire, and a few local nobles (such as kings of client countries) also held full citizenship. Provincials, on the other hand, were usually non-citizens, although some held the Latin Right.  The Book of Acts indicates that Paul the Apostle was a Roman citizen by birth - though not clearly specifying which class of citizenship - a fact which had considerable bearing on Paul's career and on the way he shaped the new religion of Christianity.  However, by the century previous to Caracalla, Roman citizenship had already lost much of its exclusiveness and become more available.

Citizenship in ancient Rome () was a privileged political and legal status afforded to free individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance.


History.

Camerino occupies the site of the ancient Camerinum, the inhabitants of which (Camertes Umbri or Umbrii-Camertii) became allies of the Romans in 310 BC or 309 BC (at the time of the attack on the Etruscans in the Ciminian Forest). On the other hand, the Katspriot referred to in the history of the year 295 BC are probably the inhabitants of Clusium. Later it appears as a dependent autonomous community with the foedus aequum, an 'equal' treaty with Rome (Mommsen, "Römisches Staatsrecht", iii. 664).  Two cohorts of "Camertes" fought with distinction under Gaius Marius against the Cimbri. It was much affected by the conspiracy of Catiline, and is frequently mentioned in the Civil Wars; under the empire it was a municipium. It belonged to ancient Umbria, but was on the borders of Picenum.  Camerino was part of the Exarchate of Ravenna until 592, when it was captured by the Lombards. The city under the latter was the seat of a marquisate and then of a duchy which was sometimes under the suzerainty of Spoleto, and which was later conquered by the Franks. In the 10th to 11th centuries the city was under the Mainardi family. Boniface III of Tuscany occupied the duchy around 1050, and then ceded it to his daughter Matilda, who in turn donated it to the Papal States.  After the year 1000, however, Camerino turned itself into an independent commune. Initially Ghibelline, it later became a Guelph stronghold and suffered much under Emperor Frederick II on account of its loyalty to the pope; Manfred of Sicily's troops, led by Percivalle Doria, besieged and destroyed it (1256): much of the population was killed, but Camerino recovered under Gentile Da Varano, who was amongst the refugees that returned in 1262. Gentile formed a lasting fiefdom for his family which lasted three centuries.  In 1382, his descendant Giovanni Da Varano built a long wall to defend the city, while a sumptuous Ducal Palace was built by Giulio Cesare in 1460. Giulio Cesare's daughter, Camilla Battista da Varano, was canonized a saint by Pope Benedict XVI in 2010. In 1336 the University was founded. The Da Varano were nearly extinguished by Cesare Borgia in 1502, and in 1545 the city fell under direct Papal administration.  In 1861, after Camerino become part of the unified Kingdom of Italy, the university was recognised by the new state. In 1958, the school became known as the University of Camerino, a public institution.

Main sights.

No ancient building is visible today, the Roman remains lying as much as one metre below ground level.  Principal sights include:

Camerino is a town in the province of Macerata, Marche, central-eastern Italy. It is located in the Apennines bordering Umbria, between the valleys of the rivers Potenza and Chienti, about from Ancona.


Background and education.

Ripon was born at 10 Downing Street, London, the second son of Prime Minister F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich (who was created Earl of Ripon in 1833), by his wife Lady Sarah Hobart, daughter of Robert Hobart, 4th Earl of Buckinghamshire. He was educated privately, attending neither school nor college.  He was awarded the honorary degree of DCL by Oxford University in 1870.

Diplomatic and political career, 1852–1880.

