Origin.

Rostov principality.

The first notable administrators in the Rostov region presumably were the sons of Vladimir the Great, Boris and Gleb, and later Yaroslav the Wise. The principality occupied a vast territory in the northeast of Kievan Rus', approximately bounded by the Volga, Oka, and Northern Dvina rivers. Until the decline of Kievan Rus' in the 12th-13th centuries the territory was also commonly called Zalesie, literally depicting a region "beyond woodland". Scarce historical information exists for the area during that time. The foundation of the city of Rostov has been lost in the span of time. According to the archeologist, who specializes in the history of the region, the Rostov land until the 10th century was already under the control of Rostov city, while Sarskoye Gorodishche was a tribal center of the native Merya people.  In the 10th century an eparchy was established in Rostov. One of the first known princes was Yaroslav the Wise and later Boris Vladimirovich. At that time Rostov was the major center of the Eastern Orthodox Christianity in the region dominated mostly by shamanism. Until the 11th century Rostov was often associated with the Great Novgorod. Evidently the spread of Eastern Orthodox Christianity to the lands of the Great Perm was successfully conducted from Rostov. Rostov was the regional capital, including other important towns included Suzdal, Yaroslavl, and Belozersk.

Rostov-Suzdal.

Vladimir Monomakh, son of the Grand Prince of Vsevolod I, inherited the rights to the principality in 1093. As the Grand Prince of Kiev he appointed his son George I to rule the northeastern lands and in 1125 moved its capital from Rostov to Suzdal, after which the Principality was referred to as Rostov-Suzdal. During the 11th and 12th centuries when southern parts of Rus' were systematically raided by Turkic nomads, their inhabitants began to migrate northward. In the formerly wooded areas, known as Zalesye, many new settlements were established. The foundations of Pereslavl, Kostroma, Dmitrov, Moscow, Yuriev-Polsky, Uglich, Tver, Dubna, and many others were assigned (either by chronicle or popular legend) to George I, whose sobriquet ("the Long-Armed") alludes to his dexterity in manipulating the politics of far-away Kiev. Sometime in 1108 Monomakh strengthened and rebuilt the town of Vladimir on the Klyazma River, 31 km south of Suzdal. During the rule of George I the principality gained military strength, and in the Suzdal-Ryazan war of 1146 it conquered the Ryazan Principality. Later in the 1150s Yuri occupied Kiev a couple of times as well. From that time the lands of the northeastern Rus' played an important role in the politics of Kievan Rus'.

Rise of Vladimir.

George's son Andrew the Pious significantly increased Vladimir's power at the expense of the nearby princely states, which he treated with contempt. After burning down Kiev, then the metropolitan seat of Rus', in 1169, he enthroned his younger brother. For Andrew, his capital of Vladimir was a far greater concern, as he embellished it with white stone churches and monasteries. Prince Andrew was murdered by boyars in his suburban residence at Bogolyubovo in 1174.  After a brief interregnum, Andrew's brother Vsevolod III secured the throne. He continued most of his brother's policies and once again subjugated Kiev in 1203. Vsevolod's chief enemies, however, were the Southern Ryazan Principality, which appeared to stir discord in the princely family, and the mighty Turkic state of Volga Bulgaria, which bordered Vladimir-Suzdal to the east. After several military campaigns, Ryazan was burnt to the ground, and the Bulgars were forced to pay tribute.  Vsevolod's death in 1212 precipitated a serious dynastic conflict. His eldest son Konstantin gained the support of powerful Rostovan boyars and Mstislav the Bold of Kiev and expelled the lawful heir, his brother George, from Vladimir to Rostov. George managed to return to the capital six years later, upon Konstantin's death. George proved to be a shrewd ruler who decisively defeated Volga Bulgaria and installed his brother Yaroslav in Novgorod. His reign, however, ended when the Mongol hordes under Batu Khan took and burnt Vladimir in 1238. Thereupon they proceeded to devastate other major cities of Vladimir-Suzdal during the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'.

Mongol yoke.

None of the cities of the principality managed to regain the power of the Great Kievan Rus' after the Mongol invasion. Vladimir became a vassal of the Mongol Empire, later succeeded by the Golden Horde, with the Grand Prince appointed by the Great Khan. Even the popular Alexander Nevsky of Pereslavl had to go to the Khan's capital in Karakorum in order to be installed as the Grand Prince in Vladimir. As many factions strove for power, the principality rapidly disintegrated into eleven tiny states: Moscow, Tver, Pereslavl, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Belozersk, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Starodub-upon-Klyazma, and Yuriev-Polsky. All of them nominally acknowledged the suzerainty of the Grand Prince of Vladimir, but his effective authority became progressively weaker.  By the end of the century, only three cities — Moscow, Tver, and Nizhny Novgorod — still contended for the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir. Once installed, however, they chose to remain in their own cities rather than moving to Vladimir. The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually came to eclipse its rivals. When the metropolitan of Kievan Rus' moved his chair from Vladimir to Moscow in 1325, it became clear that Moscow had effectively succeeded Vladimir as the chief centre of power in the north-east remnant of Kievan Rus'.

Vladimir-Suzdal (, "Vladimirsko-Suzdal'skaya"), also Vladimir-Suzdalian Rus', formally known as the Grand Duchy of Vladimir (1157–1331) (; ), was one of the major principalities that succeeded Kievan Rus' in the late 12th century, centered in Vladimir-on-Klyazma. With time the principality grew into a grand duchy divided into several smaller principalities. After being conquered by the Mongol Empire, the principality became a self-governed state headed by its own nobility. A governorship of principality, however, was prescribed by a Khan declaration (jarlig) issued from the Golden Horde to a noble family of any of smaller principalities.


Plot.

In 1971, a young girl, Lucie Jurin, escapes from a disused slaughterhouse where she has been imprisoned and tortured for more than a year. The perpetrators and their motivations remain a mystery. Lucie is placed in an orphanage, where she is befriended by a young girl named Anna Assaoui, who quickly discovers that Lucie believes that she is constantly being terrorized by a ghoulish creature—a disfigured, emaciated woman. Even so, Anna comforts Lucie every time she has a nightmare.  Fifteen years later, Lucie bursts into the home of an apparently normal family, the Belfonds - Gabrielle, her husband, and their children Antoine and Marie - and kills them all with a shotgun. Elsewhere, Anna waits for Lucie. Although Anna knows that Lucie believes the Belfonds are the people responsible for her childhood abuse, she is horrified when Lucie tells her that she has killed them. Upon arriving at the house, Anna discovers that Gabrielle is still alive and tries to help her escape, but Lucie bludgeons Gabrielle to death. Lucie is again attacked by the scarred creature, but Anna sees only Lucie hurting herself; the 'creature' is nothing more than a psychological manifestation of Lucie's guilt for leaving behind another girl who was also tortured with her as a child. Lucie, realizing that her insanity will never leave her, commits suicide.  The next day, Anna, still at the family's house, telephones her mother, from whom she has been estranged; their conversation implies that Anna suffered abuse from her parents as a child. Suddenly, Anna hears some noises and discovers a secret underground chamber in the living room. Imprisoned within is a horribly tortured young woman named Sarah, proving that Lucie was right about the family. Anna helps Sarah escape, but a group of strangers arrive and gun Sarah down. Captured, Anna meets their leader, an elderly lady referred to as Mademoiselle, who explains that she belongs to a secret philosophical society seeking to discover the secrets of the afterlife through the creation of "martyrs". Their experiments inflict systematic acts of torture upon young women in the belief that their suffering will result in a transcendental insight into the world beyond this one. Mademoiselle also believes the world is divided into victims (people who can't tolerate tortures and fall into madness, like Lucie and Sarah) and martyrs (people who "accept" tortures and transcend).  Anna becomes the group's latest subject. After a period of being brutally beaten and degraded, she hallucinates a conversation with Lucie and is later told she has progressed further than any other test subject and reached the "final stage." She is flayed alive and survives the procedure, entering a state that is "euphoric" and likened to achieving transcendence. Mademoiselle arrives eagerly and Anna whispers into her ear.  Members of the society gather at the house to learn of the insights Anna shared with Mademoiselle. As Mademoiselle and her assistant wait for the others to arrive, he asks Mademoiselle if what Anna said to her was clear. Mademoiselle replies yes, and asks him in turn if he can imagine what comes after death. When he says no, Mademoiselle instructs him to "keep doubting," then abruptly produces a handgun and kills herself with it.  The film ends with a shot of Anna on the table, in a catatonic state.

Production.

Pascal Laugier said that "the film was rejected by all the big French studios, by a lot of actresses, too. [...] The film was really supported by Canal+, the only television channel in France that still finances some unusual projects". He also comments that the main difficulty other than the technical issues such as special effects was to keep the actresses crying all the time, and that was too demanding.

Reception.

The film was categorized as a new example of new era French horror films akin to "Inside" with regard to the level of violence it depicts. The review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives a score of 59% based on 34 reviews from critics, and a weighted average of 5.96 out of 10. The website's critical consensus states, "A real polarising movie, this Gallic torture-porn is graphic, brutal, nasty and gruesome and not to everyone's taste." Todd Brown at Twitch called it "without a doubt the single most divisive film to screen in the Cannes Marché Du Film this year," while Ryan Rotten at "shocktillyoudrop.com" said that the film "is the new yard stick against which all forms of extreme genre films should be measured against." In the early 2010s, "Time Out" conducted a poll with several authors, directors, actors and critics who have worked within the horror genre to vote for their top horror films. "Martyrs" placed at number 31 on their top 100 list.  The French "Commission de classification des œuvres cinématographiques" rated the film 18+ (unsuitable for children under 18 or forbidden in cinemas for persons under 18), which the producers of the film appealed. As a last resort, the French Society of Film Directors (SRF) asked the French ministry of culture to examine the decision, remarking that "this is the first time a French genre film has been threatened with such a rating". The Union of Film Journalists adopted the same position as the SRF, claiming censorship. The Minister of Culture Christine Albanel eventually asked the Commission of Classification to change its rating, which was done in July 2008. "Martyrs" was finally rated 16+.

Remake.

