2014 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)

Format.

In March 2011, following news that CONCACAF would not receive four spots in the 2014 World Cup, officials within CONCACAF indicated that the first format proposed would be revised. Several days later, officials within CONCACAF announced the qualifying format they would present to FIFA. The proposed format, which was subsequently accepted by FIFA, consists of 4 stages.

Entrants.

All 35 FIFA-affiliated national teams from CONCACAF entered qualification. The seeding – used to draw the first three rounds of the qualifiers – was based on the FIFA World Rankings of March 2011. (World rankings shown in parentheses)

Schedule.

The schedule of the competition was as follows.  The inter-confederation play-off between the fourth-placed team from CONCACAF (Mexico) and the winning team from OFC (New Zealand) was played between 13–20 November 2013.

First round.

The first round of the CONCACAF qualifiers saw the bottom 10 teams being paired up into five home-and-away series, with the highest ranked team facing the lowest ranked team and so on. The winners of these series proceeded to the second round.  The matchups were announced by FIFA on 26 April 2011. Early indications were that the matches would be played on 3 and 7 June 2011; However, the matches were postponed to scattered days in June and July, between 15 June and 17 July. The 5 winners (in bold, below) advanced to the second round of the CONCACAF qualifiers: Belize, Dominican Republic, U.S. Virgin Islands, Saint Lucia, and the Bahamas.  The two wins for the U.S. Virgin Islands were their first two ever in World Cup play, with their only other win prior to this coming in 1998.

Second round.

In the second round, the teams ranked 7–25 were joined by the 5 winners from the first round. These teams were drawn into six groups of four teams, at the World Cup Preliminary Draw at the Marina da Glória in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on 30 July 2011. The matches were played from 2 September to 15 November 2011.  The top team from each group advanced to the third round.

Seeding.

Teams were seeded into four pots – designated Pots 4 to 7 in the draw. Pot 4 included teams ranked 7–12, Pot 5 teams ranked 13–18, Pot 6 teams ranked 19–24, and Pot 7 the team ranked 25 along with the 5 first round winners.

Groups.

Note: Scores marked by are results awarded by FIFA.

Third round.

The third round saw the top 6 seeds joined by the 6 group winners from the second round. These teams were drawn into three groups of four teams, at the World Cup Preliminary Draw at the Marina da Glória in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on 30 July 2011. These matches were played from 8 June to 16 October 2012.  The top two teams from each group advanced to the fourth round.

Seeding.

As the draw for the third round was held before the previous matches were held, only the six teams with byes to the round were known at the time of the draw. Teams were seeded into three pots, with Pot 1 containing the top 3 seeds, Pot 2 seeds 4 to 6, and Pot 3 the 6 group winners from the second round. Each third round group contains one team from Pot 1, one team from Pot 2 and two teams from Pot 3.

Fourth round.

In the fourth round, the three group winners and three runners-up from the third round competed in a double round robin, including a home and away match against the other five teams between 6 February and 15 October 2013. The round is informally referred to as the 'Hexagonal' or just 'The Hex'. The draw for 'The Hex' was conducted by FIFA on 7 November 2012.  The top three teams qualified directly for the 2014 FIFA World Cup finals, while the fourth-placed team will play a home-away series against New Zealand, the winner of Oceania. Teams are ranked first by total points in all games, then, if tied, by best goal differential in all games, then by total goals in all games. If still tied, the same criteria are applied to games among the tied teams.

Inter-confederation play-offs.

The winner of the OFC qualification tournament, New Zealand, played against CONCACAF's fourth-placed team, Mexico, in a home-and-away play-off. Mexico, the winner of this play-off, qualified for the 2014 FIFA World Cup.  The first leg was played on 13 November 2013 in Mexico, and the second leg was played on 20 November 2013.

Qualified teams.

The following four teams from CONCACAF qualified for the final tournament.

Goalscorers.

There were 444 goals scored over 144 games, for an average of 3.08 goals per game.

The CONCACAF qualification for the 2014 FIFA World Cup consisted of four rounds of competition, in which the 35 member nations competed for three automatic berths at the finals in Brazil.


Background.

On 11 October 2011, the National Council of the Slovak Republic, the parliament of Slovakia, voted on whether to approve the expansion of the European Financial Stability Fund. As Slovakia was the last eurozone country to vote on the measure, prime minister Iveta Radičová of the Slovak Democratic and Christian Union – Democratic Party (SDKÚ) made it a vote of confidence. The motion was called on the grounds, according to the Freedom and Solidarity (SaS) party, that Slovakia, the second poorest eurozone country, should not bail out richer countries such as Greece in the interest of bank re-capitalisation. The motion then failed by 21 votes after SaS and Direction – Social Democracy (Smer–SD) abstained.  Smer-SD then came to an agreement with the governing coalition to support the measure in what party chairman and former prime minister Robert Fico called "the most important document of this period." He also explained the first round rejection of the measure as "saying 'no' to a rightist government, but we're saying 'yes' to the rescue fund." As per the agreement between the two parties, foreign minister Mikuláš Dzurinda (SDKÚ) said that, in return for Smer's support, a snap election would be called: "We decided that as the first point of [Thursday's] parliamentary session, we will work on a proposal to shorten the voting period, with the goal of organising an election on 10 March. Immediately after [13 October or 14 October] we will debate proposals related to the EFSF." On 13 October, following pressure from the European Union, which was in turn warned by the United States and China to get its finances in order, the motion was passed by a vote of 114–30 with 3 abstentions.

Campaign.

The number of competing political parties in the 2012 elections was the highest since the fall of communism in Slovakia in 1989. All participating parties had to register 90 days before the election and pay a fee of 16 596 euro (the fee is refunded to all parties who reach at least 2% of votes). All Slovak citizens are allowed to vote except for convicted felons in prison (only those, who were convicted for serious offenses), people declared ineligible to perform legal acts (legally insane) by court and citizens under 18 years of age.  Numerous political scandals overshadowed the economic issues which led to the fall of the previous government:  In the run-up to the elections the Gorilla scandal (secret recordings of leading politicians in 2005–2006 showing political corruption) shook the political scene.  The campaign before the election was openly criticised by numerous Slovak personalities as being the first one since the fall of communism in which political programmes were completely replaced by political scandals and attacks. An open declaration condemning the campaign was signed by 16 personalities, including economist Juraj Stern, actor Milan Lasica and sociologist Martin Bútora. The campaign officially started on 18 February and continued up to, and including, election day.

Opinion polls.

In January 2012 it became clear that the new centre-right party, Ordinary People, might enter parliament according to polls.

Conduct.

The day before the election, about 1,000 protesters in Bratislava, the national capital, protested against the corruption brought to light by the Gorilla scandal, which later turned violent.  Voting took place between 7:00 and 22:00 at 5,956 polling stations. "The Slovak Spectator" reported that former Slovak citizens who had been granted Hungarian citizenship were prevented from voting because of an amendment to the Citizenship Act in 2010 which mandated that those who acquire citizenship of another country automatically have their Slovak citizenship rescinded.

Reactions.

Although Direction won an absolute majority, Fico announced on election night that he would be willing to consult with other parties if they so wished. He also said that: "The European Union can lean on "Smer" because we realise that Slovakia, as a small country living in Europe and wanting to live in Europe... desires to maintain the eurozone and the euro as a strong European currency." However, no other parties were willing to form coalition with Smer, leading Fico to form the first one-party government in Slovakia since 1993.

Analysis.

"The Economist" called Fico "one of Europe's most successful centre-left politicians" after Smer-SD's win. It suggested that the "big loser" was the SDKÚ-DS' Dzurinda as a former prime minister "barely squeaked" into parliament and that, along with the SaS, were punished by voters for their failure to support the previous government's EU-backed Greek bailout. It further cited the high voter turnout (59.1) saying that Slovaks had "matured politically" for not abstaining or threatening to invalidate the poll, yet it still cited smaller protests that were "rowdy." It pointed to the OLaNO's newcomer status as "starry-eyed" in attempting to "harness voters' discontent" and that as a result of the party's showing it would be "breathing down KDH's neck." "The Economist" pointed out that this was the first time since the breakup of Czechoslovakia that any party had won an absolute majority, though Smer-SD fell seven seats short of the three-fifths majority needed to unilaterally amend the constitution.

Parliamentary elections were held in Slovakia on 10 March 2012 to elect the 150 members of the National Council. The elections followed the fall of Prime Minister Iveta Radičová's Slovak Democratic and Christian Union – Democratic Party-led coalition in October 2011 over a no confidence vote her government had lost because of its support for the European Financial Stability Fund. Amidst a major corruption scandal involving local center-right politicians, former Prime Minister Robert Fico's Direction – Social Democracy won an absolute majority of seats.


Campaign.

Several weeks before the elections, police officer Jan Kubice, head of the squad for investigating organised crime, suggested that senior figures from the police and the government were trying to cover up their cooperation with organised crime. He was summoned before a parliament commission a few days before the election where he presented a document; the contents of the document were leaked immediately.  The document suggested that former Prime Minister Stanislav Gross had connections with the criminal underground and hinted that Prime Minister Jiří Paroubek was indirectly involved in a murder, dealt with the mafia and was a pedophile. It also contained information about minor officials, some of whom had already been imprisoned for bribery.  Paroubek and the others denied these claims and accused the opposition Civic Democratic Party of trying to manufacture a scandal to help them in the elections. After the elections, Paroubek said that the allegations cost his party, the Social Democratic Party, victory and that democracy was in as much danger as in 1948, when the Communists seized power. He raised the possibility of challenging the election result, though this did not happen.

Electoral system.

The Chamber of Deputies consists of 200 members elected for a four-year term. Seats were allocated by proportional representation between those lists that gained over 5% of the national total of valid votes cast.  Party lists were presented in 14 regions, with votes cast for a list, although voters were allowed up to two preference votes for candidates on that list.  The Czech Republic has a parliamentary system of government, with ministers being responsible to the Chamber of Deputies. The Chamber is the most powerful organ of the state with power to override vetoes by the President and the Senate.

Results.

