Formation.

In February 1943, Hitler ordered the creation of an SS division which would be officered by foreign volunteers. In March 1943, the "SS-Panzergrenadier-Regiment Nordland", a Scandinavian volunteer regiment, was separated from the SS Division Wiking to be used as the nucleus for the new division. The Nordland's two Panzergrenadier regiments were also given titles that referenced the location where the majority of the regiment's recruits were from, "SS-Panzergrenadier-Regiment 23 Norge" (Norway) and "SS-Panzergrenadier-Regiment 24 Danmark" (Denmark). Both regiments had additional men made up of conscripts from Hungary.  After its formation in Germany, the division was attached to the III (Germanic) SS Panzer Corps under the command of "Obergruppenführer" Felix Steiner and was moved to Croatia, where the SS Volunteer Legion Netherlands was attached to it. The division began combat operations against Yugoslav partisans in September 1943.

1944–1945.

The division, along with the rest of the III SS Panzer Corps arrived at the front near Leningrad and was put into action against the Soviet Red Army attacks aimed at breaking the German encirclement of the city. The Red Army forced Nordland to withdraw to Oranienbaum. On 14 January 1944, the Soviet Krasnoye Selo–Ropsha Offensive succeeded in collapsing the German front. The follow-on Kingisepp–Gdov Offensive pushed the German forces to the city of Narva in northeastern Estonia to a new defensive line. From 27 July 1944, Nordland fought alongside the 20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian) and elements of the Grossdeutschland Division In the Battle of Tannenberg Line. During these battles, the commanders of two regiments were killed. While visiting the front line, the division's commander, "Gruppenführer" Fritz von Scholz was caught in an artillery barrage and received a head wound. Scholz died on 28 July 1944. Thereafter, "Brigadeführer" Joachim Ziegler took over command of the division. It retreated into what was known as the Courland Pocket. From late October to December 1944, the "Nordland" remained in the pocket; by early December the divisional strength was down to 9,000 men. In January 1945, the division was ordered to the Baltic port of Libau, where it was evacuated by sea.

Battle of Berlin.

On 16 April, the division was ordered to defend Berlin. Despite recent replenishment, the division was still understrength. From 17 to 20 April, the division was involved in combat all along its front and then retreated into the city. On 24 April, the main Soviet Army assault was towards the Treptow Park area, which the rest of the pioneer battalion and the remaining Tiger tanks of a Panzer battalion were defending. "Obersturmbannführer" Kausch led the few tanks and armoured vehicles in a counterattack and succeeded in temporarily halting the enemy advance. However, by midday, the 5th Shock Army was able to advance again. A later counter-attack by three assault guns was stopped by a Soviet soldier with three captured German "Panzerfausts".  In the evening of 24 April between 320 and 330 French troops from the SS Division Charlemagne arrived in Berlin after a long detour to avoid Soviet advance columns. On 25 April, "Brigadeführer" Gustav Krukenberg was appointed the commander of (Berlin) Defence Sector C, which included Nordland. Ziegler was relieved of his command of the division earlier the same day. The group of French Waffen-SS troops now known as "Sturmbataillon Charlemagne" was attached to Nordland. The arrival of the French bolstered the division whose two regiments had been decimated in the fighting against the Soviet Army forces. They each roughly equalled a battalion.  By 26 April, with Neukölln heavily penetrated by Soviet combat groups, Krukenberg prepared fallback positions for Sector C troops around Hermannplatz. He moved his headquarters into the opera house. As Nordland fell back towards Hermannplatz, Charlemagne and one-hundred Hitler Youth attached to their group destroyed 14 Soviet tanks with "Panzerfausts"; one machine gun position by the Halensee bridge managed to hold up any Soviet advance in that area for 48 hours. Nordland's remaining armour, eight Tiger tanks and several assault guns, were ordered to take up positions in the Tiergarten, because although the two divisions of Weidling's LVI Panzer Corps could slow the Soviet advance down, they could not stop it.  The Soviet forces advance into Berlin followed a pattern of massive shelling followed by assaults using house-clearing battle groups of about 80 men in each, with tank escorts and close artillery support. On 27 April, the remnants of Nordland were pushed back into the central government district (Zitadelle sector) in Defence sector Z. Krukenberg's headquarters was a carriage in the Stadtmitte U-Bahn station. Thereafter, the troops in the government district were pushed back into the Reichstag and the Reich Chancellery.  On 30 April, after receiving news of Hitler's suicide, orders were issued that those who could do so were to break out. Prior to that "Brigadeführer" Wilhelm Mohnke briefed all commanders that could be reached within the Zitadelle sector about the events as to Hitler's death and the planned breakout. The break out from the Reich Chancellery and "Führerbunker" started at 2300 hours on 1 May. There were ten main groups that attempted to head northwest.  Fierce fighting continued all around, especially in the Weidendammer Bridge area. In that area, what was left of the division was destroyed by Soviet artillery and anti-tank guns. Nordland's last Tiger was knocked out attempting to cross the Weidendammer Bridge. Several small groups reached the Americans at the Elbe's west bank, but most (including Mohnke's group and men from Krukenberg's group), were not successful. Most were killed in the fighting or taken prisoner after they surrendered to Soviet troops. Ziegler was gravely wounded after the break out group he was in came under heavy Soviet fire. He died on 2 May. Krukenberg made it to Dahlem, where he hid out in an apartment for a week, before surrendering to Soviet troops. On 2 May hostilities officially ended by order of General Helmuth Weidling, commander of the Defence Area Berlin.

The 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland () was a Waffen-SS division recruited from foreign volunteers and conscripts. It saw action, as part of Army Group North, in the Independent State of Croatia and on the Eastern Front during World War II.


Characteristics.

The Tibetan fox is small and compact, with soft, dense coats and conspicuously narrow muzzles and bushy tails. Its muzzle, crown, neck, back and lower legs are tan to rufous coloured, while its cheeks, flanks, upper legs and rumps are grey. Its tail has white tips. The short ears are tan to greyish tan on the back, while the insides and undersides are white. Adult Tibetan foxes are, not including tail, and have tail lengths of. Weights of adults are usually.  Among the true foxes, its skull is the most specialised in the direction of carnivory (and looks nothing like the picture in the species box above); it is longer in the condylobasal length and in mandible and cheek tooth length than those of hill foxes. Its cranial region is shorter than that of hill foxes, and the zygomatic arches narrower. Its jaws are also much narrower, and the forehead concave. Its canine teeth are also much longer than those of hill foxes.

Distribution and habitat.

The Tibetan sand fox is restricted to the Tibetan Plateau in western China and the Ladakh plateau in Northern India. It occurs across Tibet, and in parts of the Chinese provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, Xinjiang, Yunnan and Sichuan. Outside China, it occurs in northern Bhutan, and in the northernmost border regions of Nepal and India, north of the Himalayas.  The sand fox is found primarily in semi-arid to arid grasslands, well away from humans or from heavy vegetation cover. It inhabits upland plains and hills from elevation, although it is occasionally seen on lower ground, down to.

Behaviour and ecology.

The Tibetan fox primarily preys on Plateau pikas, followed by rodents, marmots, woolly hares and lizards. It also scavenges on the carcasses of Tibetan antelopes, musk deer, blue sheep and livestock. Tibetan foxes are mostly solitary, daytime hunters as their main prey, pikas, are diurnal. Tibetan foxes may form commensal relationships with brown bears during hunts for pikas. The bears dig out the pikas, and the foxes grab them when they escape the bears.  Mated pairs remain together and may also hunt together. After a gestation period of about 50 to 60 days, two to four young are born in a den, and stay with the parents until they are eight to ten months old. Their burrows are made at the base of boulders, at old beach lines and low slopes. Dens may have four entrances, with entrances being 25–35 cm in diameter.

Diseases and parasites.

Tibetan foxes in the Sêrxü County of China's Sichuan province are heavily infected with "Echinococcus", while foxes in western Sichuan are definitive hosts of alveolar hydatid disease.

In culture.

A photograph of a Himalayan marmot under attack by a Tibetan fox won the first prize in the 2019 Wildlife Photographer of the Year award.

The Tibetan sand fox ("Vulpes ferrilata") is a species of true fox endemic to the high Tibetan Plateau, Ladakh plateau, Nepal, China, Sikkim, and Bhutan, up to altitudes of about. It is listed as Least Concern in the IUCN Red List, on account of its widespread range in the Tibetan Plateau's steppes and semi-deserts.


Plot.

"Preacher" tells the story of Jesse Custer, a preacher in the small Texas town of Annville. Custer is accidentally possessed by the supernatural creature named Genesis, the infant of the unauthorized, unnatural coupling of an angel and a demon. The incident flattens Custer's church and kills his entire congregation.  Genesis has no sense of individual will, but since it is composed of both pure goodness and pure evil, its power might rival that of God Himself, making Jesse Custer, bonded to Genesis, potentially the most powerful being in the universe.  Driven by a strong sense of right and wrong, Custer journeys across the United States attempting to literally find God, who abandoned Heaven the moment Genesis was born. He also begins to discover the truth about his new powers. They allow him, when he wills it, to command the obedience of those who hear and comprehend his words. He is joined by his old girlfriend Tulip O'Hare, as well as a hard-drinking Irish vampire named Cassidy.  During the course of their journeys, the three encounter enemies and obstacles both sacred and profane, including The Saint of Killers, an invincible, quick-drawing, perfect-aiming, come-lately Angel of Death answering only to "He who sits on the throne"; a disfigured suicide attempt survivor turned rock-star named Arseface; a serial-killer called the 'Reaver-Cleaver'; The Grail, a secret organization controlling the governments of the world and protecting the bloodline of Jesus; Herr Starr, ostensible Allfather of the Grail, a megalomaniac with a penchant for prostitutes, who wishes to use Custer for his own ends; several fallen angels; and Jesse's own redneck 'family' — particularly his nasty Cajun grandmother, her mighty bodyguard Jody, and the Zoophilic T.C.

Collected editions.

Additionally, the book "Preacher: Dead or Alive" () collects Fabry's covers to the series.

Adaptation attempts.