In 2008 original director Pascal Laugier confirmed in an interview that he was in the middle of negotiating the rights for "Martyrs" to be remade in the United States. It was to be directed by Daniel Stamm, director of "The Last Exorcism", and written by Mark L. Smith, writer of "Vacancy" as well as from the producers of "Twilight". The producer of the film said he would like "Twilight" actress Kristen Stewart for the film, though her presence in the film was later denied by Stamm. Stamm said "[The original film] is very nihilistic. The American approach [that I'm looking at] would go through all that darkness but then give a glimmer of hope. You don't have to shoot yourself when it's over." In a 2014 interview, Stamm revealed he had left the project after the budget had been reduced, stating, "I think they're now back to making the movie for like $1 million, really low budget, which I think you could almost do, it's just there's this philosophy in Hollywood that you can never go back budget-wise. As a filmmaker you are judged by that. And then there's also this concept I was unaware of called plateauing, where if you're a filmmaker who makes two movies in the same budget bracket, that becomes your thing. You are the guy for the $3 million movie, and then that's all you do. And so my agents wouldn't let me do the $1 million movie, because then that's it for you, you'll supposedly never get that bigger budget".  In February 2015 the new production companies Blumhouse Productions and The Safran Company announced that the movie was already filmed and that the Goetz Brothers, Michael and Kevin, had directed. In the leads stars Bailey Noble, Troian Bellisario, Kate Burton and Blake Robbins. It was panned by critics, and currently has a 7% rating on Rotten Tomatoes and a 19/100 on Metacritic, indicating "overwhelming dislike".

Martyrs is a 2008 horror film written and directed by Pascal Laugier and starring Morjana Alaoui and Mylène Jampanoï. It premiered at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival at the Marché du Film, and was released theatrically in France on 3 September 2008.


Description.

Appearance.

The Norfolk Terrier has a wire-haired coat which, according to the various national kennel clubs' breed standards, can be "all shades of red, wheaten, black and tan, or grizzle."  They are the smallest of the working terriers. They are active and compact, free moving, with good substance and bone. Good substance means good spring of rib and bone that matches the body such that the dog can be a very agile ratter or earth-dog.  Norfolk terriers are moderately proportioned dogs. A too heavy dog would not be agile. A too refined dog would make it a toy breed. Norfolks generally have more reach and drive and a stronger rear angulation, hence cover more ground than their Norwich cousins. Norfolk have good side gait owed to their balanced angulation front and rear and their slightly longer length of back.  The ideal height is at the withers and weight is about.

Temperament.

Norfolks are described as fearless, but can have an independent streak. They, along with Norwich Terriers and Border Terriers, have the softest temperaments of the Terrier Group. Norfolks work in packs and must get along with other dogs. As companions, they love people and children and do make good pets. Their activity level is generally reflective of the pace of their environment. This breed should not be kept or live outside since they thrive on human contact.  Generally, Norfolks are not given to digging but, like any dog, will dig out of boredom when left alone for too long a period. Norfolks are not yappers and are not particularly vocal; however, they will bark when appropriate given their watch-dog tendencies. They generally cohabit well with other household pets when introduced as a puppy. Outdoors, they are natural hunters with a strong prey drive for small vermin.

Working style.

Norfolks were originally bred as barn dogs to rid the barn of vermin. Some literature suggest that they were also occasionally used on the hunt to bolt animals of equal size from their den.  To some extent they are still used in that capacity in continental Europe. Norfolks are pack animals and hence expected to get along with other dogs while working or in the home. As a pack dog, they take turns working their prey. They are fearless and their courage is incredible. Today, of course, they are household companions and must have an agreeable disposition for living with people.

Health.

The life expectancy of a Norfolk Terrier is 8–14 years, with some growing as old as 17 years. Norfolks do have incidences of mitral valve disease, luxating patellas, and incorrect bites (where the teeth do not align with the breed standard, i.e. overshot or undershot). Norfolks most often have shallow hip sockets and many breedlines are dysplastic. There has never been a Norfolk Terrier recognized by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) as having "excellent" rated hips. Therefore, responsible breeders are testing for hip dysplasia. Breeders that do not radiograph hips and have them evaluated by either OFA or PennHip, cannot answer questions regarding hip dysplasia in their breeding program.  Norfolks generally have medium to small litters. Responsible breeders only breed healthy dogs who are of good temperament, good pedigree lineage and best reflect the breed standard. The demand for Norfolk is far greater than the supply. The environment in which they are raised directly impacts the temperament of the puppy for its lifetime.

Care.

Grooming.

These breeds have a double coat: a harsh, wiry topcoat and a soft, warm undercoat. Ideally, the coat is combed daily with a steel "greyhound" comb, but all that is really necessary for grooming a companion dog is a good combing once a week to remove the loose, dead hairs and prevent matting. As a minimum, the coat is hand stripped once in the Fall and once in the Spring. Clipping or cutting ruins the coat's colours and harsh texture. A Norfolk Terrier can be washed with a dog shampoo when it's dirty. The breed is considered largely hypoallergenic, although they do shed minimally year-round.

History.

In the 1880s, British sportsmen developed a working terrier of East Anglia in eastern England. The Norwich Terrier and later the drop-eared variety now known as the Norfolk Terrier, were believed to have been developed by crossing local terrier-like dogs, small, short-legged Irish Terrier breeds and the small red terriers used by the Gypsy ratters of Norfolk (the county in which Norwich the city exists).  They were first called the Cantab Terrier when they became fashionable for students to keep in their rooms at Cambridge University in England. Later, they were called the Trumpington Terrier, after Trumpington Street where the breed was further developed at a livery stable. Then, just prior to World War I, a prominent Irish horse rider Frank Jones sold quantities of the short-legged terriers to the United States, so there they were called Jones Terriers. It was Jones who designated the terriers were from Norwich.  In 1932, the Norwich was granted acceptance into the English Kennel Club and the first written standard was created. The American Kennel Club registered the first Norwich Terrier in 1936. In 1964, The Kennel Club reclassified the drop-ear variety as it its own breed, the Norfolk Terrier, and the prick-eared variety retained the name Norwich Terrier. The American Kennel Club and Canadian Kennel Club both recognized the division of the Norwich Terrier breed in 1979. The Norfolk Terrier was recognized by the United Kennel Club in 1979. After many generations, these two breeds have developed as two distinct breeds both in physical looks and in temperament. Of note, there is literature that suggests that the Norfolk and Norwich were always two distinct breeds and the original mistake was classifying them as one.

References.

Citations  Bibliography

The Norfolk Terrier is a British breed of dog. Prior to gaining recognition as an independent breed in 1964, it was a variety of the Norwich Terrier, distinguished from the "prick eared" Norwich by its "drop ears" (or folded ears). Together, the Norfolk and Norwich Terriers are the smallest of the working terriers.


Buildings.

Abbey.

Until 1792, the buildings belonged to the Royal, which was built in the 17th century. The abbess always came from the high French nobility and here received the personalities of the kingdom. The institution had a particularly aristocratic slant, as is shown by its renovation by Louis XIV of France in the 17th and 18th centuries. The present state of the palais Saint-Pierre is largely down to these renovations, which included the construction of the baroque refectory and monumental honour-staircase, said to be by Thomas Blanchet. Since then, the refectory has been renovated and now serves as the reception for group visits, as well as housing two monumental paintings on the subject of dining, "The Multiplication of the Loaves" and "The Last Supper", both by Pierre-Louis Cretey. The rest of its current layout was designed by Nicolas Bidaut and Simon Guillaume and is made up of sculptures.

The Palais du commerce et des Arts.

The expulsion of the nuns and the destruction of the église Saint-Saturnin date to the French Revolution, though the abbey's other church (the église Saint-Pierre) still exists and now houses 19th and 20th century sculptures. After the Revolution, the remaining buildings housed the Palais du Commerce et des Arts, at first made up of works confiscated from the clergy and nobility but later becoming more multi-disciplinary. For example, it gained archaeology and natural history collections and those of the Académie des Sciences et des Lettres. The imperial drawing school was created in 1805 in the Palais du Commerce et des Arts to provide Lyon's silk factories with designers, giving birth to the famous Lyon School. In 1860, the Chambre de Commerce left the Palais Saint-Pierre and the establishment became the Palais des Arts. From 1875, the museum's collections underwent a major expansion and had to be expanded — the staircase by Pierre Puvis de Chavannes dates to this era.

The Musée des Beaux-Arts.

The collections were opened up considerably at the start of the 20th century, leading to the Palais des Arts becoming the Musée des Beaux-Arts. The building acquired its present layout in the mid-1990s after the completion of several restoration projects.

Collections.

Paintings.

The paintings department has European 14th- to mid-20th-century paintings. They are arranged chronologically and by major schools in 35 rooms. The collection features :

Sculptures.

Most of the collection is displayed in two sections: on the ground floor are Medieval and Renaissance sculptures and stuccos of the old baroque refectory; and in the abbey's church are sculptures from the 19th and early 20th centuries.  At the heart of the abbey, the former cloister is now a municipal garden, right in the centre of the town, on the peninsula. It is decorated with several 19th century statues:

Antiquities.

Egypt.

Ancient Egypt is the main theme of the museum's antiquities department, due to the historic importance of egyptology in Lyon, encouraged by men like Victor Loret, whose family gave over 1000 objects to the museum in 1954. From 1895, the musée du Louvre provided nearly 400 objects (unguent vases, funerary figurines etc.) to form the foundation of the department; other objects (canopic vases, jewellery, material from Antinoöpolis) were added later to complement this initial donation, and were augmented in 1936 by objects from the artisans' village of Deir el-Medina.  The highlights of the collection are its display of sarcophaguses and the gates of Ptolemy III and Ptolemy IV from the temple of Medamud dug by the Lyons archaeologist Alexandre Varille in 1939 and donated by the French Institute of Oriental Archeology of Cairo. The remaining objects shed light on everyday life in ancient Egypt.  The collection has 600 works displayed in 9 rooms, in a thematic and chronological sequence:

Near East and Middle East.

One room contains cylinder seals, clay tablets and bas-reliefs from the Sumerian, Assyrian and Babylonian civilisations, as well as Luristan bronzes, ceramics and statuettes from Cyprus and a fine collection of Syrian objects (including an anthropoid sarcophagus and a marble bas-relief).

Ancient Greece and Italy.

A single room is devoted to the main work in this department, the 6th century BC marble kore from the Acropolis of Athens. A second room is dedicated to ancient Greece, containing a series of Attic vases in black-figure or red-figure, bronzes and terracotta Tanagra figurines. Finally, a small room is devoted to Magna Graecia, with many ceramics and bronze helmets.  Roman sculpture is also presented across several rooms - marble statues (a torso of Venus, a child on a cockerel, statues of draped figures etc.) and also small bronze figurines of Gods from the Roman Pantheon such as Mercury, Venus, Mars etc.  The Gallo-Roman collections of the city of Lyon, previously presented at the Museum of Fine Arts and the Antiquarium, were transferred in 1975 at the Lugdunum museum on the hill of Fourvière near the Roman theatre and Odeon.

