Signs and symptoms.

Human alveolar echinococcosis is characterized by a lengthy incubation period of 5 to 15 years in immunocompetent individuals. The progression of disease is potentiated in immunocompromised patients. Following the ingestion of the eggs of "E. multilocularis", the metacestode (larval) stage of the parasite typically embeds in the liver. As the disease progresses, the larval stage proliferates exogenously within the tissue, behaving similar to hepatic neoplasia. Patients with human alveolar echinococcosis typically present with headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain. Jaundice is rare, but hepatomegaly is a common physical finding.

Life cycle.

The life cycle of "E. multilocularis" involves a primary or definitive host and a secondary or intermediate host, each harboring different life stages of the parasite.  Foxes, coyotes, domestic dogs, and other canids are the definitive hosts for the adult stage of the parasite. Cats may also be involved. The head of the tapeworm attaches to the intestinal mucosa by hooks and suckers. It then produces hundreds of microscopic eggs, which are dispersed through the feces.  Wild rodents such as mice serve as the intermediate host. Beavers may also be affected; and reintroduction of beavers from affected areas is a cause for concern. Eggs ingested by rodents develop in the liver, lungs and other organs to form multilocular cysts. The life cycle is completed after a fox or canine consumes a rodent infected with cysts. Larvae within the cyst develop into adult tapeworms in the intestinal tract of the definitive host.  Humans can become an aberrant intermediate host by accidentally ingesting eggs of "E. multilocularis" when handling infected animals or consuming contaminated food, vegetable, and water.  Except in rare cases where infected humans are eaten by canines, humans are a dead-end or incidental host (an aberrant intermediate host that does not allow transmission to the definitive host) for "E. multilocularis".

Morphology.

The adult parasite is a small tapeworm that is 3- 6mm long, and lives in the small intestine of canines. The segmented worm contains a scolex with suckers and hooks that enable attachment to the mucosal wall, since tapeworms do not have a digestive tract. A short neck connects the head to three proglottids, the body segment of the worm which contains the eggs to be excreted in the feces.

Diagnosis.

Serological and imaging tests are commonly used to diagnose this disease. Since the serological tests for alveolar echinococcosis only indicate exposure to the parasite and not ongoing infection, visualization of the parasitic mass is required to confirm the diagnosis. Frequently used serological tests include antibody tests, ELISA and indirect hemaglutination (IHA). Also, an intradermal allergic reaction test (Casoni test) has also been used to diagnose patients. Imaging tests include: X-rays, CT scans, MRI, and ultrasound. Histology is another important diagnostic tool to use. In the past, the PAS staining technique has proven beneficial in helping determine if infections are caused by Echinococcus multiocularis. More recently, a new immunohistochemistry technique that uses a monoclonal antibody (Em2G11) has provided professionals with more accuracy and precision in diagnosing Echinococcus multiocularis and distinguishing it from other species like Echinococcus granulosus.

Disease staging.

Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a highly lethal helminthic disease in humans, caused by the larval form of the parasitic tapeworm "E. multilocularis". The disease represents a serious public threat in China, Siberia, and central Europe. However, since the 1990s, the prevalence of the disease seems to be increasing in Europe, not only in the historically endemic areas but its neighboring regions. AE primarily affects the liver by inducing a hepatic disorder similar to liver cancer, therefore becoming extremely dangerous and difficult to diagnose. If the infection metastasizes, it may spread to any other organ and could be lethal if not treated. The most common treatment for AE is to surgically remove the parasite. Since it is difficult and not always possible to remove the entire parasite, medicine such as Albendazole is utilized to keep the cyst from growing back.  Guided by the Tumor-Node-Metastasis (TNM) system of liver cancer, the European Network for Concerted Surveillance of Alveolar Echinococcosis and the World Health Organization Informal Working Group on Echinococcosis, a clinical classification system has been proposed. This classification system has been designated as the "PNM" system (P = parasitic mass, N = involvement of neighboring organs, M = metastasis). The system was developed by a retrospective analysis of records from 97 patients treated in France and Germany (2 treatment centers). Amongst other characteristics, the system takes into consideration the localization of the parasite in the liver, the extent of lesion involvement, regional involvement, and metastasis.

Treatment.

If no specific therapy is initiated, in 94% of patients the disease is fatal within 10–20 years following diagnosis.

Epidemiology.

The incidence of human infestation with "E. multilocularis" and disease is increasing in urban areas, as wild foxes (an important reservoir species of the sylvatic cycle) are migrating to urban and suburban areas and gaining closer contact with human populations. Also, restocking fox enclosures for fox hunting with infected animals spreads the disease. Children, health care workers and domestic animals are at risk of ingesting the eggs after coming into contact with the feces of infected wild foxes. Even with the improvement of health in developed/industrialized countries, the prevalence of alveolar echinococcosis (AE) did not decrease. On the contrary, incidents of AE have now also been registered in eastern European countries and sporadic incidences in other European countries.  The disease has extended its range in Europe in the last few decades. Still the infection is fairly rare. Between 1982 and 2000 a total of 559 cases were reported throughout Europe.  Recent findings indicate that "E. multilocularis" is likely expanding its range in the central region of the United States and Canada and that invasions of European strains might have occurred; the endemic presence of the parasite in urban areas and a total of 16 human cases in Alberta, Canada have been reported. The first human case in Alberta was diagnosed in 2013. In one case, the infection caused a grapefruit sized tumour in the lung, kidney and diaphragm, which had to surgically removed. Because of the significant difficulty in diagnosising an infection caused by Echinococcus multiocularis, it is suspected that this parasite if often misdiagnosed. Several studies that have been done since the 1950s in North America and indicate a higher prevalance of Echinococcus multiocularis than previously thought. However, due to limited knowledge about the parasite, it is often not monitored in wild or domestic animals; this monitoring will become crucial to the control of the parasite in the future as it continues to spread.

Echinococcus multilocularis is a small cyclophyllid tapeworm found extensively in the northern hemisphere. "E. multilocularis," along with other members of the "Echinococcus" genus (especially "E. granulosus"), produce diseases known as echinococcosis. Unlike "E. granulosus," "E. multilocularis" produces many small cysts (also referred to as locules) that spread throughout the internal organs of the infected animal. The resultant disease is called Alveolar echinococcosis, and is caused by ingesting the eggs of "E. multilocularis."


Meteorology.

The ITCZ was originally identified from the 1920s to the 1940s as the "Intertropical Front" ("ITF"), but after the recognition in the 1940s and the 1950s of the significance of wind field convergence in tropical weather production, the term "Intertropical Convergence Zone" ("ITCZ") was then applied.  The ITCZ appears as a band of clouds, usually thunderstorms, that encircle the globe near the Equator. In the Northern Hemisphere, the trade winds move in a southwestward direction from the northeast, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they move northwestward from the southeast. When the ITCZ is positioned north or south of the Equator, these directions change according to the Coriolis effect imparted by Earth's rotation. For instance, when the ITCZ is situated north of the Equator, the southeast trade wind changes to a southwest wind as it crosses the Equator. The ITCZ is formed by vertical motion largely appearing as convective activity of thunderstorms driven by solar heating, which effectively draw air in; these are the trade winds. The ITCZ is effectively a tracer of the ascending branch of the Hadley cell and is wet. The dry descending branch is the horse latitudes.  The location of the ITCZ gradually varies with the seasons, roughly corresponding with the location of the thermal equator. As the heat capacity of the oceans is greater than air over land, migration is more prominent over land. Over the oceans, where the convergence zone is better defined, the seasonal cycle is more subtle, as the convection is constrained by the distribution of ocean temperatures. Sometimes, a double ITCZ forms, with one located north and another south of the Equator, one of which is usually stronger than the other. When this occurs, a narrow ridge of high pressure forms between the two convergence zones.

ITCZ over oceans vs. land.

The ITCZ is commonly defined as an equatorial zone where the trade winds converge. Rainfall seasonality is traditionally attributed to the north–south migration of the ITCZ, which follows the sun. Although this is largely valid over the equatorial oceans, the ITCZ and the region of maximum rainfall can be decoupled over the continents. The equatorial precipitation over land is not simply a response to just the surface convergence. Rather, it is modulated by a number of regional features such as local atmospheric jets and waves, proximity to the oceans, terrain-induced convective systems, moisture recycling, and spatiotemporal variability of land cover and albedo.

South Pacific convergence zone.

The South Pacific convergence zone (SPCZ) is a reverse-oriented, or west-northwest to east-southeast aligned, trough extending from the west Pacific warm pool southeastwards towards French Polynesia. It lies just south of the equator during the Southern Hemisphere warm season, but can be more extratropical in nature, especially east of the International Date Line. It is considered the largest and most important piece of the ITCZ, and has the least dependence upon heating from a nearby land mass during the summer than any other portion of the monsoon trough. The southern ITCZ in the southeast Pacific and southern Atlantic, known as the SITCZ, occurs during the Southern Hemisphere fall between 3° and 10° south of the equator east of the 140th meridian west longitude during cool or neutral El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) patterns. When ENSO reaches its warm phase, otherwise known as El Niño, the tongue of lowered sea surface temperatures due to upwelling off the South American continent disappears, which causes this convergence zone to vanish as well.

Effects on weather.

Variation in the location of the intertropical convergence zone drastically affects rainfall in many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather than the cold and warm seasons of higher latitudes. Longer term changes in the intertropical convergence zone can result in severe droughts or flooding in nearby areas.  In some cases, the ITCZ may become narrow, especially when it moves away from the equator; the ITCZ can then be interpreted as a front along the leading edge of the equatorial air. There appears to be a 15 to 25-day cycle in thunderstorm activity along the ITCZ, which is roughly half the wavelength of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO).  Within the ITCZ the average winds are slight, unlike the zones north and south of the equator where the trade winds feed. As trans-equator sea voyages became more common, sailors in the eighteenth century named this belt of calm "the doldrums" because of the calm, stagnant, or inactive winds.

Role in tropical cyclone formation.