Garth Ennis, feeling "Preacher" would translate perfectly as a film, sold the film rights to Electric Entertainment. Rachel Talalay was hired to direct, with Ennis writing the script. Rupert Harvey and Tom Astor were set as producers. By May 1998, Ennis completed three drafts of the script, based largely on the "Gone to Texas" story arc. The filmmakers found it difficult financing "Preacher" because investors found the idea religiously controversial. Ennis approached Kevin Smith and Scott Mosier to help finance the film under their View Askew Productions banner. Ennis, Smith and Mosier pitched "Preacher" to Bob Weinstein at Miramax Films.  Weinstein was confused by the characterization of Jesse Custer. Miramax also did not want to share the box office gross with Electric Entertainment, ultimately dropping the pitch. By May 2000, Smith and Mosier were still attached to produce with Talalay directing, but Smith did not know the status of "Preacher", feeling it would languish in development hell. By then, Storm Entertainment, a UK-based production company known for their work on independent films, joined the production with Electric Entertainment. In September 2001, the two companies announced "Preacher" had been greenlighted to commence pre-production, with filming to begin in November and Talalay still directing Ennis' script. The production and start dates were pushed back because of financial issues of the $25 million projected budget.  James Marsden was cast in the lead role as Jesse Custer sometime in 2002. He explained, "It was something I never knew anything about, but once I got my hands on the comic books, I was blown away by it." In a March 2004 interview, Marsden said the filmmakers were hoping for filming to start the following August. With the full-length film adaptation eventually abandoned with budgetary concerns, HBO announced in November 2006 that they commissioned Mark Steven Johnson and Howard Deutch to produce a television pilot. Johnson was to write with Deutch directing. Impressed with Johnson's pilot script, HBO had him write the series bible for the first season. Johnson originally planned "to turn each comic book issue into a single episode" on a shot-for-shot basis. "I gave [HBO] the comics, and I said, 'Every issue is an hour'. Garth Ennis said 'You don't have to be so beholden to the comic'. And I'm like, 'No, no, no. It's got to be like the comic'."  Johnson also wanted to make sure that one-shots were included as well. Johnson changed his position, citing new storylines conceived by Ennis. "Well, there would be nothing new to add if we did that, so Garth [Ennis] and I have been creating new stories for the series," he said. "I love the book so much and I was telling Garth that he has to make the stories we are coming up with as comics because I want to see them." By August 2008, new studio executives at HBO decided to abandon the idea, finding it too stylistically dark and religiously controversial. Columbia Pictures then purchased the film rights in October 2008 with Sam Mendes planned to direct. Neal H. Moritz and Jason Netter would have produced the film. The previous scripts written by Ennis would not have been used.

AMC adaptation.

On November 16, 2013, it was announced that AMC would be shooting a pilot for "Preacher". On November 18, 2013, "BleedingCool" confirmed that Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg had developed the series pilot with Sam Catlin, and that it would be distributed by Sony Pictures Television. On February 7, 2014 it was made public that AMC was officially developing the series to television based on the pilot written by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg. Rogen has no plans to co-star in the series. On May 9, 2014, AMC announced that "Preacher" was picked up to series. "Preacher" was slated to premiere mid to late 2015, as announced by Seth Rogen, with the script for the series complete and the pilot ordered by the studio. Comic creators Steve Dillon and Garth Ennis were to work on this project as co-executive producer. On April 17, 2015, Seth Rogen tweeted that Dominic Cooper was cast in the role of Jesse Custer, Joseph Gilgun as Cassidy, Ruth Negga as Tulip O'Hare, Ian Colletti as Arseface, and W. Earl Brown as Sheriff Hugo Root. On September 9, 2015, Seth Rogen announced via Twitter that the series ordered to a ten-episode season and was due to premiere in mid-2016. The series premiered on AMC on Sunday, May 22, 2016. In 2017 a second season, with thirteen episodes, aired. In 2018, a ten-episode third season aired. In November 2018, the series was renewed for a final fourth season, with production relocating to Australia.

Legacy.

Stephen King has said that his comic book series "" was influenced by "Preacher".  The character Yorick from "", has a Zippo lighter with the words "Fuck Communism" engraved, identical to the one owned by Jesse Custer in "Preacher". When asked about it he says it's "from this book I read once... a graphic novel. You know, like a comic book." The phrase originated as a 1963 satirical poster produced by "The Realist" magazine's Paul Krassner. This lighter appears later in the series when Yorick and Agent 355 are being held by Russian agents at gunpoint, who find the lighter and take offense to it. Also, in volume 4 "Safeword", Yorick says "pardners", which is used several times in "Preacher", in lieu of "partners".  IGN declared Preacher the third-greatest Vertigo comic, after "Saga of the Swamp Thing" and "Sandman".  Jesse Custer was ranked the 11th Greatest Comic Book Character by "Empire" magazine. The Saint of Killers was ranked at number 42 on the same list.

Preacher is an American comic book series published by Vertigo, an imprint of DC Comics. The series was created by writer Garth Ennis and artist Steve Dillon with painted covers by Glenn Fabry.


Plot.

Julius Caesar is celebrating his victory over all of Gaul, but Lucius Detritus has kept from him that one village has managed to resist them. Detritus travels to the garrison near the village where Caius Bonus (Crismus Bonus), the garrison's commanding Centurion, explains that the Gauls have a magic potion, which makes them invincible. Detritus decides to capture the potion for himself, and hearing that the clever Asterix and permanently invincible Obelix are the backbone of the Gaulish forces, attempts and fails to eliminate them.  A false soothsayer arrives at the village and predicts the arrival of Romans and treasure; despite Asterix's protests, the village believe him, wherefore when a Roman tax collector arrives, they drive off his forces and take the gold. The "soothsayer" later drugs and hypnotises Asterix to create a diversion while he recaptures the tax money; but news of the theft reaches Caesar, who comes to the garrison himself, demanding the legion attack. Upon witnessing the defeat of his army, he demands Detritus subdue the village or be fed to the lions.  Detritus disguises himself and some men as Druids and kidnaps Panoramix (Getafix) at a Druid conference. Asterix disguises Obelix as a legionary, and they enter the garrison to rescue the Druid, but are separated. Asterix joins Getafix in the dungeon, where the pair resist Detritus' demands to make the magic potion, until he tortures Idefix (Dogmatix). Detritus uses the potion to throw Caesar into a cell (locked in an iron mask), and takes command with an oblivious Obelix as his bodyguard. Obelix later helps Asterix, Getafix, Dogmatix, and Caesar escape.  Caesar co-operates with the Gauls to defeat Detritus, who mounts an attack on the villagers using his own magic potion. To defeat him, Panoramix brews a special version of the potion which creates dozens of duplicates of Asterix and Obelix. Caesar is returned to power, and grants the village its freedom.

Soundtrack.

Soundtrack by Jean-Jacques Goldman and Roland Romanelli

Video game.

An action video game based on the film, developed by Tek 5 and published by Cryo Interactive, was released for the PlayStation and the PC.

Asterix and Obelix vs. Caesar () is a 1999 feature film directed by Claude Zidi, the first of what went on to become a series of live-action films based on Goscinny and Uderzo's Astérix comics. The film combines plots of several Astérix stories, mostly "Asterix the Gaul" (Getafix's abduction), "Asterix and the Soothsayer", "Asterix and the Goths" (the Druid conference), "Asterix the Legionary" (Obelix becoming smitten with Panacea) and "Asterix the Gladiator" (the characters fighting in the circus) but jokes and references from many other albums abound, including a humorous exchange between Caesar and Brutus taken from "Asterix and Cleopatra", and the villain Lucius Detritus is based on Tullius Detritus, the main antagonist of "Asterix and the Roman Agent" (known as Tortuous Convolvulus in the English translation of the comic).


Life.

Not much is known about his early life, but he was from a Tuscan aristocratic family, educated at Rome, and was already making a name for himself as a composer at the age of 24. In 1667 he composed a latin oratorio (lost) for the Confraternity of Crocifisso di San Marcello and in the following year the serenata "La Circe" for the Princess of Rossano Olimpia Aldobrandini Pamphilj. In 1671-72 he collaborated in staging some operas, two by Francesco Cavalli and two by Antonio Cesti, at the Tordinona Theater, composing prologues, intermedios and new arias. In the early 1670s he also composed some operas performed in private theaters of aristocratic families.
 Stradella began to live a dissolute life. With Carlo Ambrogio Lonati he attempted to embezzle money from the Roman Catholic Church, but was found out: he fled the city, only returning much later when he thought it was safe. His numerous incautious affairs with women began to make him enemies among the powerful men of the city, and he had to leave Rome for good.  In 1677 he went to Venice, where he was hired by a powerful nobleman, Alvise Contarini, as the music tutor to his mistress, Agnese Van Uffele. She and Stradella began an affair and fled Venice together for Turin, where they were protected by Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours, the regent of Savoy. Contarini followed and instructed the Archbishop that Uffele and Stradella must marry or that Uffele must take the veil. She did the latter, and then the two married in October; however, as Stradella left the convent after signing the contract, he was attacked from behind on 10 October by two would-be hired assassins, who believed him dead when they left him in the street. He was not. The two assassins took asylum with the French ambassador. That Contarini had hired the attackers became known, leading to complaints from the regent of Savoy to Louis XIV; the matter became a topic of negotiation between the courts.
 In 1678 Stradella fled to Genoa, where he met again with Lonati. He was paid to compose operas performed at Falcone Theater and music for the local nobility.

Murder.

In 1682 he was stabbed to death at the "Piazza Banchi". A nobleman of the Lomellini family hired the killer that put an end to Stradella's life, although the identity of the killer was never discovered. Stradella was buried in the Santa Maria delle Vigne.

Work.

Stradella was an extremely influential composer at the time, though his fame was eclipsed in the next century by Corelli, Vivaldi and others. Some of his music was exploited by George Frideric Handel, for example in "Israel in Egypt." Probably his greatest significance is in originating the "concerto grosso": while Corelli in his Op. 6 was the first to publish works under this title, Stradella clearly uses the format earlier in one of his "Sonate di viole". Since the two knew each other, a direct influence is likely.  Stradella wrote at least six baroque operas including a full-length comic opera "Il Trespolo tutore". He also wrote more than 170 cantatas, at least one of which was based on a poem by Sebastiano Baldini, and six oratorios. Stradella composed 27 separate instrumental pieces, most for strings and basso continuo, and typically in the "sonata da chiesa" format.  He wrote two cantatas for the regent of Savoy, "Se del pianeta ardente" and "Sciogliete i dolci nodi".

Legacy.

