History.

Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 after the Great War, northern Yemen became an independent state as the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. On 27 September 1962, revolutionaries inspired by the Arab nationalist ideology of United Arab Republic (Egyptian) President Gamal Abdel Nasser deposed the newly crowned King Muhammad al-Badr, took control of Sanaʽa, and established the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR). This coup d'état marked the beginning of the North Yemen Civil War that pitted YAR troops, assisted by the United Arab Republic (Egypt), against Badr's royalist forces, supported by Saudi Arabia and Jordan. Conflict continued periodically until 1967, when Egyptian troops were withdrawn to join the conflict of the Six-Day War. By 1968, following a final royalist siege of Sanaʽa, most of the opposing leaders reached a reconciliation. Saudi Arabia recognized the Republic in 1970.  Unlike East and West Germany or North and South Korea, the YAR and its southern neighbor, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY), also known as South Yemen, remained relatively friendly, though relations were often strained. Following the Yemenite War of 1972, the two nations declared that unification would eventually occur. However, these plans were put on hold due to the Yemenite War of 1979, and war was stopped only by an Arab League intervention. The goal of unity was reaffirmed by the northern and southern heads of state during a summit meeting in Kuwait in March 1979.

Unification.

In May 1988, the YAR and PDRY governments came to an understanding that considerably reduced tensions. They agreed to renew discussions concerning unification, to establish a joint oil exploration area along their undefined border, to demilitarize the border, and to allow Yemenis unrestricted border passage on the basis of a national identification card.  Official Yemeni unification took place on May 22, 1990, with a planned, 30-month process, scheduled for completion in November 1992. The first stamp bearing the inscription "Yemen Republic" was issued in October 1990. While government ministries proceeded to merge, both currencies remained valid until 11 June 1996. A civil war in 1994 delayed the completion of the final merger.

The Yemen Arab Republic (YAR; '), also known as North Yemen or Yemen (Sanaʽa)"', was a country from 1962 to 1990 in the western part of what is now Yemen. Its capital was at Sanaʽa. It united with the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (commonly known as South Yemen), on May 22, 1990, to form the current Republic of Yemen.


Company history.

Founding and expansion.

The company has its origins in the year 1892. The company's founder, Heinrich Schmitz, began to construct wagons at the family's forge located in Altenberge near Münster. The forge's new business first began to gain headway at the end of the 1920s as a result of increasing motorisation. During this time the company transformed from a craftsman's business into an industrial vehicle manufacturer. The first motor vehicle trailer equipped with solid rubber tyres was delivered in 1928. From 1935 onward semi-trailers and box vehicles with a steel exterior on a wooden frame were manufactured. In 1950 Schmitz Cargobull produced its first insulated and refrigerated body.

Expansion, crises and reorientation.

The company continued to expand during the 1960s and especially after the first oil crisis at the beginning of the 1970s when large-scale orders from the Near East increased the speed of the company's growth. The beginning of the Iran–Iraq War put an end to the orders from Arabian countries in the 1980s and Schmitz Cargobull underwent a crisis.  The political reforms in Eastern Europe and the German Reunification provided the company with new momentum until the company experienced another decline in orders in the middle of the 1990s. This resulted in a rigorous transformation of the production: The product range was restricted to 4 basic types, the number of required parts heavily reduced, the production and delivery times shortened and the labour cost ratio reduced.  In March 1999 the company's stock market launch was withdrawn due to poor demand for the shares. Since then no further plans for another stock market launch have been made. In the 2004/2005 business year Schmitz Cargobull declared a turnover of more than 1 billion euros (1.21 bil euros, 36,000 vehicles produced) for the first time. The turnover had doubled within five years and 1,500 new employees had been hired.

Current business development.

In the 2007/2008 business year the company achieved a turnover of more than 2 billion euros (2.14 bil euros, 66,500 vehicles produced) for the first time. The level of incoming orders decreased drastically as a result of the financial crisis. The turnover for the 2009/2010 business year decreased by 70% to 660 million euros (12,800 vehicles produced). Yet in the 2010/2011 business yearly turnover once again exceeded the billion threshold and is currently 1.5 billion euros. In November 2012 a joint-venture contract was signed with the Chinese Dongfeng Motor Company, Ltd. The collaboration intends to produce semi-trailers for the Chinese market. In April 2013 Schmitz Cargobull announced its plans to open a new production facility in Russia to the south of St Petersburg.

Products and services.

Schmitz Cargobull's product range consists of: Schmitz Cargobull offers the following services through its subsidiaries:

Schmitz Cargobull in Great Britain.

In 1991 Schmitz Cargobull took over a production facility for refrigerated vehicles (York Thermostar) in Harelaw, County Durham. The Harelaw plant was modernised and equipped with flexible production lines for manufacturing box vehicles and curtainsiders. Production ceased in July 2010 as a result of the drastic decrease in turnover in England due to the worldwide financial crisis. The plant in Harelaw was shut down in 2011. After the end of 2010 and during 2011, in particular, the order situation in Great Britain stabilised and Schmitz Cargobull saw renewed success on the British trailer market. The head office of Schmitz Cargobull (UK) Ltd. is located in Warrington, Cheshire.

Locations.

The majority of the production is carried out in Germany and is marketed internationally. The primary sales markets consist of Western, Northern, Central and Eastern Europe as well as the Asia-Pacific, Near and Middle East. The company maintains production sites in Germany in Altenberge, Vreden, Gotha, Berlin and Toddin and also in other European countries in Saragossa (Spain), Panevėžys (Lithuania) and St Petersburg (Russia). An additional production facility opened in Wuhan (China) in 2014. Schmitz Cargobull is represented in all European countries with its own sales branches and sales partners and maintains a network of approximately 1,200 authorised workshops throughout Europe.

Brand.

The Schmitz Cargobull brand name with the blue elephant as its trademark was introduced at the end of the 1980s. Up until that time the company operated under the name Schmitz-Anhänger Fahrzeugbau GmbH and Co. KG.

Schmitz Cargobull AG is a German manufacturer of semi-trailers, trailers and truck bodies. The company's head office is located in Horstmar, Germany, and its registered office is in the neighbouring city of Altenberge in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. The family-owned company had 6,500 employees in the 2018/2019 business year and generated a turnover of 2.290 billion euros. It is thus the market leader in Europe. The families of Dr. Heinz Schmitz, Peter Schmitz and Bernd Hoffmann hold equal shares in the company.


Distribution.

Its range of distribution extends from the Pyrenees, across the Central Massif, the Alps, and the Carpathians as far as central Asia. It inhabits all European countries including Norway, where it appears rarely and only in certain places. A subspecies lived in Denmark, but is now extinct. A great number of geographical races and individual forms are distinguished in this extensive region. The most striking specimens include the dark race from the eastern Bavarian Alps (subspecies "hartmanni"); form "melania" has the most pronounced dark colouring.  The paper of Dr. I.N. Bolotov and colleagues (2013) summarizes data on the northern localities of "Parnassius mnemosyne", which are mostly situated in the Russian Federation and gives a thorough description of the species' northern range location. It is shown that the northernmost populations in the exist within the karst landscapes in the north of White Sea-Kuloi Plateau (between 65°35' and 66°03' N) in the downstream of the Soyana and Kuloi rivers and in the north of Timan Highland (66°10' N) along the shore of Kosminskoe Lake (the Pechora River basin). Northern limits of the clouded Apollo's range appear to be strongly determined by the distribution of its larval host plants (primarily "Corydalis solida" and the role of climate and relief seem to be of minor importance. Many Russian populations inhabit the state nature reserve territories: Kizgi Scerries Reserve (Karelia Republic), Pinega and Soyansky reserves (Arkhangelsk Oblast), Pechoro-Ilychsky and Belaja Kedva reserves (Komi Republic).

Habits.

The clouded Apollo is locally common in some places in central Europe. The female lays whitish eggs with a granular surface. The caterpillar feeds only on sunny days, otherwise it is hidden under leaves or stones. The blunt-ended chrysalis lies on the ground in a light spun covering. The caterpillars feed exclusively on "Corydalis" species. To prevent the continuing disappearance of this butterfly from many places in central Europe, it is now protected in some regions. They inhabit small patches and individuals move from patch to patch and conservation of a network of patches is required to maintain the gene pool.

Etymology.

The species was named in the classical tradition for Mnemosyne the mother of the nine Muses

Subspecies.

partial list  For a list of subspecies types in the British Museum (Natural History), see Ackery, P. R. (1973) "A list of the type-specimens of "Parnassius" (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) in the British Museum (Natural History)". "Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology" 29 (1) (9.XI.1973): 1—35, 1 pl. online here

The clouded Apollo ("Parnassius mnemosyne") is a butterfly species of the family of swallowtail butterflies (Papilionidae) found in the Palearctic ecozone.


Taxonomic history.

In 1912, the German zoologist Ernst Schwarz described a skin and a skull of an adult female tiger in the Senckenberg Museum collection, that had originated in Bali. He named it "Felis tigris balica" and argued that it is distinct from the Javan tiger by its brighter fur colour and smaller skull with narrower zygomatic arches. In 1969, the distinctiveness of the Bali tiger was questioned, since morphological analysis of several tiger skulls from Bali revealed that size variation is similar to Javan tiger skulls. Hue and striping pattern of fur neither differs significantly.  In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy, and now recognizes the extinct Bali and Javan tiger populations, as well as the Sumatran tiger population as "P. t. sondaica".

Characteristics.

The Bali tiger was described as the smallest tiger in the Sunda islands. In the 20th century, only seven skins and skulls of tigers from Bali were known to be preserved in museum collections. The common feature of these skulls is the narrow occipital plane, which is analogous with the shape of tiger skulls from Java. Skins of males measured between the pegs are long from head to end of tail; those of females. The weight of males ranged from, and of females from.

Habitat and ecology.

Most of the known Bali tiger zoological specimens originated in western Bali, where mangrove forests, dunes and savannah vegetation existed. The main prey of the Bali tiger was likely Javan rusa.

Extirpation.