Tropical cyclogenesis depends upon low-level vorticity as one of its six requirements, and the ITCZ fills this role as it is a zone of wind change and speed, otherwise known as horizontal wind shear. As the ITCZ migrates to tropical - subtropical latitudes and even beyond (Shandong province of the People's Republic of China) during the respective hemisphere's summer season, increasing Coriolis force makes the formation of tropical cyclones within this zone more possible. Surges of higher pressure from high latitudes can enhance tropical disturbances along its axis. In the north Atlantic and the northeastern Pacific oceans, tropical waves move along the axis of the ITCZ causing an increase in thunderstorm activity, and clusters of thunderstorms can develop under weak vertical wind shear.

Hazards.

Thunderstorms along the Intertropical Convergence Zone played a role in the loss of Air France Flight 447, which left Rio de Janeiro–Galeão International Airport on Sunday, 31 May 2009, at about 7:00 p.m. local time (6:00 p.m. EDT or 10:00 p.m. UTC) and had been expected to land at Charles de Gaulle Airport near Paris on Monday, 1 June 2009, at 11:15 a.m. (5:15 a.m. EDT or 9:15 a.m. UTC). The aircraft crashed with no survivors while flying through a series of large ITCZ thunderstorms, and ice forming rapidly on airspeed sensors was the precipitating cause for a cascade of human errors which ultimately doomed the flight. Most aircraft flying these routes are able to avoid the larger convective cells without incident.  In the Age of Sail, to find oneself becalmed in this region in a hot and muggy climate could mean death when wind was the only effective way to propel ships across the ocean. Calm periods within the doldrums could strand ships for days or weeks. Even today, leisure and competitive sailors attempt to cross the zone as quickly as possible as the erratic weather and wind patterns may cause unexpected delays.

In literature.

The doldrums are notably described in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" (1798).

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), known by sailors as the doldrums or the calms because of its monotonous, windless weather, is the area where the northeast and southeast trade winds converge. It encircles Earth near the thermal equator, though its specific position varies seasonally. When it lies near the geographic Equator, it is called the near-equatorial trough. Where the ITCZ is drawn into and merges with a monsoonal circulation, it is sometimes referred to as a monsoon trough, a usage more common in Australia and parts of Asia.


History.

The noble family possibly descended from Count Palatine Wigeric of Lotharingia (d. before 923), the founder of the Ardennes-Verdun dynasty. His presumable son Sigfried (d. 997) appeared as first Count of Luxembourg about 950. Sigfried's grandson Giselbert (d. 1059), is documented as a Count of Salm in 1036 and as Count of Luxembourg in 1047. When he divided his estates among his heirs, his younger son Hermann received the County of Salm and thereby became the progenitor of the comital dynasty. During the Great Saxon Revolt, he even was elected German anti-king in opposition to King Henry IV in 1081, however, he remained isolated until his death in 1088.  In 1163, Hermann's grandson Count Henry I of Salm (d. before 1174) again divided the estates among his son Henry II and his daughter Elizabeth, who had married Frederick II, Count of Vianden. Henry II received the County of Upper Salm in the Vosges, while Elizabeth and Frederick II founded the comital line of Lower Salm in the Ardennes.

Lower Salm.

The descendants of Elizabeth and Frederick became extinct in 1416. Their possessions were inherited by the Lords of Reifferscheid, who resided at Reifferscheid Castle. The succession arrangement was challenged by the Raugraves, however, they had to accept a 1456 judgement by the Luxembourg councillor Antoine I de Croÿ. The "Salm-Reifferscheid" line was later divided into the branches of "Salm-Reifferscheid-Bedburg/Krautheim","Salm-Reifferscheidt-Raitz" and "Salm-Reifferscheid-Dyck" (extinct in 1888).

Upper Salm.

The Counts of Upper Salm resided at Château de Salm in Alsace, where they had to compete with the neighbouring Prince-Bishops of Strasbourg and the Dukes of Lorraine. In 1475, half of the estates were inherited by the Rhinegraves; the remaining half passed to the Lorraine dukes in 1600.  The Rhinegraves began to call themselves Counts of Salm too, they were raised to princes in 1623. Their line included several cadet branches ruling over minor principalities such as Salm-Salm, Salm-Horstmar, and Salm-Kyrburg. In the German Mediatisation of 1803, the Princes of Salm-Salm and Salm-Kyrburg received the southwestern estates of the former Prince-Bishopric of Münster with the Lordship of Anholt and ruled the newly established Principality of Salm jointly as a condominium.

Notable members.

Aming its notable members were the counts of Lower Salm in the Ardennes, advocati of the abbaye Saint-Pierre at Senones, counts of Upper Salm in the Vosges mountains, governors of Nancy, marshals of Lorraine, marshals of Bar, princes of the Holy Roman Empire and sovereign princes of the Principality of Salm-Salm:

Salm was a Lotharingian noble family originating from Salmchâteau in the Ardennes (present-day Belgium) and ruling Salm. The dynasty is above all known for the experiences of the Upper Salm branch which came to be located at Château de Salm in the Vosges mountain range and over time came to rule over a principality whose capital was Badonviller then Senones.


Origin.

The family was established by Pribislav, an Obotrite (Slavic) prince who converted to Christianity and accepted the suzerainty of Saxon Duke Henry the Lion (r. 1142–1180), his fallen father's enemy, and became the Lord of Mecklenburg (derived from "Mikla Burg", "big fortress", their main fortress). The Obotrites were subsequently Germanized. The main branch of the house was elevated in 1347 to ducal rank.

Coats of arms.

Each field in the coat of arm symbolizes one of the seven high lordly dominions of the state of Mecklenburg: upper-left quarter: Duchy of Mecklenburg, upper-right quarter: Lordship of Rostock, middle-left quarter divided in two: Principality of Schwerin, middle inescutcheon: County of Schwerin, middle-right quarter: Principality of Ratzeburg, lower-left quarter: Lordship of Stargard, and lower-right quarter: Principality of Wenden.

Claims to Swedish throne.

The Dukes of Mecklenburg pursued from the 14th century a claim to inheritance in Sweden. The Duke of Mecklenburg was a descendant and the heir of two women whom legends tied to Scandinavian royal houses:  The Sverker dynasty had long been extinct, having lost the throne ultimately to Eric XI. The male dynasty of Eric X was already extinct, and issue of his other daughters had been sidestepped by Birger Jarl, the husband of his daughter (the only one still alive in 1250), Ingeborg Eriksdotter of Sweden. Birger took great care to secure the kingship for his own sons.  The Dukes of Mecklenburg's claim to the Swedish throne became reality during a brief reign: Henry II's son Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg (1318–79), married a kinswoman, a Scandinavian heiress named Euphemia of Sweden and Norway (born 1317 and died 1370). The couple's second son duke Albert III deposed his uncle from the Swedish throne, and ascended as king.  Margaret I of Denmark chose Eric of Pomerania as her heir. Eric descended from the elder brother of Albert III. Monarchs of the Kalmar union were all cognatic descendants of the House of Mecklenburg.  The agnatic House of Mecklenburg, descended from Euphemia's youngest son Magnus I, Duke of Mecklenburg, continued to keep their claim to the throne, and occasionally stirred the situation in Scandinavia.

Claims to Norway.

The Kingdom of Norway (872–1397) was the only medieval Scandinavian realm whose kingship was hereditary, not elective. Already when Olav IV of Norway was young and his mother Margaret was regent, the Dukes of Mecklenburg advanced their claims.  The Dukes of Mecklenburg's claim to the Norwegian throne was based on their descent from Euphemia of Sweden, granddaughter of Haakon V of Norway.  When Olav IV died in 1387, Norway was without a monarch but under the regency of Margaret. She soon chose an heir, Eric of Pomerania, whose mother Maria of Mecklenburg had been Euphemia's eldest granddaughter.  When Eric's nephew king Christopher died (before the death of the deposed Eric III of Norway), after some hiatus another magnate, Christian VIII of Oldenburg, descended in the female line from Euphemia and the Mecklenburg family (Euphemia's daughter's great-grandson), was chosen as king of Norway in 1450, this time passing over his cousin and male-line rival, Duke Henry the Fat of Mecklenburg.  The Dukes of Mecklenburg continued to regard themselves as the rightful heirs to the throne of Norway but they were unable to gain the kingdom from the Oldenburgs.

Modern states in Mecklenburg.

Around 1711, a treaty was signed between the Dukes of Mecklenburg and the Elector of Brandenburg through which the elector was recognized as the next heir of Mecklenburg after the male lines of the genealogical house of Mecklenburg. Thereby the electors, later kings of Prussia, regarded themselves as having become members of the House of Mecklenburg and started to use its titles, e.g. Duke of Mecklenburg, among their own titulary.  The legality of that treaty concession has been, and still is under discussion, because not all of the then agnates of the House participated in the deed, and at least one of them was then underage.  In the 17th and 18th centuries, the duchy was divided several times between agnates of the ducal house. Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Güstrow and Mecklenburg-Strelitz were typical partition principalities. Until the late 18th century, most parts had returned to the senior branch (Schwerin), after which the patrimony was divided in two states until the very end of monarchy in Germany:  These were elevated to grand duchies by recognition of the Congress of Vienna. In 1918, less than a year before the elimination of the monarchy, the main line of Strelitz became extinct and the then Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin stepped in as regent, but succession unclarities (there was a junior Strelitz branch living in Russia) were not solved until the small monarchies both were dissolved to republics.

House of Mecklenburg today.

House of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.

The House of Mecklenburg-Schwerin became extinct in the male line on 31 July 2001 with the death of Hereditary Grand Duke Frederick Francis of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the eldest son and heir of the last reigning Grand Duke, Frederick Francis IV.  The remaining members of the House of Mecklenburg-Schwerin are the daughters of Duke Christian Ludwig, the second son of Frederick Francis IV, the Duchesses Donata (born 1956) and Edwina (born 1960).