His colorful life and his bloody death ordered by the powerful Lomellini family provided the basis for biographical operas such as "Il cantore di Venezia" by Virginio Marchi (1835), "Stradella" by Louis Niedermeyer (Paris, 1837), "Stradella" by César Franck (1841, unfinished), "Alessandro Stradella" by Friedrich von Flotow (Hamburg, 1844), "Alessandro Stradella" by Adolf Schimon (1846), "Stradella il trovatore" by Vincenzo Moscuzza (1850), "Alessandro Stradella" by Giuseppe Sinico (1864).  American novelist F. Marion Crawford also produced a highly romanticized novel of Stradella's affair and flight from Venice, titled "Stradella" (Macmillan 1909).

Antonio Alessandro Boncompagno Stradella (Bologna, 3 July 1643 – Genoa, 25 February 1682) was an Italian composer of the middle Baroque period. He enjoyed a dazzling career as a freelance composer, writing on commission, and collaborating with distinguished poets, producing over three hundred works in a variety of genres.


Club career.

Rozehnal began his career at SK Sigma Olomouc, where his performances earned him a place in the Czech Republic under-21 team. In 2003, he was signed by Belgian club Club Brugge. In 2004, Rozehnal played for the Czech Republic at the European Championship where the team made it to the semi-finals before being knocked out by Greece. He won the Belgian Cup in his first season with Brugge and the Belgian League in 2005. He signed for Paris Saint-Germain in June 2005.  Rozehnal played in all three of Czech Republic's matches at the 2006 FIFA World Cup and is the 33rd most capped player in Czech history. At Paris Saint Germain in the 2006–07 season, he was named as the club's Player of the Year. His form resulted in reported interest from Borussia Dortmund, Newcastle United and Sevilla. Sources close to the defender confirmed that he would favour a move to Newcastle. On 22 June 2007, it was confirmed by the player's agent that a "definite agreement" had been reached for the player to join Newcastle United. He underwent a medical check on 25 June and Newcastle confirmed the transfer had been completed on 29 June for a fee of £2.9 million.  On 11 August Rozehnal made his debut for Newcastle against Bolton Wanderers.  Rozehnal left Newcastle for Lazio, on loan until the end of the 2007–08 season, on 31 January 2008, despite having only signed in June 2007. After only playing seven times for Lazio during his loan spell, it remained unclear if they wanted to sign him on a permanent deal. On 9 June 2008, Lazio officially announced they had signed Rozehnal on a permanent basis, with Newcastle recouping the full £2.9 million which they initially paid for the defender.  After only one year in Italy, Rozehnal left S.S. Lazio, on 29 July 2009 for German top club Hamburger SV, signing a contract until 30 June 2012. After a poor season with several costly errors by Rozehnal, he was removed from the first team and asked to find a new club. On 31 August 2010, HSV confirmed that Rozehnal would leave for French side Lille OSC on a year-long, free loan, with the German club still paying part of his salary. While at Lille, his side reached the 2011 Coupe de France Final where he faced former side PSG. Lille prevailed 1–0 in the final, claiming their first Coupe de France trophy since 1955. After the 2010–11 season with Lille, Rozehnal signed for Lille on a permanent basis.  Rozehnal retired from professional football on 4 April 2018 and joined Sokol Kožušany, who play in the seventh tier of the Czech Republic league system. His brother, Marek, also plays for the same club. He made his debut for the club the following weekend.

International career.

Rozehnal has also represented his country at Euro 2004, the 2006 World Cup and Euro 2008 becoming the 33rd most capped player in Czech history.

Personal life.

Rozehnal is married to Petra and their first child, Luka, was born on 3 October 2007.

David Sebastian Klement Rozehnal (born 5 July 1980) is a Czech footballer who plays as a defender for amateur club Sokol Kožušany. He previously played for a host of European clubs, making over 400 appearances in a career spanning almost two decades, and retired from the professional game in April 2018.


Club career.

Early career.

Grygera began his career at Petra Drnovice before moving to Sparta Prague. In July 2003, he was signed by Dutch club Ajax for an undisclosed fee, estimated to be around €3.5 million. His first goal came for the club came in September 2004, a 5–0 thrashing away at Den Bosch. He soon became a fan favorite, especially after scoring against bitter rivals Feyenoord in the April "Klassieker".

Juventus.

On 10 January 2007, it was confirmed by Ajax Technical Director Martin van Geel that Grygera would be leaving for Juventus on a Bosman transfer when his contract with Ajax expired in June 2007. He was supposed to transfer after the 2006 FIFA World Cup, but the "Calciopoli" scandal prevented him from doing so. He expressed his delight over the possibility of playing with one of his Czech compatriots, Pavel Nedvěd. Due to his versatility, he soon established himself in the Juventus starting lineup. In March, he scored and subsequently set up David Trezeguet's goal in a 2–0 win over Genoa, and also scored a last-gasp equalizer in the club's Derby d'Italia fixture against rivals Internazionale on 18 April 2009.

Fulham.

In summer 2011, Grygera still had one year left to run on his contract at Juventus, but it was rescinded by mutual consent on 30 August 2011. The following day, he joined English Premier League side Fulham. He received the number 26 jersey and made his Fulham debut on 15 September 2011 in the UEFA Europa League against Twente. Grygera suffered an anterior cruciate ligament rupture during a league match against Tottenham Hotspur on 6 November 2011, which kept him out for the rest of the season.  Grygera's contract with Fulham was up for renewal at the end of the 2011–12 season. Manager Martin Jol, said, "Hopefully he can prove himself before the end of August. If he proves he's fit I would like to keep him."  On 6 December 2012, Martin Jol confirmed that Grygera had decided to retire from football to concentrate instead on returning to full fitness.

International career.

A former Czech youth international, Grygera played for the Czech Republic at UEFA Euro 2004, the 2006 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2008. At the 2006 World Cup, Grygera's run and cross set up the opening goal for Jan Koller in the Czechs' first game against the United States, which they won 3–0.  At Euro 2008, Grygera was involved in a rough challenge with Swiss striker Alexander Frei during the first half of the tournament's opening game, which tore Frei's knee ligaments and forced the player out of rest of the tournament. He was a regular during 2010 World Cup qualifying, playing in six of the ten qualifiers, but was not able to help the Czechs qualify for a second consecutive World Cup. Grygera made his 65th and final national appearance in October 2009.

Honours.

Sparta Prague  Ajax

Zdeněk Grygera (; born 14 May 1980) is a retired Czech footballer. A former defender, he was known for his work-rate, competitiveness, and versatility, and usually played as a full-back, wing-back, or winger along right flank, although he was also capable of playing on the left, or as a centre-back; while being solid defensively, he was also known for his ability to get forward and for his all-round good quality of play.


History.

Early years.

On 27 June 1937, the French company CIDNA (now part of Air France), chose the area of Burgas Airport to build a radio station and signed a contract with the Bulgarian government for its use. The contract expressly stated that the staff of Burgas Airport would be Bulgarian.  On 29 June 1947, Balkan Bulgarian Airlines began domestic flights between Burgas, Plovdiv and Sofia, using Junkers Ju 52/3m aircraft. In the 1950s and 1960s, the airport was expanded and modernized by building a concrete runway. In 1970, the airport became an international airport serving 45 destinations.

Development since the 2000s.

Burgas airport has been subject to heavy traffic following the growing tourism industry in Bulgaria and was in need of major investments to expand and handle projected passenger traffic. In June 2006, the Bulgarian Government awarded "Fraport AG Frankfurt Airport Services Worldwide" a 35-year-long concession on both Varna and Burgas airports in return for investments exceeding €500 million.  Fraport entered into partnership with Varna-based company BM Star. The concessionaire has vowed to inject 403 million Euro in the two airports during the lifespan of the arrangement. Fraport will pay 60% of an investment of EUR 403 million over the 35-year concession. The investments will be made in new terminal facilities, vehicles and equipment and expanding apron areas at the airports over the life of the concession  On 18 July 2012, a bomb exploded on a passenger bus transporting Israeli tourists at the Burgas Airport. The explosion killed seven people and injured thirty-two (see 2012 Burgas bus bombing).

Facilities.

Terminals.

In December 2011 construction work began on the new Terminal 2. The new terminal was planned to have a capacity of 2,700,000 passengers and an area of. The new terminal building was designed so that it can be easily upgraded to further increase capacity, if necessary. Construction of the new terminal was completed in 2013, and has been operational since December 2013.  Terminal 2 replaced the older Terminal 1, which was built in the 1950s and expanded in the early 1990s, and now handles all of the airport's passenger traffic. The terminal is equipped with 31 check-in counters, three boarding-card checkpoints, nine security lanes and eight departure gates. The arrivals area (divided into Schengen and non-Schengen zones) has 12 immigration stations and four baggage carousels (one long and three long carousels). Passenger amenities include of space dedicated to shopping and for food and beverage (F&B) services. There is also a outdoor courtyard.

Runway.

At, Burgas Airport has the fourth longest runway in the Balkans, after Athens Airport, Sofia Airport and Belgrade Airport.  On 31 October 2016, reconstruction and rehabilitation of taxiways began at Burgas airport. The project includes a complete rehabilitation of 3,500 square meters of taxiway "H", complete rehabilitation of taxiway "A", as well as area adjacent to the runway holding point. The control and monitoring system for airfield lighting and approach light equipment will be replaced. The total investment of Fraport Twin Star Airport Management in these projects is over BGN 12 million.

Airlines and destinations.

The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights at Burgas Airport:

Ground transportation.

Bus.

Line No 15 (bus-stop: located at the entrance of the airport area).Initial and final bus stops in Burgas – Burgas bus station "South".

Taxi.

The Taxi Piazza is located in front of the Arrivals Terminal at Burgas Airport. A taxi ride from Burgas Airport to the city takes approximately 15 minutes, depending on the traffic intensity.

Parking.

Passengers and guests arriving at Burgas Airport with their personal car can use the commercially available parking lot, located in the immediate vicinity of the main terminal building. The parking lot has 199 car spaces available and is accessible 24 hours a day.

Burgas Airport () is an international airport in southeast Bulgaria and the second largest in the country. It is near the northern neighbourhood of Sarafovo approximately 10 kilometres from the city centre. The airport principally serves Burgas and other seaside resorts of Bulgarian south coast which attract many tourists during the summer leisure season. In 2018 it handled 3,277,229 passengers, a 9.9% increase compared to 2017.


Early life.