At the end of the 19th century, palm plantations and irrigated rice fields were established foremost on Bali‘s rich volcanic northern slopes and the alluvial strip around the island. Tiger hunting started after the Dutch gained control over Bali. During the Dutch colonial period, hunting trips were conducted by European sportsmen coming from Java, who had a romantic but disastrous Victorian hunting mentality and were equipped with high-powered rifles. The preferred method of hunting tigers was to catch them with a large, heavy steel foot trap hidden under bait, a goat or a muntjac, and then shoot them at close range. Surabayan gunmaker E. Munaut is confirmed to have killed over 20 tigers in only a few years. In 1941, the first game reserve, today's West Bali National Park, was established in western Bali, but too late to save Bali‘s tiger population from extinction. It was probably eliminated by the end of World War II. A few tigers may have survived until the 1950s, but no specimen reached museum collections after the war.  A few tiger skulls, skins and bones are preserved in museums. The British Museum in London has the largest collection, with two skins and three skulls; others include the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt, the Naturkunde Museum in Stuttgart, the Naturalis museum in Leiden and the Zoological Museum of Bogor, Indonesia, which owns the remnants of the last known Bali tiger. In 1997, a skull emerged in the old collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum and was scientifically studied and properly documented.

Cultural significance.

The tiger had a well-defined position in Balinese folkloric beliefs and magic. It is mentioned in folk tales and depicted in traditional arts, as in the "Kamasan" paintings of the Klungkung kingdom. The Balinese considered the ground powder of tiger whiskers to be a potent and undetectable poison for one's foe. A Balinese baby was given a protective amulet necklace with black coral and "a tiger's tooth or a piece of tiger bone". The traditional Balinese "Barong" dance preserves a figure with the mask of a tiger called "Barong Macan".  Balinese people are fond of wearing tiger parts as jewelry for status or spiritual reasons, such as power and protection. Necklaces of teeth and claws or male rings cabochoned with polished tiger tooth ivory still exist in everyday use. Since the tiger has disappeared on both Bali and neighboring Java, old parts have been recycled, or leopard and sun bear body parts have been used instead.

The Bali tiger was a "Panthera tigris sondaica" population, which lived in the Indonesian island of Bali. This population has been extinct since the 1950s.


Design and development.

In 1935, the Imperial Japanese Army held a competition between Nakajima, Mitsubishi, and Kawasaki to design a low-wing monoplane to replace the Kawasaki Ki-10 (Army Type 95 Fighter) biplane. The new fighter was to have also a better performance than the experimental Mitsubishi Ki-18.  The results were the Nakajima Ki-27, the Kawasaki Ki-28, and the Mitsubishi Ki-33 (a modification of the Mitsubishi A5M carrier-based fighter). The Nakajima design was based on its earlier Ki-11 monoplane fighter which lost to the Ki-10 in the Type 95 Fighter competition. When the follow-up Nakajima Ki-12 proposal with a liquid-cooled engine and retractable landing gear was deemed too complex by the Japanese officials, the Ki-27 was designed by Koyama Yasushi to have an air-cooled radial engine and fixed landing gear. The aircraft had the Nakajima trademark wing with a straight leading edge and tapered trailing edge which would reappear again on the Ki-43, Ki-44, and Ki-84.  The Ki-27 made its first flight on 15 October 1936. Although it had a slower top speed and worse climb performance than its competitors, the Army chose the Nakajima design for its outstanding turning ability granted by its remarkably low wing loading. The Army ordered 10 pre-production samples (Ki-27a) for further testing, which featured an enclosed cockpit with sliding canopy and larger wings.  The type was officially accepted into service in 1937 as the Army Type 97 Fighter. In addition to Nakajima, the Ki-27 was also manufactured by Tachikawa Aircraft Company Ltd and Manshukoku Hikoki Seizo KK, with a total of 3,368 built before production ended in 1942.

Operational history.

The Ki-27 was the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force's main fighter until the start of World War II. When placed into combat service over northern China in March 1938, the Ki-27 enjoyed air superiority until the introduction of the faster Soviet-built Polikarpov I-16 fighters by the Chinese.  In the 1939 Battle of Khalkhin Gol against the USSR in Mongolia, the Ki-27 faced both Polikarpov I-15 biplane and Polikarpov I-16 monoplane fighters. In the initial phase of the conflict, its performance was a match for the early model I-16s, and was considerably superior to the I-15 biplane. With better trained Ki-27 pilots, the IJAAF gained aerial superiority. The Ki-27 was armed with two 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 89 machine guns and as with most aircraft of the period, lacked armor protection for the pilot and self-sealing or fire suppression in the fuel tanks.  Later, the Soviet Air Force received improved I-16s. The faster, more heavily armed (with twin wing-mounted 20mm ShVAK cannons) and armored I-16 now nullified the Ki-27's advantages and it could now escape from the Ki-27 in a dive. The VVS introduced new tactics consisting of flying in large tightly knit formations, attacking with altitude and/or speed advantage and hit-and-run (high-energy) tactics much as Claire Chennault would later formulate for the 1941-era Flying Tigers (likewise to fly against Japanese forces).  Japanese losses mounted but despite this they claimed 1,340 aircraft (six times the admitted Soviet losses and three times as many as Soviet aircraft admitted to being in the theatre). Japanese losses numbered 120 (including Ki-10s) while the Russians claimed 215 vs. a peak Japanese strength of 200 fighters. (Overclaiming remained commonplace through World War Two, despite gun cameras and expert intelligence assessments.) Top scoring pilot of the incident and top scoring IJAAF pilot on the Ki-27 and overall World War II IJAAF ace was Warrant Officer Hiromichi Shinohara, who claimed 58 Soviet planes (including an IJAAF record of 11 in one day) whilst flying Ki-27s, only to be shot down himself by a number of I-16s on 27 August 1939.  The preference of Japanese fighter pilots for the Ki-27's high rate of turn caused the Army to focus excessively on manoeuvrability, a decision which later handicapped the development of faster and more heavily armed fighters. The Ki-27 served until the beginning of World War II in the Pacific, escorting bombers attacking Malaya, Singapore, Netherlands East Indies, Burma and the Philippines (where it initially fared poorly against the Brewster F2A Buffalo).  The type also saw extensive action against the American Volunteer Group in the early months of the war. Soon outclassed by the American Curtiss P-40 Warhawks, the Ki-27 was replaced in front line service by the Nakajima Ki-43, while surviving examples continued to serve as a trainer.  The Ki-27 was also exported for use with Manchukuo and Thai armed forces, seeing combat with both. In Thai service, Ki-27s reportedly damaged two North American P-51 Mustangs and shot down one Lockheed P-38 Lightning.  In the final months of the war, desperate lack of aircraft forced the Japanese to utilize all available machines and the Ki-27 and 79 were no exception. Some were equipped with up to of explosives for "kamikaze" attacks, but some were redeployed as fighters, suffering terrible losses as on 16 February 1945 when the 39th Educational Flight Regiment scrambled 16 Ki-79 trainers from Yokoshiba Airfield to oppose a massive air raid from U.S. Task Force 58 carrier group, losing six aircraft with more damaged and five pilots killed, in return damaging at least one Hellcat and possibly downing a second.

Variants.

Data from

Surviving aircraft.

Two aircraft survive today:

The was the main fighter aircraft used by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force up until 1940. Its Allied nickname was "Nate", although it was called "Abdul" in the "China Burma India" (CBI) theater by many post war sources; Allied Intelligence had reserved that name for the nonexistent Mitsubishi Navy Type 97 fighter, expected to be the successor to the carrier-borne Type 96 (Mitsubishi A5M) with retractable landing gear and an enclosed cockpit.


Biography.

Whipple was born in Grafton, Massachusetts, to Jonathan and Melinda (Grout) Whipple. While a boy he was an ardent student of chemistry, and on the introduction of the daguerreotype process into the United States (1839–1840) he was the first to manufacture the necessary chemicals. His health having become impaired through this work, he devoted his attention to photography. He made his first daguerreotype in the winter of 1840, "using a sun-glass for a lens, a candle box for a camera, and the handle of a silver spoon as a substitute for a plate." Over time he became a prominent daguerreotype portraitist in Boston. In addition to making portraits for the Whipple and Black studio, Whipple photographed important buildings in and around Boston, including the house occupied by General George Washington in 1775 and 1776 (photographed circa 1855, now in the Smithsonian).  Whipple married Elizabeth Mann (1819-1891) on May 12, 1847 in Boston.  Between 1847 and 1852 Whipple and astronomer William Cranch Bond, director of the Harvard College Observatory, used Harvard's Great Refractor telescope to produce images of the moon that are remarkable in their clarity of detail and aesthetic power. This was the largest telescope in the world at that time, and their images of the moon took the prize for technical excellence in photography at the great 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition in London.  On the night of July 16–17, 1850, Whipple and Bond made the first daguerreotype of a star (Vega). In 1863, Whipple used electric lights to take night photographs of Boston Common.  Whipple was as prolific as an inventor as a photographer. He invented crayon daguerreotypes and crystallotypes (daguerreotypes on glass). With his partner or assistant, William Breed Jones, he developed the process for making paper prints from glass albumen negatives (crystallotypes). His American patents include Patent Number 6,056, the "Crayon Daguerreotype"; Patent Number 7,458, the "Crystallotype" (Credit shared with William B. Jones).  Whipple died suddenly, of pneumonia, on April 10, 1891 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was buried at Westborough, Worcester Co., Massachusetts.

John Adams Whipple (September 10, 1822 – April 10, 1891) was an American inventor and early photographer. He was the first in the United States to manufacture the chemicals used for daguerreotypes; he pioneered astronomical and night photography; he was a prize-winner for his extraordinary early photographs of the moon; and he was the first to produce images of stars other than the sun (the star Vega and the Mizar-Alcor stellar sextuple system, which was thought to be a double star until 2009.


Geography.

The Red River begins in China's Yunnan province in the mountains south of Dali. It flows generally southeastward, passing through Dai ethnic minority areas before leaving China through Yunnan's Honghe Autonomous Prefecture. It enters Vietnam at Lào Cai Province and forms a portion of the international border between China and Vietnam. The river, known as Thao River for this upper stretch, continues its southeasterly course through northwestern Vietnam before emerging from the mountains to reach the midlands. Its main tributaries, the Black River (Da River) and Lô River join in to form the very broad Hồng near Việt Trì, Phú Thọ Province. Downstream from Việt Trì, the river and its many distributaries spread out to form the Red River Delta. The Red River flows past the Vietnamese capital Hanoi before emptying into the Gulf of Tonkin.  The reddish-brown heavily silt-laden water gives the river its name. The Red River is notorious for its violent floods with its seasonally wide volume fluctuations. The delta is a major agricultural area of Vietnam with vast area devoted to rice. The land is protected by an elaborate network of dikes and levees.  The Black River and Lô River are the Red River's two chief tributaries.