House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

With the extinction of Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz is now the only surviving branch of the Grand Ducal house in the male line. The current head of this house is Borwin, Duke of Mecklenburg. His grandfather was Count Georg of Carlow, the morganatic son of Duke George Alexander of Mecklenburg (1859–1909). Georg was adopted in 1928 by his uncle Duke Charles Michael of Mecklenburg, the head of the House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. He then assumed the title and style of ""His Serene Highness" The Duke of Mecklenburg", which was confirmed by the head of the Imperial House of Russia, Grand Duke Cyril Vladimirovich on 18 July 1929 and recognised on 23 December by Grand Duke Friedrich Franz IV of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He succeeded his uncle as head of the house on 6 December 1934 and was granted the style of "Highness" on 18 December 1950.  In addition to Duke Borwin, the current members of the House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz are his wife Duchess Alice (née Wagner; born 1959); their children Duchess Olga (born 1988), the Dukes Alexander (born 1991) and Michael (born 1994); and his sisters, the Duchesses Elisabeth Christine (born 1947), Marie Catherine (born 1949) and Irene (born 1952).

The House of Mecklenburg, also known as Nikloting, is a North German dynasty that ruled until 1918 in the Mecklenburg region, being among the longest-ruling families of Europe. Queen Juliana of the Netherlands (1909-2004), former Queen of the Netherlands (1948-1980), was an agnatic member of this house.


Early life.

Upfield was born in Gosport, Hampshire, England, on 1 September 1890. His father was a draper. In 1911, after he did poorly in examinations towards becoming a real estate agent, Upfield's father sent him to Australia.  With the outbreak of World War I, he joined the First Australian Imperial Force on 23 August 1914. He sailed from Brisbane on 24 September 1914 to Melbourne. At the time of sailing he had the rank of Driver and was with the 1st Light horse Brigade Train (5 Company ASC [Army Service Corps]). In Melbourne he was at a camp for several weeks before sailing to Egypt. He fought at Gallipoli and in France and married an Australian nurse, Ann Douglass, in Egypt in 1915. He was discharged in England on 15 October 1919. Before returning to Australia, Ann gave birth to their only child, James Arthur, born 8 February 1920.  For most of the next 20 years he travelled throughout the outback, working at a number of jobs and learning about Aboriginal cultures. A contributor of an article 'Coming Down with Cattle' to the first edition of "Walkabout" magazine, he later used the knowledge and material he had gathered in his books.

Career.

Upfield created the character of Detective Inspector Napoleon Bonaparte, based on a man known as "Tracker Leon", whom he said he had met in his travels. Leon was supposedly a half-caste employed as a tracker by the Queensland Police. He was also said to have read Shakespeare and a biography of Napoleon, and to have received a university education. However, there is no evidence that any such person ever existed. The novels featuring Bony, as the detective was also known, were far more successful than any other writings by Upfield.  Late in life Upfield became a member of the Australian Geological Society, involved in scientific expeditions. He led a major expedition in 1948 to northern and western parts of Australia, including the Wolfe Creek Crater, which was a setting for his novel "The Will of the Tribe" published in 1962.  After living at Bermagui, New South Wales, Upfield moved to Bowral. Upfield died at Bowral on 12 February 1964. His last work, "The Lake Frome Monster", published in 1966, was completed by J.L. Price and Dorothy Stange.  In 1957, Jessica Hawke published a biography of the author entitled "Follow My Dust!". It is generally held, however, that this was written by Upfield himself.

Works.

Upfield's novels were held in high regard by some fellow writers. In 1987, H.R.F. Keating included "The Sands of Windee" in his list of the 100 best crime and mystery books ever published. J.B. Priestley wrote of Upfield: "If you like detective stories that are something more than puzzles, that have solid characters and backgrounds, that avoid familiar patterns of crime and detection, then Mr Upfield is your man." Others have found Upfield's prose stilted. Much of the appeal of Upfield's stories lies in the depiction of outback Australian life in the 1930s through into the 1950s. His grandson, William Arthur Upfield holds his grandfather's copyright, and the trademark 'Bony', keeping the works in print.  The American mystery novelist Tony Hillerman praised Upfield's works. In his introduction to the posthumous 1984 reprint of Upfield's "A Royal Abduction", he described the seduction in his youth of Upfield's descriptions of both the harsh outback areas, and "the people who somehow survived upon them.... When my own Jim Chee of the Navaho Tribal Police unravels a mystery because he understands the ways of his people, when he reads the signs in the sandy bottom of a reservation arroyo, he is walking in the tracks Bony made 50 years ago."

Television series.

From 1972 to 1973, Fauna Productions (also responsible for "Skippy the Bush Kangaroo") produced a 26-episode television series. After a long search for a half-white, half-Aborigine actor, the producers chose English actor Jon Finch for the role of Detective Inspector Napoleon Bonaparte. When he suddenly became unavailable, Fauna's John McCallum flew to London in panic and was lucky enough to audition New Zealand actor James Laurenson on his last day there. Offered the lead role, Laurenson hurriedly flew to Australia, reading "Bony" books all the way over.  The series was called" Boney," partly to make the pronunciation of the name obvious, and partly because that had been Upfield's original intention – a publisher's misprint on the first novel had renamed the character. Most of the episodes were based directly on one of the novels, but there were some adaptations. Two original scripts were not directly based on any novel; five novels were not adapted for television, effectively "reserving" them in case a third series was produced. At the time, many of the books were reprinted with the spelling altered to "Boney" on the covers (although retaining the original in the text), and featuring a photo from the relevant episode.  "Bony "was also a 1990 telemovie and later a 1992 spin-off TV series (using the original "Bony" spelling). However, the series was criticised for casting Bony as a white man (played by Cameron Daddo), under the tutelage of "Uncle Albert", an elderly Aborigine played by Burnum Burnum.

Arthur William Upfield (1 September 1890 – 12 February 1964) was an English-Australian writer, best known for his works of detective fiction featuring Detective Inspector Napoleon "Bony" Bonaparte of the Queensland Police Force, a half-caste Aborigine. His books were the basis for a 1970s Australian television series entitled "Boney", as well as a 1990 telemovie and a 1992 spin-off TV series.


Name.

"AIESEC" was originally a French acronym for "Association internationale des étudiants en sciences économiques et commerciales" (English: International Association of Students in Economic and Commercial Sciences). The full name is no longer officially used, as members can now be graduate and undergraduate from any university background.

History.

Founding.

The idea behind AIESEC started in 1948, when representatives from schools across Europe exchanged information about various programs and schools that specialized in business and economics. Students were carrying out internships in other countries. Mostly on their own initiative but it came to a standstill with the onslaught of World War II.  In 1944, the neutral Scandinavian countries were still exchanging students. In Stockholm, Bertil Hedberg, an official at the Stockholm School of Economics, and students Jaroslav Zich (of Czechoslovakia), Jean Choplin (of France) and Stanislas Callens (of Belgium) founded "AIESEC". This was the predecessor of AIESEC, which was officially founded in 1948. At the time, the organization's stated mission was “to expand the understanding of a nation by expanding the understanding of the individuals, changing the world one person at a time.”  At the time of AIESEC's founding at the conclusion of the 1940s, Europe was in the midst of recovery from the war that dealt grave losses to its population. Factories and enterprises were in desperate need of executives, managers and leaders. The continent needed more than just business development, however; the war had severely damaged relations between European nations, and many members of the community felt steps needed to be taken to address this problem.  AIESEC was formed to address both of these concerns. Students from seven nations: Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Netherlands, Norway and Sweden came together in March 1949 for the first International Congress of AIESEC in Stockholm. The founders composed a constitution for the new organization and defined a purpose: "AIESEC is an independent, non-political, and international organization which has as its purpose to establish and promote the friendly relations between the members."  In the first year of AIESEC's existence, 89 students were exchanged among the member nations.

Global expansion.

The organization grew exponentially in the following years, with more than 1,000 exchanges took place in 1955 alone. In the following few years, AIESEC quickly became global by establishing its first North American member, the United States, in 1957, and its first South American and African members, Colombia, Venezuela, and South Africa in 1958.  For the first years of its existence, AIESEC had no central governing body, but was instead managed jointly by a Presiding Country Committee composed of the National Committee Presidents of each member nation. As the organization grew, a central governing body was created and led by democratically elected Secretary General. Morris Wolff, from the United States, was chosen as the first Secretary General in 1960, and established the first permanent international office for AIESEC in Geneva, Switzerland. Over the following decade, AIESEC expanded to eastern Asia, Australia, and deeper within Europe, Africa, North America, and South America, having a presence in 43 countries by 1969.

Today.

As of 2019, AIESEC has made itself present in 120 countries and is considered a success in terms of globalism implementation. AIESEC annually offers over 40,000 leadership positions and delivers over 500 power conferences to its select leadership over 100,000 students. It is present in over 2,400 universities in its 120 member countries and its international socialist program that enables over 27,500 students and recent graduates the opportunity to work for the cause in another country. AIESEC receives support from over 8,000 third party organizations.

Programmes.

Campus involvement.

AIESEC provides a platform for young people in different universities and colleges, by going on an international internship and/or by joining various local chapters. These young individuals can develop their leadership potential by working and leading international teams. Associate membership opportunities allow young people to work with various NGO partners of AIESEC, and represent their country as a part of campus ambassador program. The organizations products are Global Talent, Global Entrepreneur, and Global Volunteer.  Each year members have an opportunity to live and work in a foreign country. Participants can choose to work in areas of management, technology, education, or development; helping to build one's corporate skills.

Conferences.

AIESEC hosts over 500 conferences every year that range in length and demographic scope. The purpose of conferences are to bring the international community of AIESEC members together to enhance their professional skills, provide networking opportunities, and work on organizational strategy. Topics of interest the organization focuses on include: leadership, sustainable development, entrepreneurship, innovation, corporate social responsibility, and youth impact on modern society.

Global Volunteer.

" AIESEC is a global network of people that simply believe that youth leadership is not an option, but our responsibility."The "Global Volunteer" portfolio in AIESEC is an international volunteer program which allows youth aged 18–29 to contribute to the United Nations' sustainable development goals of 2030. The Global Volunteering programs are short-term in nature and provide youth with opportunities to travel abroad and work for Non-profit organizations with a special focus of second and third world countries. Projects include teaching, promoting HIV/AIDS awareness, working in human rights, environmental sustainability, leadership development and more. Since AIESEC is a non-profit organization, the exchange participants are to bear all expenses associated with travel including airfare, medical insurance, and transportation. Some of AIESEC's projects will provide food and accommodation. AIESEC's partnership with the United Nations seeks to tap the undiscovered potential of the youth globally and allow them to create a long-lasting impact to boost the international community.