Objets d’Art.

This department's collection ranges from the Middle Ages to the 20th century and includes:

Coins and medals.

Lyon's "médaillier" is the second largest one in France after that in Paris, with nearly 50,000 coins, medals, seals and other objects. It is known at a European level and has held a prominent place in the numismatic world from its beginnings in the 19th century to recent discoveries of the treasuries of the Terreaux and the Célestins.

Graphic arts.

This department was created at the start of the 19th century and includes works on paper - drawings, prints, engravings, watercolours etc. - based on line rather than colour. In all it more than 8,000 works, including ones by Filippino Lippi, Parmigianino, Fra Bartolomeo, Leonetto Cappiello, Nicolas Poussin, François Boucher, Ingres, Théodore Géricault, Eugène Delacroix, Camille Corot, Honoré Daumier, Odilon Redon, Puvis de Chavannes, Edgar Degas, Henri Matisse, Fernand Léger and a remarkable study by Albrecht Dürer.

Magazine.

On the initiative of René Jullian, in 1952 the "Bulletin des musées lyonnais" was created, and 8 years later changed its name to "Bulletin des musées et monuments Lyonnais". In 2003 it changed to an annual publication and again changed its name, to "Cahiers du musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon".

The Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon (French: "Musée des beaux-arts de Lyon") is a municipal museum of fine arts in the French city of Lyon. Located near Place des Terreaux, it is housed in a former Benedictine convent which was active during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was restored between 1988 and 1998, remaining open to visitors throughout this time despite the restoration works. Its collections range from ancient Egyptian antiquities to the Modern art period, making the museum one of the most important in Europe. It also hosts important exhibitions of art, for example the exhibitions of works by Georges Braque and Henri Laurens in the second half of 2005, and another on the work of Théodore Géricault from April to July 2006. It is one of the largest art museums in France.


Business career.

He was a son of the wealthy merchant and industrialist Ivan Feodorovich Mamontov and Maria Tikhonovna (Lakhitina). In 1841, the family moved to Moscow. From 1852, he studied in St. Petersburg, and later at the Moscow University. In 1862 his father sent him to Baku to engage in business with the elder Mamontov's Trans-Caspian Trade Partnership.  In 1864, Savva visited Italy where he began to take lessons in singing. There he was introduced to the daughter of Moscow merchant Grigory Sapozhnikov, 17-year-old Elizabeth, who subsequently became his wife. The wedding took place in 1865 at the Kireevo estate, near Khimki, just northwest of Moscow.  Upon his father's death in 1869, he succeeded to his share in the Moscow-Yaroslavl Railway, and at the recommendation of his father's friend, Fedor Vasilyevich Chizhov, he was elected a director of the company. In 1872 he was elected its chairman.  The extension of the railway from Sergyev Posad to Yaroslavl, begun in 1868, was opened for traffic on 18 February (2 March N.S.) 1870. A narrow-gauge branch from Uroch station to Vologda was opened on 20 June (2 July) 1872, followed by the Alexandrov-Karabanovo branch in 1877 and the Yaroslavl-Kostroma line in 1887. Mamontov also supervised the construction of the Donetsk Coal Railway, which connected a network of sparsely populated mining villages with the port of Mariupol, between 1875 and 1878.  The Moscow-Yaroslavl system was greatly expanded in the 1890s. The Yeremoino-Sereda line was opened in 1893, followed by Mytishchi-Shchyolkovo line in 1895. Also in 1895, the railway purchased the Shuysko-Ivanovskay and Yermolino-Seredskaya lines from the Shuysko-Ivanovskaya Railway. In 1896 the Alexandrov-Kirzhach and Belkovo-Yuryev-Polsky-Ivanovo-Teykovo lines were opened, followed by the Nerekhta-Sereda line in 1898.  The biggested expansion, especially in terms of future importance, was the construction of the Yaroslavl-Archangelsk line between 1894 and 1897. It was formally opened on 17 (29) November 1897, although difficulties with the swampy ground delayed full service on the line till 1898.

Patron of the arts.

In 1870, Mamontov purchased the Abramtsevo Estate, located north of Moscow, and founded there an artists' colony which included most of the best Russian artists of the beginning of the 20th century, such as Konstantin Korovin, Rafail Levitsky, Mikhail Nesterov, Ilya Repin, Vasily Polenov, Valentin Serov, Mikhail Vrubel, the brothers Vasnetsov, sculptors Viktor Hartmann and Mark Antokolsky, as well as various others. The colony of artists who were hosted there during the 1870s and 1880s sought to recapture the quality and spirit of medieval Russian art. Several workshops were set up there to produce handmade furniture, ceramic tiles, and silks imbued with traditional Russian imagery and themes.  Mamontov also patronised the Russian Private Opera which discovered the great Russian bass, Chaliapin, and supported the Russian opera composers, Pyotr Tchaikovsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Alexander Borodin, Modest Musorgsky, and many others. Drama and opera on Russian folklore themes (e.g., Rimsky-Korsakov's "The Snow Maiden") were produced at Abramtsevo by the likes of Konstantin Stanislavsky, with sets contributed by the brothers Vasnetsov, Mikhail Vrubel, and other distinguished artists. "The Russian Private Opera" was Mamontov's main contribution to the arts. Mamontov acted as a stage director, a conductor and a teacher of singing. The success of the "Private Opera" in the provinces was followed by a triumph in Moscow.

Downfall.

Mamontov's world came crashing down when, in 1899, an audit revealed that his factories had been improved since 1890 with funds from the railway, a course of action that was contrary to law. He was compelled to resign as chairman of the railway on 30 July (11 August) 1899. (The railway company was taken over by the Imperial Ministry of Treasury on 1 (14) April 1900.) Unable to pay his creditors, he began to sell off assets to raise funds, but this course was brought to an abrupt end on 11 (23) September 1899 when he was arrested and lodged in the Tagansky prison in Moscow. Mamontov was unjustly accused of embezzlement; he was released from custody early in 1900, and at his trial in June 1900, defended by F.N. Plevako, he was acquitted. Acquittal did not avert his financial ruin, for on 7 (20) July 1900 he was declared insolvent by the Moscow District Court, and his property was sold at public auction.  Savva Ivanovich Mamontov died in Abramtsevo after a long illness on 6 April 1918.

Popular Culture and Media.

Third Eye Blind's song "Monotov's Private Opera" from the album "Ursa Major" is inspired by Mamontov's private opera.

Savva Ivanovich Mamontov (, ; 3 October 1841 (15 October N.S.), Yalutorovsk – 6 April 1918, Moscow) was a Russian industrialist, merchant, entrepreneur and patron of the arts.


Functional analysis.

Functional analysis is the examination of how linguistic elements function on different layers of linguistic structure, and how the levels interact with each other. Functions exist on all levels of grammar, even in phonology, where the phoneme has the function of distinguishing between lexical material.

Functional explanation.

In functional explanation, a linguistic structure is explained with an appeal to its function. Functional linguistics takes as its starting point the notion that communication is the primary function of language. Therefore, general phonological, morphosyntactic and semantic phenomena are thought of as being motivated by the needs of people to communicate successfully with each other. Thus, functional linguistics takes the perspective that the organisation of language reflects its functional value.

Economy.

The concept of economy is metaphorically transferred from a social or economical context to a linguistic level. It is considered as a regulating force in language maintenance. Controlling the impact of language change or internal and external conflicts of the system, the economy principle means that systemic coherence is maintained without increasing energy cost. This is why all human languages, no matter how different they are, have high functional value as based on a compromise between the competing motivations of speaker-easiness (simplicity or "inertia") versus hearer-easiness (clarity or "energeia").  The principle of economy was elaborated by the French structural–functional linguist André Martinet. Martinet's concept is similar to Zipf's principle of least effort; although the idea had been discussed by various linguists in the late 19th and early 20th century.

Information structure.

Some key adaptations of functional explanation are found in the study of information structure. Based on earlier linguists' work, Prague Circle linguists Vilém Mathesius, Jan Firbas and others elaborated the concept of theme–rheme relations (topic and comment) to study pragmatic concepts such as sentence focus, and givenness of information, to successfully explain word-order variation. The method has been used widely in linguistics to uncover word-order patterns in the languages of the world. Its importance, however, is limited to within-language variation, with no apparent explanation of cross-linguistic word order tendencies.

Functional principles.

Several principles from pragmatics have been proposed as functional explanations of linguistic structures, often in a typological perspective.

Frameworks.

There are several distinct grammatical frameworks that employ a functional approach.  Dik characterises the functional approach as follows:

Functional linguistics is the approach to the study of language that sees functionality of language and its elements to be the key to understanding linguistic processes and structures. Functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, it is reasonable to assume that its structures are best analyzed and understood with reference to the functions they carry out. Functional theories of grammar belong to structural and humanistic linguistics. They take into account the context where linguistic elements are used and study the way they are instrumentally useful or functional in the given environment. This means that functional theories of grammar tend to pay attention to the way language is actually used in communicative context. The formal relations between linguistic elements are assumed to be functionally-motivated.


History.

In June 1979, a man using the pseudonym Robert C. Christian approached the Elberton Granite Finishing Company on behalf of "a small group of loyal Americans", and commissioned the structure. Christian explained that the stones would function as a compass, calendar, and clock, and should be capable of withstanding catastrophic events. Joe Fendley of Elberton Granite assumed that Christian was "a nut" and attempted to discourage him by giving a quote several times higher than any project the company had taken, explaining that the guidestones would require additional tools and consultants. Christian accepted the quote. When arranging payment, Christian explained that he represented a group which had been planning the guidestones for 20 years, and which intended to remain anonymous.  Christian delivered a scale model of the guidestones and ten pages of specifications. The five-acre land was apparently purchased by Christian on October 1, 1979, from farm owner Wayne Mullinex. Mullinex and his children were given lifetime cattle grazing rights on the guidestones site. The monument was unveiled on March 22, 1980, before an audience variously described as 100 or 400 people. Christian later transferred ownership of the land and the guidestones to Elbert County.  In 2008, the stones were defaced with polyurethane paint and graffiti with slogans such as "Death to the new world order". "Wired" magazine called the defacement "the first serious act of vandalism in the guidestones' history". In September 2014, an employee of the Elbert County maintenance department contacted the Federal Bureau of Investigation when the stones were vandalized with graffiti including the phrase "I Am Isis, goddess of love".