As a travel and transportation route.

In the 19th century, the Red River was thought to be a lucrative trade route to China. The late 19th-century French explorers were able to travel up the Red River until Manhao in South Yunnan, and then overland toward Kunming.  The Red River remained the main commercial travel route between the French Indochina and Yunnan until the opening of the Kunming–Haiphong Railway in 1910. Although French steamers would be able to go as far upstream as Lao Cai during the rainy season, during the dry season (November to April) steamship would not go upstream of Yên Bái; thus, during that part of the year goods were moved by small vessels (junks).  Thanks to the river, Haiphong was in the early 20th century the sea port most easily accessible from Kunming. Still, the travel time between Haiphong and Kunming was reckoned by the Western authorities at 28 days: it involved 16 days of travel by steamer and then a small boat up the Red River to Manhao (425 miles), and then 12 days overland (194 miles) to Kunming.  Manhao was considered the head of navigation for the smallest vessels ("wupan" 五版); so Yunnan's products such as tin would be brought to Manhao by pack mules, where they would be loaded to boats to be sent downstream.  On the Manhao to Lao Cai section, where the current may be quite fast, especially during the freshet season, traveling upstream in an "wupan" was much more difficult than downstream. According to one report, one could descend from Manhao to Lao Cai in just 10 hours, while sailing in the reverse direction could take 10 days, and sometimes as much as one month.

Dams.

A number of hydroelectric dams have been constructed on the Red River in Yunnan:  Many more dams exist on the Red River's tributaries, both in Yunnan and in Vietnam. One of the earliest of them is the Thác Bà Dam in Vietnam, constructed in 1972, which forms the Thác Bà Lake.

The Hong River (; ), also known as the Red River, the and ( "Mother River") in Vietnamese, and the (, "" Nguyên Giang) in Chinese, is a river that flows from Yunnan in Southwest China through northern Vietnam to the Gulf of Tonkin. According to C. Michael Hogan, the associated Red River Fault was instrumental in forming the entire South China Sea at least as early as 37 million years before present.


Early life.

Waltz was born on 4 October 1956 in Vienna, Austria, the son of Johannes Waltz, a German set designer, and Elisabeth Urbancic, an Austrian costume designer. Waltz comes from a family of theatrical heritage: his maternal grandmother was Burgtheater and silent film actress Maria Mayen, and his step-grandfather, Emmerich Reimers, and his great-grandfather, Georg Reimers, were both stage actors who also appeared in silent films. Waltz's maternal grandfather, Rudolf von Urban, was a psychiatrist and a student of Sigmund Freud.  Waltz's father died when he was seven years old, and his mother later married composer and conductor Alexander Steinbrecher. Steinbrecher was previously married to the mother of director Michael Haneke; as a result, Waltz and Haneke shared the same stepfather.  Waltz had a passion for opera as a youth, having seen his first opera ("Turandot" with Birgit Nilsson in the title role) at around the age of ten. As a teenager, Waltz would visit the opera twice a week. He was uninterested in theatre, and had wished to become an opera singer.  After graduating from Vienna's Theresianum, Waltz went to study acting at the renowned Max Reinhardt Seminar. At the same time, he also studied singing and opera at the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna, but eventually decided that his voice was not good enough for an opera career. In the late 1970s, Waltz spent some time in New York City where he trained with Lee Strasberg and Stella Adler. He studied script interpretation under Adler, and credits his analytical approach to her teaching.

Career.

On his return to Europe, Waltz found work as a stage actor, making his debut at the Schauspielhaus in Zurich. He also performed in Vienna, Salzburg, Cologne and Hamburg. He became a prolific television actor in the years 1980 to 2000. In 2000, he made his directorial debut, with the German television production "Wenn man sich traut". Before coming to the attention of a larger audience in Tarantino's "Inglourious Basterds", he had played Dr. Hans-Joachim Dorfmann in the British TV series "The Gravy Train" in 1990. The show is a story of intrigue and misdeeds set in the offices of the European Union in Brussels.  In Quentin Tarantino's 2009 film "Inglourious Basterds", Waltz portrayed SS-Standartenführer Hans Landa, also known as "The Jew Hunter". Clever, courteous, multilingual—but also self-serving, cunning, implacable and murderous—the character of Landa was such that Tarantino feared he "might have written a part that was un-playable". Waltz received the Best Actor Award for the performance at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival and received acclaim from critics and the public. In 2009, he began sweeping critics' awards circuits, receiving awards for Best Supporting Actor from the New York Film Critics Circle, the Boston Society of Film Critics, Los Angeles Film Critics Association, and for Best Supporting Actor at the 67th Golden Globe Awards and the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards in January 2010.  The following month, he won the BAFTA for Best Supporting Actor, and won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Tarantino acknowledged the importance of Waltz to his film by stating: "I think that Landa is one of the best characters I've ever written and ever will write, and Christoph played it to a tee. It's true that if I couldn't have found someone as good as Christoph I might not have made "Inglourious Basterds"".  Waltz played gangster Benjamin Chudnofsky in "The Green Hornet" (2011); that same year, he starred in "Water for Elephants" and Roman Polanski's "Carnage". He played German bounty hunter Dr. King Schultz in Quentin Tarantino's "Django Unchained" (2012), a role Tarantino wrote specifically for Waltz. During a training accident prior to filming, Waltz injured his pelvis. His role garnered him acclaim once again, with Waltz winning the Golden Globe, the BAFTA, and ultimately the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.  Waltz has been cast as the former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the film "Reykjavik", based on the 1986 peace talks between the United States and USSR. In April 2013, he was selected as a member of the main competition jury at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival. He directed a production of the opera Der Rosenkavalier at the Vlaamse Opera, in Antwerp in late 2013, and in Ghent early 2014. In 2014, he was selected as a member of the jury for the 64th Berlin International Film Festival. He starred as Walter Keane in Tim Burton's "Big Eyes", which opened on 25 December 2014, and appeared as Ernst Stavro Blofeld in "Spectre", the 24th film in the "James Bond" franchise. In July 2019, it was reported that Waltz would reprise the role in "No Time to Die" (2020).  In 2015, it was announced that Waltz would direct and star in the film "Georgetown" (formerly titled "The Worst Marriage in Georgetown"), which is based on the true crime story of the murder of Viola Drath. In July 2016, he portrayed lead villain Captain Leon Rom, a corrupt Belgian captain, in the reboot "The Legend of Tarzan".  In 2017, Waltz appeared in the films "Tulip Fever" and "Downsizing". In 2019, Waltz appeared in the action fantasy "". He directed a production of the opera Falstaff, again at the Vlaamse Opera, in Antwerp in late 2017, and in Ghent in early 2018.

Personal life.

Waltz has three children with his former wife, Jackie, a psychotherapist originally from New York. The two lived in London and their marriage lasted 17 years. Waltz married his second wife, German costume designer Judith Holste, with whom he has a daughter. They divide their time between Berlin and Los Angeles.  Waltz's native language is German, and he also speaks both English and French fluently. He speaks all three of these in "Inglourious Basterds" and "Django Unchained", and although his character in "Inglourious Basterds" also spoke Italian, Waltz said on the "Adam Carolla Podcast" that he is not fluent in Italian.  Waltz was born in Vienna to a German father who applied for him to become a citizen of Germany after his birth. He received Austrian citizenship in 2010, thus holding citizenships of both Austria and Germany, but considers his German passport a "legal, citizenship law banality" despite the fact that he had not previously been able to vote in Austria's national elections. Asked whether he felt Viennese, he responded: "I was born in Vienna, grew up in Vienna, went to school in Vienna, graduated in Vienna, studied in Vienna, started acting in Vienna – and there would be a few further Viennese links. How much more Austrian do you want it?"

Christoph Waltz (; born 4 October 1956) is a German-Austrian actor and director, since 2009 mainly active in the United States.


Biography.

Born at the Château de Clagny in Versailles, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon was the third son and youngest child of Louis XIV born out-of-wedlock with Madame de Montespan. At birth, he was put in the care of Madame de Montchevreuil along with his older sister Françoise-Marie de Bourbon.  Louis Alexandre was created Count of Toulouse in 1681 at the time of his legitimation, and, in 1683, at the age of five, grand admiral. In February 1684, he became colonel of an infantry regiment named after him and in 1693 "mestre de camp" of a cavalry regiment. During the War of Spanish Succession, he was given the task of defending Sicily. In January 1689, he was named governor of Guyenne, a title which he exchanged for that of governor of Brittany six years later. On 3 January 1696, he was created a marshal of France, becoming commander of the royal armies the following year. During the War of the Spanish Succession he commanded the French fleet at the Battle of Vélez-Málaga in 1704.  Though his father had legitimated him and his three surviving siblings, and even declared his two sons by Madame de Montespan fit to eventually succeed him to the throne of France, this was not to be, as immediately after Louis XIV's death the Parlement of Paris reversed the king's will.  Unlike his brother, Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine, who was barred from the regency council, Toulouse was not kept from a political role, and soon after, he was named (minister of the Navy), inheriting a seasoned staff headed by Joseph Pellerin. He remained in this capacity until being succeeded by Joseph Fleuriau d'Armenonville in 1722, the same Fleuriau d'Armenonville who had sold him the castle of Rambouillet in 1706.  The proposal of his marriage to Charlotte de Lorraine, "Mademoiselle d'Armagnac", member of a cadet branch of the House of Guise had met with the categorical refusal of Louis XIV.

Marriage.

On 2 February 1723, the comte de Toulouse married Marie Victoire de Noailles, a daughter of the Anne Jules, duc de Noailles, in a private ceremony in Paris. She was the widow of Louis de Pardaillan de Gondrin (1688-1712), his nephew, son of his half-brother Louis Antoine de Pardaillan de Gondrin, whose mother was "Madame de Montespan". The marriage was kept secret until the death of the regent. The couple had one son:

Court.

