Reactions.

With di- and triatomic molecules.

Upon condensing to a liquid, nitric oxide dimerizes to dinitrogen dioxide, but the association is weak and reversible. The N–N distance in crystalline NO is 218 pm, nearly twice the N–O distance.  Since the heat of formation of ·NO is endothermic, NO can be decomposed to the elements. Catalytic converters in cars exploit this reaction:  When exposed to oxygen, nitric oxide converts into nitrogen dioxide:  This conversion has been speculated as occurring via the ONOONO intermediate.  In water, nitric oxide reacts with oxygen and water to form nitrous acid (HNO). The reaction is thought to proceed via the following stoichiometry:  Nitric oxide reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to form the nitrosyl halides, such as nitrosyl chloride:  With NO, also a radical, NO combines to form the intensely blue dinitrogen trioxide:

Organic chemistry.

The addition of a nitric oxide moiety to another molecule is often referred to as nitrosylation. Nitric oxide reacts with acetone and an alkoxide to a "diazeniumdiolate" or "nitrosohydroxylamine" and methyl acetate:  This reaction, which was discovered around 1898, remains of interest in nitric oxide prodrug research. Nitric oxide can also react directly with sodium methoxide, forming sodium formate and nitrous oxide.

Coordination complexes.

Nitric oxide reacts with transition metals to give complexes called metal nitrosyls. The most common bonding mode of nitric oxide is the terminal linear type (M−NO). Alternatively, nitric oxide can serve as a one-electron pseudohalide. In such complexes, the M−N−O group is characterized by an angle between 120° and 140°. The NO group can also bridge between metal centers through the nitrogen atom in a variety of geometries.

Production and preparation.

In commercial settings, nitric oxide is produced by the oxidation of ammonia at 750–900 °C (normally at 850 °C) with platinum as catalyst in the Ostwald process:  The uncatalyzed endothermic reaction of oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N), which is effected at high temperature (>2000 °C) by lightning has not been developed into a practical commercial synthesis (see Birkeland–Eyde process):

Laboratory methods.

In the laboratory, nitric oxide is conveniently generated by reduction of dilute nitric acid with copper:  An alternative route involves the reduction of nitrous acid in the form of sodium nitrite or potassium nitrite:  The iron(II) sulfate route is simple and has been used in undergraduate laboratory experiments. So-called NONOate compounds are also used for nitric oxide generation.

Detection and assay.

Nitric oxide concentration can be determined using a chemiluminescent reaction involving ozone. A sample containing nitric oxide is mixed with a large quantity of ozone. The nitric oxide reacts with the ozone to produce oxygen and nitrogen dioxide, accompanied with emission of light (chemiluminescence): which can be measured with a photodetector. The amount of light produced is proportional to the amount of nitric oxide in the sample.  Other methods of testing include electroanalysis (amperometric approach), where ·NO reacts with an electrode to induce a current or voltage change. The detection of NO radicals in biological tissues is particularly difficult due to the short lifetime and concentration of these radicals in tissues. One of the few practical methods is spin trapping of nitric oxide with iron-dithiocarbamate complexes and subsequent detection of the mono-nitrosyl-iron complex with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR).  A group of fluorescent dye indicators that are also available in acetylated form for intracellular measurements exist. The most common compound is 4,5-diaminofluorescein (DAF-2).

Environmental effects.

Acid rain deposition.

Nitric oxide reacts with the hydroperoxy radical (HO) to form nitrogen dioxide (NO), which then can react with a hydroxyl radical (OH) to produce nitric acid (HNO): Nitric acid, along with sulfuric acid, contributes to acid rain deposition.

Ozone depletion.

·NO participates in ozone layer depletion. Nitric oxide reacts with stratospheric ozone to form O and nitrogen dioxide:  This reaction is also utilized to measure concentrations of ·NO in control volumes.

Precursor to NO.

As seen in the Acid deposition section, nitric oxide can transform into nitrogen dioxide (this can happen with the hydroperoxy radical, HO, or diatomic oxygen, O). Symptoms of short-term nitrogen dioxide exposure include nausea, dyspnea and headache. Long-term effects could include impaired immune and respiratory function.

Biological functions.

NO is a gaseous signaling molecule. It is a key vertebrate biological messenger, playing a role in a variety of biological processes. It is a known bioproduct in almost all types of organisms, ranging from bacteria to plants, fungi, and animal cells.  Nitric oxide, known as an endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), is biosynthesized endogenously from -arginine, oxygen, and NADPH by various nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzymes. Reduction of inorganic nitrate may also serve to make nitric oxide. One of the main enzymatic targets of nitric oxide is guanylyl cyclase. The binding of nitric oxide to the haem region of the enzyme leads to activation, in the presence of iron. Nitric oxide is highly reactive (having a lifetime of a few seconds), yet diffuses freely across membranes. These attributes make nitric oxide ideal for a transient paracrine (between adjacent cells) and autocrine (within a single cell) signaling molecule. Once nitric oxide is converted to nitrates and nitrites by oxygen and water, cell signaling is deactivated.  The endothelium (inner lining) of blood vessels uses nitric oxide to signal the surrounding smooth muscle to relax, thus resulting in vasodilation and increasing blood flow. Sildenafil (Viagra) is a common example of a drug that uses the nitric oxide pathway. Sildenafil does not produce nitric oxide, but enhances the signals that are the downstream of the nitric oxide pathway by protecting cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) from degradation by cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) in the corpus cavernosum, allowing for the signal to be enhanced, and thus vasodilation. Another endogenous gaseous transmitter, hydrogen sulfide (HS) works with NO to induce vasodilatation and angiogenesis in a cooperative manner.

Occupational safety and health.

In the U.S., the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for nitric oxide exposure in the workplace as 25 ppm (30 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 25 ppm (30 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 100 ppm, nitric oxide is immediately dangerous to life and health.

Nitric oxide (nitrogen oxide or nitrogen monoxide) is a colorless gas with the formula. It is one of the principal oxides of nitrogen. Nitric oxide is a free radical, i.e., it has an unpaired electron, which is sometimes denoted by a dot in its chemical formula (·N=O or ·NO). Nitric oxide is also a heteronuclear diatomic molecule, a historic class that drew researches which spawned early modern theories of chemical bonding.


Career.

Born and raised in Mannheim to South African parents of Indian, German and Irish descent, Naidoo worked in several jobs in the food and music industries before relocating to the United States in the early 1990s, where he released his first full-length English-language album "Seeing Is Believing" under his stage name Kobra in 1994. He currently resides in Heidelberg in his native Germany.  After working as a backing vocalist for the Rödelheim Hartreim Projekt and 3P label mates Sabrina Setlur and Illmat!c, Naidoo released his first German language album "Nicht von dieser Welt" in 1998, for which he won an ECHO Award and an MTV Europe Music Award. Selling more than one million copies in total, it produced six singles, including "Seine Straßen" and "Sie sieht mich nicht", the latter of which served as the theme song for "Astérix & Obélix Take on Caesar" (1999). After his highly publicized departure from 3P, his third studio album "Zwischenspiel – Alles für den Herrn" was released in 2002. It spawned the top five hit singles "Wo willst du hin?" and "Abschied nehmen" and led to a collaboration with Wu-Tang Clan member and producer RZA, with whom he released his first number-one single "Ich kenne nichts (das so schön ist wie du)" in 2003.  Known for his soulful voice and his Christian lyrics, he has collaborated with several famous artists such as Deborah Cox and Swiss artist Stress. Naidoo was with Söhne Mannheims (Sons of Mannheim) earlier before he became famous, after his popularity increased he went back to the band and wanted to help them to become famous too, which worked. Nowadays he switches back and forth with doing some solo music or recording an album and going on tour with Söhne Mannheims. He joined groups like Brothers Keepers and the charity project (Signs of the Times) in early 2013  In 2012, he also collaborated in Xavas, a duo formation with Kool Savas, a Turkish-German rapper in the album "Gespaltene Persönlichkeit". The two had already worked together on a number of other releases.  In 2013, Xavier released "Eye Opener" on the vocal collaboration album "Features" by Kris Menace.