Description.

Inscriptions.

A message consisting of a set of ten guidelines or principles is engraved on the Georgia Guidestones in eight different languages, one language on each face of the four large upright stones. Moving clockwise around the structure from due north, these languages are: English, Spanish, Swahili, Hindi, Hebrew, Arabic, Traditional Chinese, and Russian.

Explanatory tablet.

A few feet to the west of the monument, an additional granite ledger has been set level with the ground. This tablet identifies the structure and the languages used on it, lists various facts about the size, weight, and astronomical features of the stones, the date it was installed, and the sponsors of the project. It also speaks of a time capsule buried under the tablet, but spaces on the stone reserved for filling in the dates on which the capsule was buried and is to be opened have not been inscribed, so it is uncertain if the time capsule was put in place.  The complete text of the explanatory tablet is detailed below. The tablet is somewhat inconsistent with respect to punctuation, and misspells the word "pseudonym". The original spelling, punctuation, and line breaks in the text have been preserved in the transcription which follows (letter case is not). At the top center of the tablet is written:  Immediately below this is the outline of a square, inside which is written:  Around the edges of the square are written translations to four ancient languages, one per edge. Starting from the top and proceeding clockwise, they are: Babylonian (in cuneiform script), Classical Greek, Sanskrit and Ancient Egyptian (in hieroglyphs).  On the left side of the tablet is the following column of text:  The words appear as shown under the time capsule heading; no dates are engraved.

Physical data.

On the right side of the tablet is the following column of text (metric conversions added):

Guidestone languages.

Below the two columns of text is written the caption "GUIDESTONE LANGUAGES", with a diagram of the granite slab layout beneath it. The names of eight modern languages are inscribed along the long edges of the projecting rectangles, one per edge. Starting from due north and moving clockwise around so that the upper edge of the northeast rectangle is listed first, they are English, Spanish, Swahili, Hindi, Hebrew, Arabic, Chinese, and Russian. At the bottom center of the tablet is the following text:

Astronomical features.

The four outer stones are oriented to mark the limits of the 18.6 year lunar declination cycle. The center column features a hole drilled at an angle from one side to the other, through which can be seen the North Star, a star whose position changes only very gradually over time. The same pillar has a slot carved through it which is aligned with the Sun's solstices and equinoxes. A in (22 mm) aperture in the capstone allows a ray of sun to pass through at noon each day, shining a beam on the center stone indicating the day of the year.

Interpretations.

Yoko Ono praised the inscribed messages as "a stirring call to rational thinking", while "Wired" stated that unspecified opponents have labeled them as the "Ten Commandments of the Antichrist".  The guidestones have become a subject of interest for conspiracy theorists. One of them, an activist named Mark Dice, demanded that the guidestones "be smashed into a million pieces, and then the rubble used for a construction project", claiming that the guidestones are of "a deep Satanic origin", and that R. C. Christian belongs to "a Luciferian secret society" related to the "New World Order". At the unveiling of the monument, a local minister proclaimed that he believed the monument was "for sun worshipers, for cult worship and for devil worship". Others have suggested that the stones were commissioned by the Rosicrucians, with conspiracy theorist Jay Weidner observing that the pseudonym of the man who commissioned the stones – "R. C. Christian" – resembles Rose Cross Christian, or Christian Rosenkreuz, the founder of the Rosicrucian Order. Alex Jones's film "Endgame: Blueprint for Global Enslavement" proposes that the guidestones are a harbinger of self-appointed elites who intend on exterminating most of the world's population.  The most widely agreed-upon interpretation of the stones is that they describe the basic concepts required to rebuild a devastated civilization. Author Brad Meltzer notes that the stones were built in 1979 at the height of the Cold War, and thus argues that they may have been intended as a message to the possible survivors of a nuclear World War III. The engraved suggestion to keep humanity's population below 500 million could have been made under the assumption that war had already reduced humanity below this number.  The guidestones were briefly shown and discussed in the 1986 documentary film "Sherman's March", and were featured extensively in a 2012 episode of "Mysteries at the Museum", a "Monumental Mysteries Special" featuring Don Wildman.

The Georgia Guidestones are a granite monument erected in 1980 in Elbert County, Georgia, in the United States. A set of 10 guidelines is inscribed on the structure in eight modern languages and a shorter message is inscribed at the top of the structure in four ancient language scripts.


Formats.

7z.

By default, 7-Zip creates 7z-format archives with a codice_1 file extension. Each archive can contain multiple directories and files. As a "container" format, security or size reduction are achieved using a stacked combination of filters. These can consist of pre-processors, compression algorithms, and encryption filters.  The core 7z compression uses a variety of algorithms, the most common of which are bzip2, PPMd, LZMA2, and LZMA. Developed by Pavlov, LZMA is a relatively new system, making its debut as part of the 7z format. LZMA uses an LZ-based sliding dictionary of up to 4 GB in size, backed by a range coder.  The native 7z file format is open and modular. File names are stored as Unicode.  In 2011, TopTenReviews found that the 7z compression was at least 17% better than ZIP, and 7-Zip's own site has since 2002 reported that while compression ratio results are very dependent upon the data used for the tests, "Usually, 7-Zip compresses to 7z format 30–70% better than to zip format, and 7-Zip compresses to zip format 2–10% better than most other zip-compatible programs."  The 7z file format specification is distributed with the program's source code, in the "doc" subdirectory.

Others.

7-Zip supports a number of other compression and non-compression archive formats (both for packing and unpacking), including ZIP, gzip, bzip2, xz, tar, and WIM. The utility also supports unpacking APM, ar, ARJ, chm, cpio, deb, FLV, JAR, LHA/LZH, LZMA, MSLZ, Office Open XML, onepkg, RAR, RPM, smzip, SWF, XAR, and Z archives and cramfs, DMG, FAT, HFS, ISO, MBR, NTFS, SquashFS, UDF, and VHD disk images. 7-Zip supports the ZIPX format for unpacking only. It has had this support since at least version 9.20, which was released in late 2010.  7-Zip can open some MSI files, allowing access to the meta-files within along with the main contents. Some Microsoft CAB (LZX compression) and NSIS (LZMA) installer formats can be opened. Similarly, some Microsoft executable programs (.EXEs) that are self-extracting archives or otherwise contain archived content (e.g., some setup files) may be opened as archives.  When compressing ZIP or gzip files, 7-Zip uses its own DEFLATE encoder, which may achieve higher compression, but at lower speed, than the more common zlib DEFLATE implementation. The 7-Zip deflate encoder implementation is available separately as part of the AdvanceCOMP suite of tools.  The decompression engine for RAR archives was developed using freely available source code of the unRAR program, which has a licensing restriction against creation of a RAR compressor. 7-Zip v15.06 and later support extraction of files in the RAR5 format. Some backup systems use formats supported by archiving programs such as 7-Zip; e.g., some Android backups are in codice_2 format, and can be extracted by archivers such as 7-Zip.

File manager.

7-Zip comes with a file manager along with the standard archiver tools. The file manager has a toolbar with options to create an archive, extract an archive, test an archive to detect errors, copy, move, and delete files, and open a file properties menu exclusive to 7-Zip. The file manager, by default, displays hidden files because it does not follow Windows Explorer's policies. The tabs show name, modification time, original and compressed sizes, attributes, and comments (4DOS codice_3 format).  When going up one directory on the root, all drives, removable or internal appear. Going up again shows a list with four options:

Features.

7-Zip supports:

Variants.

Two command-line versions are provided: 7z.exe, using external libraries; and a standalone executable 7za.exe, containing built-in modules, but with compression/decompression support limited to 7z, ZIP, gzip, bzip2, Z and tar formats. A 64-bit version is available, with support for large memory maps, leading to faster compression. All versions support multi-threading.  The 7za.exe version of 7-Zip is available for Unix-like operating systems (including Linux, FreeBSD, and macOS), FreeDOS, OpenVMS, AmigaOS 4, and MorphOS under the "p7zip" project.

Software development kit.

7-Zip has a LZMA SDK which was originally dual-licensed under both the GNU LGPL and Common Public License, with an additional special exception for linked binaries. On December 2, 2008, the SDK was placed by Igor Pavlov in the public domain.

Security.

On older versions self-extracting archives were vulnerable to arbitrary code execution through DLL hijacking: they load and run a DLL named UXTheme.dll, if it is in the same folder as the executable file. 7-Zip 16.03 Release notes say that the installer and SFX modules have added protection against DLL preloading attack.  Versions of 7-Zip prior to 18.05 contain an arbitrary code execution vulnerability in the module for extracting files from RAR archives (), a vulnerability that was fixed on 30 April 2018.

Reception and usage.

Snapfiles.com in 2012 rated 7-Zip 4.5 stars out of 5, noting, "[its] interface and additional features are fairly basic, but the compression ratio is outstanding".  On TechRepublic in 2009, Justin James found the detailed settings for Windows File Manager integration were "appreciated" and called the compression-decompression benchmark utility "neat". And though the archive dialog has settings that "will confound most users", he concluded: "7-Zip fits a nice niche in between the built-in Windows capabilities and the features of the paid products, and it is able to handle a large variety of file formats in the process."  Between 2002 and 2016, 7-Zip was downloaded 410 million times from SourceForge alone.  The software has received awards. In 2007, SourceForge granted it community choice awards for "Technical Design" and for "Best Project". In 2013, 7-Zip received Tom's Hardware Elite award due to superiority in speed and compression ratio.

7-Zip is a free and open-source file archiver, a utility used to place groups of files within compressed containers known as "archives". It is developed by Igor Pavlov and was first released in 1999. 7-Zip uses its own 7z archive format, but can read and write several other archive formats. The program can be used from a command-line interface as the command p7zip, or through a graphical user interface that also features shell integration. Most of the 7-Zip source code is under the GNU LGPL license; the unRAR code, however, is under the GNU LGPL with an "unRAR restriction", which states that developers are not permitted to use the code to reverse-engineer the RAR compression algorithm.


Early life and education.