He and his sisters tried to avoid the court and the intrigues of their brother, the duc du Maine, and his wife Anne Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon, the duchess, at the Château de Sceaux.  Shortly before his death in 1715, Louis XIV added a codicil to his will stating that if all legitimate members of the House of Bourbon, both those descended from Louis and more distant kinsmen, died out, the throne of France could be inherited by the duc du Maine and the comte de Toulouse. The decision was reversed after the death of Louis XIV when Louis Alexandre's cousin, Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, as the new regent, had the "Parlement de Paris" void that portion of the will.  The comte de Toulouse died at the Château de Rambouillet on 1 December 1737. He was buried in the village 12th century Saint-Lubin church. On 30 September 1766, the countess died at the Hôtel de Toulouse, the Parisian mansion not far from the Louvre which the count had bought from Phélypeaux, marquis de La Vrillière, in 1712. She too was buried in the family crypt in the Rambouillet church.  Upon the count's death, the duc de Penthièvre, succeeded his father in his posts and titles. Because of the marriage of "Mademoisellle de Penthièvre" to Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the comte de Toulouse is an ancestor of the modern House of Orléans, which also descends from Toulouse's two surviving full sisters.

Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, "comte de Toulouse" (1681), "duc de Penthièvre" (1697), (1711), (6 June 1678 – 1 December 1737), a legitimated prince of the blood royal, was the son of Louis XIV and of his mistress Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan. At the age of five, he became grand admiral of France" (Grand Admiral of France).


Early life.

Padalecki was born in San Antonio, Texas, to Gerald and Sherri Padalecki. His father is of Polish descent, while his mother has German, Scottish, French, and English ancestry.

Education.

He was a 2000 candidate for the Presidential Scholars Program. In 1998, Padalecki and his partner Chris Cardenas won the National Forensic League national championship in Duo Interpretation. Although he had originally planned to attend the University of Texas after graduating from high school in 2000, Jared decided to move Los Angeles County, California instead to pursue an acting career.

Career.

Padalecki won Fox Broadcasting's 1999 "Claim to Fame Contest"; he subsequently appeared at the Teen Choice Awards, where he met an agent. His first role was a minor role in the 1999 film "A Little Inside". In 2000, he was cast as Dean Forester on the television series "Gilmore Girls", a role he played until 2005. Throughout the early 2000s, he appeared in several made-for-television films, including "Silent Witness", "Close to Home", and the Disney Channel Original Movie "A Ring of Endless Light".  Padalecki had an uncredited role as a high school bully in 2003's comedy "Cheaper by the Dozen", which he played after being asked by fellow actor and friend Tom Welling, who played Charlie Baker, and the director of the movie, who wanted someone larger than Charlie to pick on him. Padalecki originally auditioned for Welling's role, but gave it up in order to film a pilot titled "Young MacGyver" which was never picked up.  In 2004, he appeared in the Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen comedy "New York Minute" as Trey Lipton, a cute boy to whom the Olsens' characters are attracted. He also landed a short role in the thriller "Flight of the Phoenix" alongside Dennis Quaid and Hugh Laurie. In 2005, Padalecki starred opposite Elisha Cuthbert, Chad Michael Murray, and Paris Hilton in "House of Wax" as Wade. In 2005, he appeared in "Cry Wolf", another horror film, as Tom.  That same year, Padalecki was cast as Sam Winchester on the WB series, "Supernatural". Sam and his brother Dean (Jensen Ackles) drive throughout the United States hunting paranormal predators, fighting demons and angels, and dealing with all manner of fantasy & sci-fi genre. The show is currently in its fourteenth season on the CW. It owns the title of the longest-running North American sci-fi series in history. The series was renewed for its fifteenth and final season in January 2019.  In 2007, Jared served as the host of MTV's horror reality series, "Room 401", which was discontinued after only eight episodes due to poor ratings.  He had the lead role in 2008's "The Christmas Cottage" as Thomas Kinkade, alongside acclaimed actor Peter O'Toole.  He also had the lead role in the 2009 version of "Friday the 13th" as Clay Miller, a character who heads out to Camp Crystal Lake in search of his sister who has gone missing.  On September 23, 2019, it was announced that Padalecki was cast as the titular role in a reboot series of "Walker, Texas Ranger", which is currently in development at The CW. The reboot was ordered to series in January, 2020.

Personal life.

Padalecki's engagement to his "Supernatural" co-star Genevieve Cortese was announced in January 2010. They met when Cortese guest starred as Ruby on the show's fourth season. Padalecki proposed to her in front of their favorite painting, "Joan of Arc", by French realist Jules Bastien-Lepage at New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art in October 2009. The pair married on February 27, 2010, in Cortese's hometown of Sun Valley, Idaho. On October 10, 2011, the couple announced that they were expecting their first child together. Their son, Thomas Colton Padalecki, was born on March 19, 2012. On December 22, 2013, Cortese gave birth to their second son, Austin Shepherd "Shep" Padalecki. Their daughter, Odette Elliott Padalecki, was born on March 17, 2017. The couple resides in Austin, Texas with their three children.  Padalecki and "Supernatural" co-stars Jensen Ackles and Misha Collins supported Beto O'Rourke for the 2018 Senate election in Texas.  Padalecki is the owner of Stereotype, a '90s-themed bar in Austin, Texas, which opened in 2018. On October 27, 2019, Padalecki was arrested and charged with assault and public intoxication following a physical altercation at the bar.

Always Keep Fighting.

In March 2015, Padalecki launched his "Always Keep Fighting" campaign through Represent.com. His first campaign raised funds for To Write Love On Her Arms, which supports people struggling with depression, addiction, self-injury, and suicide. The cause is particularly close to Padalecki, who has been candid about his own struggles with depression. For the second campaign in the "Always Keep Fighting" series in April 2015, Padalecki partnered with co-star Jensen Ackles to release a shirt featuring both of their faces, to benefit their newly formed joint charitable fund. Over 70,000 shirts were sold. Most recently, Padalecki launched a third campaign selling a further 40,000 shirts.  During San Diego Comic-Con 2015, more than 6,000 fans surprised Padalecki at the "Supernatural" panel by holding up candles for him, after having revealed his battle with depression earlier in the year.

Jared Tristan Padalecki (born July 19, 1982) is an American actor. He is best known for playing the role of Sam Winchester in the TV series "Supernatural". He grew up in Texas and rose to fame in the early 2000s after appearing on the television series "Gilmore Girls" as well as the films "New York Minute" (2004) and "House of Wax" (2005).


Practice.

The practice of Thai Yoga Massage is said to be thousands of years old but it is still part of Thailand's medical system due to its perceived healing properties at both emotional and physical level. There are differences in certain practices associated with the massage when performed in the Western and Thai contexts. Western cultural sensibilities might be different in terms of accepting shamanic healing practices such as increasing the intensity of the massage or the giver jumping around the massage table like the Hindu god Hanuman. Traditional Thai massage uses no oils or lotions. The recipient remains clothed during a treatment. There is constant body contact between the giver and receiver, but rather than rubbing on muscles, the body is compressed, pulled, stretched and rocked. The concept of metta (loving kindness), based on Bhuddist teachings, is an integral part of this practice. Well known practitioners also emphasize meditation and devotion on part of the practitioner as integral to the effectiveness of this practice.  The recipient wears loose, comfortable clothing and lies on a mat or firm mattress on the floor. In Thailand, a dozen or so subjects may be receiving massage simultaneously in one large room. The true ancient style of the massage requires that the massage be performed solo with just the giver and receiver. The receiver will be positioned in a variety of yoga-like positions during the course of the massage, that is also combined with deep static and rhythmic pressures.  The massage generally follows designated lines ("sen") in the body. The legs and feet of the giver can be used to position the body or limbs of the recipient. In other positions, hands fix the body, while the feet do the massaging. A full Thai massage session may last two hours and includes rhythmic pressing and stretching of the entire body. This may include pulling fingers, toes, ears, cracking knuckles, walking on the recipient's back, and moving the recipient's body into many different positions. There is a standard procedure and rhythm to the massage, which the giver will adjust to fit the receiver.

History.

The founder of Thai massage and medicine is said to have been Chiwaka Komaraphat (ชีวกโกมารภัจจ์ Jīvaka Komarabhācca), who is said in the Pāli Buddhist canon to have been the Buddha's physician over 2,500 years ago. He is recorded in ancient documents as having extraordinary medical skills, his knowledge of herbal medicine, and for having treated important people of his day, including the Buddha himself.  In fact, the history of Thai massage is more complex than this legend of a single founder would suggest. Thai massage, like Thai traditional medicine (TTM) more generally, is a combination of influences from Indian, Chinese, Southeast Asian cultural spheres, and traditions of medicine, and the art as it is practiced today is likely to be the product of a 19th-century synthesis of various healing traditions from all over the kingdom. Even today, there is considerable variation from region to region across Thailand, and no single routine or theoretical framework that is universally accepted among healers.

Training.

A licensed, traditional massage practitioner is required to complete at least 800 hours training. Massage therapists must acquire a professional license and must register at the Public Health Ministry's Department of Health Service Support (HSS). To qualify for a license, therapists must be trained in courses created by the HSS. The standard courses are provided free. Alternatively, students can go to one of the 181 schools nationwide approved to train therapists using standard HSS courses.  Wat Pho, the center of Thai medicine and massage for centuries, opened the Wat Pho Thai Traditional Medical and Massage School in 1955 on the temple grounds, the first such school approved by the Thai Ministry of Education. Wat Pho offers four basic courses of Thai medicine: Thai massage, Thai midwife-nurse, Thai pharmacy, and Thai medical practice.  Thai massage is also taught and practiced in other countries. Some schools have merged the course material to include understanding of clinical approach like chiropractic adjustment, posture assessment along with energy balance to give a complete understanding of Thaiyoga bodywork. This trend has led to opening new schools in Europe, India and Nepal.

Effectiveness.

All types of massage, including Thai massage, can help people relax, temporarily relieve muscle and / or joint pain, and temporarily boost a person's mood. However, many practitioners' claims go far beyond those effects well demonstrated by clinical study. Some clinicians dispute its efficacy.

Dangers.