Eurovision Song Contest invitation and withdrawal.

On 19 November 2015, Naidoo was announced as the German representative in the Eurovision Song Contest 2016. His entry was due to be chosen from six competing entries in a national final in February.  However, his selection proved controversial. Naidoo's right wing political views, coupled with homophobic lyrics in his 2012 song (featuring Kool Savas) "Wo sind sie jetzt", led to calls for his selection to be reconsidered. Within a day, an online petition had gathered nearly 15,000 signatories. Claudia Roth, a vice-president of the Bundestag for the German Green Party, also criticised the decision, citing the poor timing, with right wing political causes gaining popularity in the wake of the migrant crisis. On 21 November, it was revealed by the German broadcaster, NDR, that Germany had withdrawn the singer's participation.

Political views.

Xavier Naidoo has blamed the Rothschild family for Germany's 20th century history and has spoken at a meeting of the "Reichsbürgerbewegung", the right-wing movement that seeks to restore Germany's pre-1918 borders, denies the legal existence of the Federal Republic of Germany and claims Germany is a country occupied by enemy, foreign forces. During the event he also denied the official account of the September 11 attacks, stating that "simply put, whoever believes what was reported about this event is not seeing clearly".  Naidoo gave similar opinions in a live interview on ARD Morgenmagazin, public service breakfast television in 2015.  In March 2020 two video clips of Naidoo were released on social media, showing him singing one of his songs in the aftermath of the anti-migrant 2018 Chemnitz protests with altered lyrics. In these he stated about the migrants who recently arrived in Germany: "Your daughters, your children shall suffer; Shall have to undress next to wolves in the gym; While you stand around placidly doing nothing" and "Far and wide, not a man in sight, who can save this country yet". Naidoo was subsequently fired by the TV-station RTL where he worked as a judge on the casting show Deutschland sucht den Superstar.  Naidoo also propagates climate change denial. He claims the Fridays For Future movement is orchestrated by the Antichrist. According to Naidoo the proof is to be found in the name of the movement, which abbreviates to "FFF", the letter "F" being the sixth in the alphabet, therefore symbolizing the Number of the Beast.

Musical themes.

Ethos.

Naidoo's music has been claimed to feature a utopian, pan-theistic ideology through which he expressed his own political anxieties and stances. Although he explores Christian, Muslim, and Rastafarian modes of living, his work has been asserted to be strongly grounded in Old Testament narratives and apocalyptic sentiments. Applying these to situations faced specifically in a "Black German" context, Naidoo has called for solutions not from the state, but from cross-cultural spiritual collectives. For example, in the lyrics and video for "Seine Strassen", the power of the state in terms of protection and surveillance is said to pale in comparison to higher spiritual powers.  However his lyrics have also featured anti-Semitic slurs and homophobic sentiments. His 2012 song "Wo sind" implied that homosexuals were paedophiles.

Mixed German and Asian identity.

Although Naidoo does not engage directly with his own mixed German and Asian identity in his music, he was integral to the formation of an Afro-German presence in German popular culture. Specifically, his work with Glashaus can be said to have originated a distinctly Afro-German form of R&B, one which addressed the issues faced by Black Germans without invoking Black Germans specifically. Not only did Naidoo experiment with sounds from around the Black Diaspora, notably working with RZA, but was also a member of Brothers Keepers, an explicitly Afro-German and explicitly political collective. As lead singer on "Adriano", one of Brothers Keepers' most well-known songs, he has been seen to stand with the Afro-German collective and setting the tone for their message.

Xavier Kurt Naidoo (born 2 October 1971), also known by his stage name Kobra, is a German soul and R&B singer/songwriter, record producer, and occasional actor. He is a founding member of the German band Söhne Mannheims, and started two record labels, Beats Around the Bush and Naidoo Records. Naidoo also has a successful solo career. His debut album "Nicht von dieser Welt" (1998) has sold over 1 million records, and all his next six albums "Zwischenspiel – Alles für den Herrn" (2002), "Telegramm für X" (2005), "Alles kann besser werden" (2009), "Danke für's Zuhören" (2012), "Bei meiner Seele" (2013) und "Nicht von dieser Welt 2" (2016) reached number 1 on the German album charts. Most of his songs are in German, however, he has also released a couple of English songs.


Family.

He was the son of Vsevolod I (married in 1046) by a relative of Byzantine emperor Constantine IX Monomachos, from whom Vladimir obtained his sobriquet. Contemporary Byzantine naming practice allowed the adoption of a maternal surname if the mother's family was perceived to be of a more exalted origin than that of the father.

Reign.

In his famous "Instruction" (also known as "The Testament") to his own children, Monomakh mentions that he conducted 83 military campaigns and 19 times made peace with the Polovtsi. At first he waged war against the steppe jointly with his cousin Oleg, but after Vladimir was sent by his father to rule Chernigov and Oleg made peace with the Polovtsi to retake that city from him, they parted company. Since that time, Vladimir and Oleg were bitter enemies who would often engage in internecine wars. The enmity continued among their children and more distant posterity.  From 1094, his chief patrimony was the southern town of Pereyaslav, although he also controlled Rostov, Suzdal, and other northern provinces (see Principality of Pereyaslavl). In these lands he founded several towns, notably his namesake, Vladimir, the future capital of Russia. In order to unite the princes of Rus' in their struggle against the Great Steppe, Vladimir initiated three princely congresses, the most important being held at Lyubech in 1097 and Dolobsk in 1103.  In 1107 he defeated Boniak, a Cuman khan who led an invasion on Kievan Rus'. When Sviatopolk II died in 1113, the Kievan populace revolted and summoned Vladimir to the capital. The same year he entered Kiev to the great delight of the crowd and reigned there until his death in 1125. As may be seen from his "Instruction", he promulgated a number of reforms in order to allay the social tensions in the capital. These years saw the last flowering of Ancient Rus, which was torn apart 10 years after his death.  Vladimir Monomakh is buried in the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. Succeeding generations often referred to his reign as the golden age of that city. Numerous legends are connected with Monomakh's name, including the transfer from Constantinople to Rus of such precious relics as the Theotokos of Vladimir and the Vladimir/Muscovite crown called Monomakh's Cap.

Marriages and children.

Vladimir married three times. Some sources cite his first wife as Gytha of Wessex, daughter of Harold of England who had fallen at Hastings in 1066 and of Edith Swannesha. Problems exist in that none of the sources citing this are contemporary, and none of the Russian sources cite the name of his first wife as the daughter of Harold Godwinson. They had at least five children:  The following daughter has been attributed to either the first or the second wife:  Vladimir's second wife, Eufimia, is considered to have been a Byzantine noblewoman. The "Primary Chronicle" and the "Testament of Vladimir Monomakh" record her date of death as 7 May 1107. However the "Chronicle" does not mention her name. This marriage produced at least six children:  Vladimir's third marriage is thought to have been to a daughter of Aepa Ocenevich, Khan of the Cumans. Her paternal grandfather was Osen. Her people belonged to the Kipchaks, a confederation of pastoralists and warriors of Turkic origin.  However the "Primary Chronicle" identifies Aepa as father-in-law to Yuri Dolgoruki, with Vladimir negotiating the marriage in name of his son. Whether father and son married sisters or the identity of intended groom was misidentified remains unclear.

Vladimir II Monomakh (Old East Slavic: Володимѣръ Мономахъ, "Volodimer Monomakh"; Christian name: "Vasiliy", or "Basileios") (26 May 1053 – 19 May 1125) reigned as Grand Prince of Kievan Rus' from 1113 to 1125.


Early life.