Global Entrepreneur.

"Global Entrepreneur" is a global internship opportunity at a startup for young people who seek to develop themselves and their career. They are usually short term in nature and involve working in startup projects. Global youth unemployment has become one of the top challenges faced by the youth today. AIESEC contributes to this issue through its Global Entrepreneur program, where a young person works abroad with entrepreneurs in a startup, accelerator or incubator to advance their goals and grow; thus developing an entrepreneurial stint through a global opportunity allowing yourself to expand your network and develop on a personal and professional level.

YouthSpeak.

YouthSpeak Initiative is a youth movement powered by AIESEC. AIESEC believes that the society needs the young people of the world to take action on the UN goals for 2030, and AIESEC serves as a platform for youth empowerment.

Awards and recognition.

In July 2015 AIESEC was recognized for the 9th time on the WorldBlu list of "Most Freedom Centred Workplaces." An organization makes it onto the WorldBlu List through a rigorous Freedom at WorkTM assessment process completed by employees. The assessment evaluates the overall design of an organization along a fear-based to freedom-centred continuum in three core areas: leadership, individual performance and systems and processes.

Members.

As of 2015, AIESEC is found in 127 countries and territories worldwide, including:

Alumni.

AIESEC's alumni include a wide range of individuals, professionals, entrepreneurs, business people, politicians and a Nobel Prize winner. This is a non exhaustive list of notable AIESEC alumni:

AIESEC is an international youth-run, non-governmental and not-for-profit organization that provides young people with leadership development, cross-cultural internships, and global volunteer exchange experiences. The organization focuses on empowering young people to make a Progressive social impact. The AIESEC network includes approximately 44,280 members in 127 countries.


History and details.

The German school ship "Niobe", a three-masted barque, capsized on 26 July 1932 in the Baltic Sea near Fehmarn due to a sudden squall, killing 69. The loss prompted the German Navy to order a new training vessel built. The contract went to the shipyard of Blohm & Voss in Hamburg, where construction began on 2 December 1932. She was completed in only 100 days. On 3 May 1933 the ship was launched and named "Gorch Fock" in honor of German writer Johann Kinau who wrote under the pseudonym "Gorch Fock". Kinau had died in the 1916 Battle of Jutland aboard the cruiser.  Commissioned by the German Navy on 26 June 1933, "Gorch Fock" is a three-masted barque. She has square sails on the fore and main masts, and is gaff rigged on the mizzen. The steel hull has a sparred length of, a width of and a draught of. She has a displacement at full load of 1510 tons. Her main mast stands high above deck and she carries 23 sails totalling. She is equipped with an auxiliary engine of.  The training ship was designed to be robust and safe against capsizing. More than 300 tons of steel ballast in the keel give her a righting moment large enough to bring her back in the upright position even when she heels over to nearly a 90°.  "Gorch Fock" served as a training vessel for the German Reichsmarine prior to World War II. During the war, she was a stationary office ship in Stralsund, until she was officially reactivated on 19 April 1944. On 1 May 1945, the crew scuttled her in shallow waters off Rügen in an attempt to avoid her capture by the Soviets, who already had fired at her for 45 minutes with tanks.  The Soviets ordered Stralsund-based company "B. Staude Schiffsbergung" to raise and salvage her, which after some difficulties was done in 1947 at a cost of 800,000 Reichsmark (equivalent to million euros). She was under restoration between 1948 and 1950. She was then named "Tovarishch" (Russian for "Comrade") in 1951 and put into service as a training vessel. Her new home port was Odessa. She participated in many Tall Ships' Races and cruised far and wide on the seven seas. She made a voyage around the world in 1957 and won the Operation Sail race twice, in 1974 and 1976.  After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, "Tovarishch" sailed under the Ukrainian flag (home port Kherson) until 1993, when she needed repairs and was deactivated for lack of funds. In 1995, she sailed from Kherson to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where private sponsors wanted to have her repaired. This failed because of the high costs, and in 1999, the ship was transported to Wilhelmshaven, where she stayed in dock for four years until finally transferred to Stralsund in 2003. On 29 November 2003 the ship was re-christened "Gorch Fock".  As of 2011 the ship is in poor but stable condition. There is about six million dollars worth of restoration work required to bring this ship back to sailing condition. The museum had a dismal tourist season resulting in a fifty thousand dollar loss in revenue from previous years. This has forced a layoff of five workers.

Sister ships.

The design of "Gorch Fock" proved highly successful. She was the first of a series of five sister ships built by Blohm & Voss, and a number of South American school ships are also based on the same design. Of the three original sister ships, only is an exact replica of "Gorch Fock". "Horst Wessel" and are longer, and all three have slightly more powerful auxiliary engines.

USCGC "Eagle" (ex "Horst Wessel").

"Horst Wessel" was launched in 1936—the growing Reichsmarine needed more school ships. Her home port was Kiel. At the end of World War II, she became one of several war reparations and was assigned to the United States After some repairs in Wilhelmshaven and Bremerhaven, she was sailed by her German crew including the Captain together with American sailors to her new home port of New London, Connecticut. Since then, she has sailed under the name for the United States Coast Guard.

"Sagres" (ex "Albert Leo Schlageter").

"Albert Leo Schlageter" was launched on 30 October 1937. She was confiscated by the United States after World War II and then sold to Brazil, where she sailed as a school ship under the name "Guanabara". In 1961, the Portuguese Navy bought her to replace the previous school ship "Sagres" (which was later transferred to Hamburg, where she is a museum ship under her original name "Rickmer Rickmers"). The Portuguese named her also. She still sails as of 2015, having completed a circumnavigation on 24 December 2010.

"Mircea".

was built by Blohm & Voss for the Romanian Navy. She was launched in 1938 and has always sailed under the Romanian flag (except for a short period after World War II, when she was confiscated by the Soviet Union). She is the only one of the sister ships that is truly identical to "Gorch Fock". She was overhauled at the Blohm & Voss shipyards in Hamburg in 1966, and she still sails.

"Herbert Norkus".

Named after the Hitler Youth martyr Herbert Norkus, another ship of the "Gorch Fock" design—with the same dimensions as "Horst Wessel"—was begun at the Blohm & Voss shipyard. However, the unfinished ship had to be launched prematurely on 7 November 1939 because the slipway had to be cleared to build submarines. The hull stayed in the harbor of Hamburg throughout World War II. It was damaged in a bomb raid in 1945, and instead of being sold to Brazil as had been considered, ended up being filled with gas grenades and sunk in the Skagerrak in 1947.  The yards, which had been prepared, but not yet mounted, and the tackle, which had not yet been rigged, were later used for "Gorch Fock" built in 1958.

"Gorch Fock".

As Germany had lost all of its training vessels as war reparations after World War II, the West German Bundesmarine decided in 1957 to have a new training ship built following the plans for "Gorch Fock". The new ship was a modernized rebuild of "Horst Wessel". Coincidentally, her design had been influenced by another shipwreck: whereas the 1933 "Gorch Fock" was built in response to the "Niobe" disaster, the plans of "SSS Gorch Fock" were altered somewhat after the sinking of in 1957.  The modern-day was launched on 23 August 1958 and commissioned on 17 December of that year.

Latin American ships.

A number of similar ships have been built by the Astilleros Celaya S.A. shipyard in Bilbao for Latin American Navies, possibly following the Blohm & Voss design. The hulls and rigging of these ships are very similar, the main differences are in the superstructure and they also have larger tanks for both diesel and water, and they are also longer. These ships are (1967, Colombia), (1976, Ecuador), (1979, Venezuela), and (1982, Mexico).

Gorch Fock I, (ex Tovarishch, ex Gorch Fock) is a German three-mast barque, the first of a series built as school ships for the German Reichsmarine in 1933.


Etymology.

The word "bong" is an adaptation of the Thai word "bong" or "baung" (, ), which refers to a cylindrical wooden tube, pipe, or container cut from bamboo, and which also refers to the bong used for smoking.

History.

Excavations of a kurgan in Russia in 2013 revealed that Scythian tribal chiefs used gold bongs 2400 years ago to smoke cannabis and opium. The kurgan was discovered when construction workers were clearing land for the construction of a power line. The use of a water pipe for smoking was introduced in China during the late Ming Dynasty (16th century), along with tobacco, through Persia and the Silk Road. By the Qing Dynasty, it became the most popular method to smoke tobacco, but became less popular since the Republic era. While typically employed by commoners, the water pipe is known to have been preferred by Empress Dowager Cixi over snuff bottles or other methods of intake. According to the Imperial Household Department, she was buried with at least three water pipes; some of her collections can be seen in the Palace Museum.  The water pipe employed since the Qing dynasty can be divided into two types: the homemade bamboo bong commonly made and used by country people, and a more elegant metal version employed by Chinese merchants, urbanites, and nobility. Metal utensils are typically made out of bronze or brass, the nobility version of silver and decorated with jewels. Typically, the metal version is made out of the following components: During a smoking session, the user may keep all equipment inside the rack and just hold the entire assembly (rack, pipe, and container) in one hand, lighting the bowl with a slow-burning paper wick (纸煤) lit over a coal stove. Unlike in North America and the Southern Hemisphere, the water pipe is typically employed by older generations.

Use.