Ripon served on Sir Henry Ellis' British special mission to the Brussels Conference on the affairs of Italy during 1848–1849. Although his father had been a Tory, Ripon was first a Whig and later a Liberal. He entered the House of Commons as member for Hull in 1852. Both he and his party colleague, James Clay, (Hull was a two-seat constituency) were unseated in 1853 by petition over claims of widespread corruption in their election, of which they were exonerated of any knowledge. He was returned for Huddersfield later in 1853 and the West Riding of Yorkshire in 1857. In 1859 he succeeded his father as second Earl of Ripon, taking his seat in the House of Lords, and later that year succeeded his uncle in the more senior title of Earl de Grey, becoming known as the Earl de Grey and Ripon. He was Under-Secretary of State for War under Lord Palmerston between 1859 and 1861 and 1861 and 1863 and briefly Under-Secretary of State for India in 1861. In 1863 he was made a Privy Counsellor and Secretary of State for War under Palmerston, with a seat in the cabinet. He retained this office when Lord Russell became prime minister on Palmerston's death in 1865, and then served under Russell as Secretary of State for India between February and June 1866. In Gladstone's first administration he was Lord President of the Council (1868–1873). During this period he acted as chairman of the joint commission for drawing up the Treaty of Washington with the United States over the Alabama Claims. For this, in 1871 he was created Marquess of Ripon, in the County of York. He had already been made a Knight of the Garter in 1869. In 1878 he served as President of the first day of the Co-operative Congress.

Viceroy of India, 1880–1884.

When Gladstone returned to power in 1880 he appointed Ripon Viceroy of India, an office he held until 1884. During his time in India, Ripon introduced legislation (the "Ilbert Bill," named for his secretary, Courtenay Ilbert), that would have granted native Indians more legal rights, including the right of Indian judges to judge Europeans in court. Though progressive in its intent, the legislation was scuppered by Europeans living in India who did not want to be tried by a native judge. In this Ripon was supported by Florence Nightingale, who also backed his efforts to obtain a Bengal land tenancy bill (eventually the Bengal Tenancy Act 1885) that would improve the situation of the peasants. He repealed the controversial Vernacular Press Act of 1878 passed by Lytton, in 1882. He was also instrumental in supporting Dietrich Brandis to reorganize the Madras Forest Department and expand systematic forest conservancy in India. In 1883, Lord Ripon joined a shooting party organised by the Maharaja of Darbhanga which had a total bag of 1683, including 4 tigers, 47 buffaloes, 280 pigs and 467 deer. The remainder being ′′small game′′. There was some criticism at ′′... such wholesale destruction, particularly as it happens to be the breeding season.′′  He is still revered in Chennai (formerly Madras), India as "Lord Ripon engal appan" meaning: Lord Ripon, our father. The Corporation of Chennai's Ripon Building was named for him, as well as the town of Riponpet in the Shivamogga district in the state of Karnataka. In Calcutta, the Ripon Street was named for him. The Ghanta Ghar Multan or Clock Tower of Multan in Pakistan was named Ripon Building and hall of same building was named Ripon Hall.. The Ripon Club in Mumbai (formerly Bombay) founded in 1884 by the Parsis for their community members, was named after him.

Political career, 1884–1908.

Lord Ripon also became a supporter of Home Rule for Ireland. In Gladstone's 1886 government he was First Lord of the Admiralty, and in the government of 1892 to 1895 he was Secretary of State for the Colonies. When the Liberals again returned to power in 1905 under Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, he took office, aged 78, as Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords. In 1908, he declined to remain as Lords leader when H. H. Asquith became Prime Minister in April, and he resigned as Lord Privy Seal in October.  As noted by Neil Smith, Ripon's liberalism had roots in the mid-nineteenth century, but his political views “shifted with the times.” According to Smith  “he was greatly interested in labour questions, deeply sympathetic to labour aspirations and believed the state might interfere with wages and that the state had a duty to deal with unemployment.”

Other appointments.

Lord Ripon was President of the Royal Geographical Society during 1859–1860, and Trustee of the National Gallery. Lord Ripon also held many positions in the public life in Yorkshire. In 1860 he was appointed honorary Colonel of the 1st Volunteer Battalion of the Prince of Wales' Own (West Yorkshire) Regiment and later awarded the Volunteer Decoration (VD); in 1863 High Steward of the borough of Hull, and from 1873 to 1906 was Lord Lieutenant of the North Riding of Yorkshire. He was a deputy-lieutenant and JP for the counties of Lincolnshire and the West Riding of Yorkshire, JP for the Liberty of Ripon, and served as Mayor of Ripon in 1895–1896.  Lord Ripon was a Freemason, who served as Provincial Grand Master of the West Riding and Deputy Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge of England from 1861 to 1869, and ultimately as Grand Master from 1870 until his conversion to Catholicism in 1874, following which he was generous in supporting Catholic educational and charitable works. He was president of the Society of St Vincent de Paul from 1899 until his death and a great supporter of St. Joseph's Catholic Missionary Society. He was also Chancellor of the University of Leeds from 1904 until his death in 1909. The Ripon Falls at the outlet of Lake Victoria were named after him.