Hamann was born on August 27, 1730 in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia). Initially he studied theology at the University of Königsberg, but became a clerk in a mercantile house and afterward held many small public offices, devoting his leisure to reading philosophy.) His first publication was a study in political economy about a dispute on nobility and trade. He wrote under the "nom de plume" of “the Magus of the North” (). Hamann was a believer in the Enlightenment until a mystical experience in London in 1758.  His translation of David Hume into German is considered by most scholars as the one that Hamann's friend, Immanuel Kant, also from Königsberg, had read and referred to as inspiration for awakening from "dogmatic slumber". Hamann and Kant held each other in mutual respect, although Hamann once declined an invitation by Kant to co-write a physics textbook for children. Hamann also introduced Kant to the work of Rousseau.

Music.

Hamann was a lutenist, having studied this instrument with Timofey Belogradsky (a student of Sylvius Leopold Weiss), a Ukrainian virtuoso then living in Königsberg.

Philosophical views.

His distrust of autonomous, disembodied reason and the Enlightenment ("I look upon logical proofs the way a well-bred girl looks upon a love letter" was one of his many witticisms) led him to conclude that faith in God was the only solution to the vexing problems of philosophy.  One of Kant's biographers compared him with Hamann:  In Hamann's own terms Kant was a "Platonist" about reason, believing it disembodied, and Hamann an "Aristotelian" who believed it was embodied. Hamann was greatly influenced by Hume. This is most evident in Hamann's conviction that faith and belief, rather than knowledge, determine human actions. Also, Hamann asserted that the efficacy of a concept arises from the habits it reflects rather than any inherent quality it possesses.

Works.

Hamann's writings consist of small essays. They display two striking tendencies. The first is their brevity, in comparison with works by his contemporaries. The second is their breadth of allusion and delight in extended analogies. For example, his work "Golgatha and Scheblimini! By a Preacher in the Wilderness" (1784) was directed against Moses Mendelssohn's "Jerusalem, or on Religious Might and Judaism" (1782). His work was also significantly reactive; rather than advance a “position” of his own, his principal mode of thinking was to respond to others' work.  Hamann famously used the image of Socrates, who often proclaimed to know nothing, in his "Socratic Memorabilia", an essay in which Hamann critiques the Enlightenment's dependence on reason. In "Aesthetica in nuce", Hamann counters the Enlightenment by emphasizing the importance of aesthetic experience and the role of genius in intuiting nature.

Editions.

Fragments of his writings were published by Cramer, under the title of "Sibyllinische Blätter des Magus aus Norden" (1819), and a complete edition by Roth (7 vols., 1821–25, with a volume of additions and explanations by Wiener, 1843). "Hamann's des Magus in Norden Leben und Schriften", edited by Gildemeister, was published in 5 vols., 1857–68, and a new edition of his "Schriften und Briefen", edited by Petri, in 4 vols., 1872-74.

God.

Hamann argued that the communicatio idiomatum, namely, the communication of divine messages through material embodiments, applies not just to Christ, but should be generalised to cover all human action: "This communicatio of divine and human idiomatum is a fundamental law and the master-key of all our knowledge and of the whole visible economy." Hamann believed all of creation were signs from God for us to interpret.

Reason is language.

His most notable contributions to philosophy were his thoughts on language, which have often been considered as a forerunner to the linguistic turn in analytic philosophy such as Wittgenstein's. He famously said that "Reason is language" ("Vernunft ist Sprache"). Hamann thought the bridge between Kant's noumenal and phenomenal realms was language, with its noumenal meaning and phenomenal letters.

Legacy.

Hamann was one of the precipitating forces for the Counter-Enlightenment. He was, moreover, a mentor to Herder and an admired influence on Goethe, Jacobi, Hegel, Kierkegaard, Lessing, and Mendelssohn. Roman Catholic theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar devoted a chapter to Hamann in his volume, "Studies in Theological Styles: Lay Styles" (Volume III in the English language translation of "The Glory of the Lord" series). Most recently, Hamann's influence can be found in the work of the theologians Oswald Bayer (Lutheran), John Milbank (Anglican), and David Bentley Hart (Orthodox). Finally, in Charles Taylor's important summative work, "The Language Animal: The Full Shape of the Human Linguistic Capacity" (Taylor, 2016), Hamann is given credit, along with Wilhelm von Humboldt and Herder, for inspiring Taylor's "HHH" approach to the philosophy of language, emphasizing the creative power and cultural specificity of language.  However, recent scholarship, such as that by Bayer, contradicts the usual interpretation by people such as historian of ideas Isaiah Berlin, and describes Hamann as a "radical Enlightener" who vigorously opposed dogmatic rationalism in matters of philosophy and faith. Bayer views him as less the proto-Romantic that Herder presented, and more a premodern-postmodern thinker who brought the consequences of Lutheran theology to bear upon the burgeoning Enlightenment and especially in reaction to Kant.

Johann Georg Hamann (; ; August 27, 1730 – June 21, 1788) was a German Lutheran philosopher from Königsberg known as “the Wizard of the North” who was one of the leader figures of post-Kantian philosophy. His work was used by his student J. G. Herder as the main support of the "Sturm und Drang" movement, and is associated with the Counter-Enlightenment and Romanticism.


Career.

The eldest son of Constantine the Great and Fausta, Constantine II was born in Arles in February 316 and raised as a Christian. On 1 March 317, he was made Caesar. In 323, at the age of seven, he took part in his father's campaign against the Sarmatians. At age ten, he became commander of Gaul, following the death of his half-brother Crispus. An inscription dating to 330 records the title of "Alamannicus", so it is probable that his generals won a victory over the Alamanni. His military career continued when Constantine I made him field commander during the 332 campaign against the Goths.  Following the death of his father in 337, Constantine II initially became emperor jointly with his brothers Constantius II and Constans, with the Empire divided between them and their cousins, the "Caesars" Dalmatius and Hannibalianus. This arrangement barely survived Constantine I’s death, as his sons arranged the slaughter of most of the rest of the family by the army. As a result, the three brothers gathered together in Pannonia and there, on 9 September 337, divided the Roman world among themselves. Constantine, proclaimed "Augustus" by the troops received Gaul, Britannia and Hispania. He was soon involved in the struggle between factions rupturing the unity of the Christian Church. The Western portion of the Empire, under the influence of the Popes in Rome, favored Catholicism over Arianism, and through their intercession they convinced Constantine to free Athanasius, allowing him to return to Alexandria. This action aggravated Constantius II, who was a committed supporter of Arianism.  Constantine was initially the guardian of his younger brother Constans, whose portion of the empire was Italia, Africa and Illyricum. Constantine soon complained that he had not received the amount of territory that was his due as the eldest son. Annoyed that Constans had received Thrace and Macedonia after the death of Dalmatius, Constantine demanded that Constans hand over the African provinces, to which he agreed in order to maintain a fragile peace. Soon, however, they began quarreling over which parts of the African provinces belonged to Carthage, and thus Constantine, and which belonged to Italy, and therefore Constans.  Further complications arose when Constans came of age and Constantine, who had grown accustomed to dominating his younger brother, would not relinquish the guardianship. In 340 Constantine marched into Italy at the head of his troops. Constans, at that time in Dacia, detached and sent a select and disciplined body of his Illyrian troops, stating that he would follow them in person with the remainder of his forces. Constantine was engaged in military operations and was killed in an ambush outside Aquileia. Constans then took control of his deceased brother's realm.

Constantine II (; January/February 316 – 340) was Roman Emperor from 337 to 340. Son of Constantine the Great and co-emperor alongside his brothers, his attempt to exert his perceived rights of primogeniture led to his death in a failed invasion of Italy in 340.


Early life.

Born in Rochefort, Charente-Maritime, France to a bilingual family, Desclos began reading in French and English at an early age. After completing her studies at the Sorbonne, she worked as a journalist until 1946 when she joined Gallimard Publishers as the editorial secretary for one of its imprints where she began using the pen name of Dominique Aury.  An avid reader of English literature, Desclos either translated or introduced to readers in France such renowned authors as Algernon Charles Swinburne, Evelyn Waugh, Virginia Woolf, T. S. Eliot, F. Scott Fitzgerald and numerous others. She became a critic and was made a member of the jury for several prominent literary awards.