Joseph Trumpeldor was born in Pyatigorsk in the North Caucasus of the Russian Empire. His father, Wulf Trumpeldor, served as a cantonist in the Caucasian War, and as a "useful Jew", was allowed to live outside the Pale of Settlement. Though proudly Jewish, Trumpeldor's upbringing was more Russian than traditionally Jewish. Originally in training as a dentist, Joseph Trumpeldor volunteered for the Russian army in 1902. During the Russo-Japanese War, he participated in the siege of Port Arthur, where he lost his left arm to shrapnel. He spent a hundred days in the hospital recovering, but elected to complete his service. When he was questioned about his decisions and told that he was heavily advised not to continue fighting given his handicap, he responded "but I still have another arm to give to the motherland." When Port Arthur surrendered, Trumpeldor went into Japanese captivity. He spent his time printing a newspaper on Jewish affairs and organized history, geography and literature classes. He also befriended several prisoners who shared his desire of founding a communal farm in Palestine. On return from captivity, he moved to St. Petersburg. Trumpeldor subsequently received four decorations for bravery including the Cross of St. George, which made him the most decorated Jewish soldier in Russia.  Due to his handicap he began to study law. He gathered a group of young Zionists around him and in 1911 they emigrated to Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire. At first he joined a farm on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, and then worked for a time at Kibbutz Degania.

World War I.

When World War I broke out, he was, as a Russian subject in the Ottoman Empire, an enemy alien. He went to Egypt, where together with Ze'ev Jabotinsky he developed the idea of the Jewish Legion to fight with the British against common enemies and the Zion Mule Corps was formed in 1915, considered to be the first all-Jewish military unit organized in close to two thousand years, and the ideological beginning of the Israel Defense Forces. He saw action in the Battle of Gallipoli with the Zion Mule Corps, where he was wounded in the shoulder. The Zion Mule Corps remained in Gallipoli through the entire campaign and was disbanded shortly after being transferred to Britain.

Political activist.

Upon his return to Petrograd, Russia in 1918, he organised Jews to defend themselves and established the "HeHalutz", a youth organization that prepared immigrants for "aliyah", and returned to the British Mandate of Palestine himself.

Battle of Tel Hai.

On 1 March 1920, several hundred Shiites, from the village of Jabal Amel in southern Lebanon, gathered at the gate of Tel Hai, one of four Jewish farming villages in an isolated bloc at the northern end of the Upper Galilee's Hulah Valley. Gangs "('isabat)" of clan-based border peasants, combining politics and banditry, were active in the area of the loosely defined border between the soon to be established British Mandate of Palestine, French Mandate of Lebanon and of Syria. The Shiites believed that some French troops had taken refuge with the Jews and demanded to search the premises. The Jews generally tried to maintain neutrality in the chaos, occasionally sheltering both Arabs and French. On this day there were no French soldiers, and the Jews assented to a search. One of the farmers fired a shot into the air, a signal for reinforcements from nearby Kfar Giladi, which brought ten men led by Trumpeldor, who had been posted by Hashomer to organize defense.  It is unclear exactly what happened once Trumpeldor assumed command, but an early report speaks of'misunderstanding on both sides'. Ultimately, a major firefight raged in which seven Jews and five Arabs were killed outright; Trumpeldor was shot in the hand and stomach, and died while being evacuated to Kfar Giladi that evening. The eight Jews were buried in two common graves in Kfar Giladi, and both locations were abandoned for a time.

Last words.

The last words attributed to him, "Never mind, it is good to die for our country" ("En davar, tov lamut be'ad artzenu" ), became famous in the pre-state Zionist movement and in Israel of the 1950s and 1960s. According to Aviel Roshwald, the authenticity of Trumpeldor's final utterance is well-attested and not questioned by historians despite a widespread belief that they are apocryphal. Other historians state that these words have been under dispute for decades. In the wake of popular scepticism in the 1970s, a counter-version to the official glorified legend, perhaps starting as a joke, suggested that his last words were in fact a pungent curse in his mother-tongue Russian, reflecting frustration with his bad luck. Trumpeldor spoke only broken Hebrew; in his last hours he mumbled requests in his native Russian to have his wounds bandaged, and the American doctor, George Gerry (or Gary), who attended him, and Abraham Harzfeld were the two firsthand sources for this declaration.  These words, which quickly spread throughout the Jewish immigrant community in Palestine, are rather atypical for Jews on their deathbed. They are the equivalent in Hebrew of the Latin apophthegm "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori", the famous line from the Roman lyric poet Horace's "Odes" (III.2.13), which can be rendered in English as "It is sweet and honourable to die for one's country," or "It is sweet and fitting to die for the fatherland" and which inspired numerous nineteenth- and twentieth-century nationalist patriots in various countries.

National hero.

After his death, Trumpeldor became a symbol of Jewish self-defence, and his memorial day on the 11th day of Adar is officially noted in Israel every year.

Legacy.

Both right-wing and left-wing Zionists regard Joseph Trumpeldor as a hero. The Revisionist Zionist movement (the precursor to Likud) named its youth movement "Betar", an acronym for "Covenant of Joseph Trumpeldor", while the left-wing movements remember Trumpeldor as the defender of the kibbutzim and have established memorials in his honour. In the same year that he died, the Joseph Trumpeldor Work and Defense Battalion (Gdud HaAvoda) was founded, which established several kibbutzim. The town of Kiryat Shmona ("City of Eight") is named after Trumpeldor and the seven others who died defending Tel Hai.  Israeli rap group Hadag Nahash have a song about Trumpeldor on their debut album "Ha-mechona shel ha-groove" (2000). The song "Gabi ve Debi" from the 2003 followup "Lazuz" also mentions Trumpeldor and quotes his famous last words.  The 2015 novel, "Joseph's Dream", by Elana Beth Schwab, is based on Trumpeldor's life.  The 2017 Russian-language documentary novel "Moi drug Trumpeldor" ("My Friend Trumpeldor") by the St. Petersburg-based author Aleksandr Laskin narrates Trumpeldor's story through the eyes of his friend David Belotserkovsky.

See also.

Trumpeldor Cemetery, Tel Aviv

Joseph Vladimirovich (Volfovich) Trumpeldor (November 21, 1880 – March 1, 1920,, ) was an early Zionist activist who helped to organize the Zion Mule Corps and bring Jewish immigrants to Palestine. Trumpeldor died defending the settlement of Tel Hai in 1920 and subsequently became a Zionist national hero. According to a standard account, his last words were "It's nothing, it is good to die for our country", but that he ever said these words has been challenged.


Description.

It is a scrambling shrub climbing over other plants to a height of, with stout stems with recurved prickles (sometimes absent). The leaves are long, compound, with 5–9 leaflets and feathered stipules. The flowers are produced in large corymbs, each flower small, diameter, white or pink, borne in early summer. The hips are reddish to purple, diameter.  Two varieties are accepted by the "Flora of China":

Cultivation and uses.

"Rosa multiflora" is grown as an ornamental plant and also used as a rootstock for grafted ornamental rose cultivars.  In eastern North America, "Rosa multiflora" is generally considered an invasive species, though it was originally introduced from Asia as a soil conservation measure, as a natural hedge to border grazing land, and to attract wildlife. It is readily distinguished from American native roses by its large inflorescences, which bear multiple flowers and hips, often more than a dozen, while the American species bear only one or a few on a branch.  In some regions the plant is classified as a noxious weed. In grazing areas, it is generally considered to be a serious pest, though it is considered excellent fodder for goats.  The hips of the plant are edible.

Management.

The targeted removal of multiflora rose often requires an aggressive technique, such as the full removal of the plant in addition to the root structure. Pruning and cutting back of the plant often leads to re-sprouting. Two natural biological controls include the rose rosette disease and the rose seed chalid ("Megastigmus aculeastus" var. "nigroflavus"). Patches of introduced multiflora rose in Pennsylvania are displaying symptoms of rose rosette disease, which can lead to decline and death.

Rosa multiflora (syn. Rosa polyantha) is a species of rose known commonly as multiflora rose, baby rose, Japanese rose, many-flowered rose, seven-sisters rose, Eijitsu rose and rambler rose. It is native to eastern Asia, in China, Japan and Korea. It should not be confused with "Rosa rugosa", which is also known as "Japanese rose", or with polyantha roses which are garden cultivars derived from hybrids of "R. multiflora". It was introduced to North America, where it is regarded as an invasive species.


Discovery and interpretation.

The tunnel was first described in modern times by Franciscus Quaresmius in 1625. It was later explored in 1838 by the American biblical scholar Edward Robinson, and in 1865 by Charles Warren.  Neither Quaresmius nor Robinson identified the tunnel with Hezekiah, but in 1871 Warren suggested that the Pool of Siloam may have been "dug by King Hezekiah" and in 1884 following the discovery of the Siloam inscription wrote that: "The inscription thus appears to belong to the later period of the Hebrew monarchy, and may very well be considered to agree with the Biblical account of Hezekiah's preparations for Sennacherib's siege."

Function and origin.

The ancient city of Jerusalem, being on a mountain, is naturally defensible from almost all sides, but suffers from the drawback that its major source of fresh water, the Gihon Spring, is on the side of the cliff overlooking the Kidron Valley. This presents a major military weakness as the city walls, if high enough to be defensible, must necessarily leave the Gihon spring outside, thus leaving the city without a fresh water supply in case of siege. This weakness had been removed by the Canaanites who built a very strongly fortified tower around the spring and connected it to the city walls on the slope by an additional wall, which carried a well-protected corridor. A Canaanite tunnel already collected the spring water since ca. 1800 BC and led it southwards through the bedrock, but it released the water onto the fields in the Kidron Valley through several openings and ended in an open reservoir. While allowing for important farming, this arrangement also made water available to besieging troops outside the city walls.  The Bible says that King Hezekiah (c. 8th century BC), fearful that the Assyrians would lay siege to the city, blocked the spring's water outside the city and diverted it through a channel into the then Pool of Siloam. However, it is now known (as of 1997) that the earlier Warren's shaft system had already heavily fortified the Gihon Spring; Warren's shaft is not an aqueduct, and requires those desiring water to travel up and down it themselves—an arrangement that Hezekiah seemingly must have considered inadequate.  In 1899, an ancient channel, also leading from the Gihon Spring halfway to the Siloam Pool area, but by a more direct route, was found. This channel is now known as the "Middle Bronze Age channel", on account of its estimated age. Ronny Reich determined that it was constructed around 1800 BC (in the Middle Bronze Age), and thus that the spring's water had already been diverted many centuries before Hezekiah. As originally constructed, it is understood as a 20 feet deep ditch in the ground, covered over by large rock slabs (which were then hidden in the foliage). It is narrower than the tunnel, but can still be walked by a human for most of its length. In addition to the (3 ft high) exit near the Siloam pool, the channel has several small outlets that watered the gardens facing the Kidron Valley.

Biblical interpretation.