Family.

Lord Ripon married his cousin Henrietta Anne Theodosia Vyner, daughter of Henry Vyner and his wife Lady Mary Gertrude Robinson, daughter of Thomas Robinson, 2nd Earl de Grey, on 8 April 1851. They had one son and one daughter. Lady Ripon died in February 1907, aged 73. Lord Ripon survived her by two years and died of heart failure at Studley Royal Park in July 1909, aged 81. He was buried at St Mary's, Studley Royal and was succeeded by his only son, Frederick. His estate was assessed for probate with a value of £127,292. 15s. 8d. (equivalent to £ million in ).

George Frederick Samuel Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon, (24 October 1827 – 9 July 1909), styled Viscount Goderich from 1833 to 1859 and known as The Earl of Ripon in 1859 and as The Earl de Grey and Ripon from 1859 to 1871, was a British politician who served in every Liberal cabinet from 1861 until the year before his death, which took place forty-eight years later in 1909.


Childhood and early bands.

Massi was born in Algiers, Algeria to a poor family of six children. She grew up in the working-class Bab El Oued neighborhood of Algiers and took up singing and playing the guitar at an early age.  In the early 1990s, Massi joined the Algerian political rock band Atakor, who were influenced by Western rock bands such as Led Zeppelin and U2. She recorded and performed with the group for seven years, releasing a successful album and two popular music videos. The band, however, with its political lyrics and growing popularity, became a target. Massi disguised herself by cutting her hair and dressing in male clothing, but she nevertheless became the target of a series of anonymous death threats. In 1999, she left the band and moved to Paris, France.

Personal life.

Souad Massi currently lives in Paris, France with her French-Moroccan husband Mohammed and their two daughters Inji and Amira. She is a fan of Leonard Cohen and has listed the music from AC/DC and INXS as having been among her formative influences.

Solo career.

In 1999, Massi was invited to perform at the "Femmes d'Algerie" ("Women of Algeria") festival in Paris, which led to a recording contract with Island Records. In June 2001, she released her solo debut album, "Raoui" ("Storyteller"), which "Allmusic" compared to 1960s American folk music. Sung mostly in French and Arabic, the album became a critical and commercial success in France. The following year, she was nominated for "Best Newcomer" at the Radio 3 World Music Awards.  In 2003, she released her second album, "Deb" ("Heartbroken"). The album's lyrics were more personal, rather than political, and it became one of the most successful North African albums worldwide. Three years later, Massi released her third album, "Mesk Elil" ("Honeysuckle"). The album expanded on the themes of love and loss that had been explored on "Deb", and featured duets with Daby Toure and Rabah Khalfa. She was the Italian variety show's guest star "Non facciamoci prendere dal panico" in 2006 by Italian singer and showman Gianni Morandi.  In 2010, she released her fourth studio album "Ô Houria". This album was produced by Francis Cabrel and Francoise Michel. It features Paul Weller on piano and vocals on its closing song.

Souad Massi (سعاد ماسي), born August 23, 1972, is an Algerian Berber singer, songwriter and guitarist. She began her career performing in the Kabyle political rock band Atakor, before leaving the country following a series of death threats. In 1999, Massi performed at the "Femmes d'Algerie" concert in Paris, which led to a recording contract with Island Records.


Etymology.

The English and other Europeans initially adopted the name that the Yahgan, a competing indigenous tribe whom they met first in central and southern Tierra del Fuego, used for these people: Alacaluf or Halakwulup (meaning "mussel eater" in the Yahgan language). Their own name for themselves (autonym) is Kawésqar.

Economy.

Like the Yahgan in southern Chile and Argentina, the Kawésqar were a nomadic seafaring people, called canoe-people by some anthropologists. They made canoes that were eight to nine meters long and one meter wide, which would hold a family and its dog. They continued this fishing, nomadic practice until the twentieth century, when they were moved into settlements on land. Because of their maritime culture, the Kawésqar have never farmed the land.