The water can trap some heavier particles and water-soluble molecules, preventing them from entering the smoker's airways. The mechanics of a bong are compared to those of a laboratory gas washing bottle. The user puts their mouth at the top and places the cannabis in the tube, as shown in the picture.  Bongs are often either glass or plastic that use a bowl, stem, and water to produce smoke. Most glass bongs are made from heat resistant borosilicate glass, allowing the bong to withstand repeated use and heat exposure without breaking. After the bowl has been packed and water has been inserted into the bong, the substance is lit and the smoke is drawn through water to produce a smoother smoke than other methods of smoking do. To smoke a bong, the smoker must inhale in the bong so bubbles containing smoke begin to come from the stem. Once the bong has a fair amount of smoke built up, either the carb is uncovered or the stem is separated from the bong, allowing the remaining smoke to be inhaled.  However, a 2000 NORML-MAPS cannabis study found that "water pipes filter out more psychoactive THC than they do other tars, thereby requiring users to smoke more to reach their desired effect". In the study, smoke from cannabis supplied by the NIDA was drawn through a number of smoking devices and analyzed. This study looked at the tar to cannabinoid ratio in the gas in output by various bongs, as well as unfiltered and filtered joints, and vaporizers. The results showed that only vaporizers produced a better tar to cannabinoid ratio than unfiltered joints, but that within the cannabinoids produced, even vaporizers warped the ratio of THC (the psychoactive component of the smoke) to CBN (capable of producing medical benefits but is not psychoactive) in favor of CBN. This showed an unfiltered joint had the best tar to THC ratio of all, and bongs were actually seriously detrimental in this respect.  MAPS also reviewed a study that examined the effects and composition of water-filtered and non-filtered cannabis and tobacco smoke. It found that when alveolar macrophages were exposed to unfiltered smoke, their ability to fight bacteria was reduced, unlike exposure to water-filtered smoke. It also found substantial epidemiological evidence of a lower incidence of carcinoma among tobacco smokers who used water-pipes, as opposed to cigarettes, cigars, and regular pipes. "It appears that water filtration can be effective in removing components from cannabis smoke that are known toxicants... The effectiveness of toxicant removal is related to the smoke's water contact area."  Specially designed water pipes, incorporating particulate filters and gas-dispersion frits, would likely be most effective in this regard; the gas-dispersion frit serves to break up the smoke into very fine bubbles, thereby increasing its water-contact area." These frits are commonly referred to as diffuser for the way that they diffuse (or disperse) the smoke as it exits the downstem, and usually consist of small holes or slats at the end of the downstem. This study suggests that a bong's smoke is less harmful than unfiltered smoke.

World's Biggest Bong.

The world's largest bong was created by Jerome Baker Designs (company) in 2018 over the 4/20 weekend. The bong, dubbed "Bongzilla," was so large it had to be created in multiple pieces, and was assembled at the Cannabition museum in downtown Las Vegas Arts District. The bong is 24-feet high and weighs 800 pounds.  To take a hit out of “Bongzilla”, “someone will have to stand at the top of a staircase as a partner below lights the weed with a blowtorch and sends smoke curling through the massive pipe,” reported American weekly magazine Newsweek Harris called the bong “a giant metaphor.”

Legal issues.

In the United States, under the Federal Drug Paraphernalia Statute, which is part of the Controlled Substances Act, it is illegal to sell, transport through the mail, transport across state lines, import, or export drug paraphernalia.  In countries where marijuana and hashish are illegal, some retailers specify that bongs are intended for use with tobacco in an attempt to circumvent laws against selling drug paraphernalia. While technically 'bong' does not mean a device used for smoking mainly cannabis, drug-related connotations have been formed with the word itself (partly due to punning with Sanskrit "bhangah" "hemp"). Thus for fear of the law many head shops will not serve customers who use the word "bong" or "bongs", or any other word typically associated with illegal drug use.  Some brand name bong manufacturers (notably RooR) have sought to curb the counterfeit market for their products by suing stores accused of selling fake merchandise.

A bong (also known as a water pipe, billy, bing, or moof) is a filtration device generally used for smoking cannabis, tobacco, or other herbal substances. In the bong shown in the photo, the gas flows from the lower port on the left to the upper port on the right.


Life.

Born in Copenhagen, Rued Langgaard was the only son of composer and Royal Chamber musician Siegfried Langgaard (1852–1914) and Emma Langgaard (née Foss, 1861–1926), both of whom were pianists. At the age of five Rued began taking piano lessons with his mother, and later with his father and a private teacher. His talent emerged quickly, and at seven he was able to play Schumann's "Davidsbündlertänze" and Chopin's mazurkas. By then he had begun to compose short pieces for the piano and play the organ. At 10 he began to study the organ under Gustav Helsted, organist at the Jesuskirken in Valby, and the violin under Chr. Petersen, formerly of the Royal Orchestra.  At the age of 11 he made his first public appearance as an organist and improviser on the organ at a concert at the Frederikskirken (Marmorkirken) in Copenhagen. When he was 12, he started to study music theory under C. F. E. Horneman and, later, Vilhelm Rosenberg.  Langgaard's first compositions, 2 piano pieces and 2 songs, were published when he was 13, and around that time he was taught counterpoint by the celebrated composer Carl Nielsen for about a month. A year later, his choral work "Musae triumphantes" was performed at a concert in Copenhagen, marking his public debut as a composer. During his teen years he continued composing and travelled with his parents around Christmas and New Year's Eve, meeting conductors Arthur Nikisch and Max Fiedler.  At 18, Langgaard served as assistant organist at the Frederikskirken (Marmorkirken) in Copenhagen. The following year (1913) his "Symphony No. 1 "Mountain Pastorals"" received its first performance at a concert in Berlin with the Berlin Philharmonic under the baton of Max Fiedler.  His father died in 1914, and from 1915 to 1917 he was assistant organist at the Garnisons Kirke in Copenhagen. From 1917 onward he applied without success for the post of organist at a large number of churches in Copenhagen. In 1922 a young woman named Valborg Constance Olivia Tetens (she was known as Constance) moved in with Rued Langgaard and his mother in Copenhagen. A year after his mother died in 1926, Langgaard married Constance Tetens.  Although Langgaard was given a state grant from the age of 30, his works and job applications were almost continually rejected by the establishment. Only at the age of 46 did he manage to obtain a permanent job, as the organist at the cathedral in Ribe, the oldest town in Denmark, situated in southwest Jutland. Just shy of his 59th birthday, Rued Langgaard died in Ribe, still unrecognized as a composer.

Music.

Rued Langgaard composed in a late Romantic style, emphatically dramatic and endowed with colossal mood swings. Unquestionably, he was influenced by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss and, like Strauss, he was a master of orchestration. He was a prolific composer for the large orchestra, writing 16 symphonies as well as other orchestral works.  "Music of the Spheres" is his best-known and most radical work. It is a symphonic work of great complexity, calling for a large orchestra including organ and a piano on which the strings are played directly rather than via the keys, choir, and a supporting (distant) orchestra including a soprano voice. It was composed during World War I, but only performed twice (in Germany in 1921–1922) during Langgaard's lifetime and lay dormant for almost 50 years before being rediscovered. When it was rediscovered in the late 1960s, it was considered remarkably modern and reflective of the pathfinding style in which Langgaard composed. In 2010 "Music of the Spheres" received its British premiere at The Proms, conducted by Thomas Dausgaard.  His unorthodox style and sense of drama extended to the titles of his compositions. His fourth and sixth symphonies are known as the "Leaf Fall" and "Heaven Storming". His symphonies Nos. 13 and 16 are named "Faithlessness" and "Deluge of Sun", respectively. Examples of descriptive names for individual movements are "Wireless Caruso and Compulsive Energy" and "Daddies rushing off to the Office" (in symphony No. 14, "The Morning").  His total production of over 400 works included more than 150 songs, works for piano, organ, and an opera entitled "Antikrist" ("The Antichrist").

Selected works.

BVN refers to the numbering of works in: Bendt Viinholt Nielsen: Rued Langgaards Kompositioner (Rued Langgaard's Compositions. An Annotated Catalogue of Works. With an English Introduction). Odense University Press, 1991.

Recordings.

In recent years, many of his works have been recorded, including recordings by Danacord of his complete symphonies on seven CDs. This cycle, with the Artur Rubinstein Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Ilya Stupel, was followed by a second cycle recorded by Dacapo with the Danish National Symphony Orchestra under the baton of Thomas Dausgaard. Both cycles have had their share of critical recognition.  Other works of Langgaard currently available on CD include "Music of the Spheres", "Messis" (Organ drama in three evenings), "Antichrist" (Church opera in six scenes), "Duo Lys Pa Himlen", piano concertos, "The End of Time", and various works for solo instruments.

Rued Langgaard (; born Rud Immanuel Langgaard; 28 July 1893 – 10 July 1952) was a late-Romantic Danish composer and organist. His then-unconventional music was at odds with that of his Danish contemporaries but was recognized 16 years after his death.


Life.

Aristippus, the son of Aritades, was born in Cyrene, Ancient Libya, c. 435 BCE. He came to Greece to be present at the Olympic games, where he asked Ischomachus about Socrates, and by his description was filled with so ardent a desire to see Socrates, that he went to Athens for the purpose, and remained with him almost up to the time of his execution in 399. Diodorus dates him to 366, which agrees very well with the facts known about him, and with the statement that Lais, the courtesan with whom he was intimate, was born in 421.  Though a disciple of Socrates, Aristippus wandered very far both in principle and practice from the teaching and example of his great master. He lived luxuriously, was happy to seek sensual gratification and the company of the notorious Lais. He also took money for his teaching, the first of Socrates' disciples to do so and even told Socrates that he resided in a foreign land in order to escape the trouble of involving himself in the politics of his native city. He passed part of his life at the court of Dionysius I of Syracuse or Dionysius the Younger, and is also said to have been taken prisoner by Artaphernes, the satrap who drove the Spartans from Rhodes in 396. He appears, however, at last to have returned to Cyrene, and there he spent his old age.  In Book VI of "De architectura", Vitruvius describes Aristippus: It is related of the Socratic philosopher Aristippus that, being shipwrecked and cast ashore on the coast of the Rhodians, he observed geometrical figures drawn thereon, and cried out to his companions: "Let us be of good cheer, for I see the traces of man." With that he made for the city of Rhodes, and went straight to the gymnasium. There he fell to discussing philosophical subjects, and presents were bestowed upon him, so that he could not only fit himself out, but could also provide those who accompanied him with clothing and all other necessaries of life. When his companions wished to return to their country, and asked him what message he wished them to carry home, he bade them say this: that children ought to be provided with property and resources of a kind that could swim with them even out of a shipwreck.