The election produced a deadlock, leaving the all the coalitions which were considered likely before the election (ODS-KDU-ČSL-Greens; ČSSD-KSČM; ČSSD-KDU-ČSL-Greens) with less than the 101 votes required to pass legislation or to pass a confidence vote for the new cabinet in the Chamber of Deputies (100, 100 and 93 votes, respectively). Remaining possibilities included a grand coalition of the Civic Democratic Party and the Social Democratic Party, which would command a large majority, totalling 155 seats against 45; a minority cabinet of either of the 100-vote coalitions, which would have negotiate with the opposition to get the majority required for a confidence vote or to pass any legislation; or fresh elections.  On 26 June, the Civic Democratic Party, KDU-ČSL and the Greens announced that they had agreed on a coalition.

Legislative elections were held in the Czech Republic on 2 and 3 June 2006 to elect the members of the Chamber of Deputies.


Report.

Background.

The Grand Prix was contested by 22 drivers, in 11 teams of two. The teams, also known as "constructors", were Ferrari, McLaren-Mercedes, Renault, Honda, Force India, BMW Sauber, Toyota, Red Bull Racing, Williams, Toro Rosso and Super Aguri.  Prior to the race, McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton led the Drivers' Championship with 10 points, and BMW Sauber driver Nick Heidfeld was second with 8 points. Behind them in the Drivers' Championship, Nico Rosberg was third with 6 points in a Williams, and Fernando Alonso was fourth with 5 points in a Renault. Hamilton's teammate Heikki Kovalainen was fifth with 4 points. In the Constructors' Championship, McLaren–Mercedes were leading with 14 points, five points ahead of Williams, and BMW Sauber were third with 8 points.

Practice and qualifying.

Three practice sessions were held before the race; the first was held on Friday morning and the second on Friday afternoon. Both sessions lasted 1 hour and 30 minutes with weather conditions dry throughout. The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour. In the first session, Massa was fastest on a lap of 1:35.392, which was over a second faster than any of his rivals. Räikkönen ended up second, despite running out of fuel during the session, and Kovalainen ended up third, just under a tenth of a second slower than his fellow Finn. Also during the session, the Red Bull Racing machine of David Coulthard suffered a track rod failure on the curb of turn 12, and forced the team to show the FIA clarification that their car design was safe for the Grand Prix, under Article 2.3 of the 2008 Formula One Technical Regulations. Coulthard sat out the second practice session, which saw Hamilton top the timesheets with a lap of 1:35.055, beating Massa by 0.151 seconds, with Räikkönen a further two tenths back in third. In preparation for the qualifying session, many teams put their cars on soft tyres for the third practice session. The soft tyre gives better performance than the harder type of tyre but is less durable than the harder compound. Just like in Australia, the BMW of Heidfeld was fastest, setting a lap of 1:35.019, edging out the Ferraris of Räikkönen and Massa with Jarno Trulli's Toyota fourth, ending up just one-thousandth of a second behind Massa's time.  In qualifying, Massa earned his tenth career pole position, after recording a lap of 1:35.748 during the third and final session. He was joined on the front row by teammate Räikkönen, although the Finn's fastest time was more than half a second slower than that of Massa. Third and fourth had originally gone to the McLarens of Kovalainen and Hamilton, however post-qualifying, both drivers were demoted five places on the grid for dangerous driving; having completed their flying laps, the McLaren pair and other drivers slowed to conserve fuel on their in-laps, and impeded Nick Heidfeld of BMW Sauber and Fernando Alonso of Renault whilst they were both on flying laps. This led to a new rule being introduced for Bahrain giving drivers a set time to complete in-laps in. McLaren's misfortune was to the gain of the Toyota of Trulli, both victims of the impeding (Heidfeld and Alonso), Heidfeld's teammate Kubica and Webber's Red Bull machine. Timo Glock rounded out the top ten in his Toyota.

Race.

At the start Massa came across the track to prevent Räikkönen from overtaking him. Further back, Hamilton was able to move up to fifth and Webber up to fourth. Also on the first lap, Sébastien Bourdais spun out of the race. A crash between the Williams of Nico Rosberg and Glock's Toyota happened a few corners later, in which Rosberg destroyed the front wing of his Williams FW30 and forced Glock to retire from the race. On lap four, Alonso and Heidfeld overtook the Red Bull of David Coulthard for ninth and eighth respectively. Adrian Sutil was forced to retire two laps later when he ran off the track and onto the grass, with hydraulic problems.  By lap nine Hamilton was within two seconds of Webber and the Ferraris of Massa and Räikkönen had opened up a lead on the rest of the field. Both set new fastest lap times over the next four laps. Webber pitted on lap 16, Massa on lap 17 and Räikkönen on lap 18, coming out ahead of Massa. Hamilton pitted on lap 19 and the team had a problem getting his front right tyre off, forcing him to stop for almost twenty seconds, and in the process he lost around twelve seconds to the Ferraris, meaning he came out behind Webber in 11th.  Räikkönen took the lead for the first time when Kubica pitted on lap 21. He would open up a lead of almost four seconds in the next six laps. Hamilton was up to seventh by lap 26 but was still unable to overtake Webber. Hamilton was within half a second of him by lap 29 but this forced him to brake harder and lose time to the rest of the field. Massa spun out of the race on lap 31 getting trapped in the gravel. This gave Räikkönen a lead of over 20 seconds from the next driver Kubica. Hamilton finally overtook Webber on lap 40 when he pitted. Vettel's engine failed one lap later and he was forced to retire. Hamilton would stay ahead of Webber after his second pit stop on lap 44. He was now six seconds behind Trulli in fourth and began to close that margin in the closing laps.  Alonso in eighth now began closing in on Webber. Hamilton was within two seconds of Trulli with two laps to go but was unable to pass him before the end of the race. Räikkönen won the race by nearly twenty seconds from Kubica who had his best ever finish in second; Kovalainen came third. Nick Heidfeld and BMW Sauber earned their first fastest lap, giving Heidfeld a record in "most races before first fastest lap" with 134, surpassing the former record of 114 held by Thierry Boutsen.

The 2008 Malaysian Grand Prix (formally the X Petronas Malaysian Grand Prix) was a Formula One motor race held on 23 March 2008 at the Sepang International Circuit, Sepang, Malaysia. It was the 2nd race of the 2008 Formula One season. The 56-lap race was won by Kimi Räikkönen for the Ferrari team after starting from second position. Robert Kubica finished second in a BMW Sauber car, with Heikki Kovalainen third in a McLaren.


Background.

Basic Wi-Fi.

Conventional Wi-Fi networks are typically based on the presence of controller devices known as wireless access points. These devices normally combine three primary functions: A typical Wi-Fi home network includes laptops, tablets and phones, devices like modern printers, music devices, and televisions. The majority of Wi-Fi networks are set up in "infrastructure mode", where the access point acts as a central hub to which Wi-Fi capable devices are connected. The devices do not communicate directly with each other (that is, in ""ad-hoc" mode"), but they go through the access point.  In contrast, Wi-Fi Direct devices are able to communicate with each other without requiring a dedicated wireless access point. The Wi-Fi Direct devices negotiate when they first connect to determine which device shall act as an access point.

Automated setup.

With the increase in the number and type of devices attaching to Wi-Fi systems, the basic model of a simple router with smart computers became increasingly strained. At the same time, the increasing sophistication of the hot spots presented setup problems for the users. To address these problems, there have been numerous attempts to simplify certain aspects of the setup task.  A common example is the Wi-Fi Protected Setup system included in most access points built since 2007 when the standard was introduced. Wi-Fi Protected Setup allows access points to be set up simply by entering a PIN or other identification into a connection screen, or in some cases, simply by pressing a button. The Protected Setup system uses this information to send data to a computer, handing it the information needed to complete the network setup and connect to the Internet. From the user's point of view, a single click replaces the multi-step, jargon-filled setup experience formerly required.  While the Protected Setup model works as intended, it was intended only to simplify the connection between the access point and the devices that would make use of its services, primarily accessing the Internet. It provides little help "within" a network - finding and setting up printer access from a computer for instance. To address those roles, a number of different protocols have developed, including Universal Plug and Play (UPnP), Devices Profile for Web Services (DPWS), and Zero Configuration Networking (ZeroConf). These protocols allow devices to seek out other devices within the network, query their capabilities, and provide some level of automatic setup.

Wi-Fi.

Wi-Fi Direct has become a standard feature in smart phones and portable media players, and in feature phones as well. The process of adding Wi-Fi to smaller devices has accelerated, and it is now possible to find printers, cameras, scanners, and many other common devices with Wi-Fi in addition to other connections, like USB.  The widespread adoption of Wi-Fi in new classes of smaller devices made the need for ad hoc networking much more important. Even without a central Wi-Fi hub or router, it would be useful for a laptop computer to be able to wirelessly connect to a local printer. Although the ad hoc mode was created to address this sort of need, the lack of additional information for discovery makes it difficult to use in practice.  Although systems like UPnP and Bonjour provide many of the needed capabilities and are included in some devices, a single widely supported standard was lacking, and support within existing devices was far from universal. A guest using their smart phone would likely be able to find a hotspot and connect to the Internet with ease, perhaps using Protected Setup to do so. But, the same device would find that streaming music to a computer or printing a file might be difficult, or simply not supported between differing brands of hardware.  Wi-Fi Direct can provide a wireless connection to peripherals. Wireless mice, keyboards, remote controls, headsets, speakers, displays, and many other functions can be implemented with Wi-Fi Direct. This has begun with Wi-Fi mouse products, and Wi-Fi Direct remote controls that were shipping circa November 2012.  File sharing applications such as SHAREit on Android and BlackBerry 10 devices could use Wi-Fi Direct, with most Android version 4.1 (Jellybean), introduced in July 2012, and BlackBerry 10.2 supported. Android version 4.2 (Jellybean) included further refinements to Wi-Fi Direct including persistent permissions enabling two-way transfer of data between multiple devices.  The Miracast standard for the wireless connection of devices to displays is based on Wi-Fi direct.

Technical description.