The Bible verses relating to a tunnel in Hezekiah's time are these:  "As for the other events of Hezekiah’s reign, all his achievements and how he made the pool and the tunnel by which he brought water into the city, are they not written in the book of the annals of the kings of Judah?" ()  "When Hezekiah saw that Sennacherib had come and that he intended to wage war against Jerusalem, he consulted with his officials and military staff about blocking off the water from the springs outside the city, and they helped him. They gathered a large group of people who blocked all the springs and the stream that flowed through the land. 'Why should the kings of Assyria come and find plenty of water?' they said." ()  "It was Hezekiah who blocked the upper outlet of the Gihon spring and channeled the water down to the west side of the City of David. He succeeded in everything he undertook." ()  "You also saw the City of David, that it was great; And you gathered together the waters of the lower pool. You also made a reservoir between the two walls for the water of the old pool. But you did not look to its Maker, Nor did you have respect for him who fashioned it long ago." ()

Doubts over dating.

Excavation work in the tunnel by Ronny Reich of the University of Haifa and Eli Shukron of the Israel Antiquities Authority has cast doubt over the attribution of the tunnel to the reign of Hezekiah. They believe the evidence points to a date several decades earlier, in the last part of the 9th century or early part of the 8th century BC. They note that the biblical passage connecting Hezekiah to the construction of waterworks doesn't specify a place in the city, and suggest it might refer to waterworks in the Mamilla area.  The revised dating is supported by De Groot and Fadida on the basis of pottery analysis.

The Siloam Tunnel (, "Nikbat HaShiloah"), also known as Hezekiah's Tunnel, is a water channel that was carved beneath the City of David, located in the Arab neighborhood of Silwan in eastern Jerusalem, in ancient times. Its popular name is due to the most common hypothesis that it dates from the reign of Hezekiah of Judah (late 8th and early 7th century BC) and corresponds to the "water works" mentioned in in the Hebrew Bible. According to the Bible, King Hezekiah prepared Jerusalem for an impending siege by the Assyrians, by "blocking the source of the waters of the upper Gihon, and leading them straight down on the west to the City of David" ().


History.

Religious tolerance in Poland had had a long tradition (e.g. Statute of Kalisz) and had been "de facto" policy in the reign of the recently deceased King Sigismund II. However, the articles signed by the Confederation gave official sanction to earlier custom. In that sense, they may be considered either the beginning or the peak of Polish tolerance.  Following the childless death of the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, Polish and Lithuanian nobles (szlachta) gathered at Warsaw to prevent any separatists from acting and to maintain the existing legal order. For that the citizens had to unconditionally abide the decisions made by the body; and the confederation was a potent declaration that the two former states are still closely linked.  In January the nobles signed a document in which representatives of all the major religions pledged each other mutual support and tolerance. A new political system was arising, aided by the confederation which contributed to its stability. Religious tolerance was an important factor in a multiethnic and multi-religious state, as the territories of the Commonwealth were inhabited by many generations of people from different ethnic backgrounds (Poles, Lithuanians, Ruthenian, Germans and Jews) and of different denominations (Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox, Jewish and even Muslim). "This country became what Cardinal Hozjusz called “a place of shelter for heretics”. It was a place where the most radical religious sects, trying to escape persecution in other countries of the Christian world, sought refuge.  This act was not imposed by a government or by consequences of war, but rather resulted from the actions of members of Polish-Lithuanian society. It was also influenced by the 1572 French St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, which prompted the Polish-Lithuanian nobility to see that no monarch would ever be able to carry out such an act in Poland.  The people most involved in preparing the articles were Mikołaj Sienicki (leader of the "execution movement"), Jan Firlej and Jan Zborowski. Their efforts were opposed by many dignitaries of the Roman Catholic Church, Franciszek Krasiński was the only bishop who signed them (Szymon Starowolski claimed he did so under the "threat of the sword"), and the future legal acts containing the articles of the Confederation were signed by bishops with the stipulation: ""excepto articulo confoederationis."" Another bishop, Wawrzyniec Goślicki, was excommunicated for signing the acts of the Sejm of 1587.  The articles of the Warsaw Confederation were later incorporated into the Henrician Articles, and thus became constitutional provisions alongside the "Pacta conventa" also instituted in 1573.

Importance.

Late-16th-century Poland stood between the Orthodox Muscovy in the East, the Muslim Ottoman Empire to the South, and Western Europe, torn between Reformation and Counter-Reformation, to the North and West. Its religious tolerance made it a welcome refuge for those escaping religious persecution elsewhere; in the words of Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius, it became “a place of shelter for heretics”. The confederation legalized the previously unwritten customs of religious tolerance.  There is debate as to whether religious freedom was intended only for the nobility or also for the peasants and others; most historians favor the latter interpretation.  In 2003, the text of the Warsaw Confederation was added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme.

The Warsaw Confederation, signed on 28 January 1573 by the Polish national assembly ("sejm konwokacyjny") in Warsaw, was one of the first European acts granting religious freedoms. It was an important development in the history of Poland and of Lithuania that extended religious tolerance to nobility and free persons within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and is considered the formal beginning of religious freedom in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Although it did not prevent all conflict based on religion, it did make the Commonwealth a much safer and more tolerant place than most of contemporaneous Europe, especially during the subsequent Thirty Years' War.


Education.

Tirole received engineering degrees from the École Polytechnique in Paris in 1976, and from the École nationale des ponts et chaussées in 1978. He graduated as a member of the elite Corps of Bridges, Waters and Forests. Tirole pursued graduate studies at the Paris Dauphine University and was awarded a DEA degree in 1976 and a Doctorat de troisième cycle in decision mathematics in 1978. In 1981, he received a Ph.D. in economics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for his thesis titled "Essays in economic theory", under the supervision of Eric Maskin.

Career.

Tirole is chairman of the board of the Jean-Jacques Laffont Foundation at the Toulouse School of Economics, and scientific director of the Industrial Economics Institute (IDEI) at Toulouse 1 University Capitole. After receiving his doctorate from MIT in 1981, he worked as a researcher at the École nationale des ponts et chaussées until 1984. From 1984–1991, he worked as Professor of Economics at MIT. His work by 1988 helped to define modern industrial organization theory by organising and synthesising the main results of the game-theory revolution "vis-à-vis" understanding of non-competitive markets.  From 1994 to 1996 he was a Professor of Economics at the École Polytechnique. Tirole was involved with Jean-Jacques Laffont in the project of creating a new School of Economics in Toulouse. He is Engineer General of the Corps of Bridges, Waters and Forest, serving as Chair of the Board of the Toulouse School of Economics, Visiting Professor at MIT and Professor "cumulant" at the École des hautes études en sciences sociales since 1995.  He was president of the Econometric Society in 1998 and of the European Economic Association in 2001. Around this time, he was able to determine a way to calculate the optimal prices for the regulation of natural monopolies and wrote a number of articles about the regulation of capital markets—with a focus on the differential of control between decentralised lenders and the centralised control of bank management. Tirole has been a member of the Académie des Sciences morales et politiques since 2011, the Conseil d'analyse économique since 2008 and the Conseil stratégique de la recherché since 2013. In the early 2010s, he showed that banks generally tend to take short-term risks and recommended a change in quantitative easing towards a more quality-based market stimulation policy.

Contributions to economics.

Tirole's textbook, "The Theory of Industrial Organization", synthesised modern models of oligopolistic competition, analysing various cases where industries consist of a small number of firms with significant market power. He and Oliver Hart published a paper showing the conditions in which a vertical merger can result in foreclosure. Rochet and Tirole analysed the implications of 2-sided markets for competition policy. Fudenberg and Tirole also created a taxonomy of strategic effects in oligopolistic competition models.

Awards.

Tirole was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2014 for his analysis of market power and the regulation of natural monopolies. Tirole received doctorates "honoris causa" from the Université libre de Bruxelles in 1989, the London Business School and the University of Montreal in 2007, the University of Mannheim in 2011, the Athens University of Economics and Business and the University of Rome Tor Vergata in 2012 as well as the University of Lausanne in 2013.  Tirole also received the inaugural BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the Economics, Finance and Management category in 2008, the Public Utility Research Center Distinguished Service Award (University of Florida) in 1997, and the Yrjö Jahnsson Award of the Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation and the European Economic Association in 1993. He is a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1993) and of the American Economic Association (1993). He has also been a Sloan Fellow (1985) and a Guggenheim Fellow (1988). He was a fellow of the Econometric Society in 1986 and an Economic Theory Fellow (Society for the Advancement of Economic Theory) in 2011. In 2013 Tirole was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.  In 2007 he was awarded the highest award (the Gold Medal or médaille d'or) of the French CNRS. In 2008, he received the Prix du Cercle d'Oc; in 2009, he received an Outstanding Contributions to the Profession Award (International Association for Energy Economics); in 2010, he was granted the Chicago Mercantile Exchange – Mathematical Sciences Research Institute (CME-MSRI) prize in Innovative Quantitative Innovations in Finance, the Tjalling Koopmans Asset Award (Tilburg University), and the "Prix Claude Levi-Strauss". He is among the most influential economists in the world according to IDEAS/RePEc. Besides his numerous academic distinctions, he was the recipient of the Gold Medal of the city of Toulouse in 2007, a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur since 2007 and an Officer in the Ordre national du Mérite since 2010.

Publications.

Tirole has published about 200 professional articles in economics and finance, as well as 10 books, including "The Theory of Industrial Organization", "Game Theory" (with Drew Fudenberg), "A Theory of Incentives in Procurement and Regulation" (with Jean-Jacques Laffont), "The Prudential Regulation of Banks" (with Mathias Dewatripont), "Competition in Telecommunications" (with Jean-Jacques Laffont), "Financial Crises, Liquidity, and the International Monetary System", and "The Theory of Corporate Finance". His research covers industrial organization, regulation, game theory, public economics, banking and finance, psychology and economics, international finance and macroeconomics.  |-

Jean Tirole (born 9 August 1953) is a French professor of economics. He focuses on industrial organization, game theory, banking and finance, and economics and psychology. In 2014 he was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his analysis of market power and regulation.


Background and education.

Lord Mulgrave was a younger son of Constantine Phipps, 1st Baron Mulgrave (also Baron Mulgrave, of New Ross), by his wife the Hon. Lepell, daughter of John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey, and was educated at Eton and the Middle Temple.

Military career.