Career.

Desclos' lover and employer Jean Paulhan, a fervent admirer of the Marquis de Sade, had made the remark to her that no woman was capable of writing an erotic novel. To prove him wrong, Desclos wrote a graphic, sadomasochistic novel that was published under the pseudonym Pauline Réage in June 1954. Titled "Histoire d'O" ("Story of O"), with a sympathetic preface by Jean Paulhan which nevertheless did not reveal her identity, it was an enormous, though controversial, commercial success. The book caused much speculation as to the identity of the author. Many doubted that it was a woman, let alone the demure, intellectual, and almost prudish persona displayed in Dominique Aury's writings. Many well-known male writers were alternately suspected to be the author, including André Malraux and Henri de Montherlant.  In addition, the book's graphic content sparked so much controversy that the following March the government authorities brought obscenity charges against the publisher and its mysterious author that were thrown out of court in 1959. However, a publicity ban and a restriction on the book's sale to minors was imposed by the judge. Following the lifting of the publicity ban in 1967, the conclusion to "Story of O" was published under the title "Retour à Roissy" using the pseudonym of Pauline Réage. However, according to her recent biography by Angie David, Desclos did not write this second novel. In 1975, she did a long interview about erotic books with author Régine Deforges, published by "Story of O" editor Jean-Jacques Pauvert, yet at the time her authorship was still unknown. An English-language edition of the interview was released in the United States in 1979 by Viking Press.  Eventually, Desclos publicly admitted that she was the author of "The Story of O" in 1994, 40 years after the book was published, in an interview with "The New Yorker". She also explained the pseudonym of Pauline Réage: she chose the first name in homage to Pauline Bonaparte and Pauline Roland and she randomly picked up the name of Réage on a topographic map.

Documentaries.

"Writer of O", a 2004 documentary film by Pola Rapaport, mixed interviews with re-enactments of certain scenes from the book. In the documentary, the real author of "Story of O", Dominique Aury (actually a pen name of Desclos), talks about the book "A Girl in Love". This book was written about how "Story of O" was written.  A documentary was also made for BBC Radio 4 entitled "The Story of O: The Vice Francaise", presented by Rowan Pelling, former editor of the "Erotic Review", which looked at the history of the book and its author Desclos.  "", a documentary by filmmaker Maya Gallus, featured the final interview with 90-year-old Dominique Aury (a pen name of Desclos) before she died. In the film, she recounts the extraordinary love story behind "Story of O" and marvels that she has reached such a grand age.

Personal life.

Desclos had a long-term relationship with her employer Jean Paulhan, the director of the prestigious "Nouvelle Revue Française", who was 23 years her senior. She was actively bisexual at times in her life. She notoriously had a liaison with historian and novelist Édith Thomas, who may have been an inspiration for the character of Anne-Marie in "Story of O". She had a son from a brief marriage in her early twenties.

Legacy.

"See also: Legacy of Story of O"  In 2007, the National Leather Association International inaugurated awards for excellence in SM/fetish/leather writing. The categories include the Pauline Reage (a pen name of Desclos) award for fiction novel.  In 2020, Desclos was inducted into the Leather Hall of Fame.

Anne Cécile Desclos (23 September 1907 – 27 April 1998) was a French journalist and novelist who wrote under the pseudonyms Dominique Aury and Pauline Réage, and is best known for her erotic novel "Histoire d'O" ("Story of O").


Career.

Constans was born c. 323. He was the third and youngest son of Constantine the Great and Fausta, his father's second wife. He was educated at the court of his father at Constantinople under the tutelage of the poet Aemilius Magnus Arborius.  On 25 December 333, Constantine I elevated Constans to the rank of "Caesar" at Constantinople. Constans became engaged to Olympias, the daughter of the Praetorian Prefect Ablabius, but the marriage never came to pass. With Constantine’s death in 337, Constans and his two brothers, Constantine II and Constantius II, divided the Roman world among themselves and disposed of virtually all relatives who could possibly have a claim to the throne. The army proclaimed them "Augusti" on September 9, 337. Almost immediately, Constans was required to deal with a Sarmatian invasion in late 337, in which he won a resounding victory. Constans was initially under the guardianship of Constantine II. The original settlement assigned Constans the praetorian prefecture of Italy, which included Northern Africa. Constans was unhappy with this division, so the brothers met at Viminacium in 338 to revise the boundaries. Constans managed to extract the prefecture of Illyricum and the diocese of Thrace, provinces that were originally to be ruled by his cousin Dalmatius, as per Constantine I’s proposed division after his death. Constantine II soon complained that he had not received the amount of territory that was his due as the eldest son.  Annoyed that Constans had received Thrace and Macedonia after the death of Dalmatius, Constantine demanded that Constans hand over the African provinces, which he agreed to do in order to maintain a fragile peace. Soon, however, they began quarreling over which parts of the African provinces belonged to Carthage, and thus Constantine, and which belonged to Italy, and therefore Constans. This led to growing tensions between the two brothers, which were only heightened by Constans finally coming of age and Constantine refusing to give up his guardianship. In 340 Constantine II invaded Italy. Constans, at that time in Dacia, detached and sent a select and disciplined body of his Illyrian troops, stating that he would follow them in person with the remainder of his forces. Constantine was eventually trapped at Aquileia, where he died, leaving Constans to inherit all of his brother’s former territories – Hispania, Britannia and Gaul.  Constans began his reign in an energetic fashion. In 341-42, he led a successful campaign against the Franks, and in the early months of 343 he visited Britain. The source for this visit, Julius Firmicus Maternus, does not provide a reason, but the quick movement and the danger involved in crossing the channel in the winter months suggests it was in response to a military emergency, possibly to repel the Picts and Scots.  Regarding religion, Constans was tolerant of Judaism and promulgated an edict banning pagan sacrifices in 341. He suppressed Donatism in Africa and supported Nicene orthodoxy against Arianism, which was championed by his brother Constantius. Although Constans called the Council of Serdica in 343 to settle the conflict, it was a complete failure, and by 346 the two emperors were on the point of open warfare over the dispute. The conflict was only resolved by an interim agreement which allowed each emperor to support their preferred clergy within their own spheres of influence.

Homosexuality.

The Roman historian Eutropius says Constans "indulged in great vices," in reference to his homosexuality, and Aurelius Victor stated that Constans had a reputation for scandalous behaviour with "handsome barbarian hostages." Nevertheless, Constans did sponsor a decree alongside Constantius II that ruled that marriage based on "unnatural" sex should be punished meticulously. John Boswell argues that the decree outlawed homosexual marriages only, rather than homosexual activity more generally. However, it was likely the case that Constans promulgated the legislation under pressure from the growing band of Christian leaders, in an attempt to placate public outrage at his own perceived indecencies.

Death.

In the final years of his reign, Constans developed a reputation for cruelty and misrule. Dominated by favourites and openly preferring his select bodyguard, he lost the support of the legions. In 350, the general Magnentius declared himself emperor at Augustodunum with the support of the troops on the Rhine frontier and, later, the western provinces of the Empire. Constans was enjoying himself nearby when he was notified of the elevation of Magnentius. Lacking any support beyond his immediate household, he was forced to flee for his life. As he was trying to reach Hispania, supporters of Magnentius cornered him in a fortification in "Helena" (now Elne) in the eastern Pyrenees of southwestern Gaul, where he was killed after seeking sanctuary in a temple. An alleged prophecy at his birth had said Constans would die "in the arms of his grandmother". His place of death happens to have been named after Helena, mother of Constantine and his own grandmother, thus realizing the prophecy.

Constans (Flavius Julius Constans Augustus; c. 323 – 350) or Constans I () was Roman Emperor from 337 to 350. He defeated his brother Constantine II in 340, but anger in the army over his personal life (homosexuality) and favouritism towards his barbarian bodyguards led the general Magnentius to rebel, resulting in the assassination of Constans in 350.


Definition.