Mukwege is the third of nine children born to a Pentecostal minister and his wife. He almost died at birth due to an infection but was saved by the Swedish Pentecostal missionary and midwife Majken Bergman. He studied medicine because he wanted to heal the sick people for whom his father prayed, after seeing the complications of childbirth experienced by women in the Congo who had no access to specialist healthcare.  After graduating with a medical degree from the University of Burundi in 1983, Mukwege worked as a pediatrician in the rural Lemera Hospital near Bukavu. However, after seeing women patients who due to the absence of proper care often suffered pain, genital lesions, and obstetric fistula after giving birth, he studied gynaecology and obstetrics at the University of Angers, France, obtaining his master's and completing his medical residency in 1989. His education was mainly financed by the Swedish Pentecostal mission.  On 24 September 2015, he earned a PhD from Université libre de Bruxelles for his thesis on traumatic fistulas in the Eastern Region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Career.

After returning from studying in Belgium, Mukwege continued working in the Lemera Hospital. After the First Congo War began, he returned to Bukavu due to violent incidents, and founded the Panzi Hospital in 1999. Its construction was mainly financed by Swedish Christian aid organizations and the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency. It has continued to enjoy support from the Swedish Pentecostal Mission's development cooperation organization PMU.  Since its foundation, Panzi Hospital has treated more than 82,000 patients with complex gynecological damage and trauma, an estimated 60 percent of injuries has been caused by sexual violence. Most of the patients of that time were coming from conflict zones. Mukwege has described how his patients arrived at the hospital sometimes naked, usually in horrific condition. When he observed that genital damaging was being used as a weapon of war in the conflict of the late 1990s between different armed groups, Mukwege devoted himself to reconstructive surgery to help female victims of sexual violence. The German Institute for Medical Mission (DIFAEM) has been supporting Mukwege's work with funds and medicines.  In 2008, the non-profit Panzi Foundation DRC was created in order to support the work of Panzi Hospital with "legal assistance, psycho-social support and socio-economic programmes." A Panzi Foundation USA was later founded to promote fundraising in the United States of America, and encourage investment in the Panzi Hospital and Foundations. In 2016 the Mukwege Foundation was created, to promote the aims of the Panzi Hospital and Foundations worldwide and "advocate for an end to wartime sexual violence everywhere."

United Nations speech.

In September 2012, Mukwege gave a speech at the United Nations where he condemned the mass rape occurring in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and criticized the Congolese government and other countries "for not doing enough to stop what he called 'an unjust war that has used violence against women and rape as a strategy of war.

Assassination attempt and return.

On 25 October 2012, four armed men attacked his residence while he was not home, held his daughters hostage, and waited for his return to assassinate him. Upon his return, his guard intervened and was shot dead by the assassins. They missed Mukwege as he dropped to the ground during the shooting. After the assassination attempt, Mukwege went into exile in Europe and the Panzi Hospital reported that his absence has had a "devastating effect" on its daily operations.  He returned to Bukavu on 14 January 2013, where the population received him with a warm welcome over the 20 miles from Kavumu Airport to the city, especially from his patients, who had raised funds to pay for his return ticket by selling pineapples and onions.

Other activities.

At 13 years of age, Mukwege took the decision to follow in his father's footsteps and become a Pentecostal minister, which was a transformative experience for him. He later said: "I started to speak in tongues. My whole being was filled with heat and a certainty that I was not alone. The experience was so overwhelming that I knew my life was forever changed by that moment." Apart from working as a doctor, he partly ministers in a Pentecostal church in Bukavu with 700 members. Mukwege has repeatedly named his faith in Jesus Christ as a primary motivation for his work at Panzi.  The Panzi Hospital is being run by the Congolese Pentecostal movement CEPAC and has been continuously supported by the Swedish Pentecostal movement. In 2015, Mukwege was invited to speak at Nyhemsveckan, the annual Pentecostal conference in central Sweden. He then said:  From this place, people have been praying for my beloved country and tonight it is a privilege for me to stand here as a fruit of your prayers. My congregation belongs to the Congolese Pentecostal Movement Cepac, and with about one million members it is a fruit of your prayers. The Panzi hospital is a fruit of your prayers.  The church must be based on prayer. The Bible tells us to be thankful and thus, I want to be a representative for all those who received the blessings from your efforts in my country and elsewhere, saying thank you from the bottom of my heart.

Denis Mukwege (; born 1 March 1955) is a Congolese gynecologist and Pentecostal pastor. He founded and works in Panzi Hospital in Bukavu, where he specializes in the treatment of women who have been raped by armed rebels.


Biography.

Tersztyánszky was born in Skalica in the Austro-Hungarian Empire on 29 October 1854. He graduated from the Theresian Military Academy in Vienna in 1877 and was commissioned into the Austro-Hungarian Army. Afterwards the dragoon officer went to war school, served in the general staff and held various cavalry commands. While his stubborn, cantankerous and hot-headed behaviour often got him into trouble he nonetheless was frequently commended by his superiors and enjoyed the patronage of the heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (until his assassination in 1914) and Chief of Staff Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. In 1913 Tersztyánszky was promoted to the rank of General der Kavallerie.  When World War I began Tersztyánszky, commanding IV Corps, served as part of 2nd Army in the Balkans theatre. Later that year the unit was transferred to the Eastern Front to fight in Galicia and Poland. In late spring 1915 he was given command of the short-lived Army Group "Tersztyánszky", which soon became the 3rd Army, in Serbia.However, later that year he lost command after clashing with Hungarian Prime Minister István Tisza.  Tersztyánszky had to wait until mid 1916 for a new assignment, now as a recently promoted Generaloberst. He got command of the 4th Army during the Brusilov Offensive, back on the Eastern Front. He took the place of Archduke Joseph Ferdinand of Austria who had been dismissed on insistence of German general Alexander von Linsingen for failures during said campaign. In 1917 Tersztyánszky was relieved once more after clashing with von Linsingen, and was to lead 3rd Army again. However he was removed from command for a final time when unable to hold the lines during the Kerensky Offensive.  Tersztyánszky then served on a ceremonial post as commander of the Imperial and Royal Mounted Lifeguard Squadron. He finally retired in December 1918 after the war had ended; and lived in Vienna until he died there on 7 March 1921.

Decorations.

Among his decorations and recognitions were:

Karl Tersztyánszky von Nádas (28 October 1854 – 7 March 1921), alternatively written Tersztyánszky de Nádas, was an Austro-Hungarian general who served in World War I.


Prelude.

Oruzgan province, along with neighboring Kandahar and Helmand provinces in southern Afghanistan, is part of the Taliban's traditional Pashtun tribal stronghold. In Oruzgan, NATO's ISAF mission took over authority for Afghanistan from the US-led coalition in August 2006, resulting in 1,400 Dutch soldiers replacing some 150 US troops at the Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) in Oruzgan's provincial capital, Tarin Kowt, and other bases. In addition to co-located Afghan battalions, there was an Australian element under Dutch command and contributions from other NATO allies. Oruzgan is 2/3 the size of the Netherlands, but the Dutch presence has been challenged with providing security to areas it patrols regularly. When faced with the security challenge, the Dutch reverted to an "inkspot policy" whereby they focused their attention only on Oruzgan's three population centres, leaving other areas to Taliban control.  Dutch activities included setting up checkpoints, some of which were near the town of Chora. At the time, there were 100 Afghan police in Chora.  Dutch troops were working in Chora on projects such as a school, a mosque and a bridge, following up on civilian construction projects initiated by the US. 60 Dutch troops were deployed in Chora.

Battle.

June 15.

On Friday evening June 15 there was some shooting near Chora. In the morning of that day, a Dutch convoy in Tarin Kowt was attacked by a suicide bomber, killing a Dutch soldier, Timo Smeehuijzen and several Afghan civilians.

June 16.

A U.S. A-10 Thunderbolt II spotted a group of 60 persons moving toward Chora. Dutch troops at Chora were informed, but the A-10 did not engage the group, due to uncertainty over their identity and intentions.  Shortly after, three Afghan police posts (Kala Kala, Nyazi and Sarab), on the road linking Chora to Tarin Kowt came under coordinated attack by a large number of Taliban fighters (the Dutch press claim "800" men, although this number seems impossibly large and cannot be verified). Dutch troops in Chora moved to support the Kala Kala and Nyazi Afghan police posts.  The Taliban captured Sarab police post, killing two brothers of the commander of the post. They also cut off the hands of the wife of a captured policeman who was forced to watch her mutilation before being beheaded himself. That afternoon, the Dutch withdrew from the Kala Kala and Nyazi checkpoints, allowing the Taliban to capture these posts as well.  The Dutch troops reassembled near the Chora district building and contacted their commander, Colonel Hans van Griensven in Camp Holland near Tarin Kowt, for instructions. Griensven ordered them to stay and fight.  ISAF aircraft provided support and attacked the Taliban, scouts reported that 30 Taliban volunteers led by individuals nicknamed Kaka and Sadam, were gathered inside a farm at the village of Qual Eh-Ye-Ragh. An Apache helicopter fired two Hellfire-missiles at the farm, killing the Taliban and civilians inside.  Rozi Khan, a local tribal militia leader with shifting loyalties (who was himself killed during October 2008 fighting in the area), offered 150-200 of his fighters to support the defense of Chora. The Dutch and Chora village leaders accepted Khan's offer reluctantly as the village leaders had to arm Khan's fighters (aware that Khan might later change sides again and turn the weapons on them). A group of Dutch and Australian troops at Camp Holland near Tarin Kowt moved to Chora, commanded by LTC Rob Querido. The Australian troops deployed in Baluchi valley, between Tarin Kowt and Chora, to secure the key road.  Also on Saturday June 16 US Staff Sergeant Roy P. Lewsader was killed when his vehicle was struck by a rocket-propelled grenade in Tarin Kowt.

June 17–18.

On Sunday June 17 and Monday June 18 Dutch reinforcements arrived from Kamp Holland and a second Dutch base in Deh Rahwod, increasing the number of Dutch troops at Chora to 500. 50 Afghan Army reinforcements also arrived in Chinook helicopters. Taliban fighters, who had gained control of most of the residential areas, forced civilians to fight with them or face execution. The Taliban also used civilian homes as shelter, but were still attacked by NATO aircraft, causing civilian casualties. As the fighting continued, many Taliban fighters were killed.  At one time, six Dutch F-16s were in the air, engaging ground targets assigned by the infantry.  On the night of Sunday, June 17 to the morning of Monday, June 18, during the loading of an 81-mm mortar, which was deployed in the courtyard of the Chora district government building, a round exploded inside the launch tube, killing Dutch Sergeant-Major Jos Leunissen and wounding three other Dutch soldiers.