Lord Mulgrave entered the army in 1775, and eventually rose to the rank of General. He saw service in the Caribbean during the American Revolutionary War. In 1793 he was made Colonel of the 31st (Huntingdonshire) Regiment of Foot. Also in 1793, because he was on a mission to the King of Sardinia in Turin, he was near at hand when British forces captured the French port of Toulon, and he briefly took command of the British land forces there, before withdrawing upon the arrival of more senior officers. In 1799 he was sent out on another special military mission, this time to the headquarters of the Austrian commander, Archduke Charles, to attempt to persuade him to retain his troops in Switzerland rather than removing them to the Middle Rhine, but he was unsuccessful.

Political career.

In 1784 Lord Mulgrave was elected to the House of Commons for Totnes. He supported the government of Pitt, to whom he eventually became close. In 1790, he was elected for Scarborough in Yorkshire. He succeeded his brother Constantine Phipps, 2nd Baron Mulgrave as Baron Mulgrave in the Peerage of Ireland in 1792, but did not succeed to his brother's British title. In 1794 he was granted a British peerage as Baron Mulgrave, entering the House of Lords, and in 1796 he was made Governor of Scarborough Castle. Mulgrave supported Pitt when he resigned in 1801, and in return for his loyalty was rewarded with the office of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1804–1805) in Pitt's second government. Following an accident suffered by Lord Harrowby, Mulgrave took his place as Foreign Secretary, in which position he helped Pitt to form the Third Coalition against Napoleon.  The post of Foreign Secretary was generally thought to be beyond his powers. Thomas Grenville, writing to the Marquis of Buckingham, expressed an opinion that he was only "put in ad interim until Lord Wellesley's arrival, who is expected in June". Mulgrave, however, showed himself fairly capable in debate. On 11 February 1805 he had to announce the breach with Spain, and to defend the seizure of the treasure ships at Ferrol before the declaration of war, and on 20 June to defend the coalition of 1805. He composed an ode on the victory of Trafalgar, and it was set to music by Thomas Arne. On 23 January 1806 Pitt died. On 28 January 1806 Mulgrave laid before the House of Lords copies of the treaties recently concluded with Russia and Sweden, to which Prussia and Austria had acceded, and on 4 February he explained their object. Three days later, on 7 February, he resigned, with the bulk of those who had been Pitt's friends.  With the death of Pitt and the formation of the Ministry of All the Talents in 1806, Mulgrave, along with the other Pittites, went into opposition, but when the Pittites returned to power in 1807, Mulgrave served in various major offices, first as First Lord of the Admiralty (1807–1810), then as Master-General of the Ordnance (1810–1819), and finally as Minister without Portfolio (1819–1820). As First Lord he was heavily involved in planning both the successful expedition against Copenhagen in 1807, and the disastrous one to Walcheren in 1809. After moving to the ordnance board, Mulgrave became less active politically. In 1812, he was created Viscount Normanby and Earl of Mulgrave in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.

Family.

The Earl of Mulgrave's grandfather William Phipps had married Lady Catherine Annesley, who was the daughter and heiress of James Annesley, 3rd Earl of Anglesey, and his wife, Lady Catherine Darnley (an illegitimate daughter of King James II by his mistress Catherine Sedley, Countess of Dorchester). Lady Catherine Darnley had later married John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, and hence Henry Phipps, 1st Earl of Mulgrave, was the step-great-grandson of the 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby.  Lord Mulgrave married Martha Sophia, daughter of pottery manufacturer Christopher Thomson Maling, at St Michael's, Houghton-le-Spring in 1795. He died in April 1831, aged 76, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Constantine, who was later created Marquess of Normanby. His second son was the Hon. Sir Charles Beaumont Phipps and his third, Edmund Phipps, a lawyer and author. The couple's fourth son, the Hon. Augustus Frederick (b. 1809) became honorary canon of Ely. Of their five daughters, only one survived childhood.  The Countess of Mulgrave died on 17 October 1849.

References.

Attribution:

General Henry Phipps, 1st Earl of Mulgrave (14 February 17557 April 1831), styled The Honourable Henry Phipps until 1792 and known as The Lord Mulgrave from 1792 to 1812, was a British soldier and politician. He notably served as Foreign Secretary under William Pitt the Younger from 1805 to 1806.


Life.

Euclid was born in Megara, but in Athens he became a follower of Socrates. So eager was he to hear the teaching and discourse of Socrates, that when, for a time, Athens had a ban on any citizen of Megara entering the city, Euclid would sneak into Athens after nightfall, disguised as a woman to hear him speak. He is represented in the preface of Plato's "Theaetetus" as being responsible for writing down the conversation between Socrates and the young Theaetetus many years earlier. Socrates is also supposed to have reproved Euclid for his fondness for eristic disputes. He was present at Socrates' death (399 BCE), after which Euclid returned to Megara, where he offered refuge to Plato and other frightened pupils of Socrates.  In Megara, Euclid founded a school of philosophy which became known as the Megarian school, and which flourished for about a century. Euclid's pupils were said to have been Ichthyas, the second leader of the Megarian school; Eubulides of Miletus; Clinomachus; and Thrasymachus of Corinth. Thrasymachus was a teacher of Stilpo, who was the teacher of Zeno of Citium, the founder of the Stoic school.

Philosophy.

Euclid himself wrote six dialogues — the "Lamprias", the "Aeschines", the "Phoenix", the "Crito", the "Alcibiades", and the "Amatory" dialogue — but none survive. The main extant source on his views is the brief summary by Diogenes Laërtius. Euclid's philosophy was a synthesis of Eleatic and Socratic ideas. Socrates claimed that the greatest knowledge was understanding the good. The Eleatics claimed the greatest knowledge is the one universal Being of the world. Mixing these two ideas, Euclid claimed that good is the knowledge of this being. Therefore, this good is the only thing that exists and has many names but is really just one thing. He identified the Eleatic idea of "The One" with the Socratic "Form of the Good," which he called "Reason," "God," "Mind," "Wisdom," etc. This was the true essence of being, and was eternal and unchangeable. The idea of a universal good also allowed Euclid to dismiss all that is not good because he claimed that good covered all things on Earth with its many names. Euclid adopted the Socratic idea that knowledge is virtue and that the only way to understand the never-changing world is through the study of philosophy. Euclid taught that virtues themselves, however, were simply the knowledge of the one good, or Being. As he said, "The Good is One, but we can call it by several names, sometimes as wisdom, sometimes as God, sometimes as Reason", and he declared, "the opposite of Good does not exist".  Euclid was also interested in concepts and dilemmas of logic. Euclid and his Megarian followers used dialogue and the eristic method to defend their ideas. The eristic method allowed them to prove their ideas by disproving those of the one they were arguing with and therefore indirectly proving one's own point ("see reductio ad absurdum"). When attacking a demonstration, it was not the premises assumed but the conclusions that he attacked, which presumably means that he tried to refute his opponents by drawing absurd consequences from their conclusions. He also rejected argument from analogy. His doctrinal heirs, the Stoic logicians, inaugurated the most important school of logic in antiquity other than Aristotle's peripatetics.

References.

Footnotes Citations

Euclid of Megara (; also Euclides, Eucleides; ; c. 435 – c. 365 BC) was a Greek Socratic philosopher who founded the Megarian school of philosophy. He was a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BC, and was present at his death. He held the supreme good to be one, eternal and unchangeable, and denied the existence of anything contrary to the good. Editors and translators in the Middle Ages often confused him with Euclid of Alexandria when discussing the latter's "Elements".


Description.

"Rosa rugosa" is a suckering shrub which develops new plants from the roots and forms dense thickets 1–1.50 m tall with stems densely covered in numerous short, straight prickles 3–10 mm long. The leaves are 8–15 cm long, pinnate with 5–9 leaflets, most often 7, each leaflet 3–4 cm long, with a distinctly corrugated (rugose, hence the species' name) surface. The leaf is a elliptical in shape with a rounded base or broadly cuneate with a leather feel, dark green top. The back of the leaf is composed of a green-grey colour with hair along the veins. The leaf margin is composed of teeth along the edges and is crenate-serrate. The flower has five petals that are usually 6-9 cm in width. The flower is composed of 200-250 stamens per flow and vary in style. The flowers are pleasantly scented, dark pink to white (on "R. rugosa" f. "alba" ), 6–9 cm across, with somewhat wrinkled petals; flowering occurs in spring.  The edible hips, which resemble cherry tomatoes, are large, 2–3 cm diameter, and often shorter than their diameter, not elongated; in late summer and early autumn the plants often bear fruit and flowers at the same time. The leaves typically turn bright yellow before falling in autumn.

History.

This rose species was introduced to America from Japan in the mid-19th century; it was valued because it can tolerate salt water spray.

Cultivation and uses.

"Rosa rugosa" is widely used as an ornamental plant. It has been introduced to numerous areas of Europe and North America. It has many common names, several of which refer to the fruit's resemblance to a tomato, including beach tomato or sea tomato; others include saltspray rose, beach rose, potato rose and Turkestan rose. In parts of the US the fruits are also occasionally called beach plums, causing confusion with the plant properly bearing that name, "Prunus maritima".  The sweetly scented flowers are traditionally used to make flower jam and dessert in China. They are also used to make pot-pourri in Japan and China. It is used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat irregular menstruation and gastritis.  This species hybridises readily with many other roses, and is valued by rose breeders for its considerable resistance to the diseases rose rust and rose black spot. It is also extremely tolerant of seaside salt spray and storms, commonly being the first shrub in from the coast. It is widely used in landscaping, being relatively tough and trouble-free. Needing little maintenance due to it being very disease resistant, it is suitable for planting in large numbers; its salt-tolerance makes it useful for planting beside roads which need deicing with salt regularly.  Numerous cultivars have been selected for garden use, with flower colour varying from white to dark red-purple, and with semi-double to double flowers where some or all of the stamens are replaced by extra petals. Popular examples include 'Rubra Plena' (semi-double variant, with strong clove scented dark pink petals and dark green wrinkled leaves and large round orange-red hips), 'Hansa' (very fragrant, red-purple double), 'Fru Dagmar Hastrup' (pink, single), 'Pink Grootendorst' (pink, semi-double), 'Blanc Double de Coubert' (white, double) and the more common 'Roseraie de L'Haÿ' (pink, double), which is often used for its very successful rootstock and its ornamental rose hips.

Economic effects.

Varieties of this species are sold in nurseries. In cultivation it has been cross-bred with other roses. It is valued for its attractive flowers, and it is often used to create hedges and windbreakers. It can control erosion and is planted along highways in Germany and Denmark.

Invasive species.