Population.

The total population of the Kawésqar was estimated not to exceed 5,000. They ranged from the area between the Gulf of Penas (Golfo de Penas) to the north and the Brecknock Peninsula (Península de Brecknock) to the south. Like other indigenous peoples, they suffered high fatalities from endemic European infectious diseases, to which they had no immunity. Their environment was disrupted as Europeans began to settle in the area in the late 1880s.  In the 1930s many remaining Alacaluf were relocated to Wellington Island, in the town of Puerto Edén, to shield them from pressures from the majority culture. Later they moved further south, to Puerto Natales and Punta Arenas.  In the 21st century, few Kawésqar remain. The 2002 census found 2,622 people identifying as Kawésqar (defined as those who still practiced their native culture or spoke their native language). In 2006, only 15 full-blooded members remained, but numerous mestizo have Kawésqar ancestry. Lessons in the Kawésqar language are part of the local curriculum, but few native speakers remain to encourage daily use of their traditional language.

Tribes and languages.

Adwipliin, Aksánas, Alacaluf, Cálen (Cálenches, Calenes,), Caucahue, Enoo, Lecheyel, Taíjataf (Tayataf), Yequinahuere (Yequinahue, Yekinauer).  By 1884 Thomas Bridges, an Anglican missionary based in Ushuaia who had been serving and studying the indigenous peoples of Tierra del Fuego since the late 1860s, and his son Despard compiled a 1200-word vocabulary for the Kawésqar language. It was in the form of a manuscript. Through the late 19th and early 20th centuries, numerous missionaries and anthropologists moved among the indigenous peoples to aid, record and study them.

Kawéskar in human zoos.

In 1881, European anthropologists took eleven Kawéskar people from Patagonia to be exhibited in the Bois de Boulogne in Paris, and in the Berlin Zoological Garden. Only four survived to return to Chile. Early in 2010, the remains of five of the seven who died in Europe were repatriated from the University of Zurich, Switzerland, where they had been held for studies. Upon the return of the remains, the president of Chile formally apologized for the state having allowed these indigenous people to be taken out of the country to be exhibited and treated like animals.

The Kawésqar, also known as the Alacalufe, Kaweskar, Alacaluf or Halakwulup, are an indigenous people who live in Chilean Patagonia, specifically in the Brunswick Peninsula, and Wellington, Santa Inés, and Desolación islands of the western area of Tierra del Fuego. Their traditional language is known as Kawésqar; it is endangered as few native speakers survive.


History.

On September 18, 2001, Ill Niño released their debut album, "Revolution, Revolución". The album's single, "What Comes Around", received significant airplay on MTV and topped the Mediabase Active Rock radio charts for five weeks. "Revolution, Revolución" went on to sell over 450,000 albums worldwide.  In early 2003, just before Ill Niño was set to record the follow-up, the band parted ways with guitarist Marc Rizzo and percussionist Roger Vasquez. "Confession" was recorded in mid-2003 and released on September 30, 2003. It debuted at No. 37 on the "Billboard" 200. The lead single, "How Can I Live", was their first single to break into the "Billboard" charts, peaking at No. 26 on the Mainstream Rock chart. The album has sold more than 550,000 copies.  The band's third effort", One Nation Underground", was released on September 27, 2005. It debuted at No. 101 on the "Billboard" 200 charts, and its first single, "What You Deserve", became the most added track at Active Rock radio, and reached the Top 20 on the Active Rock charts.  On July 15, 2006, Ill Niño parted with Roadrunner Records and signed a new deal with the recently formed Cement Shoes Records. Roadrunner released "The Best of Ill Niño" on September 29, 2006, as a contractual obligation to the label, and without the band's consent or involvement.  Through Cement Shoes Records they released "The Under Cover Sessions", an EP featuring various covers and outtakes, and "Enigma", their fourth studio album, released in 2008 after multiple delays.  In March 2010, they signed with Victory Records. "Dead New World", was released on October 25, 2010 and production was shared by Sahaj Ticotin and Clint Lowery of Sevendust. "Epidemia", was released on October 22, 2012. Their seventh full-length studio album, "Till Death La Familia", was released on July 22, 2014.  On January 15, 2019, Dave Chavarri announced that Cristian Machado, Ahrue Luster, Diego Verduzco, and Oscar Santiago "departed the band". Dave Chavarri announced the band had a new lineup despite ongoing legal correspondence. Chavarri claimed that Machado, Luster, Santiago and Verduzco had "departed the band" and asked for "privacy" during the member changes. One day later, amidst Dave Chavarri's claims to fans that 4 of the 6 members had "departed the band", Machado, Luster, Verduzco, and Santiago dismissed Chavarri's public statement claiming they had left the band. The four members instead assured the band's fans that they have "not departed" the band. Cristian Machado, Ahrue Luster, Diego Verduzco, and Oscar Santiago then vowed to the fans to continue with on as "Ill Niño".  On March 21, 2019, MetalSucks acquired a copy of the lawsuit paperwork filed by Machado, Luster and Verduzco accusing Chavarri of "shady business deals" such as using his status as Ill Niño's manager to scam the band into taking a financial loss while repaying a personal loan for himself, falsifying financial documents in order to keep tens of thousands of dollars for himself, pocketing show guarantees and tour advances for himself, sometimes even cancelling tours and then refusing to return the promoter's advance and refusing the band members their legally owed access to financial records among many other accusations.  In March 2020, Machado, Luster, Verduzco, Chavarri and Pina reached a mutual agreement, allowing Chavarri and Pina to continue with the Ill Niño bandname.