June 19.

At 9:30 am, NATO briefly withdrew the aircraft supporting the fighting at Chora, but air support was restored at 9:40 when Col. van Griensven reportedly threatened to withdraw the six Dutch F-16s from NATO command.  At 10:00 Dutch and Afghan troops, together with Rozi Khan's militia, made a push called "Operation Troy", in which they recaptured the three lost checkpoints.

The Battle of Chora took place in and around the town of Chora (3,000 inhabitants), in Afghanistan's Orūzgān Province, during June 15–19, 2007. The fighting was between ISAF and Afghan forces on one side and Taliban forces on the other, for the control of the Chora District centre, regarded by the Taliban as a tactical target because it provides ground access from unsecured Gizab district in the north to the provincial capital of Tarin Kowt. According to some press reports, the fighting was the largest Taliban offensive of 2007 in Afghanistan, and resulted in the death of one American, two Dutch and 16 Afghan soldiers, as well as approximately 58 civilians and 71 Taliban fighters.


Early life.

Bower was born in London. His mother, Anne Elizabeth (née Roseberry), is a music manager, and his father, David Bower, works for the Gibson Guitar Corporation. His maternal great-great-great-great-grandfather was Sir John Campbell, of Airds, Lieutenant Governor of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. He attended Bedales School, a co-educational independent school in Hampshire, and is a former member of the National Youth Music Theatre and the National Youth Theatre.

Career.

Bower began his professional career when his friend Laura Michelle Kelly, recommended him to her agent. He was a part-time model with Select Model Management in London. He played Rocker in the film "RocknRolla" and Jack in "Winter in Wartime". He starred in the 2009 remake of the series "The Prisoner" as Number 11–12.  Also in 2009, he played the vampire Caius Volturi in the film "" and both "Twilight: Breaking Dawn" films. He appeared as the younger Gellert Grindelwald, the dark wizard defeated by Albus Dumbledore, in the 2010 "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1". He played King Arthur in the 2011 television series "Camelot". In 2010, he starred in the music video for "Young (Belane)" by The Xcerts.  In 2012, Bower appeared in the music video for "Never Let Me Go" by Florence + The Machine. He played Jace Wayland in "", the film adaption of "The Mortal Instruments" series, by Cassandra Clare. In December 2013, he joined the cast of Burberry's Campaign Stars for spring/summer 2014.  In June 2015, Bower began playing the role of Joe, in the new West End musical "Bend It Like Beckham".  He is the frontman for the band Counterfeit, which released its first album in March 2017 and had a US Tour in 2017.  In July 2017, he was on the TNT original series, "Will".  As of January 2019, Bower was announced to star in the prelude series to "Game of Thrones" Bloodmoon. In October 2019, it was announced that HBO had decided to not move forward with Bloodmoon.

Personal life.

In February 2010, Bower was confirmed to be dating actress Bonnie Wright whom he had met on the set of "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1". In April 2011, they confirmed their engagement. On 30 June 2012, they amicably ended their engagement.

James Metcalfe Campbell Bower (born 22 November 1988) is an English actor, singer, and model. He is best known for his roles as Anthony Hope in "", Caius in "The Twilight Saga", the young Gellert Grindelwald in "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1" and "", Jace Wayland in "" and playwright Kit Marlowe in the short-lived series "Will".


Life.

Krukenberg was born in Bonn, the son of a professor at Bonn University; his mother was the daughter of the archeologist Alexander Conze. He gained a doctorate in law and joined the army in 1907. He married in 1912. During World War I, he served as an ordnance officer and adjutant and was promoted to "Hauptmann" in 1918. After the war, in 1920 he served in the Civil Service as the private secretary to the Foreign minister and was briefly a director for a German company in industry from 1924 to 1925. In 1926 Krukenberg went to Paris as part of a German delegation and spend the next 5 years there. He joined the Nazi Party in April 1932 and he worked at the propaganda ministry after Adolf Hitler came to power and became a member of the "Allgemeine SS" in 1934.

World War II.

With the outbreak of World War II Krukenberg re-joined the army as a major and served on the General Staff in Paris. In December 1943 he transferred from the army, in which he had reached the rank of "Oberstleutnant" (Lt. colonel), to the Waffen-SS. He joined with the equivalent rank of "Obersturmbannführer". Krukenberg was promoted three more times, obtaining the rank of "Brigadeführer" in 1944. A fluent French speaker, he was officially appointed the commander of the SS Division Charlemagne in February 1945. The division was formed out of the remnants of the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism (LVF) and French "Sturmbrigade".

Berlin 1945.

On the night of 23/24 April 1945, Krukenberg received a call from Army Group Vistula headquarters. He was summoned to bring the remains of his division to help with the defence of Berlin. Krukenberg roused his men and informed them of the situation. He asked for volunteers to go to Berlin. Although the majority wanted to go, Krukenberg and "Hauptsturmführer" Henri Joseph Fenet only chose as many volunteers as they could provide transportation. The group made a long detour to avoid advance columns of the Red Army and entered Berlin at 2200 hrs on 24 April 1945.  On 25 April, Krukenberg was appointed by General Helmuth Weidling as the commander of (Berlin) Defence Sector C, which included the SS Division Nordland, whose previous commander Joachim Ziegler was relieved of his command the same day. The arrival of the French SS men bolstered the "Nordland" Division whose "Norge" and "Danmark" regiments had been decimated in the fighting against the Soviet Red Army.  By 26 April, with Neukölln heavily penetrated by Soviet combat groups, Krukenberg prepared fallback positions for Sector C defenders around Hermannplatz. He moved his headquarters into the opera house. As the "Nordland" Division withdrew towards Hermannplatz, the Frenchmen under Fenet and some attached Hitler Youth destroyed fourteen Soviet tanks; one machine gun position by the Halensee bridge managed to hold up Soviet forces for 48 hours.  After an appeal by Krukenberg, General Weidling agreed to allow the re-deployment of the "Nordland" Division as one unit and not scattered in its employment. Weidling created two sub-sections of Sector "Z"; the Western Sub-sector would be commanded by Oberleutant Seifert. His command post was in the Air Ministry Building. The Eastern Sub-sector would be commanded by Krukenberg where most of the remains of the "Nordland" were already fighting. The demarcation line was the Wilhelmstrasse. Forced to fall back on 27 April, Krukenberg's "Nordland" headquarters was a carriage in the "Stadtmitte" U-Bahn station in Defence sector Z (Central District). Of the 108 Soviet tanks destroyed in the centre district, Frenchmen under Krukenberg's overall command accounted for "about half" of them. On 29 April 1945 Krukenberg awarded one of the last Knight's Crosses of the war to "Unterscharführer" Eugène Vaulot for his combat actions.  It is widely believed that on 1 May, Krukenberg attempted to stem the Soviet advance by ordering sappers to blow up the S-Bahn tunnel under the Landwehr canal, causing 25 kilometres of S-Bahn and U-Bahn tunnels to flood, which led to many casualties. But according to author A. Stephan Hamilton, it is far more probable that the massive bombardment of the city by hundreds of tons of shells and rockets by the Soviets caused the damage and flooding of the tunnels. As the Germans made extensive use of the underground (U-Bahn) for redeployment of troops, makeshift hospitals and as a place to take refuge from the constant shelling, it seems highly doubtful that Krukenberg ordered the destruction of the U-bahn tunnels.  After Hitler's death, Krukenberg assembled most of his escort made up of French SS for a breakout. They joined up with Ziegler and a larger group of "Nordland" troops. They crossed the Spree just before dawn. Near the "Gesundbrunnen U-Bahn" station they came under heavy fire from Red Army troops. Ziegler was gravely wounded and died on 2 May. Later, Krukenberg made it to Dahlem where he hid out in an apartment for a week before surrendering to Red Army troops. He was tried, convicted and sentenced to prison by a Soviet court. He was released from prison after serving 11 years and returned to Germany. Krukenberg died on 23 October 1980.

Gustav Krukenberg (8 March 1888 – 23 October 1980) was a high-ranking member of the Waffen-SS and commander of the SS Charlemagne Division and the remains of the SS Division Nordland during the Battle of Berlin in April 1945. After Krukenberg surrendered to Soviet Red Army troops, he was tried, convicted and sentenced to prison by a Soviet court. He was released from prison after serving 11 years and died on 23 October 1980 in Germany.


Construction history.

On 18 May 2006, Siemens and Russian Railways signed a €276 million order for eight high-speed trains with a 30-year service contract worth around €300 million.  The trains were ordered to connect Moscow with Saint Petersburg and later Nizhny Novgorod at a speed of up to. They are derived from the German ICE 3 train but with bodies widened by to to suit Russia's wide loading gauge. Four of the trains (EVS2) are equipped for both 3 kV DC and operation. The total length of each ten-car train is, carrying up to 600 passengers.  Development and construction was carried out by Siemens at Erlangen and Krefeld in Germany. In August 2009, it was announced that the fifth "Sapsan" had been delivered to Russia, of the eight that were planned.  Four single-voltage ("EVS1", 3 kV DC powered, trainsets 5-8) trains entered passenger service at the end of 2009 on the Moscow – St Petersburg route, with the dual-system trains (EVS2, trainsets 1-4) entering service on the Nizhny Novgorod route on 30 July 2010.  "Sapsan" set records for the fastest train in Russia on 2 May 2009, travelling at and on 7 May 2009, travelling at.  On 19 December 2011, a €600 million order for an additional twenty trainsets including eight EVS2 sets was signed in order to facilitate an increased number of services on existing lines and the expansion of new service elsewhere in the system. The second-batch EVS1 sets (trainsets 9-20) will be same details as the first-batch EVS1 sets, but the second-batch EVS2 sets (trainsets 21 onward) will have retractable steps to suit for low platforms, unlike the first-batch EVS2 sets.

Operations.

Since entering service in December 2009, it has been Russian Railways' only profitable passenger service, with an occupancy rate of 84.5%. According to the timetable valid from 30 October 2011, the direct train from Moscow to St Petersburg without intermediate stops needs three hours 40 minutes, the train from Moscow to Nizhniy Novgorod 3 hours an 55 minutes.  Introduction of "Sapsan" initially provoked cancelling of affordable daytime trains between Moscow and St Petersburg. Since the end of 2012, Moscow – St Petersburg daytime trains other than "Sapsan" were running again.  There were a series of stone throwing attacks against "Sapsan" trains. Possible reasons including cancelling of commuter trains, disruption of local transportation in rural areas, and accidents because of poor safety for pedestrians have been suggested. New bridge crossings were built, platforms along the railway were reconstructed and additional track was completed in 2015. New "Lastochka" commuter trains were introduced on the Moscow – Tver and St Petersburg – Bologoye routes. Local trains in the rural areas were saved.