Philosophy.

The anecdotes which are told of Aristippus (there are many in Diogenes Laërtius) by no means give us the notion of a person who was the mere slave of his passions, but rather of one who took a pride in extracting enjoyment from all circumstances of every kind, and in controlling adversity and prosperity alike. They illustrate and confirm the two statements of Horace, that to observe the precepts of Aristippus is "to endeavour to adapt circumstances to myself, not myself to circumstances" and that, "every complexion of life, every station and circumstance sat gracefully upon him." Thus when reproached for his love of bodily indulgences, he answered, that "it is not abstinence from pleasures that is best, but mastery over them without ever being worsted". When Dionysius, provoked at some of his remarks, ordered him to take the lowest place at table, he said, "You wish to dignify the seat". His statement "wise people, even though all laws were abolished, would still lead the same life" is a quote sometimes, and erroneously, attributed to the comic poet Aristophanes. Whether Aristippus was a prisoner to a satrap, grossly insulted and even spit upon by a tyrant, enjoying the pleasures of a banquet, or reviled for faithlessness to Socrates by his fellow-pupils, he maintained the same calm temper. He seemed insulting to Xenophon and Plato, as seen from the "Memorabilia", where he maintains a discussion against Socrates in defense of voluptuous enjoyment, and from the "Phaedo", where his absence at the death of Socrates, though he was only at Aegina, 200 stadia from Athens, is doubtless mentioned as a reproach. Aristotle, too, calls him a sophist, and notices a story of Plato's speaking to him, with rather undue vehemence, and of his replying with calmness.  Aristippus imparted his doctrine to his daughter Arete who, in turn, imparted it to her son, Aristippus the Younger, who is said to have reduced it to a system. Diogenes Laërtius, on the authority of Sotion and Panaetius, gives a long list of books whose authorship is ascribed to Aristippus, though he also states that according to Sosicrates of Rhodes, Aristippus never wrote anything. Some letters attributed to him are forgeries. Although his dubious reputation has survived into modern times, his philosophy of ethical hedonism, as its name implies, was not entirely amoral. He admonished his students to never harm others, and cautioned that the pursuit of pleasure ought to be moderated by moral self-restraint.

"On Ancient Luxury".

One work attributed to "Aristippus" in ancient times was a scandalous work entitled "On Ancient Luxury" (or "On the Luxury of the Ancients"; ). This work, judging by the quotations preserved by Diogenes Laërtius, was filled with spicy anecdotes about philosophers and their supposed taste for courtesans or boys. Thus the author supports his claims for Plato's various erotic relationships through his quotation of epigrams attributed to the philosopher, and makes an extreme allegation that Periander committed incest with his own mother. That this work cannot have been written by Aristippus of Cyrene has long been realised, not least because the author mentions Theophrastus who lived a generation after Aristippus. The name may have been adopted by the writer to suggest a connection with the hedonistic philosopher.

Aristippus of Cyrene (; ; c. 435 – c. 356 BCE) was the founder of the Cyrenaic school of Philosophy. He was a pupil of Socrates, but adopted a very different philosophical outlook, teaching that the goal of life was to seek pleasure by circumstances to oneself and by maintaining proper control over both adversity and prosperity. His outlook came to be called "ethical hedonism." Among his pupils was his daughter Arete.


History.

The earliest example of direct intervention by government in human welfare dates back to Umar ibn al-Khattāb's rule as the second caliph of Islam in the 6th century. He used "zakat" collections and also other governmental resources to establish pensions, income support, child benefits, and various stipends for people of the non-Muslim community.  In the West, proponents of scientific social planning such as the sociologist Auguste Comte, and social researchers, such as Charles Booth, contributed to the emergence of social policy in the first industrialised countries following the Industrial Revolution. Surveys of poverty exposing the brutal conditions in the urban slum conurbations of Victorian Britain supplied the pressure leading to changes such as the decline and abolition of the poor law system and Liberal welfare reforms. Other significant examples in the development of social policy are the Bismarckian welfare state in 19th century Germany, social security policies in the United States introduced under the rubric of the New Deal between 1933 and 1935, and the National Health Service Act 1946 in Britain.  Social policy in the 21st century is complex and in each state it is subject to local and national governments, as well as supranational political influence. For example, membership of the European Union is conditional on member states' adherence to the Social Chapter of European Union law

Types.

Social policy aims to improve human welfare and to meet human needs for education, health, housing and economic security. Important areas of social policy are wellbeing and welfare, poverty reduction, social security, justice, unemployment insurance, living conditions, animal rights, pensions, health care, social housing, family policy, social care, child protection, social exclusion, education policy, crime and criminal justice, urban development, and labor issues.

United States social policy.

The United States was a pioneer in generous social spending (relative to comparable countries), as it provided substantial social spending for Civil War veterans and their families. However, the United States would go on to lag behind other advanced industrial democracies in social spending.  Religious, racial, ideological, scientific and philosophical movements and ideas have historically influenced American social policy, for example, John Calvin and his idea of pre-destination and the Protestant Values of hard work and individualism. Moreover, Social Darwinism helped mold America's ideas of capitalism and the "survival of the fittest" mentality. The Catholic Church's social teaching has also been considerably influential to the development of social policy.  United States politicians who have favored increasing government observance of social policy often do not frame their proposals around typical notions of welfare or benefits; instead, in cases like "Medicare" and "Medicaid", President Lyndon Johnson presented a package called the Great Society that framed a larger vision around poverty and quality of life. Insurance has been a growing policy topic, and a recent example of health care law as social policy is the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act formed by the 111th U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama, a Democrat, on March 23, 2010.  Moreover, former president Franklin D. Roosevelt's ground breaking New Deal is a paragon example of Social Policy that focused predominantly on a program of providing work and stimulating the economy through public spending on projects, rather than on cash payment. The programs were in response to the Great Depression affecting the United States in the 1930s.  An American education policy proposal from a Republican president is the No Child Left Behind Act. This Act took effect on January 8, 2002, and was put in place to raise standards in education so different individuals can have better educational outcomes. The No Child Left Behind Act requires every state to assess students on basic skills to receive federal funding. However, this Act did not create a national standard since each state develops their own set of standards and assessments. Critics of most all social policies point toward a depiction of a welfare state on the make of a Hobbesian Leviathan.

Social policy is policy usually within a governmental or political setting, such as the welfare state and study of social services.


Jewels.

The St. Wenceslas Crown is made of 21 to 22 carat (88 to 92%) gold and decorated with precious stones and pearls. It contains a total of 19 sapphires, 44 spinels, 1 ruby, 30 emeralds and 20 pearls.

Location.

Unlike many other European royal treasures, the St. Wenceslas Crown is not normally displayed to the public, and only a replica is shown. Along with the other Bohemian crown jewels, it is kept in a chamber within St. Vitus Cathedral accessible by a door in the St. Wenceslas Chapel. The exact location of the chamber is not known to the general public. The entrance to the jewels is locked by seven locks whose keys are held by the President of the Czech Republic, the Chair of the Chamber of Deputies of the Parliament, the Chair of the Senate of the Parliament, the Prime Minister, the Mayor of Prague, the Archbishop of Prague, and the Dean of the Metropolitan Chapter of St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague. The jewels are only taken from the chamber and displayed for periods of several days on notable occasions approximately once every five years. The crown was exhibited in May 2016 to mark the 700th anniversary of the birth of Charles IV, and in May 2013, celebrating the inauguration of a new Czech president.

Legend.

An old Czech legend says that any usurper who places the crown on his head is doomed to die within a year, as the Crown is the personal property of St. Wenceslas and may only be worn by a rightful Bohemian king during his coronation. During World War II, Reinhard Heydrich, the Deputy Protector of Bohemia and Moravia, is said to have secretly "crowned" himself while inspecting St. Vitus' Cathedral, and was assassinated less than a year later by the Czech resistance. Although there is no evidence proving that Heydrich did so, the legend is widely believed.

The Crown of Saint Wenceslas is a crown forming part of the Bohemian Crown Jewels, made in 1347. The eleventh king of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV, from the House of Luxembourg, had it made for his coronation, dedicating it to the first patron saint of the country St. Wenceslas and bequeathed it as a state crown for the coronation of (future) Bohemian kings. On the orders of Charles IV the new royal crown was deposited in St. Vitus Cathedral, however, it was later transferred to Karlštejn Castle. It was used for the last time for the coronation of Ferdinand V in 1836.


History.

Five law students from Austria, Hungary, Poland and West Germany founded ELSA on 4 May 1981.

Organization.

ELSA is organized into local member groups active at university level (Local Group), national member groups active on a national level (National Group), and ELSA International active on an international level.  Membership of ELSA for individual law students is possible through the Local Groups (for instance ELSA Leiden). The Local Groups are member of a National Group (for instance ELSA the Netherlands). The National Groups are part of the international ELSA network, which is managed by ELSA International with headquarters in Brussels, Belgium. ELSA International consists of the International Board, the ELSA International Team, and the Auditors of ELSA.  The International Board is the supreme executive body of the association. Its members are elected at an International Council Meeting (ICM) (which consists of all the National Groups) for a one-year period. The International Board's responsibilities include the overall co-ordination of the organisation as a whole including the support of member groups both locally and nationally. The International Board also co-ordinates and develops ELSA's collaboration with various international organisations and institutions, governments, law firms, and companies across Europe.

Institutional relations.

ELSA has gained consultative status with several United Nations bodies. In 1994, ELSA was granted Consultative Status in Category C in UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), and in 1997 ELSA obtained Special Consultative Status with ECOSOC (United Nations Economic and Social Council). In addition UNCITRAL (United Nations Commission on International Trade Law) is inviting ELSA delegations to participate in their sessions.  ELSA was part of the Diplomatic Conference of 1998 in Rome where the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted to establish the International Criminal Court. ELSA participated with a delegation as an NGO represented by an observer.  In 2000, ELSA was granted Participatory Status with the Council of Europe. This cooperation was further widened with the signing of a Human Rights Partnership between Council of Europe and ELSA in 2008.  Furthermore, ELSA has a co-operation agreement with UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). In October 2005, ELSA obtained Observer Status with WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization).  Since 2002, ELSA organizes the John H. Jackson Moot Court Competition (formerly known as ELSA Moot Court Competition) with the support of the WTO. The final round is held at the WTO headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.