Musical style.

Ill Niño are described as Latin metal, nu metal, alternative metal and metalcore.

Band members.

Current  Former Timeline

Ill Niño is an American heavy metal band formed in New Jersey in 1998 by founder/drummer Dave Chavarri. Ill Niño developed their own unique style known to fans of the band as "Latin metal". They have released seven studio albums, two EPs, and one greatest hits album, selling over 2million albums worldwide.


Characteristics.

Materials.

Crampons are made of steel alloy, light weight aluminium, or a combination of the two. Lighter weight crampons are popular for alpine ski touring where demands are generally lower and light weight a premium.

Points.

Early 10-point crampons lacked forward angled spikes and thus required step cutting on steep terrain. In the 1930s two additional forward-slanting points were added, making them exceptional for mountaineering and glacier travel and beginning a revolution in front pointing. There is currently a range of models, including specialized crampons with as many as 14 points and models with single points for ice climbing.

Attachment.

Crampons are fastened to footwear by means of a binding system. Improved attachment systems - such as a cam action "step-in" system similar to a ski binding and particularly well adapted to plastic technical mountaineering boots - have widely increased crampon use. Crampons also use a full "strap-in" system and a "hybrid" binding that features a toe strap at the front and a heel lever at the back.

Anti-balling.

To prevent snow from balling up under crampons, especially in temperatures around freezing, most models can be fitted with plastic or rubber "anti-balling" systems to reduce build-up. Rubber models use flexion to repel snow while plastic anti-balling plates employ a hydrophobic surface to prevent adhesion.

Grades.

Crampons are graded C1, C2 and C3 relative to their flexibility and general compatibility with different styles of boots. No crampons are suitable for B0 boots (flexible walking boots).

Ski crampons.

Specialized "ski crampons" are employed in ski mountaineering on hard snow and ice. Far more common in the Alps than in the United States, these ski crampons are known by their European names: "" (German), "couteaux" (French) and "coltelli" (Italian), literally French and Italian for "knives" in those languages.

A crampon is a traction device that is attached to footwear to improve mobility on snow and ice during ice climbing. Besides ice climbing, crampons are also used for secure travel on snow and ice, such as crossing glaciers, snowfields and icefields, ascending snow slopes, and scaling ice-covered rock. There are three main attachment systems for footwear: step-in, hybrid, and strap bindings. The first two require boots with welts, as a tension lever attaches the crampon to the heel. The last type (strap bindings) are more versatile and can adapt to virtually any boot or shoe, but often do not fit as precisely as the other two types.


Geography.