"Rosa rugosa" is naturalized in many parts of Europe, and it is considered an invasive species in some habitats, particularly in seashores of Northern Europe. To further understand the invasive process, it was first introduced into England from Japan in 1796, and then in Germany in 1845. This was the first presence of the flower within the European continent. In 1875, "Rosa rugosa" was found in Denmark and then in Sweden in 1918. By 2001, the flower species had become well established within 61 European countries. Although, it is native within China, it has been labeled as an endangered species due to a noticeable high decline in population rates of the flower. The species was able to spread due to birds and animals that eat the berries from the bush and people buying the rose and taking it with them overseas. It can outcompete native flora, thereby threatening biological diversity. On Sylt, an island in the north of Germany, it is sufficiently abundant to have become known as the "Sylt rose".  It is considered noxious in some states of the USA. "R. rugosa" was first introduced into North America in 1845. The first report of it being naturalized far from the location in which it was planted occurred on Nantucket in 1899 and was spreading rapidly by 1911. By 1920, the rose had been well established in Nantucket and in Connecticut. Ten years later it was said to be "straying rapidly" and today it is naturalized on the entire coast of New England and in scattered locations around the Northeast and Pacific Northwest.

Potential allergen.

Pollen or fragrance of rose may cause an allergic reaction.

Vernacular names.

In Japanese, it is called "beach aubergine", "beach pear" or simply "rose". The Chinese call it "méiguī huā". In Korean, the species is called "haedanghwa" (, ), literally "flowers near the seashore".

Rosa rugosa (rugosa rose, beach rose, Japanese rose, Ramanas rose, or letchberry) is a species of rose native to eastern Asia, in northeastern China, Japan, Korea and southeastern Siberia, where it grows on beach coasts, often on sand dunes. It should not be confused with "Rosa multiflora", which is also known as "Japanese rose". The Latin word "rugosa" means "wrinkled", referring to the wrinkled leaves.


History.

The "loi du 16 juin 1859" decreed the annexation to Paris of the area between the old "Wall of the Ferme générale" and the wall of Thiers. The communes of Grenelle, Vaugirard, and Javel were incorporated into Paris in 1860.  Charles Michels (b. 1903), was elected Député for the 15th arrondissement by the Popular Front; He was taken hostage and shot by the Nazis in 1941.

Quarters.

As in all the Parisian "arrondissements", the fifteenth is made up of four administrative quarters ("quartiers").  The early airfield here has been encroached upon by urban development and a sports centre, but the residual area, mainly laid to grass, continues to serve Paris as a heliport. The Sécurité Civile has a detachment there close to maintenance facilities. Customs facilities are available and especially busy during the Salon d'Aeronautique airshows held at Le Bourget on the other side of the city.

Geography.

The land area of this arrondissement is 8.502 km (3.283 sq. miles, or 2,101 acres).

Demography.

The peak of population of Paris's 15th arrondissement occurred in 1962, when it had 250,551 inhabitants. Since then it has lost approximately one-tenth of its population, but it remains the most populous arrondissement of Paris, with 225,362 inhabitants at the last census in 1999. With 144,667 jobs at the same census, the 15th is also very dense in business activities. This arrondissement is home to many families and is known in Paris as one of the quietest sections in Paris. The majority of the arrondissement is relatively unfrequented by tourists, a rarity for one of the world's most visited cities.

The 15th arrondissement of Paris ("XV arrondissement") is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, this arrondissement is referred to as "quinzième".


"National Geographic ".

Sharbat Gula was one of the students in an informal school in the Nasir Bagh refugee camp in 1984. Sharbat Gula's photograph was taken by National Geographic Society photographer Steve McCurry on Kodachrome 64 color slide film, with a Nikon FM2 camera and Nikkor 105mm Ai-S F2.5 lens. The pre-print photo retouching was done by Graphic Art Service, based in Marietta, Georgia. McCurry did not record the name of the person he had photographed.  The picture, titled "Afghan Girl", appeared on the June 1985 cover of "National Geographic". The image of her face, with a red scarf draped loosely over her head and her eyes staring directly into the camera was named "the most recognized photograph" in the history of the magazine, and the cover itself is one of the most famous of the "National Geographic". "American Photo" magazine says the image has an "unusual combination of grittiness and glamour". Her green eyes are the subject of frequent commentary.  McCurry made several unsuccessful attempts during the 1990s to locate her. In January 2002, a "National Geographic" team traveled to Afghanistan to locate the subject. McCurry, upon learning that the Nasir Bagh refugee camp was soon to close, inquired of its remaining residents, one of whom knew Sharbat Gula's brother and was able to send word to her hometown. However, a number of women came forward and identified themselves erroneously as the famous Afghan Girl. In addition, after being shown the 1984 photo, a handful of young men erroneously identified Sharbat Gula as their wife.  The team located Sharbat Gula, then around the age of 30, in a remote region of Afghanistan; she had returned to her native country from the refugee camp in 1992. Her identity was confirmed by John Daugman using iris recognition. She recalled being photographed. She had been photographed on only three occasions: in 1984 and during the search for her when a "National Geographic" producer took the identifying pictures that led to the reunion with Steve McCurry. She had never seen the "Afghan Girl" image before it was shown to her in January 2002.

Sharbat Gula.

Pashtun by ethnicity and from a rural background, Sharbat Gula's family fled during the Soviet Union's bombing of Afghanistan when she was around six years old in their village in eastern Nangarhar. Along with her father, brother, and three sisters, she walked across the mountains to Pakistan and ended up in the Nasir Bagh refugee camp in Pakistan in 1984.  She married Rahmat Gul between the age of 13 and 16, and returned to her village in Afghanistan in 1992. She is now a widow as her husband died from Hepatitis C virus around 2012. Sharbat Gula has three daughters. A fourth daughter died in infancy. She expressed hopes that her children will be able to get an education. A devout Muslim, Sharbat Gula normally would wear a burka and was hesitant to meet with McCurry, as he was a male from outside the family. When asked if she had ever felt safe, she responded "No. But life under the Taliban was better. At least there was peace and order." Until the "National Geographic" team found her again, she had never seen the photo of herself as a child. When asked how she had survived, she responded that it was "the will of God".  In 2015, local newspapers in Pakistan reported that the National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) canceled the Computerized National Identity Card (CNIC) to Sharbat Bibi and two men listed as her sons. Reports claimed the national ID cards had been issued illegally. A NADRA source is quoted as saying "They may not be her sons but this is a common practice among Afghan refugees whereby they list names of non-relatives as their children to obtain documents." A relative stated that the family lives in Pakistan, but "We travel between Pakistan and Afghanistan depending on the security situation."  On 26 October 2016, Sharbat Gula was arrested in Pakistan by the Federal Investigation Agency for living in the country using forged documents. She was sentenced to fifteen days in detention, and she was deported to Afghanistan. The decision was criticised by Amnesty International. In Kabul, Sharbat Gula and her children were welcomed by President Ashraf Ghani and former President Hamid Karzai at the presidential palace. The government promised to support her financially. In December 2017, Sharbat Gula was gifted a residence in Kabul for her and her children to live in.

Legacy.

Interest in the photo increased after 9/11 attacks when the George W. Bush administration began promoting Afghan women's rights during the US military campaign in Afghanistan.  More recent pictures of Sharbat Gula were featured as part of a cover story on her life in the April 2002 issue of "National Geographic" and she was the subject of a television documentary, entitled "Search for the Afghan Girl", which aired in March 2002. In recognition of her, "National Geographic" set up the Afghan Girls Fund, a charitable organization with the goal of educating Afghan girls and young women. In 2008, the scope of the fund was broadened to include boys and the name was changed to Afghan Children's Fund. After finding Sharbat Gula, "National Geographic" also covered the costs of medical treatment for her family, and paid for the costs of a pilgrimage to Mecca.

Criticism.

A 2019 article in the Indian magazine "The Wire" that described a 2002 interview with Sharbat Gula says that she was angered by the photograph being taken and that no consent was requested or given for the image to be published. The writer for "The Wire" suggests that this is because "it is not welcome for a girl of traditional Pashtun culture to reveal her face, share space, make eye contact and be photographed by a man who does not belong to her family."

Afghan Girl is a 1984 photographic portrait of Sharbat Gula () (pronounced ) (born ), also known as Sharbat Bibi, taken by photojournalist Steve McCurry. It appeared on the June 1985 cover of "National Geographic". The image is of an adolescent girl with green eyes in a red headscarf looking intensely at the camera. The identity of the photo's subject was not initially known, but in early 2002, she was identified as Sharbat Gula. She was an Afghan child who was living in the Nasir Bagh refugee camp in Pakistan during the time of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan when she was photographed.


Signs and symptoms.

Most (80% to 100%) of amputees experience a phantom with some non-painful sensations. The amputee may feel very strongly that the phantom limb is still part of the body.  People will sometimes feel as if they are gesturing, feel itches, twitch, or even try to pick things up. The missing limb often feels shorter and may feel as if it is in a distorted and painful position. Occasionally, the pain can be made worse by stress, anxiety and weather changes. Phantom limb pain is usually intermittent. The frequency and intensity of attacks usually declines with time.  Repressed memories in phantom limbs could potentially explain the reason for existing sensations after amputation. Specifically, there have been several reports from patients of painful clenching spasms in the phantom hand with the feeling of their nails digging into their palms. The motor output is amplified due to the missing limb; therefore, the patient may experience the overflow of information as pain. The patient contains repressed memories from previous motor commands of clenching the hand and sensory information from digging their nails into their palm. These memories remain due to previous neural connections in the brain.

Phantom limb syndrome.

The term "phantom limb" was coined by physician Silas Weir Mitchell in 1871. For many years, the dominant hypothesis for the cause of phantom limbs was irritation in the peripheral nervous system at the amputation site (neuroma). By the late 1980s, Ronald Melzack had recognized that the peripheral neuroma account could not be correct, because many people born without limbs also experienced phantom limbs. According to Melzack the experience of the body is created by a wide network of interconnecting neural structures, which he called the "neuromatrix".  Pons and colleagues (1991) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) showed that the primary somatosensory cortex in macaque monkeys undergoes substantial reorganization after the loss of sensory input.  Hearing about these results, Vilayanur S. Ramachandran hypothesized that phantom limb sensations in humans could be due to reorganization in the human brain's somatosensory cortex. Ramachandran and colleagues illustrated this hypothesis by showing that stroking different parts of the face led to perceptions of being touched on different parts of the missing limb. Later brain scans of amputees showed the same kind of cortical reorganization that Pons had observed in monkeys. Maladaptive changes in the cortex may account for some but not all phantom limb pain. Pain researchers such as Tamar Makin (Oxford) and Marshall Devor (Hebrew University, Jerusalem) argue that phantom limb pain is primarily the result of "junk" inputs from the peripheral nervous system.  Despite a great deal of research on the underlying neural mechanisms of phantom limb pain there is still no clear consensus as to its cause. Both the brain and the peripheral nervous system may be involved.  Research continues into more precise mechanisms and explanations.