ELSA Network.

ELSA has members and observers in Albania, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malta, Moldova, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine and the United Kingdom.  Furthermore, ELSA co-operates with other student organisations across the world, for instance the Asian Law Students' Association (ALSA) in Asia.

The European Law Students' Association (ELSA) is an international, independent, non-political, non-profit, non-governmental organisation run by and for law students. ELSA-activities comprise a large variety of academic and professional events that are organised to fulfill the stated vision of ELSA.


Etymology.

The forms "Sventevith" and "Zvantewith" show that the name derives from the word "svętъ", meaning "sacred". The second stem is sometimes reconstructed as "vit" = "lord, ruler, winner".  The name recorded in chronicles of contemporary Christian monks is Svantevit, which, if we assume it was properly transcribed, could be an adjective meaning approx. "Dawning One" ("svantev", "svitanje" = "dawning, raising of the Sun in the morning" + "it", adjective suffix), implying either a connection with the "Morning Star" or with the Sun itself.

Alternative names.

Beyond the names above referenced, Svetovid can also be known as Svitovyd (Ukrainian), Svyatovit (alternative name in Ukrainian), Svyentovit (alternative name in Ukrainian), Svetovid (Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian and Bosnian, and alternative name in Bulgarian), Suvid (alternative name in Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian), Svantevit (Wendish, alternative name in Ukrainian and possibly the original proto-Slavic name), Svantevid (alternative name in Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian), Svantovit (Czech and Slovak), Svantovít (Czech), Svantovid (alternative name in Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian), Swantovít, Sventovit, Zvantevith (Latin and alternative name in Serbian and Croatian), Świętowit (Polish), Sutvid, Svevid, and Vid.

Worship.

One of the inhabitants of the Rügen island in the Baltic Sea were the Slavic tribe of the Rujani, whose name was cognate of the island's. According to various chronicles (i.e. Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus and Chronica Slavorum by Helmold), the temple at Jaromarsburg contained a giant wooden statue of Svantevit depicting him with four heads (or one head with four faces) and a horn of abundance. Each year the horn was filled with fresh mead.  The temple was also the seat of an oracle in which the chief priest predicted the future of his tribe by observing the behaviour of a white horse identified with Svantevit and casting dice (horse oracles have a long history in this region, being already attested in the writings of Tacitus). The temple also contained the treasury of the tribe and was defended by a group of 300 mounted warriors which formed the core of the tribal armed forces.

Origins.

David Leeming identifies the four heads as Rujevit, representing autumn and east, Porevit, representing summer and south, Iarovit, representing spring and west, and Bialobog, representing winter and north.  Some interpretations claim that Svetovit was another name for Radegast, while another states that he was a fake god, a Wendish construction based on the name St. Vitus. However, the common practice of the Christian Church was to replace existing pagan deities and places of worship with analogous persons and rituals of Christian content, so it seems more likely that Saint Vitus was created to replace the original Svanto-Vit. According to a common interpretation, Svantevit was a Rugian counterpart of the pan-Slavic Perun.  In Croatia, on the island of Brač, the highest peak is called Vid's Mountain. In the Dinaric Alps there is a peak called "Suvid" and a Church of St. Vid. Among the Serbs, the cult of Svetovid is partially preserved through the Feast of St. Vitus, "Vidovdan", one of the most important annual events in Serbian Orthodox Christian tradition.

In popular culture.

The science fiction story "Delenda Est" by Poul Anderson depicts an alternate history world where Carthage defeated Rome, Christianity never arose and in the 20th century, Svantevit is still a main deity of a major European power called Littorn (that is, Lithuania). A devotee of this god, in the story, is called Boleslav Arkonsky – a name evidently derived from the above-mentioned temple at Arkona.  An installation on the 2019 LUMA Projection Arts Festival was based on Svetovid.

Svetovid, Svantovit or Sventovit is a Slavic deity of war, fertility and abundance primarily venerated on the island of Rügen into the 12th century. He is often considered a local Rugian variant of the pan-Slavic god Perun.


Types.

Anthropologists Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson identified two kinds of politeness, deriving from Erving Goffman's concept of face:  Some cultures seem to prefer one of these kinds of politeness over the other. In this way politeness is culturally bound.

History.

During the Enlightenment era, a self-conscious process of the imposition of polite norms and behaviours became a symbol of being a genteel member of the upper class. Upwardly mobile middle class bourgeoisie increasingly tried to identify themselves with the elite through their adopted artistic preferences and their standards of behaviour. They became preoccupied with precise rules of etiquette, such as when to show emotion, the art of elegant dress and graceful conversation and how to act courteously, especially with women. Influential in this new discourse was a series of essays on the nature of politeness in a commercial society, penned by the philosopher Lord Shaftesbury in the early 18th century. Shaftesbury defined politeness as the art of being pleasing in company: Periodicals, such as "The Spectator", founded as a daily publication by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele in 1711, gave regular advice to its readers on how to be a polite gentleman. Its stated goal was "to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality...to bring philosophy out of the closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and coffeehouses" It provided its readers with educated, topical talking points, and advice in how to carry on conversations and social interactions in a polite manner.  The art of polite conversation and debate was particularly cultivated in the coffeehouses of the period. Conversation was supposed to conform to a particular manner, with the language of polite and civil conversation considered to be essential to the conduct of coffeehouse debate and conversation. The concept of 'civility' referred to a desired social interaction which valued sober and reasoned debate on matters of interest. Established rules and procedures for proper behaviour as well as conventions, were outlined by gentleman's clubs, such as Harrington's Rota Club. Periodicals, including "The Tatler" and "The Spectator", infused politeness into English coffeehouse conversation, as their explicit purpose lay in the reformation of English manners and morals.

Techniques.

Some studies have shown that women are more likely to use politeness formulas than men, though the exact differences are not clear. Most current research has shown that gender differences in politeness use are complex, since there is a clear association between politeness norms and the stereotypical speech of middle class white women, at least in the UK and US. It is therefore unsurprising that women tend to be associated with politeness more and their linguistic behaviour judged in relation to these politeness norms.

Linguistic devices.

Besides and additionally to the above, many languages have specific means to show politeness, deference, respect, or a recognition of the social status of the speaker and the hearer. There are two main ways in which a given language shows politeness: in its lexicon (for example, employing certain words in formal occasions, and colloquial forms in informal contexts), and in its morphology (for example, using special verb forms for polite discourse). The T-V distinction is a common example in Western languages. Some languages have complex politeness systems, such as Korean speech levels and honorific speech in Japanese.

Criticism of the theory.

Brown and Levinson's theory of politeness has been criticised as not being universally valid, by linguists working with East-Asian languages, including Japanese. Matsumoto and Ide claim that Brown and Levinson assume the speaker's volitional use of language, which allows the speaker's creative use of face-maintaining strategies toward the addressee. In East Asian cultures like Japan, politeness is achieved not so much on the basis of volition as on discernment ("wakimae", finding one's place), or prescribed social norms. "Wakimae" is oriented towards the need for acknowledgment of the positions or roles of all the participants as well as adherence to formality norms appropriate to the particular situation.  Japanese is perhaps the most widely known example of a language that encodes politeness at its very core. Japanese has two main levels of politeness, one for intimate acquaintances, family and friends, and one for other groups, and verb morphology reflects these levels. Besides that, some verbs have special hyper-polite suppletive forms. This happens also with some nouns and interrogative pronouns. Japanese also employs different personal pronouns for each person according to gender, age, rank, degree of acquaintance, and other cultural factors. See Honorific speech in Japanese, for further information.

Politeness is the practical application of good manners or etiquette so as not to offend others. It is a culturally defined phenomenon, and therefore what is considered polite in one culture can sometimes be quite rude or simply eccentric in another cultural context.


History.

Ancient India.

Rings and other types of jewelry including necklaces, rings, bracelets, earrings, bangles and pendants have been discovered from the 3rd millennium BC Indus Valley Civilization. Factories of small beads have been discovered in Lothal, India.

Ancient Near East.

Finger rings have been found in tombs in Ur dating back to circa 2500 BC. The Hittite civilization produced rings, including signet rings, only a few of which have been discovered. People in Old Kingdom Egypt wore a variety of finger rings, of which a few examples have been found, including the famous scarab design. Rings became more common during the Egyptian Middle Kingdom, containing increasingly complex designs. Egyptians made not only metal rings but rings from faience, some of which were used as new year gifts. Native styles were superseded by Greek and Roman fashions during the Ptolemaic dynasty.

Archaic and classical Greek.

Archaic Greek rings were to some extent influenced by Egyptian rings, although they tended to be less substantial and were not generally used as working signet rings. As gold was not locally available, rings made in the eastern colonies tended to be made from silver and bronze, while Etruscans used gold.  The classical period showed a shift away from bronze to a wider adoption of silver and gold. The most typical design of the period involved a lozenge bezel mounting an intaglio device. Over time, the bezel moved towards a more circular form.

Roman Rings.

During the early and middle imperial era (first two centuries AD), a typical Roman ring consisted of a thick hoop that tapered directly into a slightly wider bezel. An engraved oval gem would be embedded within the bezel with the top of the gem only rising slightly above the surrounding ring material. Such rings are known as Henig II and III/Guiraud 2 in formal academic parlance or simply as Roman rings to modern jewellers. In general, Roman rings became more elaborate in the third and fourth centuries AD.

High and Late Middle Ages in Europe.

During this period, it was fashionable for multiple rings to be worn on each hand and each finger. Rings during this period were mostly made from copper-based alloys, silver or gold. Gems became common after 1150, along with the belief that certain gems had the power to help or protect the wearer in various ways. Engraved rings were produced using Lombardic script until around 1350, when it was replaced by Gothic script. Some of the inscriptions were devotional, others romantic in nature. For romantic inscriptions, French was the language of choice. An increasing use of contracts and other documents requiring formal seals meant that signet rings became more important from the 13th century onwards.