The town is located south-east of Prague, on the railway line from Břeclav to Znojmo. In the south it borders on the Austrian municipality of Schrattenberg. Until 1919 Valtice likewise belonged to Lower Austria. The town is part of the European Centrope multinational region project established in 2003; all border controls were abolished when the Czech Republic implemented the Schengen Agreement in 2007.  The vineyards around Valtice are a centre of Mikulovská wine production, with notable wine tasting and trade at the "Wine Salon of the Czech Republic" in Valtice Chateau.

History.

Feldsberg Castle in the Duchy of Austria was first mentioned in an 1192 deed; held by the Lords of Seefeld, it was located close to the border with Moravia. In 1286 Duke Albert I of Austria vested the surrounding settlement with market rights. Feldsberg was elevated to the status of a town by Duke Albert III about 1383. The estates were acquired by the noble House of Liechtenstein, then Lords of neighbouring Mikulov ("Nikolsburg"), in 1394 and served as the dynasty's residence until 1939.  The border town was devastated in the Hussite Wars in 1426, then again by the troops of the Bohemian king George of Poděbrady in 1458 as well as in the Austrian–Hungarian War by the forces of King Matthias Corvinus in 1480. The situation improved, when the Moravian lands in the north also became part of the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in 1526. In the mid 16th century, the citizens converted to Protestantism; however they were subjected to the measures of the Counter-Reformation under the rule of Karl I of Liechtenstein, who himself had converted to Catholicism in 1599 and in 1605 established a convent of the Brothers Hospitallers of St. John of God in Feldsberg. During the Thirty Years' War the town was again plundered by the troops of Emperor Ferdinand II in 1619 and conquered by Swedish forces under General Lennart Torstensson in 1645.  After the war Prince Karl Eusebius of Liechtenstein had his domains rebuilt, including the 13th century castle according to plans designed by the Italian architect Giovanni Giacomo Tencalla with further Baroque extensions by Fischer von Erlach. Construction was supervised by Domenico Martinelli, who was employed as an on-site architect. The palace is surrounded by an English park with a colonnade and the Temple of Diana (1812) designed by Joseph Hardtmuth as well as other Neoclassical structures.  Until the end of World War I the town of Feldsberg belonged to Lower Austria. According to the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye the town and its surroundings were annexed by newly established Czechoslovakia. The main reason was the requirement that the entire Znojmo-Břeclav railway line, a branch of the former Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway, remain inside Czechoslovak territory. The Liechtenstein princely family lost its privileges with the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and by the then newly established state of Czechoslovakia in 1918, the predecessor of the Czech Republic. The town was occupied by Nazi Germany upon the 1938 Munich Agreement and incorporated into the "Reichsgau Niederdonau". After World War II the remaining German population was expelled and the castle was confiscated by the Czechoslovak government; all claims for restitution have been rejected.

Culture.

The town is known as a centre of wine making in Moravia. Both the National Wine Center and the Wine Salon of the Czech Republic reside in the Valtice Chateau. The annual Valtice Wine Market wine exhibition is held in the chateau riding hall at the beginning of May.

Valtice (; ) is a small town in Břeclav District, South Moravian Region in the Czech Republic, close to the Austrian border.


Production.

Glyoxal was first prepared and named by the German-British chemist Heinrich Debus (1824–1915) by reacting ethanol with nitric acid.  Commercial glyoxal is prepared either by the gas-phase oxidation of ethylene glycol in the presence of a silver or copper catalyst (the Laporte process) or by the liquid-phase oxidation of acetaldehyde with nitric acid.  The first commercial glyoxal source was in Lamotte, France, started in 1960. The single largest commercial source is BASF in Ludwigshafen, Germany, at around 60,000 tons per year. Other production sites exist also in the US and China. Commercial bulk glyoxal is made and reported as a 40%-strength solution in water.

Laboratory methods.

Glyoxal may be synthesized in the laboratory by oxidation of acetaldehyde with selenious acid.  Anhydrous glyoxal is prepared by heating solid glyoxal hydrate(s) with phosphorus pentoxide and condensing the vapors in a cold trap.  The experimentally determined Henry's law constant of glyoxal is:

Biochemistry.

Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are proteins or lipids that become glycated as the result of a high-sugar diet. They are a bio-marker implicated in aging and the development, or worsening, of many degenerative diseases, such as diabetes, atherosclerosis, chronic kidney disease, and Alzheimer's disease.