Wi-Fi Direct essentially embeds a software access point ("Soft AP"), into any device that must support Direct. The soft AP provides a version of Wi-Fi Protected Setup with its push-button or PIN-based setup.  When a device enters the range of the Wi-Fi Direct host, it can connect to it, and then gather setup information using a Protected Setup-style transfer. Connection and setup is so simplified that it may replace Bluetooth in some situations.  Soft APs can be as simple or as complex as the role requires. A digital picture frame might provide only the most basic services needed to allow digital cameras to connect and upload images. A smart phone that allows data tethering might run a more complex soft AP that adds the ability to bridge to the Internet. The standard also includes WPA2 security and features to control access within corporate networks. Wi-Fi Direct-certified devices can connect one-to-one or one-to-many and not all connected products need to be Wi-Fi Direct-certified. One Wi-Fi Direct enabled device can connect to legacy Wi-Fi certified devices.  The Wi-Fi Direct certification program is developed and administered by the Wi-Fi Alliance, the industry group that owns the "Wi-Fi" trademark. The specification is available for purchase from the Wi-Fi Alliance.

Commercialization.

Laptops.

Intel included Wi-Fi Direct on the Centrino 2 platform, in its My WiFi technology by 2008. Wi-Fi Direct devices can connect to a notebook computer that plays the role of a software Access Point (AP). The notebook computer can then provide Internet access to the Wi-Fi Direct-enabled devices without a Wi-Fi AP. Marvell Technology Group, Atheros, Broadcom, Intel, Ralink, and Realtek announced their first products in October 2010. Redpine Signals's chipset was Wi-Fi Direct certified in November of the same year.

Mobile devices.

Google announced Wi-Fi Direct support in Android 4.0 in October 2011. While some Android 2.3 devices like Samsung Galaxy S II have had this feature through proprietary operating system extensions developed by OEMs, the Galaxy Nexus (released November 2011) was the first Android device to ship with Google's implementation of this feature and an API for developers. Ozmo Devices, which developed integrated circuits (chips) designed for Wi-Fi Direct, was acquired by Atmel in 2012.  Wi-Fi Direct became available with the Blackberry 10.2 upgrade.  As of March 2016, no iPhone device implements Wi-Fi Direct; instead, iOS has its own proprietary feature, namely Apple's MultipeerConnectivity. This protocol and others are used in the feature AirDrop, used to transfer large files between Apple devices using a similar (but proprietary) technology to Wi-Fi Direct.

Game consoles.

The Xbox One, released in 2013, supports Wi-Fi Direct.  NVIDIA's SHIELD controller uses Wi-Fi Direct to connect to compatible devices. NVIDIA claims a reduction in latency and increase in throughput over competing Bluetooth controllers.

Televisions.

In March 2016 Sony, LG, Philips and X.VISION have implemented Wi-Fi Direct on some of their televisions.

Wi-Fi Direct (formerly Wi-Fi Peer-to-Peer) is a Wi-Fi standard for peer-to-peer wireless connections that allows two devices to establish a direct Wi-Fi connection without an intermediary wireless access point, router, or Internet connection. Wi-Fi Direct is single-hop communication, rather than multihop communication like wireless/mobile ad hoc networks.


Background.

When Heracles was near his death, he wished to be burned on a funeral pyre while still alive. In the "Philoctetes", Sophocles references the myth in which no one but Philoctetes would light Heracles' funeral pyre, and in return for this favor Heracles gave Philoctetes his bow (seen in later texts, such as Ovid's "Metamorphoses"). Philoctetes left with the Greeks to participate in the Trojan War, but was bitten on the foot by a snake while walking on Chryse, a sacred ground. The bite caused him constant agony, and emitted a horrible smell. For this reason he was left by Odysseus and the Atreidai (sons of Atreus) on the desert island Lemnos.  Ten years pass, and the Greeks capture the Trojan seer Helenus, son of Priam. He foretells that they will need the master archer Philoctetes and the bow of Heracles to win the war. Odysseus sails back to Lemnos with Neoptolemus (son of Achilles) to get Philoctetes. The task is not easy, as Philoctetes bitterly hates Odysseus and the Greeks for leaving him there.

Synopsis.

Sophocles' "Philoctetes" begins with their arrival on the island. Odysseus explains to Neoptolemus that he must perform a shameful action in order to garner future glory—to take Philoctetes by tricking him with a false story while Odysseus hides. Neoptolemus is portrayed as an honorable boy, and so it takes some persuading to get him to play this part. To gain Philoctetes' trust, Neoptolemus tricks Philoctetes into thinking he hates Odysseus as well. Neoptolemus does this by telling Philoctetes that Odysseus has his father's (Achilles) armor. He tells Philoctetes that this armor was his right by birth, and Odysseus would not give it up to him. After gaining Philoctetes' trust and offering him a ride home, Neoptolemus is allowed to look at the bow of Heracles.  Neoptolemus holds the bow while Philoctetes is going into an unbearable fit of pain in his foot. Feeling ashamed, Neoptolemus debates giving it back to him. Odysseus appears, and a series of arguments ensue. Eventually Neoptolemus' conscience gains the upper hand, and he returns the bow. After many threats made on both sides, Odysseus flees. Neoptolemus then tries to talk Philoctetes into coming to Troy by his own free will, but Philoctetes does not agree. In the end, Neoptolemus consents to take Philoctetes back to Greece, even though that will expose him to the anger of the army. This appears to be the conclusion of the play—however, as they are leaving, Heracles (now a deity) appears above them and tells Philoctetes that if he goes to Troy, he will be cured and the Greeks will win. Philoctetes willingly obeys him.  The play ends here. When Philoctetes later fights in Troy, his foot is healed, and he wins glory, killing many Trojans (including Paris).

Themes and ideas.

The concept of having a moral high ground is a key aspect in this play. The play makes the spectator question what morality means to each man. Furthermore, the play makes one question the struggle between what is right for the individual versus what is right for the group. It is possible that this struggle is irreconcilable. More specifically, one can see this struggle by looking at what has happened to Philoctetes versus what the Greeks need.  Another theme is that of trauma. Philoctetes suffers wounds that do not heal. Furthermore, Philoctetes' suffering is now what defines him, yet Neoptolemus pretends not to know Philoctetes at first. In other words, Philoctetes' suffering should at least make him known, but it is as if his story is dead.

Contemporary adaptations.

The "Theatre of War" Project.

The story of Philoctetes, dealing with the wounded man and the interwoven relationships with others, has been frequently noted. In 2005 Bryan Doerries, writer and director, began a series of readings of the play in the New York City area, noting the reactions of the audience to the reading, especially related to the reactions of audience members to the interaction of the suffering soldier and the conflicted caregiver. The project revolves around presenting such readings, especially to audiences of medical professionals and students.  A number of readings were followed by a panel discussion about doctor-patient relationships, involving presenters in psychiatry, physicians, and military medical personnel.  The concept has also been extended to training of medical students, such as a presentation also in 2007 to the first year medical class at Weill Medical College of Cornell University.  In 2008, at a conference dedicated to finding new ways to help US Marines recover from post-traumatic stress and other disorders after serving in Iraq or Afghanistan, four New York actors presented a dramatic reading from "Philoctetes" and "Ajax".

Fictional adaptations.

New Amsterdam 2019 episode Good Soldiers

Philoctetes (, "Philoktētēs"; English pronunciation:, stressed on the third syllable, "-tet-") is a play by Sophocles (Aeschylus and Euripides also each wrote a "Philoctetes" but theirs have not survived). The play was written during the Peloponnesian War. It is one of the seven extant tragedies by Sophocles. It was first performed at the City Dionysia in 409 BC, where it won first prize. The story takes place during the Trojan War (after the majority of the events of the "Iliad", but before the Trojan Horse). It describes the attempt by Neoptolemus and Odysseus to bring the disabled Philoctetes, the master archer, back to Troy from the island of Lemnos.


Plot.

The film opens with Hepburn acting in the title sequence from "Breakfast at Tiffany's" and reminiscing about her life up to that point. These include her experiences in early childhood, studying to be a ballerina, coming to grips with her parents' divorce, and life in Nazi-occupied Netherlands during World War II. She then settles in the United States where she succeeds in making it big as an actress. The film also looks at the men who woo her and her marriage to Mel Ferrer. The closing credits feature footage of the real Hepburn during one of the UNICEF missions she undertook in her later years.

Production.

Producer Kimberly Rubin sought to make a film that explored Hepburn's life in detail, beginning with her childhood and World War II experiences up to her success on stage and in film. She halted the script after the birth of Hepburn's first child, however, due to the age of her lead actress, Jennifer Love Hewitt, who was 21 at the time of the filming. "[W]e would not be able to successfully age her past 33", Rubin explained. Hewitt had been recommended for the role by director Steven Robman, who had previously directed her in "Party of Five".  The $7 million production was filmed on location in Montreal between April 13 and May 29, 1999. Nearly 80 roles were cast. Canadian professionals involved with the film included Jean-Baptiste Tard, production design; Renée April, costume design; and Pierre Letarte, director of photography.

Release.

Several versions of the film were aired. In the United States. It aired as a three-hour film on ABC on March 27, 2000, while in other countries a longer version was broadcast over two nights.

Reception.

Critical reviews noted that the film overcame several potential pitfalls, including the usual insipidness of television movies and the difficulty of mounting a biopic of a revered actress who had died only seven years earlier. "Entertainment Weekly" wrote that Jennifer Love Hewitt had "guts" to take on the role, and called her "excellent at conveying Hepburn's studied modesty". While the review describes the other actors as "a cast of impersonators who are mostly much worse than herself [Hewitt]", it sums up the film as a "corny, curious, but achingly sincere and fitfully enjoyable TV movie".  "Variety" praised the performances of the two young actresses who played Hepburn as a youth, Sarah Hyland and Emmy Rossum, saying they gave "depth and likability" to Hepburn's character and gave Hewitt, who plays Hepburn as an adult, "a ball that's already rolling". This review commended Hewitt for her "onscreen maturity". The Apollo Guide called the screenplay "a mildly pleasant surprise" for a television film and praised Hewitt's performance for conveying the "mannerisms and accent" of Hepburn without taking on a full-blown impersonation. It reserved its greatest praise for Rossum's performance, which "demonstrates both her [Hepburn's] heart and the development of her strength of character and explains, in part, why she was unique". A Moviehole.com review agreed that Hewitt conveyed "both the look, and the voice" of Hepburn, but disliked the script for presenting such a large number of scenes in Hepburn's life rather than the "most gripping" ones.  Negative reviews focused on Hewitt's inability to portray Hepburn's physical qualities. According to "The Baltimore Sun" review: "What's impossibly wrong with this film is that Hewitt has no physical grace while Hepburn was the very embodiment of it.... Director Steve Robman... has to use every trick from slow motion to shooting only legs and arms of body-doubles to make it look as though Hewitt could have been a ballerina". "Radio Times" noted the incongruity of the "buxom" actress portraying the gamine Hepburn. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 20% based on reviews from 5 critics.