According to the Thai Public Health Ministry, massage can be dangerous for women at different stages of pregnancy. A physician at the Department of Thai Traditional and Alternative Medicine cautioned that women in their first trimester "should avoid massage because it may lead to miscarriage," Those who are more than six months into their pregnancy should "also be cautious about getting a massage." The warnings came on the heels of a case where a pregnant 25 year-old suffered a miscarriage and fell into a coma while getting a foot massage.

Massage and sex services.

Massage is big business in Thailand. It is regulated by the Public Health Ministry. The Commerce and Tourism and Sports Ministries have set a target of 20 billion baht per year to be generated by the spa business, but only 500 of the 2,000 spas nationwide are legally registered with the authorities. The legal difference between a "spa" and a "massage parlour" is unclear. The Federation of Thai Spa Associations (FTSPA) in 2016 urged authorities to clamp down on sexual services being offered at some massage parlours. The FTSPA maintains that influential figures have used legal loopholes to open "pretty spas" or massage parlours where tourists can buy sexual services.

Thai massage or Thai yoga massage is a traditional healing system combining acupressure, Indian Ayurvedic principles, and assisted yoga postures. The idea of Shen-lines "alias" energy-lines was first used is "Thai yoga massage". These are similar to "nadis" as per the phylosophy of yoga by Gorakhnath.


Biography.

Early life and career.

Lateef was born in Chattanooga, Tennessee. His family moved, in 1923, to Lorain, Ohio, and again in 1925, to Detroit, Michigan, where his father changed the family's name to "Evans".  Throughout his early life Lateef came into contact with many Detroit-based jazz musicians who went on to gain prominence, including vibraphonist Milt Jackson, bassist Paul Chambers, drummer Elvin Jones and guitarist Kenny Burrell. Lateef was a proficient saxophonist by the time of his graduation from high school at the age of 18, when he launched his professional career and began touring with a number of swing bands. The first instrument he bought was an alto saxophone but after a year he switched to the tenor saxophone, influenced by the playing of Lester Young.  In 1949, he was invited by Dizzy Gillespie to tour with his orchestra. In 1950, Lateef returned to Detroit and began his studies in composition and flute at Wayne State University.  It was during this period that he converted to Islam as a member of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community and changed his name. He twice made the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Prominence.

Lateef began recording as a leader in 1957 for Savoy Records, a non-exclusive association which continued until 1959; the earliest of Lateef's album's for the Prestige subsidiary New Jazz overlap with them. Musicians such as Wilbur Harden (trumpet, flugelhorn), bassist Herman Wright, drummer Frank Gant, and pianist Hugh Lawson were among his collaborators during this period.  By 1961, with the recording of "Into Something" and "Eastern Sounds", Lateef's dominant presence within a group context had emerged. His "Eastern" influences are clearly audible in all of these recordings, with spots for instruments like the rahab, shanai, arghul, koto and a collection of Chinese wooden flutes and bells along with his tenor and flute. Even his use of the western oboe sounds exotic in this context; it is not a standard jazz instrument. Indeed, the tunes themselves are a mixture of jazz standards, blues and film music usually performed with a piano/bass/drums rhythm section in support. Lateef made numerous contributions to other people's albums including his time as a member of saxophonist Cannonball Adderley's Quintet during 1962–64.  In the late 1960s he began to incorporate contemporary soul and gospel phrasing into his music, still with a strong blues underlay, on albums such as "Detroit" and "Hush'n'Thunder". Lateef expressed a dislike of the terms "jazz" and "jazz musician" as musical generalizations. As is so often the case with such generalizations, the use of these terms do understate the breadth of his sound. For example, in the 1980s, Lateef experimented with new-age and spiritual elements.  In 1960, Lateef again returned to school, studying flute at the Manhattan School of Music in New York City. He received a bachelor's degree in music in 1969 and a master's degree in music education in 1970. Starting in 1971, he taught courses in "autophysiopsychic music" at the Manhattan School of Music, and he became an associate professor at the Borough of Manhattan Community College in 1972.  In 1975, Lateef completed his dissertation on Western and Islamic education and earned an Ed.D. in education from the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In the early 1980s, Lateef was a senior research fellow at the Center for Nigerian Cultural Studies at Ahmadu Bello University in the city of Zaria, Nigeria. Returning to the US in 1986, he took a joint teaching position at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Hampshire College.

Later career.

His 1987 album "Yusef Lateef's Little Symphony" won the Grammy Award for Best New Age Album. His core influences, however, were clearly rooted in jazz, and in his own words: "My music is jazz."  In 1992, Lateef founded YAL Records. In 1993, Lateef was commissioned by the WDR Radio Orchestra Cologne to compose "The African American Epic Suite", a four-part work for orchestra and quartet based on themes of slavery and disfranchisement in the United States. The piece has since been performed by the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra and the Detroit Symphony Orchestra.  In 2005, Nicolas Humbert & Werner Penzel, directors of "Step Across The Border", filmed Brother Yusef, in his wooden house in the middle of a forest in Massachusetts. In 2010 he received the lifetime Jazz Master Fellowship Award from the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), an independent federal agency. Established in 1982, the National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Masters award is the highest honor given in jazz.  Manhattan School of Music, where Lateef had earned a bachelor's and a master's degree, awarded him its Distinguished Alumni Award in 2012.  Lateef's last albums were recorded for Adam Rudolph's "Meta Records". To the end of his life, he continued to teach at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Hampshire College in western Massachusetts. Lateef died on the morning of December 23, 2013, at the age of 93, survived by his son, Yusef Lateef and his wife, Ayesha Lateef.  Following his death, Lateef's family auctioned off many of his instruments, in the hopes that they would continue to be played. Woodwind player Jeff Coffin purchased Lateef's main tenor saxophone as well as his bass flute.  On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times Magazine" listed Yusef Lateef among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

Personal life.

Lateef said what he remembered most about his childhood was "My passion for nature."  In 1980, Lateef declared that he would no longer perform any place where alcohol was served. In 1999 he said “Too much blood, sweat and tears have been spilled creating this music to play it where people are smoking, drinking and talking."  Lateef's first wife, Tahira, died before him, as did a son and a daughter. He was survived by his wife, Ayesha; a son, Yusef; a granddaughter; and several great-grandchildren.

Yusef Abdul Lateef (born William Emanuel Huddleston; October 9, 1920 – December 23, 2013) was an American jazz multi-instrumentalist, composer, and prominent figure among the Ahmadiyya Community in America.


Applications.

Optical 3D measuring systems use this principle to determine the spatial dimensions and the geometry of an item. Basically, the configuration consists of two sensors observing the item. One of the sensors is typically a digital camera device, and the other one can also be a camera or a light projector. The projection centers of the sensors and the considered point on the object's surface define a (spatial) triangle. Within this triangle, the distance between the sensors is the base "b" and must be known. By determining the angles between the projection rays of the sensors and the basis, the intersection point, and thus the 3D coordinate, is calculated from the triangular relations.

History.

Triangulation today is used for many purposes, including surveying, navigation, metrology, astrometry, binocular vision, model rocketry and, in the military, the gun direction, the trajectory and distribution of fire power of weapons.  The use of triangles to estimate distances dates to antiquity. In the 6th century BC, about 250 years prior to the establishment of the Ptolemaic dynasty, the Greek philosopher Thales is recorded as using similar triangles to estimate the height of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. He measured the length of the pyramids' shadows and that of his own at the same moment, and compared the ratios to his height (intercept theorem). Thales also estimated the distances to ships at sea as seen from a clifftop by measuring the horizontal distance traversed by the line-of-sight for a known fall, and scaling up to the height of the whole cliff. Such techniques would have been familiar to the ancient Egyptians. Problem 57 of the Rhind papyrus, a thousand years earlier, defines the "seqt" or "seked" as the ratio of the run to the rise of a slope, "i.e." the reciprocal of gradients as measured today. The slopes and angles were measured using a sighting rod that the Greeks called a "dioptra", the forerunner of the Arabic alidade. A detailed contemporary collection of constructions for the determination of lengths from a distance using this instrument is known, the "Dioptra" of Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD), which survived in Arabic translation; but the knowledge became lost in Europe until in 1615 Snellius, after the work of Eratosthenes, reworked the technique for an attempt to measure the circumference of the earth. In China, Pei Xiu (224–271) identified "measuring right angles and acute angles" as the fifth of his six principles for accurate map-making, necessary to accurately establish distances, while Liu Hui (c. 263) gives a version of the calculation above, for measuring perpendicular distances to inaccessible places.

In trigonometry and geometry, triangulation is the process of determining the location of a point by forming triangles to it from known points.


History.

The Project 1155 dates to the 1970s when it was concluded that it was too costly to build large-displacement, multi-role combatants. The concept of a specialized surface ship was developed by Soviet designers. Two different types of warships were laid down which were designed by the Severnoye Design Bureau: Project 956 destroyer and Project 1155 large anti-submarine ship. The "Udaloy" class are generally considered the Soviet equivalent of the American s. There are variations in SAM and air search radar among units of the class. Based on the, the emphasis on anti-submarine warfare (ASW) left these ships with limited anti-surface and anti-air capabilities.  In 2015, the Russian Navy announced that five out of the eight Project 1155 ships will be refurbished and upgraded as part of the Navy modernization program by 2022. In addition to overhauling their radio-electronic warfare and life support systems, they will receive modern missile complexes to fire P-800 Oniks and Kalibr cruise missiles. The ships are to have their service life extended by 30 years until sufficient numbers of s are commissioned. Upgrades will include replacing the Rastrub-B Silex missiles with 3S-24 angling launchers fitted with four 3S-34 containers using the 3M-24/SS-N-25 Switchblade anti-ship missile, and two 3S-14-1155 universal VLS with 16 cells for Kalibr land attack, anti-ship, and anti-submarine cruise missiles in place of one of the AK-100 guns.

Udaloy II.