Route.

Moscow – Saint Petersburg route.

The first and the only (since 2015) route for "Sapsan" trains.  Moscow (Leningradsky railway terminal) – Tver" (770A, 772A, 776A, 756A, 768A, 780A)" – Vyshny Volochyok" (756A, 760A, 768A, 772A, 780A)" – Bologoye" (754A, 758A, 770A, 778A)" – Uglovka" (754A, 776A, 778A)" – Okulovka" (754A, 758A, 778A)" – Chudovo" (754A, 770A, 778A)" – Saint Petersburg (Moskovsky railway terminal)  There are no "Sapsan" trains stopping at all stations on the route. The fastest ones do not stop between Moscow and Saint Petersburg at all. Numbers of the trains which stop at intermediate stations are listed above. Such measures were implemented to increase speed.

Moscow – Nizhny Novgorod route.

Former route of "Sapsan" trains. Since 2015, new Talgo "Strizh" train was introduced. All the "Sapsans" were directed to Moscow – St Petersburg route. Talgo trains are also high speed but more suitable for this route.

Saint Petersburg – Nizhny Novgorod route.

On 1 March 2018, Russian Railways reopened the discontinued Saint Petersburg – Moscow – Nizhny Novgorod route which allows passengers to take an 8 hour 11 minute journey without a train change in Moscow.

Tickets.

On 1 July 2012, the Russian Railways company introduced a new tariff system for "Sapsan" trains which dynamically prices tickets based on two factors:  The new rates range from 0.8 to 1.2 times the base rate for the day. It is possible to see the final price of a ticket for a specific date during the booking process.

The Sapsan (, known as Velaro RUS EVS) is a Russian gauge high speed electric express train. The train is a Siemens Velaro model, known as the Siemens Velaro RUS.


History.

The theater was built in 1709 to designs by Antonio Beduzzi on a site near the former Kärntnertor, on the grounds of the present Hotel Sacher. The expenses of building the theater were borne by the City of Vienna, and was intended (as Eva Badura-Skoda notes) to be "frequented by the Viennese population of all classes." However, at the command of the Emperor, the first performances were of Italian opera, an elite form of entertainment. In 1711 the theater was redirected to its original purpose when it was placed under the direction of, who put on a variety of entertainments, often embodying a German version of the Italian commedia dell'arte. The theater was managed by Stranitzky's widow after his death.  In 1728 the court artists Borosini and Selliers, who had performed intermezzi in both German and Italian, became the Kärntnertortheater's directors. From 1742 to 1750 the theatre was leased to Selliers alone. In 1752, however, Maria Theresa withdrew the imperial privilege, placing the theater under the direct scrutiny of the magistrates of Vienna.  The first theatre burned in 1761 and was rebuilt by the court architect Nicolò Pacassi; two years later it reopened, again under protective privilege, as the ', "Imperial and Royal Court Theater of Vienna". From the early nineteenth century ballets were added to the repertory, as well as Italian and German operas. From 1811 to 1814 Ignaz Franz Castelli served as "Hoftheaterdichter", "poet of the court theater". From 1821 the Italian impresario Domenico Barbaia added the theatre to the string of theatres under his management, and presented Italian operas. Beginning in 1861 the Vienna Court Opera House (now the Vienna State Opera) was built on the adjoining grounds; it was completed in 1869 and in 1870 the former theatre was razed, making way for the apartment building that became the Hotel Sacher. Gerhard Bronner's cabaret showcase used the name'(New Theatre at the Kärntnertor) from 1959 to 1973 before adopting its present name; it is located on the next block at 4 Walfischgasse.

First performances of operas and other works.

During its heyday several composers conducted the theatre orchestra, including the young Franz Lachner and Ferdinando Paer.

References.

Notes  Sources

' or'(English: Carinthian Gate Theatre) was a prestigious theatre in Vienna during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Its official title was "", the "Imperial and Royal Court Theater of Vienna".


West Germany.

The fundamental reason for the quick economic recovery of West Germany can be found in the ordoliberal growth model. West Germany had a skilled workforce and a high technological level in 1946, but its capital stock had largely been destroyed during and after the war. This small capital stock was compounded by the difficulty in converting the German economy to the production of civilian goods, as well as rampant monetary and regulatory problems, leading to an unusually low economic output during the first post-war years.  These initial problems were overcome by the time of the currency reform of 1948, which replaced the Reichsmark with the Deutsche Mark as legal tender, halting rampant inflation. This act to strengthen the West German economy had been explicitly forbidden during the two years that JCS 1067 was in effect. JCS 1067 had directed the U.S. forces of occupation in West Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany".  At the same time, the government, following Erhard's advice, cut taxes sharply on moderate incomes. Walter Heller, a young economist with the U.S. occupation forces who was later to become chairman of President Kennedy's Council of Economic Advisers, wrote in 1949 that to "remove the repressive effect of extremely high rates, Military Government Law No. 64 cut a wide swath across the German tax system at the time of the currency reform." Individual income tax rates, in particular, fell dramatically. Previously the tax rate on any income over 6,000 Deutschmark had been 95 percent. After tax reform, this 95 percent rate applied only to annual incomes above 250,000 Deutschmark. For the West German with an annual income of about 2,400 Deutschmark in 1950, the marginal tax rate fell from 85 percent to 18 percent. The Allied dismantling of the West German coal and steel industries decided at the Potsdam Conference was virtually completed by 1950; equipment had then been removed from 706 manufacturing plants in the west and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6,700,000 tons. Although the industrially important Saarland with its rich coal fields was returned to West Germany in 1957, it remained economically integrated in a customs union with France until 1959 and France extracted coal from the area until 1981.  West Germany proceeded quickly after 1948 to rebuild its capital stock and thus to increase its economic output at stunning rates. The very high capital investment rate thanks to low consumption and a very small need for replacement capital investments (due to the still small capital stock) drove this recovery during the 1950s. Living standards also rose steadily, with the purchasing power of wages increasing by 73% from 1950 to 1960. As noted by the British journalist Terence Prittie in the early Sixties:  Productivity growth in West Germany enabled most workers to obtain significant improvements in their living standards and'security of life.' In addition, as noted by David Eversley,

Reparations.

In addition to the physical barriers that had to be overcome for the West German economic recovery, there were also intellectual challenges. The Allies confiscated intellectual property of great value, all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and used them to strengthen their own industrial competitiveness by licensing them to Allied companies.  Immediately after the German surrender and for the next two years, the U.S. pursued a vigorous program to harvest all technological and scientific know-how as well as all patents in Germany. John Gimbel's book ""Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany"" concludes the "intellectual reparations" taken by the U.S. and the UK amounted to close to $10 billion.  During the more than two years this policy was in place, new industrial research in Germany was hampered because it was unprotected and freely available to overseas competitors, encouraged by occupation authorities to access all records and facilities.

Marshall Plan.

Meanwhile, thousands of the best German researchers and engineers were working in the Soviet Union and in the U.S. See Operation Osoaviakhim, Operation Paperclip.  The Marshall Plan was only extended to Western Germany after it was realized the suppression of its economy was holding back the recovery of other European countries and was not the main force behind the "Wirtschaftswunder". Although, it likely greatly contributed to Germany's overall economic recovery. Furthermore, often overlooked is the effect of the "unofficial contributions" of 150,000 U.S. occupation troops, earning as much as 4 Deutschmark to the dollar. These marks were spent within West Germany to buy food, luxury items, beer and cars, as well as entertaining the locals and for prostitutes. During exercises such numbers of soldiers would swell to over 250,000. Nonetheless, the amount of monetary aid, which was mainly in the form of loans, about $1.4 billion, was greatly overshadowed by the amount the Germans had to pay back as war reparations and by the charges the Allies made on the Germans for the ongoing cost of the occupation, about $2.4 billion per year. In 1953 it was decided that Germany would repay $1.1 billion of the aid it had received. The last repayment was made in June 1971.  The demands of the Korean War in 1950–53 led to a global shortage of goods that helped overcome lingering resistance to the purchase of West German products. At the time West Germany had a large pool of skilled labour, partly as a result of the deportations and migrations which affected up to 16.5 million Germans. This helped West Germany to more than double the value of its exports during and shortly after the war. Apart from these factors, hard work and long hours at full capacity among the population in the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s and extra labour supplied by thousands of "Gastarbeiter" ("guest workers", since the late 1950s) provided a vital base for the sustainment of the economic upturn with additional workforce.  From the late 1950s onwards, West Germany had one of the world's strongest economies. The East German economy also showed strong growth, but not as much as in West Germany, due to the bureaucratic system, emigration of working-age East Germans to West Germany and continued reparations to the USSR in terms of resources. Unemployment hit a record low of 0.7–0.8% in 1961–1966 and 1970–1971.  Ludwig Erhard, who served as Minister of the Economy in Chancellor Adenauer's cabinet from 1949 until 1963 and would later rise to Chancellor himself, is often associated with the West German "Wirtschaftswunder".

Austria.

Austria was also included in the Marshall Plan and can thus be included in any consideration of the "Wirtschaftswunder". Through the nationalisation of key industries (VOEST, AMAG, Steyr-Puch) and yet more long working hours, full economic capacity was reached. Using West Germany as a guide, the currency was stabilised when the Schilling was reintroduced in place of the Reichsmark. This economic policy was known in journalistic circles as the "Raab-Kamitz-Kurs", named after Julius Raab, Austrian chancellor from 1953, and his Finance Minister Reinhard Kamitz similar to the West German "Adenauer-Erhard-Kurs".  By state major projects such as the Kaprun hydroelectric plant or the West Autobahn, unemployment fell and social peace was ensured. In the 1950s the first "Gastarbeiter" from Southern Italy and Greece arrived in the country, as more manual labour was required to maintain the economic upswing.

The term Wirtschaftswunder (, "economic miracle"), also known as the Miracle on the Rhine, describes the rapid reconstruction and development of the economies of West Germany and Austria after World War II (adopting an ordoliberalism-based social market economy). The expression referring to this phenomenon was first used by "The Times" in 1950.


Biography.