The Audrey Hepburn Story is a 2000 American biographical drama television film based on the life of actress and humanitarian Audrey Hepburn. Covering the years 1935 to the 1960s, it stars Jennifer Love Hewitt, who also produced the film. Emmy Rossum and Sarah Hyland appear as Hepburn in her early years. The film was shot in Montreal, Canada, and premiered on ABC on March 27, 2000.


Description.

All "Adenia" are perennial plants, but there are many different forms, including herbs, vines, lianas, shrubs, and trees. Many are succulents and some are pachycauls. Some have fibrous root systems and some have tubers. "Adenia" can be found in a wide variety of habitat types, from dry African deserts to wet Southeast Asian rainforests. There are some 100 species in the genus.  "Adenia" have alternately arranged leaves borne on petioles. There are two glands located near the attachment of the blade to the petiole. Most species are dioecious. Inflorescences of a few to many flowers occur in the leaf axils. There is a stipe below the flower. The calyx of sepals around the base of the flower has five lobes. The five petals are usually smaller than the sepals and may be whitish or greenish. The male flower has five stamens. In the female flower these are reduced to staminodes. There are three styles tipped with stigmas that may be long-hairy to very woolly. The fruit is a red capsule. Each black seed has a fleshy aril.  "Adenia" species can be difficult to identify and distinguish. Individuals of a species can be variable. One plant can have leaves of varying shapes and sizes, and young and old specimens can have different leaf types. Some taxa are poorly represented in herbarium collections, leaving few examples to compare with new specimens. Records of some taxa lack descriptions of both flower types. Many species only flower for a few weeks, and during this time they may also lose their leaves. Succulent plants can be difficult to properly collect and preserve.

Uses.

Several species are used in traditional African medicine. Various parts of "A. cissampeloides" are used to treat many conditions, including gastrointestinal problems, inflammation, pain, fever, malaria, leprosy, scabies, cholera, anemia, bronchitis, sexually transmitted diseases, menorrhagia, and mental illness. It is used both as an abortifacient and to prevent miscarriage. "A. dinklagei" leaves are ingested to treat palpitations. The leaves of "A. tricostata" are used to treat fever. The leaves or leaf sap of "A. bequaertii" are taken to treat headache, mental illness, and possession. "A. lobata" stems are applied to sites of Guinea worm infection during extraction of the worm. It is also used as an enema and an aphrodisiac.  "A. cissampeloides" is used as a fish poison and arrow poison. The red-colored sap is used as a cosmetic. The stems can be made into rope. The crushed twigs or smoke from burning roots can be used to calm honeybees during honey harvest.  The leaves of "A. cissampeloides" are eaten as a vegetable in parts of Africa.  "A. digitata" is cultivated as an ornamental plant for its very large, distinctive aboveground tuber.

Toxicity.

Many "Adenia" are poisonous. They contain lectins such as lanceolin, stenodactylin, and volkensin, which are toxic to cells. They cause apoptosis, hemagglutination, inhibition of protein synthesis, and depurination of ribosomes and DNA. Mouse experiments with small doses of lanceolin and stenodactylin, from "A. lanceolata" and "A. stenodactyla", respectively, revealed that they are "amongst the most potent toxins of plant origin".  The fruit of "A. digitata" has been used in Africa to commit homicide and suicide.

Diversity.

There are approximately 100 species in the genus.  Species include:

Adenia is a genus of flowering plants in the passionflower family, Passifloraceae. It is distributed in the Old World tropics and subtropics. The centers of diversity are in Madagascar, eastern and western tropical Africa, and Southeast Asia. The genus name "Adenia" comes from "aden", reported as the Arabic name for the plant by Peter Forsskål, the author of the genus.


World War I.

MAS were widely employed by "Regia Marina" during World War I in 1915–1918. Models used were directly derived from compact civilian motorboats, provided with petrol engines which were compact and reliable (characteristics which were not common at the time). They were used not only in the anti-submarine patrol role, but also for daring attacks against major units of the Austro-Hungarian Navy.  A significant success came in December 1917, when an MAS boat managed to sink the pre-dreadnought battleship in Trieste harbor. The greatest success of Italian MAS was the sinking of the Austro-Hungarian battleship off Pula on 10 June 1918 by a boat commanded by Luigi Rizzo. MAS boats later engaged in the Second Battle of Durazzo in October 1918.  The main Austrian fleet remained securely at anchor in the harbour at Pola (now Pula in Croatia), protected by several layers of defensive booms, impassable to conventional MAS boats. A special version, the "Grillo"-class tracked torpedo motorboat or (Jumping Boats) were designed, which featured a pair of spiked continuous tracks, intended to allow them to clamber over the booms which were supported by large timber baulks. The boats were powered by an electric motor for a silent approach and carried two torpedoes. Four were built; the first two were scuttled when their slow motors failed to get them to the harbour booms at Pola before daybreak and in a second operation, another boat made such a loud clattering noise climbing the booms that it was spotted and destroyed by gunfire.

Interwar Period and Spanish Civil War.

In 1926, four MAS boats were built for and purchased by the Royal Albanian Navy. They were named "Tirana", "Saranda", "Durres", and "Vlorë". During the Italian invasion of Albania they were seized and put into service by Italian forces. All survived World War II and in 1945 were returned to Albania. Four units were transferred to the Nationalist Navy during the Spanish Civil War in 1938: "Sicilia" (LT-18), ex "MAS 100"; "Nápoles" (LT-19), ex "MAS 223"; "Cándido Pérez" (LT-16), ex "MAS 435"; and "Javier Quiroga" (LT-17), ex "MAS 436".

World War II.

Italian MAS continued to be improved after the end of World War I, thanks to the availability of Isotta Fraschini engines. The MAS of World War II had a maximum speed of 45 knots, two 450 mm torpedoes and one machine gun. In 1940 there were 48 MAS 500-class units available. Older units were used in secondary theatres, such as the Italian East Africa. Notable war actions performed by MAS include the torpedoing of the Royal Navy C-class cruiser "Capetown" by "MAS 213" of the 21st MAS Squadron working within the Red Sea Flotilla off Massawa, Eritrea; and the failed attack on the harbour of Malta in January 1941, which caused the loss of two motorboats, one of them recovered by the British, put in service as a tender and renamed "XMAS". Five MAS were scuttled in Massawa in the first week of April 1941 as a part of the Italian plan for the wrecking of Massawa harbor in the face of the British advance. "MAS 204", "206", "210", "213", and "216" were sunk in the harbor; four of the boats were in need of mechanical repairs and could not be evacuated. On 24 July 1941, amid heavy fire from the escorts, "MAS 532" torpedoed and crippled the transport "Sydney Star", escorted by the destroyer HMS "Cossack" and part of the British convoy GM 1. The steamer managed to limp to Malta assisted by the destroyer HMAS "Nestor". On 1 December 1941, two Italian MAS boats engaged the Soviet icebreaker "Anastas Mykoyan", en route from the Dardanelles to Suez, with machine gun fire and forced it to run aground on the Turkish coast off Kastelorizo. Even though the Soviet vessel was refloated and reached Haifa for repairs the next day, the action compelled the Turkish government to intern eight Soviet ships set to repeat the same journey. "MAS 554", "554" and "557" sank three allied freighters on the night of 13 August 1942 off Cape Bon, in the course of Operation "Pedestal", for a total tonnage of 48,500 tons. On 29 August 1942, a smaller type of MAS boat, the MTSM, torpedoed the British destroyer "Eridge" off El Daba, Egypt, disabling it for the remainder of the war.  A flotilla of MAS served at German request as reinforcements in the Black Sea for the planned attack on Sevastopol in June 1942. The MAS squadron came under intense air attack from Soviet fighter-bombers and torpedo boats but performed well. They sank the 5,000-ton steamer "Abkhazia" and disabled the 10,000-ton transport "Fabritius", which was subsequently destroyed by "Stuka" dive-bombers. MAS boats destroyed troop barges and damaged Soviet warships. A MAS boat commander was killed in battle. One MAS was destroyed and three damaged by fighter-bombers in September 1942 during a heavy attack on Yalta. In the early hours of 3 August 1942, three MAS boats torpedoed and disabled the Soviet cruiser "Molotov" south-west of Kerch.  In May 1943, the seven MAS boats in the Black Sea were transferred to the "Kriegsmarine". In August that year, they were transferred to the Romanian Navy. These seven boats were wooden-hulled, each displacing 25 tons. Top speed amounted to 42 knots, generated by petrol engines powering two shafts. They were armed with one 13 mm heavy machine gun or one 20 mm anti-aircraft gun, 6 depth charges and two 350 mm torpedoes.  Another flotilla of four MAS, the XII Squadriglia MAS, was deployed to Lake Ladoga in April 1942 to support the siege of Leningrad. They sank a Soviet gunboat of the Bira class, a 1,300-ton cargo ship and several barges. Soviet sources say that the gunboat, the "Selemdzha", was only lightly damaged when the torpedo exploded in the lake's bottom, with two wounded on board.  After the signing of the Cassibile agreement, MAS boats sank the German torpedo boat "TA11" (ex French "L'Iphigénie") at Piombino, on 11 September 1943.  The obsolescence of small MAS became apparent during the conflict, and they were increasingly replaced by larger Yugoslavian E-boats built in Germany and by new improved versions, classified "MS" ("Moto Siluranti") by the "Regia Marina".  A type of anti-submarine craft based on the MAS design was developed by the Italian Navy in World War II. This was the "vedetta anti sommergibile", or "VAS", equipped with a good amount of anti-submarine warfare equipment given her small size.

Cultural legacy.

The Italian poet Gabriele d'Annunzio, who employed MAS in some of his World War I adventures, used the MAS acronym for his Latin motto: "Memento audere semper" ("remember always to dare").