Given a subset formula_1, with the length of interval formula_2 given by formula_3, the Lebesgue outer measure formula_4 is defined as  The Lebesgue measure is defined on the Lebesgue "σ"-algebra, which is the collection of all sets formula_6 which satisfy the "Carathéodory criterion" which requires that for every formula_7,  For any set in the Lebesgue "σ"-algebra, its Lebesgue measure is given by its Lebesgue outer measure formula_9.  Sets that are not included in the Lebesgue "σ"-algebra are not Lebesgue-measurable. Such sets do exist (e.g. Vitali sets), i.e., the Lebesgue "σ"-algebra is strictly contained in the power set of formula_10.

Intuition.

The first part of the definition states that the subset formula_6 of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals formula_12 covers formula_6 in the sense that when the intervals are combined together by union, they contain formula_6. The total length of any covering interval set can easily overestimate the measure of formula_6, because formula_6 is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in formula_6. The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit formula_6 most tightly and do not overlap.  That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets formula_19 of the real numbers using formula_6 as an instrument to split formula_19 into two partitions: the part of formula_19 which intersects with formula_6 and the remaining part of formula_19 which is not in formula_6: the set difference of formula_19 and formula_6. These partitions of formula_19 are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets formula_19 of the real numbers, the partitions of formula_19 cut apart by formula_6 have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of formula_19, then the outer Lebesgue measure of formula_6 gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set formula_6 must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when formula_6 is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue-measurable.)

Properties.

The Lebesgue measure on R has the following properties:  All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows:  The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being "σ"-finite.

Null sets.

A subset of R is a "null set" if, for every ε > 0, it can be covered with countably many products of "n" intervals whose total volume is at most ε. All countable sets are null sets.  If a subset of R has Hausdorff dimension less than "n" then it is a null set with respect to "n"-dimensional Lebesgue measure. Here Hausdorff dimension is relative to the Euclidean metric on R (or any metric Lipschitz equivalent to it). On the other hand, a set may have topological dimension less than "n" and have positive "n"-dimensional Lebesgue measure. An example of this is the Smith–Volterra–Cantor set which has topological dimension 0 yet has positive 1-dimensional Lebesgue measure.  In order to show that a given set "A" is Lebesgue-measurable, one usually tries to find a "nicer" set "B" which differs from "A" only by a null set (in the sense that the symmetric difference ("A" − "B") formula_53("B" − "A") is a null set) and then show that "B" can be generated using countable unions and intersections from open or closed sets.

Construction of the Lebesgue measure.

The modern construction of the Lebesgue measure is an application of Carathéodory's extension theorem. It proceeds as follows.  Fix. A box in R is a set of the form where, and the product symbol here represents a Cartesian product. The volume of this box is defined to be  For "any" subset "A" of R, we can define its outer measure "λ"*("A") by:  We then define the set "A" to be Lebesgue-measurable if for every subset "S" of R,  These Lebesgue-measurable sets form a "σ"-algebra, and the Lebesgue measure is defined by for any Lebesgue-measurable set "A".  The existence of sets that are not Lebesgue-measurable is a consequence of a certain set-theoretical axiom, the axiom of choice, which is independent from many of the conventional systems of axioms for set theory. The Vitali theorem, which follows from the axiom, states that there exist subsets of R that are not Lebesgue-measurable. Assuming the axiom of choice, non-measurable sets with many surprising properties have been demonstrated, such as those of the Banach–Tarski paradox.  In 1970, Robert M. Solovay showed that the existence of sets that are not Lebesgue-measurable is not provable within the framework of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory in the absence of the axiom of choice (see Solovay's model).

Relation to other measures.

The Borel measure agrees with the Lebesgue measure on those sets for which it is defined; however, there are many more Lebesgue-measurable sets than there are Borel measurable sets. The Borel measure is translation-invariant, but not complete.  The Haar measure can be defined on any locally compact group and is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure (R with addition is a locally compact group).  The Hausdorff measure is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure that is useful for measuring the subsets of R of lower dimensions than "n", like submanifolds, for example, surfaces or curves in R and fractal sets. The Hausdorff measure is not to be confused with the notion of Hausdorff dimension.  It can be shown that there is no infinite-dimensional analogue of Lebesgue measure.

In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of "n"-dimensional Euclidean space. For "n" = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n"-dimensional volume, n"-volume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue-measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue-measurable set "A" is here denoted by "λ"("A").


Early life.

Masinissa was the son of the chieftain Gaia of a Numidian tribal group, the Massylii. He was brought up in Carthage, an ally of his father. At the start of the Second Punic War, Masinissa fought for Carthage against Syphax, the king of the Masaesyli of western Numidia (present day Algeria), who had allied himself with the Romans. Masinissa, then about 17 years old, led an army of Numidian troops and Carthaginian auxiliaries against Syphax's army and won a decisive victory (215-212 BC). He was betrothed to the daughter of the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal Gisgo. After his victory over Syphax, Masinissa commanded his skilled Numidian cavalry against the Romans in Spain, where he was involved in the Carthaginian victories of Castulo and Ilorca in 211 BC. After Hasdrubal Barca departed for Italy, Masinissa was placed in command of all the Carthaginian cavalry in Spain, where he fought a successful guerrilla campaign against the Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio (Scipio Africanus) throughout 208 and 207, while Mago Barca and Hasdrubal Gisgo levied and trained new forces. In c.206 BC, with fresh reinforcements, Mago and Hasdrubal Gisgo—supported by Masinissa's Numidian cavalry—met Scipio at the Battle of Ilipa, where Carthage's power over Hispania was forever broken in arguably Scipio Africanus's most brilliant victory.  When Gaia died in 206 BC, his son Masinissa and his brother Oezalces quarreled about the inheritance, and Syphax was able to conquer considerable parts of the eastern Numidia. Meanwhile, with the Carthaginians having been driven from Hispania, Masinissa concluded that Rome was winning the war against Carthage and therefore decided to defect to Rome. He promised to assist Scipio in the invasion of Carthaginian territory in Africa. This decision was aided by the move by Scipio Africanus to free Masinissa's nephew, Massiva, whom the Romans had captured when he had disobeyed his uncle and ridden into battle. Having lost the alliance with Masinissa, Hasdrubal started to look for another ally, which he found in Syphax, who married Sophonisba, Hasdrubal's daughter, who until the defection had been betrothed to Masinissa. The Romans supported Masinissa's claim to the Numidian throne against Syphax, who was nevertheless successful in driving Masinissa from power until Scipio invaded Africa in 204. Masinissa joined the Roman forces and participated in the victorious Battle of the Great Plains (203).  At the Battle of Bagbrades (203), Scipio overcame Hasdrubal and Syphax and, while the Roman general concentrated on Carthage, Gaius Laelius and Masinissa followed Syphax to Cirta, where he was captured and handed over to Scipio. After the defeat of Syphax, Masinissa married Syphax's wife Sophonisba, but Scipio, suspicious of her loyalty, demanded that she be taken to Rome and appear in the triumphal parade. To save her from such humiliation, Masinissa sent her poison, with which she killed herself. Masinissa was now accepted as a loyal ally of Rome, and was confirmed by Scipio as the king of the Massylii.  At the Battle of Zama, Masinissa commanded the cavalry (6,000 Numidian and 3,000 Roman) on Scipio's right wing, Scipio delayed the engagement long enough to allow for Masinissa to join him. With the battle hanging in the balance, Masinissa's cavalry, having driven the fleeing Carthaginian horsemen away, returned and immediately fell onto the rear of the Carthaginian lines. This decided the battle and at once Hannibal's army began to collapse. The Second Punic War was over and for his services Masinissa received the kingdom of Syphax, and became king of Numidia.  Masinissa was now king of both the Massylii and the Masaesyli. He showed unconditional loyalty to Rome, and his position in Africa was strengthened by a clause in the peace treaty of 201 between Rome and Carthage prohibiting the latter from going to war even in self-defense without Roman permission. This enabled Masinissa to encroach on the remaining Carthaginian territory as long as he judged that Rome wished to see Carthage further weakened.