Applications.

Coated paper and textile finishes use large amounts of glyoxal as a crosslinker for starch-based formulations. It condenses with urea to afford 4,5-dihydroxy-2-imidazolidinone, which further reacts with formaldehyde to give the bis(hydroxymethyl) derivative dimethylol ethylene urea, which is used for wrinkle-resistant chemical treatments of clothing, i.e. permanent press.  Glyoxal is used as a solubilizer and cross-linking agent in polymer chemistry.  Glyoxal is a valuable building block in organic synthesis, especially in the synthesis of heterocycles such as imidazoles. A convenient form of the reagent for use in the laboratory is its bis(hemiacetal) with ethylene glycol, 1,4-dioxane-2,3-diol. This compound is commercially available.  Glyoxal solutions can also be used as a fixative for histology, that is, a method of preserving cells for examining them under a microscope.  Glyoxal and its derivatives are also used in the chemical probing of RNA structure, as they react with free guanines in RNAs.

Speciation in solution.

Glyoxal is supplied typically as a 40% aqueous solution. Like other small aldehydes, glyoxal forms hydrates. Furthermore, the hydrates condense to give a series of oligomers, some of which remain of uncertain structure. For most applications, the exact nature of the species in solution is inconsequential. At least one hydrate of glyoxal is sold commercially, glyoxal trimer dihydrate: [(CHO)](HO) (CAS 4405-13-4). Other glyoxal equivalents are available, such as the ethylene glycol hemiacetal 1,4-dioxane-"trans"-2,3-diol (CAS 4845-50-5, m.p. 91–95 °C),  It is estimated that, at concentrations less than 1 M, glyoxal exists predominantly as the monomer or hydrates thereof, i.e., OCHCHO, OCHCH(OH), or (HO)CHCH(OH). At concentrations above 1 M, dimers predominate. These dimers are probably dioxolanes, with the formula [(HO)CH]OCHCHO. Dimer and trimers precipitate as solids from cold solutions.

Other occurrences.

Glyoxal has been observed as a trace gas in the atmosphere, e.g. as an oxidation product of hydrocarbons. Tropospheric concentrations of 0–200 ppt by volume have been reported, in polluted regions up to 1 ppb by volume.

Safety.

The LD50 (oral, rats) is 3300 mg/kg, which is very high.

Glyoxal is an organic compound with the chemical formula OCHCHO. It is the smallest dialdehyde (a compound with two aldehyde groups). It is a crystalline solid, white at low temperatures and yellow near the melting point (15 °C). The liquid is yellow, and the vapor is green.


Early life.

Howard Percy Robertson, was born in Hoquiam, Washington, on January 27, 1903, the oldest of five children of George Duncan Robertson, an engineer who built bridges in Washington state, and Anna McLeod, a nurse. His father died when he was 15 years old, but although money was short, all five siblings attended university. He entered the University of Washington in Seattle in 1918, initially with the intention of studying engineering, but he later switched to mathematics. He earned a bachelor of science degree in mathematics in 1922 and a master of science in mathematics and physics in 1923.  In 1923 Robertson married Angela Turinsky, a philosophy and psychology student at the University of Washington. They had two children: George Duncan, who became a surgeon, and Marietta, who later married California Institute of Technology (Caltech) historian Peter W. Fay. At the University of Washington he also met Eric Temple Bell, who encouraged him to pursue mathematics at Caltech. Robertson completed his PhD dissertation in mathematics and physics there in 1925 under the supervision of Harry Bateman, writing "On Dynamical Space-Times Which Contain a Conformal Euclidean 3-Space".  Upon receipt of his doctorate, Robertson received a National Research Council Fellowship to study at the University of Göttingen in Germany, where he met David Hilbert, Richard Courant, Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, Karl and Martin Schwarzschild, John von Neumann and Eugene Wigner. He found Max Born unsympathetic to his concept of an expanding universe, which Born considered "rubbish". He also spent six months at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he was a post-doctoral student of Arnold Sommerfeld.

Mathematics.