Motoscafo armato silurante (torpedo-armed motorboat), commonly abbreviated as MAS was a class of fast torpedo-armed vessels used by the (Italian Royal Navy) during World War I and World War II. Originally, "MAS" referred to (armed motorboat SVAN, (Naval Automobile Society of Venice).


History.

Beauvais (1217–1672).

Philip of Dreux, the famed crusader bishop of Beauvais, wished to found a convent of the Cistercian order. In 1217 he set aside an orchard southwest of Beauvais, on which were traced out the plans for construction, as well as seven arpents (6-7 acres) of vines. Philip died before the project was completed and his successor, Bishop Milo of Nanteuil, raised the rest of the funds, and it was completed in 1218. Pope Gregory IX issued a bull from the Lateran Palace on the 8 June 1230 which sanctioned the new abbey and declared the funds raised for its endowment protected. The abbey took its name, meaning mountain slope, from its location at the foot of the Montagne de St-Symphorien.  In 1554 the abbey provided refuge to Charlotte I de Monceaux, the abbess of the neighboring Abbey of Saint-Paul, whose election as abbess was opposed by Henry II. She fled to Pentemont after the arrival of the king's soldiers at her own abbey. However, they followed her to Pentemont and demanded by force that she renounce her position, a request to which she was compelled to accede.  In 1671, after the abbey was damaged in a flood, and for economic and geographical reasons, the abbess Hélène de Tourville moved the abbey to Paris. At the time, the convent had twelve sisters. The previous building was demolished and returned to agricultural work as part of the Pentemont farm.

Paris (1672–1790).

In Paris the abbey took up residence in a former convent, recently suppressed, of the Sisters of the Incarnate Word, located on Rue de Grenelle at the current site of the abbey. The sisters dedicated themselves to the education of young women and later added rooms in which women of good standing could find rest. The abbey quickly acquired a distinguished reputation and by the time of its dissolution in 1790 had revenues of 58,000 livres, a great sum for the era.  The final abbess, Marie III Catherine de Béthisy de Mézières, spent 45 years and a great deal of money rebuilding and expanding the abbey. A competition for plans for a reconstruction attracted multiple proposals including one from the royal architect, François II Franque, which drew praise from Denis Diderot in the "Encyclopédie" for its combination of grandeur and simplicity. The winning proposal, however, was from Pierre Contant d'Ivry.  The many famous students educated at the abbey included the noted abbess and princess Louise Adélaïde de Bourbon, and Louise d'Esparbès de Lussan, the mistress of the Count of Artois, the future Charles X of France. Thomas Jefferson's daughters Martha and Mary were both educated at the Pentemont Abbey while he was Minister to France. Their entry into the school was sponsored by the wife of the Marquis de Lafayette. The future first lady Abigail Adams was shocked that Jefferson would send his girls to a Catholic school but he assured her that there were many Protestants at the abbey. Conditions were austere for the students, despite the presence of three princesses, with no fires until the water froze and a prohibition on speaking outside of class and recreation. Her time at the school led Martha, nicknamed Patsy, to write a letter to her father expressing her desire to become a nun. Jefferson quickly removed his daughters from the care of the convent.  The abbey also provided elegant apartments to highborn women seeking independence from families or difficult marriages. The ladies were free to come and go as they liked, with constraints on the hours allowed outside the convent, often had their children and servants with them, and spent their evenings socializing and commiserating in the abbey's salons. One such resident was Joséphine de Beauharnais, the future Empress of France, during her separation from her first husband, Alexandre de Beauharnais. The court granted her temporary independence from her husband and required her to stay at Pentemont with her children at the expense of Alexandre. It is also speculated that James Smithson, the founder of the Smithsonian Institution, who was born in Paris the illegitimate son of the Duke of Northumberland, was born in the Pentemont Abbey, as it had strong connections to the Duke, whose illegitimate daughters it educated.

State Property (1790–2015).

Military.

During the French Revolution, the Abbey was suppressed and its properties confiscated. The abbey's affairs were wound down in 1791-2, with its properties in Beauvais sold to pay off state debt. With the abbey now state property it came to serve first as home to the National Guard, then the Imperial Guard. In 1835, the building was expanded to Rue de Bellechasse which required the demolition of some parts of the original structure. Under the Second Empire the abbey served as the barracks of the Cent-gardes Squadron, an elite cavalry unit that provided personal protection for Napoleon III and the Tuileries Palace.  In the twentieth century, Pentemont Abbey housed the Ministry of War Pensions, Bonuses and Benefits. In 1937, a bunker was constructed underneath the Court of Honor including two stationary bicycles intended to provide electricity in case of power loss due to enemy bombardment. The courtyard has a war memorial that reads "From veterans to their comrades who gave their lives for their country. In memoriam." It is also home to a number of commemorative plaques, including ones for André Maginot and Henri Frenay.

Protestant Church.

The chapel was used to store grain during the Revolution and later hay when the army took over the abbey. After the Concordat of 1801 provided formal recognition of the Reformed Church in France, it was decided that three former Catholic churches in Paris be turned over to Reformed congregations, Saint-Louis-du-Louvre, Sainte-Marie-des-Anges, and the chapel of the Pentemont Abbey.  In 1598, Protestant worship had been forbidden in Paris by the Edict of Nantes. In 1685, the Edict of Fontainebleau made non-Catholic services illegal in all of France. This inaugurated a long period of persecution for French Protestants though some in Paris were able to worship in the chapels of the Dutch and Swedish embassies. The handover of the chapel of the abbey as well as the other churches ushered in a new era of open Protestant worship in Paris.  The actual opening of the former abbey as a Reformed congregation was delayed by decades of bureaucratic obstacles as well as opposition during the Bourbon Restoration to turning over a former Catholic building to Protestant use. It was not until 1844 that architect Victor Baltard began work to convert the chapel into a Protestant church. He isolated the chapel from the rest of the building, added new doors in place of two of the previous windows, and converted the former choir to a nave. He also closed off the original entrance by adding a massive organ, built by Aristide Cavaillé-Coll and installed in 1846 for the opening of the church. The organ has undergone various modifications over the years including a restoration from 2011-14 to restore the remaining original elements. The church itself underwent restoration from 2005-2007 commissioned by the City of Paris and accomplished by Benjamin Mouton, the chief architect of historic monuments, and the firm Aubert-Labansat.  Source:

Pentemont Abbey (, "Pentemont", "Panthemont" or "Pantemont") is a set of 18th and 19th century buildings at the corner of Rue de Grenelle and Rue de Bellechasse in the 7th arrondissement of Paris. The abbey was a Cistercian convent founded near Beauvais in 1217 and moved to its current site in Paris in 1672 at the behest of Louis XIV. A reconstruction of the abbey was initiated in 1745 by the Abbess Marie-Catherine Béthisy de Mézières and work was completed in 1783. In the late 18th century the abbey was one of the most prestigious educational institutions in Paris for daughters of the elite, including two of Thomas Jefferson's. The abbey also provided rooms for ladies of good standing who were in search of rest, including Joséphine de Beauharnais when the case of her separation from her first husband was heard.


Description.

The Dukan diet is a high-protein, low-carbohydrate diet with four phases, each of which has specific rules.

History.

In 1975, Pierre Dukan was a general practitioner in Paris when he was first confronted with a case of obesity. At the time, being overweight or obese was thought to be best treated by low calorie and small sized meals. Dukan thought of an alternative way to prevent patients from regaining their lost weight. He designed a new approach in 4 phases, including stabilisation and consolidation. After more than 20 years of research Pierre Dukan published his findings in 2000 in his book "Je ne sais pas maigrir" ("I don't know how to get slimmer") which became a best seller.  In July 2011, a French court ruled against Dukan in his attempt to sue rival nutritionist Jean-Michel Cohen for libel, after Cohen had criticised his method in the press.  In 2013, Dukan, then aged 72, was banned from practising as a GP in France for eight days for breaching medical ethics by prescribing a diet pill to one of his patients in the 1970s that was later pulled from the market.

Related diets.

Pierre Dukan said the paleo diet was a copy of his weight loss strategy. The Paleolithic diet is claimed to be based on the human ancestral diet. Other similar diets include Ketogenic diet being low carb moderate protein and high fats and Atkins diet being low carb high protein and moderate fats.

Promotion and media exposure.

Dukan has been promoting his diet since the 1970s; it gained a wider audience after the 2000 publication of his book, "The Dukan Diet", which has sold more than 7 million copies globally. The book was released in the United Kingdom in May 2010, and in the United States in April 2011.  The French magazine "L'Express"' list of the 20 top-selling non-fiction books for the week of 27 December 2010 ranked "La méthode Dukan illustrée" in 19th place.  Channel Four included the diet in the programme "Will my crash diet kill me?" on 26 January 2011.  The American spokesperson for the diet is culinary dietitian Gina Keatley.

Reception.

The Dukan diet is categorized as a commercial fad diet and carries some risk of causing chronic kidney disease and worsened cardiovascular health. It is unclear whether it helps people lose weight or increase their glucose tolerance. Nephrolithiasis is a potential side effect of the diet that is of particular concern to people with a history of kidney stone formation.  The British Dietetic Association have named the Dukan Diet the number 1 "diet to avoid".

The Dukan Diet is a high-protein low-carbohydrate fad diet devised by Pierre Dukan. The diet is not nutritionally sound and it carries risks to kidney and cardiovascular health.


History.

In 1998, at the Rome Conference that adopted the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court ("the Statute"), the crime was included as one of the crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court (Article 5.1) and over which any State that becomes party to the Statute accepts the Court's jurisdiction (Article 12.1). However, participants to the Rome Conference could not agree on the definition of the crime nor on further conditions for the Court's exercise of jurisdiction; the Statute did not allow the Court to exercise such jurisdiction until these outstanding issues were solved (Article 5.2). At the 2010 Review Conference ("the Conference"), States Parties agreed by consensus to adopt resolution RC/Res.6 accepting the amendments to the Statute adding the definition of the crime and the conditions for the exercise of jurisdiction over this crime.

Definition.

Under the Statute, the definition of "crime of aggression" is stated as follows:

Exercise of jurisdiction.