Following "Udaloy"s commissioning, designers began developing an upgrade package in 1982 to provide more balanced capabilities with a greater emphasis on anti-shipping. The Project 1155.1 Fregat II Class Large ASW Ship (NATO Codename Udaloy II) is roughly the counterpart of the Improved "Spruance" class; only one was originally completed, but in 2006 "Admiral Kharlamov" was reported to have been upgraded to a similar standard. In April 2010 Severnaya Verf shipyard announced that the destroyer "Vice-Admiral Kulakov", which had been retired in 1990, was being upgraded to Udaloy II standard and has since resumed patrolling in 2013.  Similar to "Udaloy" externally, it was a new configuration replacing the SS-N-14 with SS-N-22 "Sunburn" (Moskit) anti-ship missiles, a twin 130 mm gun, UDAV-1 anti-torpedo rockets, and gun/SAM CIWS systems. A standoff ASW capability is retained by firing SS-N-15 missiles from the torpedo tubes.  Powered by a modern gas turbine engine, the Udaloy II is equipped with more capable sonars, an integrated air defense fire control system, and a number of digital electronic systems based on state-of-the-art circuitry. The original MGK-355 Polinom integrated sonar system (with NATO reporting names Horse Jaw and Horse Tail respectively for the hull mounted and towed portions) on "Udaloy"-I ships is replaced by its successor, a newly designed Zvezda M-2 sonar system that has a range in excess of in the 2nd convergence zone. The Zvezda sonar system is considered by its designers to be the equivalent in terms of overall performance of the AN/SQS-53 on US destroyers, though much bulkier and heavier than its American counterpart: the length of the hull mounted portion is nearly 30 meters. The torpedo approaching warning function of the Polinom sonar system is retained and further improved by its successor.

Operational history.

In 2008 became the first Russian warship to transit the Panama Canal since World War II.

The Udaloy" class, Russian designations Project 1155 "Fregat and Project 11551 "Fregat-M" (, 'Fregat' meaning Frigate), are series of anti-submarine guided missile destroyers built for the Soviet Navy, seven of which are currently in service with the Russian Navy. Twelve ships were built between 1980 and 1991, while the thirteenth ship built to a modified design, known as "Udaloy II" class, followed in 1999. They complement the Sovremennyy-class destroyers in anti-aircraft and anti-surface warfare operations.


History.

First Churches.

The first church was built around the 1000 AD. Near the beginning of the 13th century, a cathedral was built under the supervision of Bishop Bruno II. The Bishop established the Catholic priest foundation at this time as well. This first cathedral was not specifically the Cathedral of St. Peter, as both John the Baptist and St. Peter were the patron saints for the church.

Modern Cathedral.

Between 1456 and 1463, the cathedral that now stands was constructed and named after St. Peter. A fourth nave was added to the original structure.  A fire decimated much of the city and church in 1634, and the church required a new vault and significant restoration work. The entire interior of the church, with the exception of the original Gothic-style which can still be seen today.  Various cities came to Bautzen to help rebuild the city and Cathedral. Names of many Germanic cities are written on the lintels in the church to commemorate the rebuilding of the cathedral.  The church is a mixture of several different architectural styles, the most prominent being Gothic and Baroque. The early church was entirely a Gothic structure, but it has since been heavily modified. Today, only parts of the interior are Gothic in nature. The Baroque dome was added to the tower in 1664.

Simultaneum Era.

In 1523, an Evangelical Lutheran started preaching in the church. Since 1530, both Catholics and Lutherans have shared the building. A 4-meter (12 ft) tall screen separated the sanctuary. In 1567 the Holy See separated the Lusatian areas outside Saxony from the Saxon parts of the ancient Meissen diocese and established there the Prefecture Apostolic of Meissen, seated at St. Peter's of Bautzen, with Johannes Leisentritt as its first prefect. In canon law an apostolic prefecture is a diocese on approval.  According to its location and its seat the prefecture used to be called alternatively the "Apostolic Prefecture of the Two Lusatias" (Upper and Lower Lusatia) or "Apostolic Prefecture of Bautzen". In 1583, the dean of the cathedral, Leisentrit, ordered that a contract be made between the two sects defining when each would be able to use the cathedral, among other details. This contract is still in effect today and has been only interrupted a few times in history, such as the Bohemian Uprising of 1620 that expelled the Catholics from the building for a short time.  On 24 June 1921 Pope Benedict XV elevated the "Apostolic Prefecture of Meißen" to the new Diocese of Meißen by his apostolic constitution "Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum" and thus St. Peter's became the cathedral of that diocese. The 1743-founded "Apostolic Vicariate in the Saxon Hereditary Lands" was dissolved and its area and institutions integrated into the new Meißen diocese in 1921. In 1980 the seat of the diocese was moved to Dresden, leading the diocese to be renamed Dresden-Meissen, and St. Peter's becoming the co-cathedral, besides the Trinity Cathedral in Dresden.  Today, Catholic and Lutheran altars are located on separate sides of the sanctuary. The Catholic high-altar was built in 1723. It was designed by a student of Balthasar Permoser, the same man that designed the Zwinger in Dresden. The altar murals were painted by the Venetian painter Pellegrini.

St. Peter's Cathedral is an interdenominational church in Bautzen, Germany. It is among the oldest and largest simultaneum churches in Germany. Located in the heart of the city's "Old Town", the church and the square it is situated within is a major tourist attraction.


Life.

Rudolf was born in Basel, the son of Duke Louis II, Duke of Upper Bavaria and his third wife Matilda of Habsburg, a daughter of King Rudolf I of Germany. Since the 1255 partition of the Wittelsbach territories, his father ruled over the Electoral Palatinate and Upper Bavaria with his residence at Alter Hof in Munich and Heidelberg Castle, while his younger brother Duke Henry XIII ruled over the lands of Lower Bavaria.  As the eldest surviving son, Rudolf succeeded his father as Duke of Upper Bavaria upon his death in February 1294. In September he married Mechtild of Nassau, daughter of King Adolf of Germany, thereby continuing the marriage politics of his father. However, King Adolf dashed the Princes' expectations and in 1298 was declared deposed in favour of late King Rudolf's son and heir Duke Albert of Austria. In the Battle of Göllheim, Rudolf supported his father-in-law Adolf against his maternal uncle Albert. The Habsburg duke won the fight, while the king was killed in battle.  Albert was elected on 27 July 1298 and Rudolf then joined the Habsburg party, however, the strong dynastic policy of the new king caused led to a resurgence of the Wittelsbach dynastic conflicts. In 1301 King Albert put pressure on Rudolf to accept his ambitious younger brother Louis IV, the future Holy Roman Emperor, as co-regent. He broke Rudolf's remaining resistance by laying siege to his Heidelberg residence in 1301.  After Albert's assassination in 1308, both Rudolf and Louis hoped to become his successor. Nevertheless, the Princes around the mighty Archbishop of Mainz, Peter von Aspelt, arranged the candidacy of the Luxembourg count Henry VII. In the election on 27 November Rudolf voted for Henry. In 1310 he accompanied the new king on his campaign to Italy. However, he had to terminate his participation when upon the death of Duke Stephen I of Bavaria new disputes on the partition of the Wittelsbach lands and the electoral dignity between Rudolf and Louis IV culminated in a civil war.  Finally on 21 June 1313, peace between the brothers was made at Munich: while Rudolf retained the Electoral Palatinate, the treaty provided Louis with the opportunity to secure his election as German king when Henry of Luxembourg died on 24 August. Much to the annoyance of his brother, Louis was able to defeat his Habsburg rival Frederick the Fair at the Battle of Gammelsdorf on 9 November. After the renunciation of Henry's son King John of Bohemia, he finally was elected King of the Romans in Frankfurt on 20 October 1314 – against the vote of his envious brother Rudolf, who supported Frederick of Habsburg.  In the following throne quarrel with the Habsburgs, Rudolf was attacked by his brother in both Bavaria and the Palatinate. Put on the defensive, Rudolf in 1317 agreed to give up his rule in favour of Louis, until the conflict with the Habsburg rival was ended. According to the Renaissance historian Johannes Aventinus (1477–1534), Rudolf proceeded to England where he died two years later. He later received the epithet "the Stammerer" due to his many desperate fights against his capable younger brother.  Louis IV, crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1328, by the 1329 Treaty of Pavia granted the Electoral Palatinate to late Rudolf's sons Rudolf II the Blind and Rupert I and Rudolf's grandson Rupert II, a son of Adolf. This way finally Rudolf I and his grandson Rupert II became the ancestors of the elder (Palatinate) line of the Wittelsbach dynasty, which returned to power also in Bavaria in 1777 after the extinction of the younger (Bavarian) line, the descendants of Louis IV.

Family and children.

Rudolf was married on 1 September 1294 in the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg to Mechtild of Nassau, daughter of King Adolf of Germany. The couple had the following children:

Rudolf I of Bavaria, called "the Stammerer" (; 4 October 1274 – 12 August 1319), a member of the Wittelsbach dynasty, was Duke of Upper Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine from 1294 until 1317.


Elopement with princess.

At the time Baldwin first appears in the records he was already a count, presumably in the area of Flanders, but this is not known. Count Baldwin rose to prominence when he eloped with Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, king of West Francia. Judith had previously been married to Æthelwulf and Æthelbald, kings of Wessex, but after the latter's death in 860, she returned to France.  Around the Christmas of 861, at the instigation of Baldwin and with her brother Louis's consent, Judith escaped the custody into which she had been placed in the city of Senlis, Oise after her return from England. She fled north with Count Baldwin. Charles had given no permission for a marriage and tried to capture Baldwin, sending letters to Rorik of Dorestad and Bishop Hungar, forbidding them to shelter the fugitive. After Baldwin and Judith had evaded his attempts to capture them, Charles had his bishops excommunicate the couple. Judith and Baldwin responded by travelling to Rome to plead their case with Pope Nicholas I. Their plea was successful and Charles was forced to accept the situation. The marriage took place on 13 December 862 in Auxerre. By 870, Baldwin had acquired the lay-abbacy of Saint Peter's Abbey in Ghent and is assumed to have also acquired the counties of Flanders and Waasland, or parts thereof by this time.

Issue.

Baldwin I and Judith had four children:

Career.

Baldwin developed himself as a very faithful and stout supporter of Charles and played an important role in the continuing wars against the Vikings. He is named in 877 as one of those willing to support the emperor's son, Louis the Stammerer. During his life, Baldwin expanded his territory into one of the major principalities of Western Francia. He died in 879 and was buried in the Abbey of St-Bertin, near Saint-Omer.

Baldwin I (probably 830s – 879), also known as Baldwin Iron Arm (the epithet is first recorded in the 12th century), was the first margrave of Flanders.


Background.