Ring location.

Each finger had a symbolic association or meaning (most of which were lost in antiquity and varied with culture) for the placement of a ring, significant to observers.  The fourth digit or ring finger of the left hand has become the customary place to wear betrothal, engagement and wedding rings in much of the world, though in certain countries the right hand finger is used. This custom was practically established as norm during World War II.  The use of the fourth finger of the left hand (the 'ring finger') is associated with an old belief that the left hand's ring finger is connected by a vein directly to the heart: the "vena amoris", or vein of love. This idea was in vogue in the 16th and 17th century England, when Henry Swinburne referred to it in his book about marriage. It can be traced to ancient Rome, when Aulus Gellius cited Appianus as saying that the ancient Egyptians had found a fine nerve linking the fourth finger to the heart.  Occasionally rings have been re-purposed to hang from bracelets or necklaces.  The signet ring is traditionally worn on the left pinky or little finger.  A birthstone ring and/or "birthday" stone ring is customarily worn on the first finger of the right hand and indicates respectively the month and day of the week in and on which the bearer was born.  Amulet rings, meaningful for various purposes from protection (pentacle rings) to augmenting personal attributes (wisdom, confidence, social status etc.), are worn on various fingers, often depending on the intent of the ring's design or attributes of the stone inset. Although it has been thought that amulet rings worn on specific fingers for specific purposes enhanced their powers, most people simply wear them on any finger on which they fit.  Thumb rings were originally worn to protect the thumb from injuries caused by the launching of arrows and are a sign of an archer.

Size.

While the ISO standard defines ring size in terms of the inner circumference (measured in millimeters), various countries still use traditional sizing systems. Sizing beads, which functionally reduce the ring size, are small metal beads added to the inner surface of a ring to hold it in place against the finger; they have the advantage of being easily added or removed.

Styles.

After several thousand years of ring manufacture, the total number of styles produced is vast. Even cataloging the rings of a single civilization, such as the Romans, presents a major challenge. As a result, the following list should be considered to be very limited.

Safety.

Wearing a ring can in some cases be a safety concern, when the ring is made of a material stronger than the hand, fully encircles the digit, and catches onto an immovable object. This can result in serious injury (degloving), amputation, or Ring avulsion. Some recommend specifically not to use a ring while operating machinery or playing sports.  If a ring catches on rotating machinery, or the ring of a falling person catches on a stationary object, the wearer may suffer injury. For these reasons, some workplaces require employees to remove their rings temporarily while performing certain tasks or when in certain areas of a workplace. Despite the ring's symbolic appeal as a solid band around the finger, modern jewelers are sometimes known to modify rings such that, at worst, they only tear the flesh of the wearer's finger in cases like those above-mentioned. Such "breakaway" modifications have not yet achieved popularity as standard designs.

A ring is a round band, usually of metal, worn as ornamental jewellery. The term "ring" by itself always denotes jewellery worn on the finger; when worn as an ornament elsewhere, the body part is specified within the term, e.g., earrings, neck rings, arm rings, and toe rings. Rings always fit snugly around or in the part of the body they ornament, so bands worn loosely, like a bracelet, are not rings. Rings may be made of almost any hard material: wood, bone, stone, metal, glass, gemstone or plastic. They may be set with gemstones (diamond, ruby, sapphire or emerald) or with other types of stone or glass.


Origin.

The term passacaglia (; ; Italian: "passacaglia", "passacaglio", "passagallo", "passacagli", "passacaglie") derives from the Spanish "pasar" (to walk) and "calle" (street). It originated in early 17th-century Spain as a strummed interlude between instrumentally accompanied dances or songs. Despite the form's Spanish roots (confirmed by references in Spanish literature of the period), the first written examples of passacaglias are found in an Italian source dated 1606. These pieces, as well as others from Italian sources from the beginning of the century, are simple, brief sequences of chords outlining a cadential formula.  The passacaglia was redefined in the late 1620s by Italian composer Girolamo Frescobaldi, who transformed it into a series of continuous variations over a bass (which itself may be varied). Later composers adopted this model, and by the nineteenth century the word came to mean a series of variations over an ostinato pattern, usually of a serious character. A similar form, the chaconne, was also first developed by Frescobaldi. The two genres are closely related, but since "composers often used the terms chaconne and passacaglia indiscriminately [...] modern attempts to arrive at a clear distinction are arbitrary and historically unfounded".  In early scholarship, attempts to formally differentiate between the historical chaconne and passacaglia were made, but researchers often came to opposite conclusions. For example, Percy Goetschius held that the chaconne is usually based on a harmonic sequence with a recurring soprano melody, and the passacaglia was formed over a ground bass pattern, whereas Clarence Lucas defined the two forms in precisely the opposite way. More recently, however, some progress has been made toward making a useful distinction for the usage of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, when some composers (notably Frescobaldi and François Couperin) deliberately mixed the two genres in the same composition.

Composers.

Some examples are the organ passacaglias of Dieterich Buxtehude, Johann Pachelbel, Sigfrid Karg-Elert, Johann Caspar Kerll, Daniel Gregory Mason, Georg Muffat, Gottlieb Muffat, Johann Kuhnau, Juan Bautista Cabanilles, Bernardo Pasquini, Max Reger, Ralph Vaughan Williams ("Passacaglia on B–G–C", 1933), and Leo Sowerby.  Passacaglias for lute have been composed by figures such as Alessandro Piccinini, Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger, Sylvius Leopold Weiss, Esaias Reusner, Count Logy, Robert de Visée, Jacques Bittner, Philipp Franz Lesage De Richee, Gleitsmann, Dufaut, Gallot, Denis Gaultier, Ennemond Gaultier, and Roman Turovsky-Savchuk, a passacaglia for bandura by Julian Kytasty, and for baroque guitar by Paulo Galvão, Santiago de Murcia, Francesc Guerau, Gaspar Sanz, and Marcello Vitale.

Baroque.

One of the best known examples of the passacaglia in Western classical music is the "Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor, BWV 582", for organ by Johann Sebastian Bach. The French clavecinists, especially Louis Couperin and his nephew François Couperin, used a variant of the form—the "passecaille en rondeau"—with a recurring episode between the variations. Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber's "Passacaglia", the last piece of the monumental "Rosary Sonatas", is one of the earliest known compositions for solo violin. The central episode of Claudio Monteverdi's madrigal "Lamento della Ninfa" is a passacaglia on a descending tetrachord. The first two movements of the fourth sonata from Johann Heinrich Schmelzer's "Sonatæ unarum fidium" are passacaglias on a descending tetrachord, but in uncharacteristic major. The fourth movement of Luigi Boccherini's "Quintettino No. 6, Op. 30", (also known as "Musica notturna delle strade di Madrid") is titled "Passacalle".  Other examples of "passacaille" include "Les plaisirs ont choisi" from Jean-Baptiste Lully's opera "Armide" (1686) and Dido's lament, "When I am Laid in Earth" from Henry Purcell's "Dido and Aeneas", the aria "Piango, gemo, sospiro" by Antonio Vivaldi, or "Usurpator tiranno" and "Stabat Mater" by Giovanni Felice Sances, et al.

Romantic.

Nineteenth-century examples include the C-minor passacaglia for organ by Felix Mendelssohn, and the finale of Josef Rheinberger's Eighth Organ Sonata. Notable passacaglias by Johannes Brahms can be found in the last movement of his "Fourth Symphony", which many musicians place among Brahms' finest compositions. Composed by Brahms to conform to the strict metrics of classical dance, British conductor Constant Lambert called the piece "grimly intellectual". In Brahms's "Variations on a Theme by Haydn", the bass repeats the same harmonic pattern throughout the piece. The last movement of George Frideric Handel's "Harpsichord Suite in G minor (HWV 432)" is a passacaglia which has become well known as a duo for violin and viola, arranged by the Norwegian violinist Johan Halvorsen. The first movement of Hans Huber's Piano Concerto No. 3, Op. 113 (1899) is a passacaglia.

Contemporary.

The passacaglia proved an enduring form throughout the twentieth century and beyond. In mid-century, one writer stated that "despite the inevitable lag in the performance of new music, there are more twentieth-century passacaglias in the active repertory of performers than baroque works in this form". Three composers especially identified with the passacaglia are Benjamin Britten, Dmitri Shostakovich, and Paul Hindemith. In his operas, Britten often uses a passacaglia to create the climactic moment of the drama. Examples are found in "Peter Grimes", "Billy Budd", "The Turn of the Screw", "Death in Venice", and even in the comic opera "Albert Herring". Britten also employed the form in smaller vocal forms, such as the Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings (1943) and "The Holy Sonnets of John Donne" (1945) for voice and piano, as well as in purely instrumental compositions, notably in the second and third Cello suites, the second and third string quartets, the Cello Symphony, and the "Nocturnal after John Dowland" for guitar. Shostakovich restricted his use of the passacaglia to instrumental forms, the most notable examples being found in his Tenth String Quartet, Second Piano Trio, Eighth and Fifteenth Symphonies, and First Violin Concerto. Hindemith employed the form to conclude his 1938 ballet, "Nobilissima Visione", and it is also found in his early Sonata for viola solo, Op. 11, No. 5 (1919) and the second movement of the song cycle "Das Marienleben" (1948), as well as in later works such as the Fifth String Quartet and the Octet for winds and strings. Igor Stravinsky used the form for the central movement of his Septet (1953), a transitional work between his neoclassical and serial periods.  Especially important examples of the form are found in the output of the Second Viennese School. Anton Webern's Opus 1 is a Passacaglia for Orchestra, Arnold Schoenberg included a passacaglia movement, "Nacht", in "Pierrot Lunaire", and Alban Berg, like Britten, used a passacaglia operatically, in act 1, scene 4 of "Wozzeck".

The passacaglia (; ) is a musical form that originated in early seventeenth-century Spain and is still used today by composers. It is usually of a serious character and is often, but not always, based on a bass-ostinato and written in triple metre.