Under the Statute, the conditions for the exercise of jurisdiction for the "crime of aggression" by the Court are as defined below. With these provisions, the Court may exercise its jurisdiction over the "crime of aggression" in one or all of the following ways.

Article 15 bis.

Exercise of jurisdiction over the crime of aggression (State referral, proprio motu)

Article 15 ter.

Exercise of jurisdiction over the crime of aggression (Security Council referral)

Activation of the Court's jurisdiction.

Since the amendments on the crime of aggression were adopted under Article 121.5, they enter into force for each ratifying State individually. In addition, the amendments require two further conditions to be fulfilled for the Court to exercise jurisdiction, both for state referrals and "proprio motu" investigations (15 bis) and for Security Council referrals (15 ter): At the 16th annual session of the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Treaty, it was decided to activate jurisdiction of the Crime of Aggression starting July 17, 2018.

States Parties to the Amendments.

As of 29 November 2017, thirty-four (34) State Parties have ratified or acceded to the amendments to the Rome Statute. On 8 May 2012, Liechtenstein ratified the Amendments on the crime of aggression to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court thereby becoming the first state to ratify the amendments. On 13 January 2013, the amendments were ratified by Luxembourg, the first current non-permanent member of the Security Council to do so. Luxembourg also became the first state to implement the amendments into domestic legislation. because it has revised its criminal code and its code of criminal procedure in February 2012. During the High-Level Week of the United Nations General Assembly from 25–26 September 2013, the amendments were also ratified by Andorra, Cyprus, Slovenia, and Uruguay, respectively. The states parties are shown in alphabetical order according to their official name within the Assembly of States Parties.  "See" Amendments to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court for the list of states parties to the amendments.

Statements by states.

Liechtenstein.

Liechtenstein, which served the Presidency of the Review Conference, issued a statement upon ratification to the amendments:

Japan.

At the Review Conference, Japan issued two statements before and after the adoption of the amendments took place:

United Kingdom.

In 2006, the House of Lords ruled in the case or "R v Jones" that the crime of aggression did not exist in English law as it applied within the United Kingdom.

United States.

After its formal participation in the Review Conference as Observer, on 15 June 2010 the United States government held a special briefing on the Conference outlining what they deemed as accomplishments.

Related provisions.

The following article(s) are related with the adopted amendments concerning the provision on "crime of aggression".

Article 13.

Exercise of jurisdiction

A crime of aggression is a specific type of crime where a person plans, initiates, or executes an act of aggression using state military force that violates the Charter of the United Nations. The act is judged as a violation based on its character, gravity, and scale.


History.

Founded during the Gallo-Roman period, the citadel derives its reputation from its long double surrounding walls interspersed by 52 towers. The town has about 2,500 years of history and has been occupied in different ages by Romans, Visigoths, and Crusaders. At the beginning of its history it was a Gaulish settlement then in the 3rd century A.D., the Romans decided to transform it into a fortified town. The Roman defences were in place by 333 AD, when the town is described as a "castellum". The original walls were supported by between 34 and 40 towers, spaced from 18 to 30 metres apart along the curtain wall. Each tower was semicircular in plan and about 14 metres tall. There were probably 40 main entrances to the town.  The Gallo-Roman walls were rebuilt during the town's occupation by the Visigoths in the 5th and 6th centuries, but the original structure remained in place.  Bernard Aton IV Trencavel, vicomte of Albi, Nîmes, and Béziers, introduced a period of prosperity for the city with numerous construction projects. During this period, a new sect known as Catharism sprang up in Languedoc. In 1096, the vicomte of Trencavel authorized the construction of the basilica of Saint-Nazaire with the blessing of Pope Urban II. In 1107, the citizens rejected his sovereignty and called on Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona to remove him. However, with the help of Bertrand, Count of Toulouse, Bernard Aton regains control of the Cité. In 1120, there is a second revolt, but Bernard Aton re-establishes order a few years later. In 1130, he starts construction of a palace for himself and restoration of the Gallo-Roman fortifications. The Cité of Carcassonne is surrounded by a complete fortification for the first time..  At this time, the city has a large population of 3 to 4 thousand, including the residents of the two settlements below the walls of the Cité: the bourg Saint-Vincent on the north, and the bourg Saint-Michel south of the Narbon gate.  In 1208, Pope Innocent III calls on the barons of the north to mount a crusade against the Cathars, beginning the Albigensian Crusade. The Count of Toulouse, accused of heresy, and his principal vassal, the Vicomte of Trencavel, are the main target of this attack. On 1 August 1209, the Cité is besieged by the crusaders. Raimond-Roger Trencavel surrenders quickly on the 15th of August in exchange for the lives of the citizens. The town around the Cité is destroyed, and the citizens driven out. The vicomte dies of dysentery in his own chateau on 10 November 1209.  His lands are given to Simon de Montfort, the leader of the crusaders. When he dies in 1218 at the siege of Toulouse, his son, Amaury de Montfort, takes possession of the Cité, but is unable to maintain it. He cedes it to Louis VIII of France, but Raymond VII of Toulouse and the counts of Foix ally themselves against him. In 1224, Raimond II Trencavel retakes the Cité. However, Louis VIII launches another crusade in 1226. From that time forth, the Cité becomes a royal domain. A period of terror ensues, with numerous massacres and the Inquisition.  After 1226, an additional line of fortifications was added outside of the Roman walls. The town was finally annexed to the kingdom of France in 1247 A.D. It provided a strong French frontier between France and the Crown of Aragon. During this period, the inner, Roman walls were largely demolished and replaced, while the new outer walls were reinforced and extended to the south. The new towers built during this work were mainly circular, but two were square. Construction continued into the reign of King Philip IV in the early 14th century.  In 1659, after the Treaty of the Pyrenees, the province of Roussillon became a part of France, and the town lost its military significance. Fortifications were abandoned and the town became one of the economic centres of France, concentrating on the woolen textile industry.  In 1849 the French government decided that the city fortifications should be demolished. This decision was strongly opposed by the local people. Jean-Pierre Cros-Mayrevieille and Prosper Mérimée, an eminent archaeologist and historian, led a campaign to preserve the fortress as a historical monument. The government later reversed its decision and in 1853 restoration work began. The architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc was charged with renovating the fortress. Viollet-le-Duc's work was criticised during his lifetime as inappropriate to the climate and traditions of the region. After his death in 1879, the restoration work was continued by his pupil, Paul Boeswillwald, and later by the architect Nodet.  The citadel was restored at the end of the 19th century and in 1997 it was added to UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. An image of the historic city of Carcassonne appears on the emblem of local rugby league team, AS Carcassonne.

The legend of Lady Carcas.

Lady Carcas is a legendary character from the city of Carcassonne. According to the legend, she is the wife of Ballak, the Muslim prince of Carcassonne, who was killed in action against Charlemagne. The latter, following the death of her husband, allegedly took charge of the city's defence against the Frankish army and repelled it. Princess Carcas first used a trick consisting of making fake soldiers, which she had manufactured and placed in each tower of the City. The siege lasted 5 years.  But by the beginning of the sixth year, food and water were becoming increasingly scarce. Lady Carcas wanted to make an inventory of all the reserves left. The city being Saracen, a part of the population being Muslim does not consume pork. The villagers brought him a pig and a bag of wheat. She then had the idea of feeding the pig with the sack of wheat and then rushing it from the highest tower of the City at the foot of the outer ramparts.  Charlemagne and his men, believing that the city was still overflowing with soldiers and food to the point of wasting a wheat-fed pig, raised the siege. Seeing Charlemagne's army leaving the plain in front of the City, Lady Carcas was filled with joy at the victory of her ploy and decided to ring all the city's bells. One of Charlemagne's men then shouted: "Carcas is ringing! ", in french "Carcas Sonne" thus creating the name of the city.

The Cité de Carcassonne ( ) is a medieval citadel located in the French city of Carcassonne, in the department of Aude, Occitanie region. It is located on a hill on the right bank of the River Aude, in the south-east part of the city proper.


Overview.

Debt generally refers to money owed by one party, the debtor, to a second party, the creditor. It is generally subject to repayments of principal and interest. Interest is the fee charged by the creditor to the debtor, generally calculated as a percentage of the principal sum per year known as an interest rate and generally paid periodically at intervals, such as monthly. Debt can be secured with collateral or unsecured.  Although there is variation from country to country and even in regions within country, consumer debt is primarily made up of home loans, credit card debt and car loans. Household debt is the consumer debt of the adults in the household plus the mortgage, if applicable. In many countries, especially the United States and the United Kingdom, student loans can be a significant portion of debt but are usually regulated differently than other debt. The overall debt can reach the point where a debtor is in danger of bankruptcy, insolvency, or other fiscal emergency. Options available to overburdened debtors include credit counseling and personal bankruptcy.  Other consumer options include: Sometimes the solution includes some of each of these tactics.

Process.

The bulk of the consumer debt, especially that with a high interest, is repaid by a new loan. Most debt consolidation loans are offered from lending institutions and secured as a second mortgage or home equity line of credit. These require the individual to put up a home as collateral and the loan to be less than the equity available.  The overall lower interest rate is an advantage that debt consolidation loan offers to consumers. Lenders have fixed costs to process payments and repayment can spread out over a larger period. However, such consolidation loans have costs: fees, interest, and "points" where one point equals to one percent of the amount borrowed. In some countries, these loans may provide certain tax advantages. Because they are secured, a lender can attempt to seize property if the borrower goes into default.  Personal loans comprise another form of debt consolidation loan. Individuals can issue debtors a personal loan that satisfies the outstanding debt and creates a new one on their own terms. These loans, often unsecured, are based on the personal relationship rather than collateral.  In United States, there are certain companies and private law firms, addressed as debt relief companies and/or debt consolidation companies, that provide professional debt consolidation services. A Consumer can approach them for debt help, and make only one monthly payment to them. This payment will then be disbursed, by these companies, among the various creditors, the consumer is indebted to. Many other countries, alongside United States, also have such professional services for the benefit of consumers, struggling with household debt.

Student loan consolidation.

In the United States, student loans which are part of the Federal Direct Student Loan Program are consolidated somewhat differently from in the UK, as federal student loans are guaranteed by the U.S. government.

United States.