Although created in 2006, the team's roots can be traced back to the year, when it was founded as Jordan Grand Prix. The Silverstone-based squad and facilities were bought by the Midland group in 2005 and renamed Midland F1 in 2006, before being sold to Spyker Cars towards the end of the 2006 season.  Rumours had been floating about in the paddock throughout the mid-season about the possible sale of the team, less than two years after Alex Shnaider originally bought it from Eddie Jordan. Reports suggested a price tag of $128m, and that Shnaider was seriously considering the possibility of the sale. Formula One teams had become more valuable, because no more teams could enter after 2008, with the maximum of 12 places already filled.  On 9 September 2006, it was revealed that the team was sold to Spyker Cars, a Dutch manufacturer of hand-built cars. Spyker paid $106.6 million for the team. On 10 September, ITV commentators said that both Shnaider and former consultant Johnny Herbert were no longer involved in the team since the announcement of the sale.  Former Midland drivers Christijan Albers and Tiago Monteiro were retained for the remaining part of the 2006 season, while it was also confirmed at Spyker's debut race in China that Albers would be staying with the successor team for the 2007 season. As part of the purchase of Midland by Spyker, the cars had a revised livery for the final three races of 2006. The name of the team also changed to Spyker MF1 Racing, as FIA regulations preclude a change of a team's name during a season but do allow for a sponsor name to be added to the front.

2007 season.

The previous team boss of Midland, Colin Kolles, remained as team principal into 2007. Michiel Mol became the new Director of F1 racing and member of the Spyker board, and Mike Gascoyne became the Chief Technology Officer from the end of the 2006 season. The team used customer 2006-spec Ferrari engines in 2007, replacing the Toyota units, which went to the Williams team. Although the team remained based in the UK, it chose to register under the Dutch motor racing authority and therefore run under the Dutch flag during 2007, reflecting its new ownership.  For the second race driver, Spyker signed one of their 2006 third drivers, Adrian Sutil, to drive for the team in 2007. The official FIA entry list for 2007 was posted on various websites on 4 December 2006, and on the list the Spyker F1 Team was assigned car numbers 20 and 21, but only Christijan Albers' name was made official on the entry list, with the second seat, and car number 21 left TBA, since Sutil had not been confirmed at the time. However, the car numbers were swapped inside the team as Albers wanted to drive a car with an odd number, hence Albers (and later Winkelhock and Yamamoto) raced with number 21 and Sutil 20. Spyker signed four test and reserve drivers for the 2007 season: Adrián Vallés, Fairuz Fauzy, Giedo van der Garde and Markus Winkelhock.  In March, Spyker announced a sponsor deal with Etihad Airways and Aldar Properties, two companies from Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. The official name of the entrant during the season was Etihad Aldar Spyker F1 Team.  On 10 July, Albers was released from his Spyker contract, due to a lack of sponsorship money, which would have compromised the team's development programme. Mol described it as "one of the toughest decisions of my career". Despite former Red Bull Racing driver Christian Klien testing for the team on 12 July 2007, Albers' replacement for the 2007 European Grand Prix was Winkelhock.  During the 2007 European Grand Prix, Winkelhock became the only driver to lead a Grand Prix in a Spyker, due to the team's tyre selection. However, Winkelhock did not keep his race drive as this went to Sakon Yamamoto.  In August, the new B-Spec Spyker model, which the team hoped to use at the 2007 Turkish Grand Prix, failed the crucial rear crash test which is set by the FIA. All cars must pass these tests to be allowed to race. However, a few days later it was confirmed that the car had passed the crash test in time to compete in the Italian Grand Prix.  On 30 September at the 2007 Japanese Grand Prix, the team scored its first and only championship point. Driver Sutil finished 9th on the track, but was promoted to 8th place and into the points scoring positions when stewards ruled post-race that Toro Rosso's Vitantonio Liuzzi had overtaken Sutil under a yellow flag on lap 55; Liuzzi was subsequently given a 25-second penalty that dropped his time below Sutil's.  On 14 August, Spyker Cars announced that it might need to sell all or part of the team due to a potential split of the team from its parent company. The team was sold to a consortium named "Orange India" led by Indian businessman Vijay Mallya and Dutch entrepreneur (and existing board member) Michiel Mol after approval by Spyker's shareholders. Mallya attended the Chinese Grand Prix as team owner. The team was renamed Force India for the 2008 season.

The Spyker F1 Team, known as the Etihad Aldar Spyker F1 Team for sponsorship reasons, was a Formula One team that competed in the 2007 Formula One World Championship, and was created by Spyker Cars after their buyout of the short-lived Midland F1 (formerly Jordan Grand Prix) team. The change to the Spyker name was accompanied by a switch in racing livery from the red and white previously used by Midland, to an orange and silver scheme—already seen on the Spyker Spyder GT2-R—orange being the national colour and the auto racing colour of the Netherlands. At the end of the 2007 season the team was sold and renamed Force India.


Description.

The Spurge Hawk-Moth - Fore wings grey, with an almost square olive-brown blotch; at the base another olive-brown blotch near the middle, and a long oblique band of the same colour, commencing in a point at the extreme apex of the wing, and gradually growing wider until it reaches the margin, where it is very broad: hind wings pink, with a black blotch at the base, and a black band half-way between this black blotch and the margin, and a snowy-white blotch at the anal angle: thorax and body olive-brown, with a white line on each side of the thorax just at the base of the wings; this line runs on each side along the head just above the eye, and the two meet at the nose; the body has on each side at the base two square black spots and two square white spots, and beyond them, nearer the apex, and also on each side, are three white lines.  The caterpillar is smooth and black, with innumerable whitish dots; there are also eleven large spots of the same colour arrayed in a row on each side of the back, and beneath these as many spots of the same size and of a bright coral-red colour; the head is of the same coral-red colour, and a line of the same colour runs all along the back, from the head to the horn; the horn is red at the base and black at the tip. It feeds on sea-spurge.  The chrysalis is pale brown and delicately lined and dotted with black in the manner of network; it buries itself in the loose dry sand on the sea coast.  The eggs are covered with liquid gum, which enables them to stick on the small leaves of the spurge. In a fortnight these hatch and produce little black caterpillars; the white and red spots appear as the caterpillar increases in size, and in a few weeks it becomes a most beautiful object, and so conspicuous as to attract the sea-gulls and terns, which devour them in numbers. We have never had the pleasure of finding either the caterpillar or perfect moth. Our description of the caterpillar is taken from the "Entomological Magazine".

Hyles euphorbiae, the spurge hawk-moth, is a European moth of the family Sphingidae. This hawk moth is used as an agent of biological pest control against the noxious weed leafy spurge ("Euphorbia virgata"), but usually only in conjunction with other agents. The larvae consume the leaves and bracts of the plant. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of "Systema Naturae".


Extent.

The Globular Amphora culture was located in an area defined by the Elbe catchment on the west and that of the Vistula on the east, extending southwards to the middle Dniester and eastwards to reach the Dnieper. West of the Elbe, some globular amphorae are found in megalithic graves. The GAC finds in the steppe area are normally attributed to a rather late expansion between 2950 and 2350 cal. BC from a centre in Wolhynia and Podolia.

Economy.

The economy was based on raising a variety of livestock, pigs particularly in its earlier phase, in distinction to the Funnelbeaker culture's preference for cattle. Settlements are sparse, and these normally just contain small clusters pits. No convincing house-plans have yet been excavated. It is suggested that some of these settlements were not year-round, or may have been temporary.

Burials.

The GAC is primarily known from its burials. Inhumation was in a pit or cist. A variety of grave offerings were left, including animal parts (such as a pig's jaw) or even whole animals, e.g., oxen. Grave gifts include the typical globular amphorae and stone axes. There are also cattle-burials, often in pairs, accompanied by grave gifts. There are also secondary burials in Megalithic graves.

Interpretation.

The inclusion of animals in the grave is seen as an intrusive cultural element by Marija Gimbutas. The practice of suttee, hypothesized by Gimbutas is also seen as a highly intrusive cultural element. The supporters of the Kurgan hypothesis point to these distinctive burial practices and state this may represent one of the earliest migrations of Indo-Europeans into Central Europe. In this context and given its area of occupation, this culture has been claimed as the underlying culture of a Germanic-Baltic-Slavic continuum.

Genetics.

In a 2017 genetic study published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, the fifteen samples of mtDNA was extracted. The majority of the samples belonged to subclades of U and Haplogroup H (mtDNA), while J, W and K was also detected. The remains were found to closely related to Neolithic European farmers and Western Hunter-Gatherers, with little genetic relations to the Yamnaya culture in the east. The authors of the study suggested that the Globulara Amphora culture was non-Indo-European-speaking, but with cultural influences from Yamnaya.  A February 2018 study published in Nature included an analysis of eight males of the Globular Amphora culture. Three of them carried haplogroup I2a2a1b and a subclade of it; two carried I2a2; one carried I2; one carried BT and one carried CT.  In a 2019 genetic study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 15 skeletons from the Koszyce mass grave in southern Poland, which is ascribed to the Globular Amphora culture. The individuals were all shown to be members of an extended family, and to have been buried with great care by someone who knew them very well. Most of them were female and children. All had been executed by a violent blow to the head, perhaps by invading Corded Ware groups. The older males of the family are missing from the grave, suggesting that they were away or had fled. Of the eight samples of Y-DNA extracted, all were found to belong to I2a-L801. The fifteen samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to various subclades of T, H, J, K, HV. The skeletons were determined to have about 70% Neolithic farmer ancestry and 30% Western Hunter-Gatherer ancestry, meaning they had no steppe ancestry. The archaeological and genetic evidence collected from the grave indicated that the Globular Amphora culture was patriarchal and kinship-oriented, which appears to have been the norm for Late Neolithic communities in Central Europe.

The Globular Amphora culture (GAC, (KAK); ), c. 3400–2800 BC, is an archaeological culture in Central Europe. Marija Gimbutas assumed an Indo-European origin, though this is contradicted by newer genetic studies that show a connection to the earlier wave of Neolithic farmers rather than to invaders from the southern Russian steppes.


Biography.