Later life.

With Roman backing, Masinissa established his own kingdom of Numidia, west of Carthage, with Cirta — present day Constantine — as its capital city. All of this happened in accordance with Roman interest, as they wanted to give Carthage more problems with its neighbours. Masinissa’s chief aim was to build a strong and unified state from the semi-nomadic Numidian tribes. To that end, he introduced Carthaginian agricultural techniques and forced many Numidians to settle as peasant farmers. Masinissa and his sons possessed large estates throughout Numidia, to the extent that Roman authors attributed to him, quite falsely, the sedentarization of the Numidians. Major towns included Capsa, Thugga (modern Dougga), Bulla Regia and Hippo Regius.  All through his reign, Masinissa extended his territory, and he was cooperating with Rome when, towards the end of his life, he provoked Carthage to go to war against him. Any hopes he may have had of extending his rule right across North Africa were dashed, however, when a Roman commission headed by the elderly Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Elder) came to Africa about 155 BC to decide a territorial dispute between Masinissa and Carthage. Animated probably by an irrational fear of a Carthaginian revival, but possibly by suspicion of Masinissa’s ambitions, Cato thenceforward advocated, finally with success, the destruction of Carthage. Based on descriptions from Livy, the Numidians began raiding around seventy towns in the southern and western sections of Carthage's remaining territory. Outraged with their conduct, Carthage went to war against them, in defiance of the Roman treaty forbidding them to make war on anyone, thus precipitating the Third Punic War (149–146 BC). Masinissa showed his displeasure when the Roman army arrived in Africa in 149 BC, but he died early in 148 BC without a breach in the alliance. Ancient accounts suggest Masinissa lived beyond the age of 90 and was apparently still personally leading the armies of his kingdom when he died.  After his death, Micispa succeeded to the throne, Micipsa had two sons, Hiempsal I and Adherbal, who took the power for a short period before being overthrown by their cousin Jughurta. Some of his descendants were the elder Juba I of Numidia (85 BC–46 BC) and younger Juba II (52 BC–AD 24).

Masinissa, or Masensen, ("c."238 BC – 148 BC)—also spelled Massinissa and Massena—was the first King of Numidia. During his younger years, before he was king, he fought in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), first against the Romans as an ally of Carthage and later switching sides (206 BC). With Roman support, he united the eastern and western Numidian tribes and founded the Kingdom of Numidia. He is well-known for his role as a Roman ally in the Battle of Zama (202 BC) and as husband of Sophonisba, a Carthaginian noblewoman whom he allowed to poison herself to avoid being paraded in a triumph in Rome.


Habitats.

Building a successful garden suitable for local wildlife is best accomplished through the use of multiple three-dimensional habitats with diverse structures that provide places for animals to nest and hide. Wildlife gardens may contain a range of habitats, including: Log piles – Preferably located in a shady area, a pile of logs is a sanctuary for insects and other invertebrates, as well as reptiles and amphibians. The organic structure is a shelter for both protection and breeding. In addition to logs, garden debris may also be added around the garden to be used as a natural mulch, fertilizer, weed control, soil amendment, and habitat for arthropod predators. Bird feeding stations and bird houses – A place for birds to eat and take shelter will increase the number of birds in the garden, which play a key role in biological pest control. Not only will food and shelter increase the survival rate of birds, but it will also ensure that they are healthy enough for a successful breeding season. Bug boxes and bee hotels – Bundles of hollow stems (elderberry, Joe-Pye weed, bamboo) can be hung up as an alternate place of shelter and breeding for beneficial insects, such as the Mason bee, which are valuable pollinators. Sources of water – A water feature, such as a pond, has the potential to support a large biodiversity of wildlife. To maximize the amount of wildlife attracted to the water feature, it should consist of ranging depths. Shallow areas are used by birds to drink and by insects and amphibians to lay eggs. Deeper areas provide habitat for aquatic insects and a place for amphibians, or even fish to swim. Pollinators – Flowers rich in nectar will attract bees and butterflies into the garden, which is of particular importance given the dramatic reduction in pollinator populations in the US, Europe and elsewhere. Wildflower meadows are an alternative option for lawns in the garden and will serve as a sanctuary for pollinators. However, pollinating plants should not be confused with plants suitable for butterfly breeding. Plant diversity – The garden should include a range of plant types to act as different habitats. A balance between ground cover, shrub, understory, and canopy species will allow different sized wildlife shelters that fit their individual needs. It is particularly important to use species that are native to the area or state, as native plants will more reliably be suited to insects and other invertebrates than many non-native plants; increased variety of insects is valuable both for its own sake and for birds and other predators.

Choice of plants.

Although some exotics may also be included, as discussed in the previous section, wild gardens usually mostly feature a variety of native species. Generally, these will be a part of the pre-existing natural ecology of an area, making them easier to grow than most exotic species. Choosing native plants comes with an array of benefits for both plant and animal diversity, especially the ability to support native insect and fungal populations.  Ornamental plants on the market tend to lean toward “pest-free” plants, making it hard for native insects to adapt, and ultimately reducing their food supply. Decreases in insect populations due to excessive ornamental planting will discourage bird populations from inhabiting the particular area.  Invasive species can always prove problematic in the garden due to the absence of natural predators and their ability to reproduce rapidly. Without any measures of control, invasive species can easily overtake native species in the garden. Addressing invasive plants can be done a variety of ways; however, to ensure the least amount of damage to the surrounding ecosystem, this is best done by cutting down the plant, followed by painting its stem with an herbicide, such as Roundup. The debris from the invasive species can be piled and used as a home for smaller critters. In Australia, it has been found that invasive species such as Lantana ("Lantana camara") can also provide refuge for bird species such as the superb fairywren ("Malurus cyaneus") and silvereye ("Zosterops lateralis"), in the absence of native plant equivalents. Careful thought about how to balance invasive species management with what is best for urban biodiversity is needed for the best outcome in your garden.

In the Netherlands.

Wildlife gardens in the Netherlands are called "heemtuinen". The first was created in 1925: Thijsse's Hof (Garden of Thijsse) in Bloemendaal, near Haarlem. It was gifted to Jac. P. Thijsse on the occasion of his 60th anniversary, and still exists today. The garden gives a display of about 800 plants native to the dune region of South Kennemerland, in which the garden is situated. It is said to be one of the oldest wildlife gardens of its sort in the world.  Nowadays some 25 wildlife gardens exist in the Netherlands.

A wildlife garden (or wild garden) is an environment created by a gardener that serves as a sustainable haven for surrounding wildlife. Wildlife gardens contain a variety of habitats that cater to native and local plants, birds, amphibians, reptiles, insects, mammals and so on. Establishing a garden that emulates the environment before the residence was built and/or renders the garden similar to intact wild areas nearby (rewilding) will allow natural systems to interact and establish an equilibrium, ultimately minimizing the need for gardener maintenance and intervention. Wildlife gardens can also play an essential role in biological pest control, and also promote biodiversity, native plantings, and generally benefit the wider environment.


Names.

The first edition of the score is headed "Sonata quasi una fantasia", a title this work shares with its companion piece, Op. 27, No. 1. Grove Music Online translates the Italian title as "sonata in the manner of a fantasy". The title could also be interpreted to imply "...as though improvised".  The name "Moonlight Sonata" comes from remarks made by the German music critic and poet Ludwig Rellstab. In 1832, five years after Beethoven's death, Rellstab likened the effect of the first movement to that of moonlight shining upon Lake Lucerne. Within ten years, the name "Moonlight Sonata" (""Mondscheinsonate"" in German) was being used in German and English publications. Later in the nineteenth century, the sonata was universally known by that name.  Many critics have objected to the subjective, romantic nature of the title "Moonlight", which has at times been called "a misleading approach to a movement with almost the character of a funeral march" and "absurd". Other critics have approved of the sobriquet, finding it evocative or in line with their own interpretation of the work. "Gramophone" founder Compton Mackenzie found the title "harmless", remarking that "it is silly for austere critics to work themselves up into a state of almost hysterical rage with poor Rellstab", and adding, "what these austere critics fail to grasp is that unless the general public had responded to the suggestion of moonlight in this music Rellstab's remark would long ago have been forgotten."