Robertson returned to the United States in 1927, and became an assistant professor of mathematics at Caltech. In 1928, he accepted a position as an assistant professor of mathematical physics at Princeton University, where he became an associate professor in 1931, and a professor in 1938. He spent 1936 on sabbatical at Caltech. His interest in general relativity and differential geometry led to a series of papers in the 1920s that developed the subject.  Robertson wrote three important papers on the mathematics of quantum mechanics. In the first, written in German, he looked at the coordinate system required for the Schrödinger equation to be solvable. The second examined the relationship between the commutative property and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. The third extended the second to the case of "m" observables. In 1931 he published a translation of Weyl's "The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics".  It was Robertson's anonymous 1936 critical peer review of a paper submitted by Albert Einstein to "Physical Review" which caused Einstein to withdraw the paper from consideration.  Yet perhaps Robertson's most notable achievements were in applying relativity to cosmology. He independently developed the concept of an expanding universe, which would imply distant galaxies as seen from Earth would be redshifted – a phenomenon previously confirmed by Vesto Slipher. Robertson went on to apply the theory of continuous groups in Riemann spaces to find all the solutions that describe the cosmological spaces. This was extended by Arthur Geoffrey Walker in 1936, and is today widely known in the United States as the Robertson–Walker metric.  One of Robertson's landmark papers, a brief note in "The Annals of Mathematics", entitled a "Note on the preceding paper: The two body problem in general relativity", solved that problem within a degree of approximation not improved on for several decades. Earlier work, such as the Schwarzschild metric, were for a central body that did not move, while Robertson's solution considered two bodies orbiting each other. Nevertheless, his solution failed to include gravitational radiation, so the bodies orbit forever, rather than approaching each other.  Yet Robertson's name is most often associated with the Poynting–Robertson effect, the process by which solar radiation causes a dust mote orbiting a star to lose angular momentum. This is related to radiation pressure tangential to the grain's motion. John Henry Poynting described it in 1903 based on the "luminiferous aether" theory, which was superseded by Einstein's theories of relativity. In 1937, Robertson described the effect in terms of general relativity.  Robertson developed the theory of invariants of tensors to derive the Kármán–Howarth equation in 1940, which was later used by George Batchelor and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar in the theory of axisymmetric turbulence to derive Batchelor–Chandrasekhar equation.

World War II.

Aside from his work in physics, Robertson played a central role in American scientific intelligence during and after World War II. He was approached by Richard Tolman shortly after World War II began in 1939, and began working for the Committee for Passive Protection Against Bombing. This was absorbed with other groups into Division 2 of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), with Robertson engaged in the study of terminal ballistics.  In 1943, Robertson became the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) chief scientific liaison officer in London. He became close friends with Reginald Victor Jones, and Solly Zuckerman praised the work Robertson and Jones did on scrambling radar beams and beacons. In 1944 Robertson also became a Technical Consultant to the Secretary of War, and the Chief of the Scientific Intelligence Advisory Section at Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force. His fluency in German helped him to interrogate German scientists, including rocket scientists involved in the V-2 rocket program. He was awarded the Medal for Merit for his contributions to the war effort.

Later life.

After the war, Robertson accepted a professorship at Caltech in 1947. He would remain there for the rest of his career, except for long periods of government service. He was a Central Intelligence Agency classified employee and director of the Weapons System Evaluation Group in the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Weapons System Evaluation Group in the Office of the Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1952, and Scientific Advisor in 1954 and 1955 to the NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), General Alfred M. Gruenther. In 1953 he chaired the Robertson Panel, which investigated a wave of UFO reports in 1952. He was Chairman of the Defense Science Board from 1956 to 1961, and a member of the President's Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) from 1957 to 1961.  He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, serving as its foreign secretary from 1958 until his death in 1961, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Mathematical Society, the American Physical Society, the American Astronomical Society, the American Philosophical Society, the Operational Research Society, and the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.  In August 1961, Robertson was hospitalized after being injured in a car accident. He suffered a pulmonary embolism and died on August 26, 1961. He was survived by his wife and children. His papers were donated to the Caltech Archives by his daughter and son-in-law in 1971.

Howard Percy "Bob" Robertson (January 27, 1903 – August 26, 1961) was an American mathematician and physicist known for contributions related to physical cosmology and the uncertainty principle. He was Professor of Mathematical Physics at the California Institute of Technology and Princeton University.