Elisabeth Christine was the eldest daughter of Louis Rudolph, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and his wife Princess Christine Louise of Oettingen-Oettingen. At age 13 Elisabeth Christine became engaged to the future Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, through negotiations between her ambitious grandfather, Anthony Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and Charles' sister-in-law, Empress Wilhelmine Amalia, whose father was John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Calenberg and thus belonged to another branch of the House of Welf. However, the Lutheran Protestant bride opposed the marriage at first, since it involved her converting to Roman Catholicism, but finally she gave in. She was tutored in Catholicism by her mother-in-law, Empress Eleonore, who introduced her to the Marian cult and made a pilgrimage with her to Mariazell in 1706. On 1 May 1707, she was converted in Bamberg, Germany. She was forced to swear the Tridentine Creed rather than a modified version she had hoped. Prior to the wedding, she was forced to undergo a medical examination to prove her fertility by a doctor and the Jesuit confessor of Charles.

Spain.

At the time of the wedding, Charles was fighting for his claim to the Spanish throne against the French candidate Philip, so he was living in Barcelona. Elisabeth Christine arrived in Spain in July 1708 and married Charles on 1 August 1708 in the church of Santa María del Mar, Barcelona. As Philip had already fathered a son, Elisabeth Christine was immediately pressured to produce a son. During her time in Spain, she had a long-term correspondence with her mother, which was reportedly a consolation for the continuous pressure to produce a son. In 1711, Charles left for Vienna to succeed as Emperor. He left Elisabeth Christine behind in Spain, appointing her as General Governor of Catalonia in his absence. She ruled Catalonia alone until 1713, when the war ended with Philip recognized by all of Austria's allies. Her official role as regent had been to sustain the morale of Charles' Catalan subjects, but Martino claimed that she actually governed more effectively than Charles had during his Spanish reign. She then joined her husband in Austria.

Austria.

As empress, Elisabeth Christine as well as her predecessor were described as accomplished in music, discretion, modesty and diligence, and was regarded to fulfill her representational role as empress well both within the Spanish court protocol of hunting and balls and amateur theater as well as the religious devotion days of "pietas austriaca". She was an excellent shot and attended shooting matches, participated in hunting while she and her ladies-in-waiting dressed in amazon attire and also played billiards. Elisabeth Christine was later rumored to be a crypto-Protestant, likely because she was a patron of Jansenists such as Johann Christoph Bartenstein.  Charles VI did not allow her any political influence whatsoever after her arrival in Austria in 1713. However, she was described as intelligent and self-sufficient, and she established political connections among the ministers, especially Starhemberg, and she took some initiative to engage in politics on her own. In the 1720s, she appeared to have had some influence in the treaty with the Russian Tsar through her family connections in Northern Germany, and she allied herself with the court faction which opposed the plans to marry her daughters to members of the Spanish royal house.  The marriage of Elisabeth Christine was dominated by the pressure upon her to give birth to a male heir. This she later fulfilled when she gave birth to a male heir named Archduke Leopold John in 1716. However, at age 7 months the infant Leopold died. She reportedly found the situation very stressing and was tormented by the loss of confidence in Charles VI that this caused. Three years after her marriage, court doctors prescribed large doses of liquor to make her more fertile, which gave her face a permanent blush. During her 1725 pregnancy, Charles unsuccessfully had her bedchamber decorated with erotic images of male beauty so as to make her expected baby male by stimulating her fantasy. After this, the court doctors prescribed a rich diet to increase her fertility, which made her so fat that she became unable to walk, experienced breathing problems, insomnia and dropsy and had to be lowered into her chairs by a specially constructed machine.  Though her health was devastated by the different prescriptions as how to make her conceive another son, Charles VI apparently did care for her: he continued to refer to her by her pet name White Liz, expressed sincere concern in his diary about her health and left her an independent income in his will. Charles had a mistress before the marriage, and he had a mistress, countess Althann, from 1711 onward, though Althann was not an official mistress and had been married to one of his ministers shortly before the arrival of the empress to make the relationship more discreet.  Elisabeth Christine got along very well with her mother-in-law Eleonore and her sister-in-law Wilhelmine Amalia, and the three empresses were described as supportive toward each other: Wilhelmine Amalia nursed Elisabeth Christine when she had the smallpox, and Elisabeth Christine nursed Eleonore during her last illness.

Empress Dowager.

In 1740, Charles VI died, leaving her a widow. As a widow, she never received the large income left to her in the will of Charles because of the crisis of the state, but her daughter Maria Theresa provided a comfortable existence for her court. Though the traditional view has been that she had a good relationship with her daughter the empress, there is actually nothing to confirm such a thing. While Maria Theresa is known to have freely expressed her affection for people she cared for, she never did so with her mother; she visited her regularly, but the visits were formal, and during her interaction she behaved strictly according to Spanish court etiquette. In 1747, the Prussian ambassador claimed that she was politically active, "without arousing the suspicion that she is trying to meddle" in political matters. Elisabeth Christine died in Vienna.

Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (28 August 1691 – 21 December 1750) was Princess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Holy Roman Empress, German Queen, Queen of Bohemia and Hungary; and Archduchess of Austria by her marriage to Emperor Charles VI. She was renowned for her delicate beauty and also for being the mother of Empress Maria Theresa. She was the longest serving Holy Roman Empress.


History.

The Fiat Coupé made media headlines in auto magazines during 1992, after several spy shots were taken revealing the car on test. Fiat had decided to produce a new coupé based upon the Tipo platform when the Pininfarina factory was suddenly dormant after the Cadillac Allante project failed around 1990. Two designs were put forward, with Fiat's in-house Centro Stile team competing with Pininfarina.The concept as put forward by Centro Stile's Chris Bangle unexpectedly won the Fiat management over. The design previously offered by Pininfarina was eventually accepted by Peugeot, who adopted it as the 406 Coupe in October 1996.  On its launch in January 1994, the Coupé was available with a four cylinder, 2.0 L 16V engine, in both turbo (190 PS) and normally aspirated (139 PS) versions. Both engines were later versions of Fiat's twin-cam design and inherited from the Lancia Delta Integrale, winner of the World Rally Championship a record six times. 1996 brought in a 1.8 L 16V engine (not available in the United Kingdom, 131 PS), along with a 2.0 litre five cylinder 20V (147 PS), and a five cylinder 2.0 litre 20V turbo (220 PS). Along with the new engines Fiat also made some minor design changes including the front grill, steering wheel,the door panel now included leather, the interior centre console was redesigned and the digital clock was replaced with an analog one.  Production of the right-hand drive models for markets including the UK began in early 1995, and continued until the end of Coupe production five years later.  Both the turbocharged 16v/4-cylinder and 20v/5-cylinder (4v per cyl.) versions were equipped with a very efficient "Viscodrive" limited-slip differential to counter the understeer that plagues most powerful front wheel drive cars.  Additionally, the Coupé featured independent suspension all round: at the front MacPherson struts and lower wishbones anchored to an auxiliary crossbeam, offset coil springs and anti roll bar; at the rear, trailing arms mounted on an auxiliary subframe, coil springs and an anti roll bar. 1998 saw the release of the Limited Edition which could be identified externally by a body kit, titanium grey details such as the wheels, fuel cap, rear light cups, mirror casings and the Brembo brake calipers at the front were now painted red. Inside, the Limited Edition specification included a push-button start, Recaro seats with red leather inserts, Sparco pedals and the recognisable body-coloured dash was replaced with a titanium grey example. Mechanically, there were few changes over a standard 20V Turbo model, but the LE (as they came to be known) did add a six speed gearbox for the first time, strut brace and the engine covers were all painted red.  The LE was produced in Black (flat), Red (flat), Vinci Grey (metallic), Crono Grey (flat) and Steel Grey (metallic).  Each Limited Edition ('LE') Coupé was manufactured with a badge located by the rear view mirror which contained that car's unique number (it is rumoured that Michael Schumacher was the original owner of LE No. 0001, however when the question was raised to him personally he confirmed he had owned one, but a red one, while LE No. 0001 is a Crono Grey one). Originally, a spokesman from Fiat stated only approximately 300 Limited Editions would be built (although the plaques always allowed for four-figure numbers). The final amount was much higher, with numbers as high as 1400 touted by some. This angered many of the owners of the original 300 cars and almost certainly impacted residual values. The original number however was quoted by a spokesman for Fiat UK, so probably that number only applied to the United Kingdom.  In 1998, the 2.0 litre five cylinder 20V got a Variable Inlet System, which brought the power to. In addition, the sills of the Turbo version were colour matched with the body paintwork. Fiat also released the 2.0 litre five cylinder Turbo 'Plus'. This model came with an option kit that made it virtually identical to the LE, except for minor interior design changes and without the unique identification badge of the LE.  In early 2000, Fiat released another special version of the Fiat Coupé. Featuring the 1.8 litre engine, it was only available throughout mainland Europe and marketed as an elegant and affordable edition. This final version had different leather seats, white speedo with yellow arrows, new 16 inch bbs rims and the new "honeycomb"grill. Production finished in the summer of that year, with no plans for a direct successor.  Fiat also made changes throughout the rest of the range: new seats, side skirts, wheels for the 2.0 litre 20V model, 'Plus' edition wheels and a six speed transmission as standard on turbo models, and Fiat manufactured seats on the 'Plus' that were virtually identical to the original Plus Recaro seats with the addition of extra airbags.  The 2.0 litre 20V Turbo model is capable of accelerating from 0–100 km/h (0 to 62 mph) in 6.5 seconds and 6.3 seconds for the 20v Turbo Plus, with a top speed of or with later six speed gearbox. When production finally ended in December 2000, a total number of 72,762 units had been produced.

Tuning, modifying and racing.

Since the turbo versions shared their motors with a few popular Fiats and Lancia's they are a known base to a lot of European tuners.  The 16v/20v turbo engines are sought after because of their huge tuning headroom and simple design which makes them easy to swap in other Fiat/Lancia/Alfa Romeo cars.  The most common swap chassis are Fiat Bravo HGT and Alfa Romeo GTV since they share a very similar platform.  4wd conversions have been done quite a few times to the Coupe chassis since it shares a similar floor pan as the Alfa Romeo 155 Q4 and Lancia Delta/Dedra Integrale

The Fiat Coupé, internally designated as the type 175, was a two door, four seat coupé manufactured and marketed by Fiat between 1993 and 2000 across a single generation. The Coupé was introduced at Bologna Motor Show in December 1993 and is noted for its distinctive, angular exterior design by Chris Bangle at Centro Stile Fiat. Its interior was designed by Pininfarina.