Form.

Although no direct testimony exists as to the specific reasons why Beethoven decided to title both the Op. 27 works as "Sonata quasi una fantasia", it may be significant that the layout of the present work does not follow the traditional movement arrangement in the Classical period of fast–slow–[fast]–fast. Instead, the sonata possesses an end-weighted trajectory, with the rapid music held off until the third movement. In his analysis, German critic Paul Bekker states: "The opening sonata-allegro movement gave the work a definite character from the beginning... which succeeding movements could supplement but not change. Beethoven rebelled against this determinative quality in the first movement. He wanted a prelude, an introduction, not a proposition.”  The sonata consists of three movements:  \new Staff \relative c' {

I. Adagio sostenuto.

\key cis \minor » </score>  The first movement, in C minor, is written in modified sonata-allegro form. The movement opens with an octave in the left hand and a triplet figuration in the right. A melody that Hector Berlioz called a "lamentation", mostly by the left hand, is played against an accompanying ostinato triplet rhythm, simultaneously played by the right hand. The movement is played "pianissimo" or "very quietly", and the loudest it gets is "piano" or "quietly".  The adagio sostenuto has made a powerful impression on many listeners; for instance, Berlioz said of it that it "is one of those poems that human language does not know how to qualify". Beethoven's student Carl Czerny called it "a nocturnal scene, in which a mournful ghostly voice sounds from the distance". The movement was very popular in Beethoven's day, to the point of exasperating the composer himself, who remarked to Czerny, "Surely I've written better things."

II. Allegretto.

#(set-global-staff-size 17) »</score>  The second movement is a relatively conventional scherzo and trio with the first section of the Scherzo not repeated. It is a seeming moment of relative calm written in D major, the more easily notated enharmonic equivalent of C major, the parallel major of the first movement's key, C minor. Franz Liszt is said to have described the second movement as "a flower between two chasms". The slight majority of the movement is in "piano", but a handful of "sforzandos" and "forte-piano"s helps to maintain the movement's cheerful disposition.

III. Presto agitato.

#(set-global-staff-size 17) »</score>  The stormy final movement (C minor), in sonata form, is the weightiest of the three, reflecting an experiment of Beethoven's (also carried out in the companion sonata Opus 27, No. 1 and later on in Opus 101), namely, placement of the most important movement of the sonata last. The writing has many fast arpeggios/broken chords, strongly accented notes, and fast alberti bass sequences that fall both into the right and left hands at various times. An effective performance of this movement demands lively and skillful playing, great stamina, and is significantly more demanding technically than the 1st and 2nd movements.  Of the final movement, Charles Rosen has written "it is the most unbridled in its representation of emotion. Even today, two hundred years later, its ferocity is astonishing."  Beethoven's heavy use of "sforzando" notes, together with just a few strategically located "fortissimo" passages, creates the sense of a very powerful sound in spite of the predominance of "piano" markings throughout.

Beethoven's pedal mark.

At the opening of the first movement, Beethoven included the following direction in Italian: "Si deve suonare tutto questo pezzo delicatissimamente e senza sordino" ("This whole piece ought to be played with the utmost delicacy and without damper[s]"). The way this is accomplished (both on today's pianos and on those of Beethoven's day) is to depress the sustain pedal throughout the movement – or at least to make use of the pedal throughout, but re-applying it as the harmony changes.  The modern piano has a much longer sustain time than the instruments of Beethoven's time, so that a steady application of the sustain pedal creates a dissonant sound. In contrast, performers who employ a historically based instrument (either a restored old piano or a modern instrument built on historical principles) are more able to follow Beethoven's direction literally.  For performance on the modern piano, several options have been put forth.

Influence.

The C minor sonata, particularly the third movement, is held to have been the inspiration for Frédéric Chopin's "Fantaisie-Impromptu", and that the "Fantaisie-Impromptu" was actually a tribute to Beethoven. It manifests the key relationships of the sonata's three movements, chord structures, and even shares some passages. Ernst Oster writes: "With the aid of the "Fantaisie-Impromptu" we can at least recognize what particular features of the C minor Sonata struck fire in Chopin. We can actually regard Chopin as our teacher as he points to the coda and says, 'Look here, this is great. Take heed of this example!'... The "Fantaisie-Impromptu" is perhaps the only instance where one genius discloses to us – if only by means of a composition of his own – what he actually hears in the work of another genius."  Carl Bohm composed a piece for violin and piano called "Meditation", Op. 296, in which he adds a violin melody over the unaltered first movement of Beethoven's sonata.

External links.

Moonlight Sonata Adagio sostenuto played by Armen Ghazaryan Formal analysis of Beethoven's "Moonlight Sonata"

The Piano Sonata No. 14 in C minor ""Quasi una fantasia", Op. 27, No. 2, popularly known as the Moonlight Sonata", is a piano sonata by Ludwig van Beethoven. It was completed in 1801 and dedicated in 1802 to his pupil, Countess Giulietta Guicciardi.


Life.

Koch was born in Darmstadt, Grand Duchy of Hesse on August 2, 1897. His father worked in a local registrar's office and died when Karl was eight years old. After completing elementary school in 1912, Koch attended Mittelschule and completed a commercial apprenticeship.  In 1916, he volunteered to join the army and fought on the Western Front until he was later captured by the British. Koch spent the rest of the war as a POW and returned to Germany in 1919. As a soldier, he conducted himself well and was awarded the Iron Cross Second Class, the Observer's Badge and the Wound Badge in Black. Following World War I, Koch worked as a commercial manager, an authorized signatory and insurance agent and became unemployed in 1932 (he had served a prison sentence in 1930 for embezzlement and forgery). In 1931, Karl-Otto Koch joined the Nazi Party and the "Schutzstaffel" (SS).

Service with the SS.

Koch served with several "SS-Standarten" (Thirty fifth SS Regiment Kassel, SS Special Detachment Saxony). In 1934, he took command of the Sachsenburg Concentration Camp. Briefly, he was the officer in charge of the Esterwegen Concentration Camp guard unit, officer in charge of the preventive custody camp in the Lichtenburg Concentration Camp, and the adjutant at Dachau Concentration Camp. On 13 June 1935, he became commander of the Columbia concentration camp in Berlin-Tempelhof and, in April 1936, he was assigned to the concentration camp at Esterwegen. Four months later, he was moved to Sachsenhausen. Within a few years (September 1937) he advanced to SS-Standartenführer (colonel)..  On 1 August 1937, he was given command of the new Buchenwald concentration camp. He remained at Buchenwald until September 1941, when he was transferred to the Majdanek concentration camp for POWs near Lublin, Poland. That was largely due to an investigation based on allegations of his improper conduct at Buchenwald, which included corruption, fraud, embezzlement, drunkenness, sexual offences and a murder. Koch commanded the Majdanek camp for only one year; he was relieved from his duties after 86 Soviet POWs escaped from the camp in August 1942. Koch was charged with criminal negligence and transferred to Berlin, where he worked at the SS Personnel Main Office and as a liaison between the SS and the German Post Office.

Prosecution and death.

Koch's actions at Buchenwald first caught the attention of SS-Obergruppenführer Josias, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont in 1941. In glancing over the death list of Buchenwald, Josias had stumbled across the name of Walter Krämer, a head hospital orderly at Buchenwald, which he recognized because Krämer had successfully treated him in the past. Josias investigated the case and found out that Koch, in a position as the Camp Commandant, had ordered Krämer and Karl Peix, a hospital attendant, killed as "political prisoners" because they had treated him for syphilis and he feared it might be discovered. Waldeck also received reports that a certain prisoner had been shot while attempting to escape.  By that time, Koch had been transferred to the Majdanek concentration camp in Poland, but his wife, Ilse, was still living at the Commandant's house in Buchenwald. Waldeck ordered a full-scale investigation of the camp by Georg Konrad Morgen, an SS officer who was an SS-judge in the SS Court Main Office. Throughout the investigation, more of Koch's orders to kill prisoners at the camp were revealed, as well as embezzlement of property stolen from prisoners.  A charge of incitement to murder was lodged by Prince Waldeck and Morgen against Koch, to which were later added charges of embezzlement. Other camp officials were charged, including Koch's wife. The trial resulted in Koch being sentenced to death for disgracing both himself and the SS. Koch was executed by firing squad on 5 April 1945, one week before American allied troops arrived to liberate the camp.