Neural mechanisms.

Pain, temperature, touch, and vibration are carried in the central nervous system via the anterolateral and spinothalamic tracts, carrying incoming sensory information and sending motor information. Incoming sensory information travels along the anterolateral pathway and arrives at the primary sensory cortex, located in the postcentral gyrus in the parietal lobe; also the location of the sensory homunculus.  In phantom limb syndrome, there is sensory input indicating pain from a part of the body that is no longer existent. This phenomenon is still not fully understood, but it is hypothesized that it is caused by activation of the somatosensory cortex.

Treatment.

Most approaches to treatment over the past two decades have not shown consistent symptom improvement. Treatment approaches have included medication such as antidepressants, spinal cord stimulation, vibration therapy, acupuncture, hypnosis, and biofeedback. Reliable evidence is lacking on whether any treatment is more effective than the others.  Most treatments are not very effective. Ketamine or morphine may be useful around the time of surgery. Morphine may be helpful for longer periods of time. Evidence for gabapentin is mixed. Perineural catheters that provide local anesthetic agents have poor evidence of success when placed after surgery in an effort to prevent phantom limb pain.  One approach that has received public interest is the use of a mirror box. The mirror box provides a reflection of the intact hand or limb that allows the patient to "move" the phantom limb, and to unclench it from potentially painful positions.  Although mirror therapy was introduced by VS Ramachandran in the early 1990s, little research was done on it before 2009, and much of the subsequent research has been of poor quality, according to a 2016 review. A 2018 review, which also criticized the scientific quality of many reports on mirror therapy (MT), found 15 good-quality studies conducted between 2012 and 2017 (out of a pool of 115 publications), and concluded that "MT seems to be effective in relieving PLP, reducing the intensity and duration of daily pain episodes. It is a valid, simple, and inexpensive treatment for PLP."

Other phantom sensations.

Phantom sensations may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, e.g. after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain) or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome).  Some people who have undergone gender reassignment surgery have reported the sensation of phantom genitals. The reports were less common among post-operative transgender women, but did occur in transgender men. Similarly, subjects who had undergone mastectomy reported experiencing phantom breasts; these reports were substantially less common among post-operative transgender men.

A phantom limb is the sensation that an amputated or missing limb is still attached. Approximately 80 to 100% of individuals with an amputation experience phantom sensations in their amputated limb. However, only a small percentage will experience painful phantom limb sensation. These sensations are relatively common in amputees and usually resolve within two to three years without treatment. Research continues to explore the underlying mechanisms of phantom limb pain (PLP) and effective treatment options.


Etymology.

The name "eglantine" is from Middle English "eglentyn", from Old French "aiglantin" (adj.), from "aiglent"'sweetbrier', from Vulgar Latin *"aculentus" (with the ending of "spinulentus" 'thorny, prickly'), from Latin "aculeus" 'prickle', from "acus" 'needle'. "Sweet" refers to the sweet, apple fragrance of the leaves, while "briar" ~ "brier" refers to it being a thorny bush.

Cultivation and uses.

In addition to its pink flowers, it is valued for its scent, and the hips that form after the flowers and persist well into the winter. Graham Thomas recommends that it should be planted on the south or west side of the garden so that the fragrance will be brought into the garden on warm, moist winds. A specimen without any scent and blush or white flowers may be the closely related fieldbriar, "Rosa agrestis".  The tea made from the hips of this rose is very popular in Europe and elsewhere, where it is considered a healthy way for people to get their daily dose of vitamin C and other nutrients. A cup of rose hip tea will provide the minimum daily adult requirement of vitamin C. During World War II the British relied on rose hips and hops as the sources for their vitamins A and C. It was a common British wartime expression to say that: "We are getting by on our hips and hops."  In Tunisia, natural flower water is produced from its flowers.  In Chile and Argentina, where it is known in Spanish language as "Rosa Mosqueta", it can be found in the wild around the Andes range and is also cultivated to produce marmalades and cosmetic products.

Rosa rubiginosa (sweet briar, sweetbriar rose, sweet brier or eglantine; syn. "R. eglanteria") is a species of rose native to Europe and western Asia.


Early life.

He was born as Count Leopold of Lippe-Biesterfeld in Oberkassel, the son of Ernest, Count of Lippe-Biesterfeld and Countess Karoline of Wartensleben. Leopold belonged to the Lippe-Biesterfeld line of the House of Lippe which was the most senior line of the princely house after the reigning Lippe-Detmold line.  He served as an officer in the German Army until 1894, when he left to study political science at the universities of Bonn and Berlin.

Ruler of Lippe.

Since 1895, Lippe had been ruled by a regent due to the incapacity of Prince Alexander. Leopold's father had acted as regent since 1897, and following his death on 26 September 1904, Leopold assumed the regency. This was not recognized by the German Emperor William II, who initially refused to legally recognize Leopold as regent as there was an issue over whether Leopold and his siblings were of legitimate rank, and as such eligible for the succession. As a result, the Diet of Lippe appointed a high commission to consider the matter.  The regency issue was still ongoing when Prince Alexander died on 13 January 1905. Leopold was confirmed as Prince of Lippe and Alexander's successor on 25 October 1905, following a court ruling.  On 3 June 1911, while out motoring, Leopold and his brother Prince Julius were attacked by a gang of Italian laborers who hurled a shower of missiles at the princes. Though Leopold escaped unhurt, his brother received a head wound.  During World War I, Leopold upgraded the titles of the various lines of the House of Lippe. One of the members to benefit from the granting of titles was Leopold's nephew Count Bernhard of Biesterfeld (son of Leopold's brother Bernhard), who would go on to become the Prince Consort of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands. On 24 February 1916, Bernhard and his brother were upgraded to the title Prince of Lippe-Biesterfeld with the style Serene Highness. The counts of Lippe-Weissenfeld also benefited with creations of the title Prince of Lippe-Weissenfeld, with the style serene highness, taking place on 24 February 1916 for Count Clemens and his descendants, and again on 9 November 1918 for the other members of this line.  Just three days after upgrading the titles of members of the Lippe-Weissenfeld line, and following the German Empire's defeat in World War I and the subsequent revolution, Leopold was forced to renounce the throne on 12 November 1918. Following the end of his rule, the Principality of Lippe was transformed into a Free state in the new Weimar Republic.

Post abdication.

After the rise of Nazism in Germany all three of his sons by his first wife became members of the party. His eldest son the Hereditary Prince Ernst is reported to have been the first German prince to join the party when he signed up in May 1928.  In addition to being pro Nazis both Hereditary Prince Ernst and Prince Chlodwig had contracted unequal marriages. So in 1947 when Leopold wrote his will, Armin, his youngest son and only child with his second wife, would succeed him as head of the House of Lippe and also become administrator of the princely family's properties such as Schloss Detmold. Thus when Leopold died in Detmold his three eldest sons were all disinherited and his youngest son Armin became head of the princely house.

Marriages and children.

Leopold was married to Princess Bertha of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (1874–1919) on 16 August 1901 in Rotenburg. They had five children.  He was married secondly to Princess Anna of Ysenburg and Büdingen (1886–1980) on 26 April 1922 at Büdingen. From this marriage he had one son.

Leopold IV, Prince of Lippe ("Leopold Julius Bernhard Adalbert Otto Karl Gustav"; 30 May 1871 – 30 December 1949) was the final sovereign of the Principality of Lippe. Succeeding to the throne in 1905 he had been governing the state since 1904 as regent.


Description.

It grows as a perennial plant, usually as a subshrub though it can take any form from a herb to a shrub depending on conditions; the plants are usually woody at the base. The leaves are generally 5–8 cm in length. Their form changes from the bottom to the top of the plant, the lower leaves being petiolate while the upper leaves are sessile. The leaves grow in opposite pairs and are oval or lanceolate in shape. The plant flowers profusely, and though the individual flowers are small (no more than 2 cm), the inflorescences are large and showy. The flowers are small in rounded clusters each with 5 fused petals and a spur. The most typical color is a brick red or purplish red, but colors include deep crimson, pale pink, and lavender. "Centranthus ruber" 'Albus' (about 10% of individuals) has white blooms. Flowering takes place in early summer and, in cool summer areas, continues sporadically throughout the summer and into fall. The cultivar 'coccineus' is especially long-blooming. The blooms have a strong and somewhat rank scent. They are pollinated by both bees and butterflies and the plant is noted for attracting insects. It is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including angle shades. Seeds have tufts similar to dandelions that allow wind dispersal, and as such can self-seed freely and become invasive if not properly controlled.

Distribution.

A native of the Mediterranean region, "Centranthus ruber" has been introduced into many other parts of the world as a garden escape. It is naturalised in France, Australia, Great Britain, Ireland and the United States. In the US it can be found growing wild in such western states as Arizona, Utah, California, Hawaii, Washington, and Oregon, usually in disturbed, rocky places at elevations below 200 m. It is often seen by roadsides or in urban wasteland. It can tolerate very alkaline soil conditions. Because it can tolerate the lime in mortar, "Centranthus ruber" may frequently be seen growing in old walls in Italy, southern France and south-west England.

Uses.

Both leaves and roots can be eaten, the leaves either fresh in salads or lightly boiled, the roots boiled in soups. Opinions differ as to whether either make very good eating, however. Although it is sometimes reported to have medicinal properties, there is no basis for this view, which is almost certainly due to confusion with true valerian, ("Valeriana officinalis").

Invasive species.

It is listed as a NEMBA 1b invasive in the Western Cape, South Africa. It is an invasive species that may not be owned, imported into South Africa, grown, moved, sold, given as a gift or dumped in a waterway. It is therefore an Invasive species requiring compulsory control as part of an invasive species control programme to remove and destroy. The plants are deemed to have such a high invasive potential that infestations can qualify to be placed under a government sponsored invasive species management programme. No permits will be issued.

Centranthus ruber, also called red valerian, spur valerian, kiss-me-quick, fox's brush, devil's beard and Jupiter's beard, is a popular garden plant grown for its ornamental flowers.