In a federal student loan consolidation, existing loans are purchased by the Department of Education. Upon consolidation, a fixed interest rate is set based on the then-current interest rate. Reconsolidating does not change that rate. If the student combines loans of different types and rates into one new consolidation loan, a weighted average calculation will establish the appropriate rate based on the then-current interest rates of the different loans being consolidated together.  Federal student loan consolidation is often referred to as refinancing, which is incorrect because the loan rates are not changed, merely locked in. Unlike private sector debt consolidation, student loan consolidation does not incur any fees for the borrower; private companies make money on student loan consolidation by reaping subsidies from the federal government.

United Kingdom.

In the UK student loan entitlements are guaranteed, and are recovered using a means-tested system from the student's future income. Student loans in the UK can not be included in bankruptcy, but do not affect a person's credit rating because the repayments are deducted from salary at source by employers, similar to Income Tax and National Insurance contributions. Many students, however, struggle with commercial debt well after their courses have finished.

Australia.

Australia’s student loan system once had 35 years to pay back loans, but it’s currently 15. Those seriously delinquent on student loans face arrest at the border.

Japan.

In Japan, an increasing number of student loans are in arrears. This has caused the Asian nation to take harsher steps when it comes to lending determinations. In an effort to prevent future defaults, Japan has begun associating loan approvals to academic performance.

Debt consolidation is a form of debt refinancing that entails taking out one loan to pay off many others. This commonly refers to a personal finance process of individuals addressing high consumer debt, but occasionally it can also refer to a country's fiscal approach to consolidate corporate debt or Government debt. The process can secure a lower overall interest rate to the entire debt load and provide the convenience of servicing only one loan or debt.


Early life (1862 - 1886).

Burtsev was born in Fort- Aleksandrovsky, in the Transcaspian Oblast of the Russian Empire (present-day Kazakhstan) to a military family. In 1882, he was expelled from Saint Petersburg State University and in 1885 from Kazan State University for taking part in student disturbances. As a member of Narodnaya Volya, he was imprisoned for two years (for about a year in the Peter and Paul Fortress) and in 1886 exiled to the Irkutsk region of Eastern Siberia.

Exile and publications (1888 - 1914).

In 1888 Burtsev managed to escape from exile and emigrate to Switzerland. In 1889 he co-founded magazine "Svobodnaya Rossiya" (Свободная Россия, "Free Russia") but it survived only three issues. "In 1890... Burtsev, wanted by the czarist police, boarded a British boat bound from Constantinople to London. When the ship found itself surrounded by Turkish police vessels with Russians on board, the captain refused their demand to hand over the fugitive, announcing: “This is English territory. And I am a gentleman!”  In 1898, Burtsev was arrested by British police for advocating, in his magazine "Narodovolets" (Народоволец, "Narodnaya Volya Comrade"), the assassination of Nicholas II. Burtsev was found guilty and sentenced to 18 months at hard labour. On his release he went on to publish it in Switzerland, resulting in his permanent ban from that country.  In London, he published the two-volume book "Za Sto Let (1800–1896)" (За сто лет (1800–1896), "For Hundred Years (1800–1896)"). He founded and published six issues of "Byloye" (Былое, "The Past"), a historical magazine. After the Russian Revolution of 1905 Burtsev briefly returned illegally to Russia and founded the Russian version of the "Byloye" magazine. Upon his return to the West in 1907, Burtsev began publishing the magazine "Obshcheye Delo" (Общее дело, "Common Cause") which was a continuation of the foreign edition of "Byloye" beginning with the 7th issue.  By exposing numerous Tsarist agent provocateurs such as Yevno Azef, Burtsev gained fame as a counterintelligence expert and became known as "the Sherlock Holmes of the Revolution".

World War I and the Bolsheviks (1914 - 1921).

At the outset of World War I in 1914 he repatriated, was arrested at the border and again exiled to Siberia. Amnestied in 1915, he returned to Petrograd.  Burtsev strenuously opposed the Bolsheviks. In 1917 he accused Lenin and his comrades of being agents of Germany. In his article "Either Us or the Germans and Those with Them" ("Russian Freedom", July 7, 1917), he listed the major enemies of Russia:  On the day of the October revolution, he was arrested on orders of Leon Trotsky, which led some historians to count him as the first political prisoner in the USSR.  Despite their political differences and public disputes in the press, Maxim Gorky pleaded for Burtsev's release and in February 1918 he was indeed freed and left Soviet Russia. Burtsev spent the rest of his life as an emigre, first in Finland, then Sweden and later in France. During the Russian Civil War, he supported the White Movement of Admiral Kolchak and General Anton Denikin.  His numerous attempts to bring all anti-Bolshevik forces together under one ideological umbrella did not succeed.

Later life and death (1921 - 1942).

In 1921 Burtsev co-founded and became chairman of the Russian National Committee.  In 1930s, Burtsev fought against fascism and antisemitism. In 1934–1935 he was a witness in the Berne Trial, exposing the Okhrana's role in creating the infamous fraud "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion". In 1938 in Paris he published a book "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: A Proven Forgery". Burtsev died in poverty in Paris in 1942 from a blood infection.

Vladimir L'vovich Burtsev (; November 17, 1862August 21, 1942) was a revolutionary activist, scholar, publisher and editor of several Russian language periodicals. He became famous by exposing a great number of agents provocateurs, notably Yevno Azef in 1908. Because of his own revolutionary activities and his harsh criticism of the imperial regime, including personal criticism of emperor Nicholas II, he was imprisoned several times in various European countries. In the course of his life, Burtsev fought oppressive policies from Tsarism in Imperial Russia, followed by the Bolsheviks and later Adolf Hitler's National Socialism.


Career.

In 2006, Hickstead was a member of the winning Nations Cup Team in Florida. He also placed third in the Aachen Grand Prix and won the Duke Energy Cup at Spruce Meadows.  In 2007 Hickstead and Eric Lamaze won the coveted $1Million CN International at the Spruce Meadows "Masters" Tournament in Calgary, Alberta (Canada). During that event, he also won a record four ATCO Power Queen Elizabeth II Cup titles.  At the 2007 Pan Am Games, Hickstead and Eric Lamaze won team silver and individual bronze medals.  In 2008, Hickstead and Eric Lamaze won Individual Gold and Team Silver for Canada at the Beijing Olympic Games. This was the first individual gold medal won in equestrian, and second overall gold won by Canada in Olympic history, the other being a team medal coming from the 1968 Olympics.  In 2010 Hickstead earned the title 'Best Horse in the World' at the Alltech FEI World Equestrian Games(WEG) in Lexington, Kentucky. After completing the "extremely" rare feat of logging four clear rounds with four different riders in the Rolex Top Four Final, Hickstead was named Best Horse of the discipline. Under the unique format of the Top Four Final, riders with the four highest scores throughout the competition exchange horses.  Hickstead and Lamaze were also the 2010 champions of the Rolex Grand Prix at the prestigious CHIO Aachen: World Equestrian Festival in Germany. In a competition where the top three combinations completed both rounds and the jump-off without faults, Hickstead raced to victory – finishing the jump-off in a time that was "twenty four one hundredths of a second" faster than that of the second place 'Carlina', ridden by Pius Schwizer of Switzerland.  In 2011 Eric Lamaze and Hickstead won the $1 million CN International for a second time. The pair was second in the 2011 FEI World Cup Jumping Final in Leipzig, Germany.  On November 6, 2011, at a competition in Verona, Italy, Hickstead collapsed shortly after finishing a round and died of an aortic rupture. At the time, he was paired with Lamaze, the number one rider in the world. Eric Lamaze had praised this horse in 2006:

Hickstead (March 2, 1996 – November 6, 2011) was a stallion ridden by Canadian Eric Lamaze. With rider Lamaze, he was an Olympic gold and silver medalist in show jumping. Hickstead was owned by Torrey Pines and Ashland Stables Inc.


Name.

The name "Gulden" was used on the pre-1867 Austrian banknotes and on the German language side of the post-1867 banknotes. In southern Germany, the word Gulden was the standard word for a major currency unit. The name "Florin" was used on Austrian coins and "forint" was used on the Hungarian language side of the post-1867 banknotes and on Hungarian coins. It comes from the city of Florence, Italy where the first florins were minted, from 1252 to 1533.

History.

Until 1806, Austria was the leading state of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1754, the Conventionsthaler replaced the Reichsthaler as the currency of the Holy Roman Empire. The Gulden was defined as half of a Conventionsthaler, equivalent to of a Cologne mark of silver. The Gulden was subdivided into 60 Kreuzer. Following the winding up of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Gulden became the standard unit of account in the Habsburg lands and remained so until 1892.  In 1857, the Vereinsthaler was introduced across the German Confederation and Austria-Hungary, with a silver content of grams. This was slightly less than times the silver content of the Gulden. Consequently, Austria-Hungary adopted a new standard for the Gulden, containing two-thirds as much silver as the Vereinsthaler. This involved a debasement of the currency of 4.97%. Austria-Hungary also decimalized at the same time, resulting in a new currency system of 100 Kreuzer (krajczár) = 1 Gulden (forint) and Gulden = 1 Vereinsthaler.  In 1892 the Austro-Hungarian Gulden was replaced by the Krone, at a rate of 2 Krone (korona) = 1 Gulden. In 1946 the Hungarian Forint (magyar forint) was re-introduced and remains the official currency in Hungary.

Coins.

Austria.

Copper coins were initially issued in denominations of 1 "Heller" ( Kreuzer) up to 1 Kreuzer, with silver coins in denominations from 3 Kreuzer up to 1 Conventionsthaler. The Turkish and Napoleonic Wars led to token issues in various denominations. These included a 12 Kreuzer coin which only contained 6 Kreuzer worth of silver and was later overstruck to produce a 7 Kreuzer coin. In 1807, copper coins were issued in denominations of 15 and 30 Kreuzer by the Wiener Stadt Banco. These issues were tied in value to the bank's paper money (see below). The coinage returned to its prewar state after 1814.  When the Gulden was decimalized in 1857, new coins were issued in denominations of (actually written ), 1 and 4 Kreuzer in copper, with silver coins of 5, 10 and 20 Kreuzer,, 1 and 2 Florin and 1 and 2 Vereinsthaler and gold coins of 4 and 8 Florin or 10 and 20 francs. Vereinsthaler issues ceased in 1867. Vereinsthaler = Florins

Hungary.