He was the brother of Adam Anderson, (1692–1765); James was born about 1680, in Aberdeen, where he was educated, and probably took the degrees of M.A. and D.D. In 1710 he was appointed minister of the Presbyterian church in Swallow Street, London, whence he was transferred, in 1734, to a similar charge in Lisle Street, Leicester Fields. According to the "Gentleman's Magazine," he is said to have been "well known among the people of that persuasion resident in London as Bishop Anderson", and he is described as "a learned but imprudent man, who lost a considerable part of his property in the fatal year 1720". Several of his sermons were printed. One of them, "No King-Killers", preached in 1715, on the anniversary of the execution of Charles I, was a zealous defence of the conduct of the Presbyterians during the civil wars, and reached a second edition. Anderson was a freemason, and when, in 1721, on the revival of freemasonry in England, the grand lodge determined to produce an authoritative digest of the "Constitutions" of the fraternity, the task was assigned to him (Entick's edition (1747) of the "Constitutions," p. 194 et seq.). It was as a grand warden of the lodge that he presented to it, on completing his task, "The Constitutions of the Free-Masons; containing the History, Charges, Regulations, &c. of that Most Ancient and Right Worshipful Fraternity. For the Use of the Lodges. London. In the year of Masonry 5723, Anno Domini 1723." This work, which passed through several editions, was long recognised by the English freemasons to be the standard code on its subject, and was translated into German. An American facsimile of the first edition of 1723 was issued at New York City in 1855, and there are reprints of the same edition in Cox's "Old Constitutions belonging to the Freemasons of England and Ireland" (1871) and in the first volume of Kenning's "Masonic Archæological Library" (1878). Anderson also contributed to masonic literature "A Defence of Masonry, occasioned by a pamphlet called “Masonry Dissected”" (1738?), which was translated into German, and is reprinted in "Golden Remains of the Early Masonic Writers" by George Oliver (1847).

Freemasonry.

Anderson was a Freemason, the Master of a Masonic lodge, and a Grand Warden of the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster. He was commissioned in September 1721 by the Grand Lodge to write a history of the Free-Masons, and it was published in 1723 as "The Constitutions of the Free-Masons." Anderson's name does not appear on the title page, but his authorship is declared in an appendix.  Anderson's work, although of the first importance to the history of freemasonry, is unfortunately marred by a number of extravagant claims which are simply incredible. Indeed, it was shown at the tercentenary conference of the respected Quatuor Coronati research Lodge at Queens' College, Cambridge, that Anderson's history of the founding of the Grand Lodge is doubtful, since the public houses mentioned could probably not have accommodated the meetings that he claims were held in 1717. Anderson's account must be broadly accurate, having been widely published within six years of the events described, but it may have been backdated by two or three years, perhaps to aggrandise some brethren as Past Grand Officers.

Works.

The work by which Anderson is chiefly remembered appeared in 1732, "Royal Genealogies; or, the Genealogical Tables of Emperors, Kings, and Princes, from Adam to these times." Professedly based on "Genealogische Tabellen" of Johann Hübner, it was largely supplemented by Anderson's industry. While the earlier sections of the work are of little historical value, the later are often of use in relation to the genealogies of continental dynasties and houses. The volume closes with a synopsis of the English peerage, and in the preface the author intimated his readiness, if adequately encouraged, "to delineate and dispose at full length the genealogies of all the peers and great gentry of the Britannic isles".  Anderson's last work, which he was commissioned to undertake by the first Earl of Egmont and his son from materials furnished by them, bore the title, "A Genealogical History of the House of Yvery, in its different branches of Yvery, Lovel, Perceval, and Gournay"; but the first volume alone was completed when Anderson died on 25 May 1739, and a second volume, subsequently published, was due to another pen (see "To the Reader" in vol. ii). The work was soon withdrawn from circulation on account of some disparaging remarks in it on the condition of the English peerage and on the character of the Irish people. It was re-issued, however, without the offensive passages, in 1742 (see "Notes and Queries," 1st series, iv.158, and "Letters of Horace Walpole" (1857), i.107 n., and ii.145). Much of the genealogical matter in the book has been pronounced to be mythical (Drummond's "Histories of Noble British Families" (1846), art. ‘Percival’). Another work of Anderson's, "News from Elysium, or Dialogues of the Dead, between Leopold, Roman Emperor, and Louis XIV, King of France," was published shortly after his death in 1739.  The "Constitutions" was edited and reprinted by Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia in 1734, becoming the first Masonic book printed in America. An electronic edition of that work is online. A second London edition, much expanded, appeared in 1738. The work was translated into many languages, including Dutch (1736), German (1741), and French (1745).  His other published works include:

Dr. James Anderson (c. 1679/1680 – 1739) was a Scottish writer and minister born and educated in Aberdeen, Scotland. He was ordained a minister in the Church of Scotland in 1707 and moved to London, where he ministered to the Glass House Street congregation until 1710, to the Presbyterian church in Swallow Street until 1734, and at Lisle Street Chapel until his death. He is reported to have lost a large sum of money in the South Sea Company crash of 1720. Anderson is best known for his association with Freemasonry.


Usage.

As an example, a block diagram of a radio is not expected to show each and every connection and dial and switch, but the schematic diagram is. The schematic diagram of a radio does not show the width of each connection in the printed circuit board, but the layout does.  To make an analogy to the map making world, a block diagram is similar to a highway map of an entire nation. The major cities (functions) are listed but the minor county roads and city streets are not. When troubleshooting, this high level map is useful in narrowing down and isolating where a problem or fault is.  Block diagrams rely on the principle of the black box where the contents are hidden from view either to avoid being distracted by the details or because the details are not known. We know what goes in, we know what goes out, but we can't see how the box does its work.  In electrical engineering, a design will often begin as a very high level block diagram, becoming more and more detailed block diagrams as the design progresses, finally ending in block diagrams detailed enough that each individual block can be easily implemented (at which point the block diagram is also a schematic diagram). This is known as top down design. Geometric shapes are often used in the diagram to aid interpretation and clarify meaning of the process or model. The geometric shapes are connected by lines to indicate association and direction/order of traversal. Each engineering discipline has their own meaning for each shape. Block diagrams are used in every discipline of engineering. They are also a valuable source of concept building and educationally beneficial in non-engineering disciplines.  In process control, block diagrams are a visual language for describing actions in a complex system in which blocks are black boxes that represent mathematical or logical operations that occur in sequence from left to right and top to bottom, but not the physical entities, such as processors or relays, that perform those operations. It is possible to create such block diagrams and implement their functionality with specialized programmable logic controller (PLC) programming languages.  In biology there is an increasing use of engineering principles, techniques of analysis and methods of diagramming. There is some similarity between the block diagram and what is called Systems Biology Graphical Notation. As it is there is use made in systems biology of the block diagram technique harnessed by control engineering where the latter itself is an application of control theory. An example of this is the function block diagram, one of five programming languages defined in part 3 of the IEC 61131 (see IEC 61131-3) standard that is highly formalized (see formal system), with strict rules for how diagrams are to be built. Directed lines are used to connect input variables to block inputs, and block outputs to output variables and inputs of other blocks.

A block diagram is a diagram of a system in which the principal parts or functions are represented by blocks connected by lines that show the relationships of the blocks. They are heavily used in engineering in hardware design, electronic design, software design, and process flow diagrams.


Early life.

The daughter of Frida Hochberger and Louis Stern, Grete Stern was born on 9 May 1904 in Elberfeld, Germany. She often visited family in England and attended primary school there. After reaching adulthood, from 1923 to 1925 she studied graphic arts at the Kunstgewerbeschule, Stuttgart, but after a short term working in the field she was inspired by the photography of Edward Weston and Paul Outerbridge to change her focus to photography. Relocating to Berlin, she took private lessons from Walter Peterhans.

Career.

In 1930 Stern and Ellen Rosenberg Auerbach founded "ringl+pit", a critically acclaimed, prize-winning Berlin based photography and design studio. They used equipment purchased from Peterhans and became well known for innovative work in advertising. The name "ringl+pit" is after their childhood nicknames (Ringl for Grete, Pit for Ellen).  Intermittently between April 1930 and March 1933, Stern continued her studies with Peterhans at the Bauhaus photography workshop in Dessau, where she met the Argentinian photographer Horacio Coppola. In 1933 the political climate of Nazi Germany led her to emigrate with her brother to England, where Stern set up a new studio, soon to resume her collaboration there with Auerbach.  Stern first traveled to Argentina in the company of her new husband, Horacio Coppola in 1935. The newlyweds mounted an exhibition in Buenos Aires at, which according to the magazine, was the first modern photography exhibition in Argentina. In 1958, she became a citizen of Argentina. In 1948 Stern began working for "Idilio", an illustrated women's magazine, targeted specifically at lower/lower-middle class women. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Stern created "Los Sueños" as illustrations for the woman's magazine "Idilio" and its column "El psicoanálisis te ayudará" (Psychoanalysis Will Help You). Readers were encouraged to submit their dreams to be analyzed by the 'experts' as an aid for its readers to dins "self-knowledge and self-aid that would help them succeed in love, family and work". Each week, one dream would be selected, analyzed in depth by the expert, Richard Rest, and then illustrated by Stern through photomontage. Stern created about 150 of these photomontages, of which only 46 survive in negatives. Stern's photomontages are surreal interpretations of the readers' dreams that often subtly pushed back on the traditional values and concepts in "Idilio" magazine by inserting feminist critique of Argentinian gender roles and the psychoanalytic project in her images. The Idilio series has often been compared to Francisco Goya's "Sueños" drawings, a series of preliminary drawings for his later body of work, "Los Caprichos"; they have also been directly compared to "Los Caprichos" themselves.  Stern provided photographs for the magazine and served for a stint as a photography teacher in Resistencia at the National University of the Northeast in 1959 and continued to teach until 1985.

Death.

In 1985, she retired from photography, but lived another 14 years until 1999, dying in Buenos Aires on 24 December at the age of 95.

Legacy.

In 1995 documentarian Juan Mandelbaum made a documentary about Studio Ringl + Pit, which was reviewed in the "New York Times" In 2005 her work was the subject of an exhibition at New York's Museum of Modern Art called "From Bauhaus to Buenos Aires: Grete Stern and Horatio Coppola."

Collections.

Stern's work is held in the following permanent collections:

Grete Stern (9 May 1904 – 24 December 1999) was a German-Argentine photographer. Like her husband Horacio Coppola, she helped modernize the visual arts in Argentina, and presented the first exhibition of modern photographic art in Buenos Aires, in 1935.