Following the forint's introduction, Hungary issued relatively few coins compared to Austria, but the Kingdom of Hungary started minting its own golden coins called, depending on the language, florins/forints, zlatkas, Guldens, in 1329. The only copper coin was a "poltura" worth krajczár, whilst there were silver 3, 5, 10, 20 and 30 krajczár and and 1 Conventionsthaler. All issues ceased in 1794 and did not resume until 1830, when silver coins of 20 krajczár and above were issued. Only in 1868, following the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, did a full issue of coins for Hungary begin. Denominations were fewer than in Austria, with copper, 1 and 4 krajczár, silver 10 and 20 krajczár and 1 forint and gold 4 and 8 forint.

Paper money.

Between 1759 and 1811, the "Wiener Stadt Banco" issued paper money denominated in Gulden. However, the banknotes were not tied to the coinage and their values floated relative to one another. Although the notes did have a slight premium over coins early on, in later years, the notes fell in value relative to the coins until their value was fixed in 1811 at one fifth of their face value in coins. That year, the "Priviligirte Vereinigte Einlösungs und Tilgungs Deputation" ("Privileged United Redemption and Repayment Deputation") began issuing paper money valued at par with the coinage, followed by the "Austrian National Note Bank" in 1816 and the "Privileged Austrian National Bank" between 1825 and 1863. In 1858, new notes were issued denominated in "Austrian Currency" rather than "Convention Currency".  From 1866, the "K. K. Staats Central Casse" ("Imperial and Royal State Central Cashier") issued banknotes, followed from 1881 by the "K. K. Reichs Central Casse" which issued the last Gulden banknotes, dated 1888.  The banknotes after Ausgleich that were issued by the Austro-Hungarian Bank had their value that was guaranteed with gold as enacted in the Banking Act. State notes were issued by the treasury and had no such cover.

The Gulden or forint (,,, ) was the currency of the lands of the House of Habsburg between 1754 and 1892 (known as the Austrian Empire from 1804 to 1867 and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy after 1867), when it was replaced by the krone/korona as part of the introduction of the gold standard. In Austria, the Gulden was initially divided into 60 Kreuzer (), and in Hungary, the forint was divided into 60 krajczár (). The currency was decimalized in 1857, using the same names for the unit and subunit.


Research.

The Institute promotes research on the contemporary history and the social, cultural and political reality of Germany and works to foster greater familiarity and understanding of modern Germany among the academic community. It further facilitates academic exchange between Germany, Europe and Israel. The thematic and methodological variety of topics that the Institute's program has encompassed over the past decade has included identity, migration, integration, multiculturalism, citizenship and liberalism, "race", visual history and the history of science in a German, Israeli and European context. The Bucerius Institute aims to involve different disciplinary backgrounds and methodologies, historical periods and immediate geographical contexts to bring to the fore aspects of modern German and Jewish history that can reveal complex aspects of the convoluted history of contemporary Germany. The Institute has become an important source of information about specific developments in post-war Germany, and in Europe in general. This information is regularly used by students and scholars at the University of Haifa and the general public.

Academic and Public Activities.

The Institute annually organizes conferences, workshops and guest lectures, such as "Queer experiences during the Third Reich and the Holocaust" and "Concepts of "Race" in the Humanities", dealing with a broad range of topics within the fields of interest, and contributing in initiating scholarly discussions. In addition, outstanding German public figures such as Rita Süssmuth, Josef Joffe and Wolf Biermann lectured during special events at the Institute. Occasionally, the Institute arranges special events, such as film festivals and music shows, which attract a large audience from outside the University. In 2007, the Institute was part in the organization of a DEFA/GDR film festival relating to the topic "German Cinema from behind the Iron Curtain" and, in 2008, hosted a musical drama with the title "The Myth and the Real Life of Marlene Dietrich".

Scholarship and Academic Exchange.

The Bucerius Institute has an active exchange program for M.A. and Ph.D. students with grants and scholarships. Numerous visiting research scholars have given lectures and seminars under the Institute’s auspices. The Institute contributes towards the research of contemporary Germany in Israel and towards collaborations with scholars from both Israel and abroad. The Bucerius Institute has partnerships with several international research institutions, such as the Leo Baeck Institute, the German-Israeli Foundation (GIF) for Scientific Research and Development, the Simon Dubnow Institute for Jewish History and Culture, the Hamburg Institute for Social Research, the Institute for the History of the German Jews, the Research Group "Didactics of Biology" of the University of Jena, the various German party foundations in Israel, and other academic institutes in Germany and Israel.

Publications.

In March 2005, the Bucerius Institute published "Memory and Amnesia: The Holocaust in Germany", edited by Gilad Margalit and Yfaat Weiss (in Hebrew). This volume represents the final product of a weekly workshop organized by the Bucerius Institute in 2001/2002 by leading researchers of the Holocaust in Israel, Germany, Europe and the United States. The workshop used historiography, literary genres and cinematography to analyze the master narratives of the victim, perpetrator and bystander in works dealing with the Holocaust. Furthermore, some essays from the conference "Europe and Israel: What Next?", regarding "Remigration," have been included in the "Leo Baeck Institute Year Book 2004". In addition, the Institute published the results of its conference "Deadly Neighbors" in one issue of the journal "Mittelweg 36. The Journal of the Hamburg Institute for Social Research."<br> There are numerous publications of associate members of the Institute dealing with the current history of Germany and the relationship between Jews and Non-Jews in Germany, Europe and Israel.

The Bucerius Institute for Research of Contemporary German History and Society at the University of Haifa was established in 2001 by the ZEIT-Stiftung Ebelin und Gerd Bucerius and its chairman, Professor Dres. h.c. Manfred Lahnstein. The Institute is committed to the research of social and historical issues of contemporary Germany. The founder and first director of the Institute was Prof. Yfaat Weiss. Since 2008, Dr. Amos Morris-Reich has been the director of the Bucerius Institute.


Early life, education and professional life.

Born in Sousse in 1949,Jebali received his bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering from the Tunis University and added a masters programme in photovoltaic engineering in Paris, France. As a specialist in solar energy and wind power, he founded his own enterprise in Sousse.

Political and journalistic activity.

In 1981 he became involved with Tunisia's Islamist movement, then called Movement of the Islamic Tendency. He was director and editor-in-chief of "Al-Fajr" (Dawn), the former weekly newspaper of the Islamist Ennahda Party. Moreover he served as longtime member of the party's executive council and remains secretary-general of Ennahda.

Criminal prosecution and imprisonment.

In June 1990, "Al-Fajr" published an article by Rashid al-Ghannushi called "The people of the State or the State of the People?" Jebali was made responsible for the publication and received a suspended sentence and a 1,500 dinars fine for the offences of "encouraging violation of the law" and "calling for insurrection". In November 1990, the Islamist newspaper contained an essay by the lawyer Mohammed Nouri, entitled "When will military courts, serving as special courts, be abolished?" This time, a military court sentenced Hamadi Jebali to one year in prison for "defamation of a judicial institution".  In May 1992 the government claimed that it had detected plans for a coup d'état by Ennahda, which had allegedly plotted to kill President Ben Ali and establish an Islamic state. In August 1992, Jebali, along with 170 other sympathisers of Ennahda, was charged with "attempted overthrow". Jebali protested that he had no knowledge of the plot's existence, and asserted that he had been tortured, presenting marks on his body for evidence. The trial was classified as unfair by observers for Human Rights Watch, the Lawyer's Committee for Human Rights, and Amnesty International, the latter of which named Jebali a prisoner of conscience. Eventually, on 28 August 1992 Hamadi Jebali was sentenced to a prison term of 16 years for "membership in an illegal organisation" and "attempted change of the nature of the state". The Court of Cassation confirmed the verdict.  The conditions of his imprisonment were harsh. More than ten of the 15 years that Jebali spent, were in solitary confinement. Hamadi Jebali engaged in several hunger strikes to protest against the conditions and his conviction. Two of them lasted for 36 days each. In February 2006, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Tunisia's independence, Jebali was conditionally released.

Post-revolution and Prime Minister.

Following the Tunisian revolution in January 2011, Ennahda was legalised. Since then, Hamadi Jebali has been present in public as the party's secretary-general and spokesman. In May 2011, he went to Washington, D.C. in the US at the invitation of the Center for the Study of Islam and Democracy. He also met U.S. Senators John McCain and Joe Lieberman.  Ensuing Ennahda's success in the Constituent Assembly election on 23 October 2011, the party nominated him as its candidate for prime minister. Jebali is considered a proponent of the reformist wing of his party.  Interim President Moncef Marzouki appointed Jebali as Prime Minister of Tunisia on 14 December 2011. He presented his government on 20 December. He officially took office on 24 December.  On 19 February 2013, he resigned his office. The move followed his attempt to form a technocratic government following the assassination of Chokri Belaid and ensuing protests against the alleged Islamisation of the country. Ennahda, however, rejected his resignation insisting on a government of politicians and Jebali formally resigned after a meeting with President Moncef Marzouki saying it was in the best interests of the country. He said: "I promised if my initiative did not succeed I would resign as head of the government, and this is what I am doing following my meeting with the president. Today there is a great disappointment among the people and we must regain their trust and this resignation is a first step." Party leader Rachid Ghannouchi then suggested a government of politicians and technocrats, while Jebali suggested that if he was tasked with forming a new government it would have to include non-partisan ministers and a variety of political representation that would lead to a new election. Unnamed opposition figures welcomed the resignation. The same day, Standard & Poor downgraded Tunisia's credit rating. However, the IMF said that it was still in talks for a US$1.78 billion loan to the country.  After urging his party without success to support the interim president Moncef Marzouki in the presidential election of 2014, he left Ennahda on 10 December 2014. In January 2015, he refused to join the new party of the losing presidential candidate Marzouki but did not rule out founding a party of his own.

Hamadi Jebali (, ""; born 12 January 1949) is a Tunisian engineer, Islamist politician and journalist who was Prime Minister of Tunisia from December 2011 to March 2013. He was the Secretary-General of the Ennahda Movement, a moderate Islamist party in Tunisia, until he left his party in December 2014 in the course of the 2014 Tunisian presidential election.