Family.

Koch first married in 1924 and had one son; however, this marriage ended in divorce in 1931, due to his infidelity. On May 25, 1936 Koch married Ilse Koch (née Margarete Ilse Köhler), with whom he had a son and two daughters. Ilse later became known as "The Witch of Buchenwald" ("Die Hexe von Buchenwald"), usually rendered in English as "The Bitch of Buchenwald." When Koch was transferred to Buchenwald, Ilse was appointed an "Oberaufseherin" (overseer) by the SS and thus had an active, official role in the atrocities committed there. She was known for extreme cruelty towards prisoners.

Karl-Otto Koch (; 2 August 1897 – 5 April 1945) was a mid-ranking commander in the "Schutzstaffel" (SS) of Nazi Germany who was the first commandant of the Nazi concentration camps at Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen. From September 1941 until August 1942, he served as the first commandant of the Majdanek concentration camp in occupied Poland, stealing vast amounts of valuables and money from murdered Jews. His wife, Ilse Koch, also took part in the crimes at Buchenwald and Majdanek.


Life.

Early life.

Constantius was born in Naissus, Moesia at an unknown date. Constantius served as a general under Honorius, rising to the rank of "Magister militum" (Master of the Soldiers) by 411.

Revolt of Constantine III.

In 411 Constantius was sent by Honorius to put down the revolt of Constantine III, who had declared himself emperor in Britain in 407. Constantius thereafter led his soldiers to Arles, the capital and residence of Constantine. Upon arriving, he defeated the army of Gerontius, a general who was rebelling against Constantine, before besieging the city.  Constantine refused to surrender, hoping to last until the return of his general Edobichus, who was raising troops in northern Gaul. Edobichus did return to Arles, however he was swiftly defeated by Constantius. Constantine soon after lost much of the remainder of his forces, as his army which had been guarding the Rhine chose to support the usurper Jovinus instead, forcing Constantine to surrender. Despite Constantius' assurances that Constantine would be able to safely retire to a clerical office, Constantius had him imprisoned, and further had him beheaded during his return to Ravenna, in either August or September 411. Honorius' remaining rivals were soon defeated, with Gerontius committing suicide in Hispania, and Jovinus being defeated by Athaulf, king of the Visigoths. Despite this, Honorius was unable to regain control of Britain, nor was any Roman after him. This view was opposed by J. B. Bury 1920, German scholar Ralf Scharf, and John Hester Ward among others.

Campaigns.

Constantius initiated a campaign against the Visigoths in northern Hispania in 416, blockading them in order to starve them and force their submission. Soon after, the Visigoth king, Wallia, surrendered to Rome, agreeing to: return Galla Placidia, the sister of Honorius, who had been captured by Alaric 412, and been forced into marriage with Athaulf, who was by this time dead; to wage war against the Vandals and other barbarians who the Romans were still in conflict with, in exchange for food supplies. Constantius then continued to campaign against various tribal groups, regaining control of much of Hispania and Gaul by 420.

Reign.

During this time period, generals played a critical role in ensuring the continued reign of Roman Emperors, especially Western Roman Emperors. Constantius' position of "Magister militum" and his skill as a commander allowed him to gain huge influence over the Western Roman Empire, comparable to the earlier Stilicho. For this reason, Honorius bestowed many honors upon Constantius, such as appointing him consul three times: in 414, alongside Constans; in 417, alongside Honorius; and in 420, alongside Theodosius II. In order to further ensure Constantius' loyalty, Honorius arranged the betrothal of his sister, Galla Placidia, to Constantius in 417. Later, on 8 February 421, Honorius made Constantius co-Western Emperor under himself. Constantius reigned as co-emperor only seven months before dying on 2 September 421, in Ravenna. Constantius was succeeded by Honorius, who ruled alone until his death in 423, whereupon Valentinian III, Constantius' son, assumed the throne, with Galla Placidia serving as regent.

Constantius III (Latin: "Flavius Constantius Augustus") was Western Roman Emperor in 421, from 8 February until his death on 2 September. He earned his position as Emperor due to his capability as a general under Honorius, achieving the rank of "Magister militum" by 411. That same year, he was sent to suppress the revolt of Constantine III, a Roman general who declared himself emperor. Constantius led his army to Arles in Gaul, the capital of Constantine III, and defeated Gerontius, a general rebelling against Constantine, before himself besieging Arles. After defeating a relief force led by Edobichus, Constantius convinced Constantine to surrender, promising safe retirement, but betrayed and beheaded him as soon as he surrendered. Constantius then went on to lead campaigns against various barbarian groups in Hispania and Gaul, recovering much of both for the Western Roman Empire. Constantius was proclaimed Western Roman Emperor by Honorius on 8 February 421. He reigned for seven months before dying on 2 September 421.


Life.

Epiphanius records in his "Panarion" that Marcion was born the son of a bishop in Pontus in modern-day Turkey. Rhodo and Tertullian, young men in Marcion's old age, described him as a "mariner" and a "ship-master" respectively. Some time in the late 130s CE, Marcion traveled to Rome, joined the Roman church, and made a large donation of 200,000 sesterces to the congregation there. Conflicts with the church of Rome arose and he was eventually excommunicated in 144 CE, his donation being returned to him. After his excommunication, he returned to Asia Minor, where he continued to lead his many church congregations and teach the Gospel of Marcion.  According to Christian sources, Marcion's teacher was the Simonian Cerdo. Irenaeus writes that "a certain Cerdo, originating from the Simonians, came to Rome under Hyginus... and taught that the one who was proclaimed as God by the Law and the Prophets is not the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ" ("Against Heresies", 1, 27, 1). Also, still according to them, Marcion and the Gnostic Valentinus were companions in Rome.  In 394, Epiphanius claimed that after beginnings as an ascetic, Marcion seduced a virgin and was accordingly excommunicated by his father, prompting him to leave his home town. This account has been doubted by many scholars, who instead think (as Bart D. Ehrman stated) that "seduction of a virgin" was a metaphor for his corruption of the Christian Church, with the Church portrayed as the undefiled virgin. "Marcion, it appears, has become the victim of the historicisation of such a metaphor, even though it contradicts the otherwise firm tradition of his strict sexual probity". Similarly doubtful is Tertullian's claim in "The Prescription Against Heretics" (written ca. 200) that Marcion professed repentance, and agreed to the conditions granted to him—that he should receive reconciliation if he restored to the Church those whom he had led astray—but that he was prevented from doing so by his death.  The Marcionite church expanded greatly within Marcion's lifetime, becoming a major rival to the emerging Catholic church. After his death, it retained its following and survived Christian controversy and imperial disapproval for several centuries.

Teachings.

Study of the Hebrew scriptures, along with received writings circulating in the nascent Church, led Marcion to conclude that many of the teachings of Jesus were incompatible with the actions of Yahweh, the belligerent god of the Hebrew Bible. Marcion responded by developing a ditheistic system of belief around the year 144. This notion of two gods—a higher transcendent one and a lower world creator and ruler—allowed Marcion to reconcile his perceived contradictions between Christian Old Covenant theology and the Gospel message proclaimed by the New Testament.  In contrast to other leaders of the nascent Christian Church, however, Marcion declared that Christianity was in complete discontinuity with Judaism and entirely opposed to the Tanakh. Marcion did not claim that the Jewish scriptures were false. Instead, he asserted that they were to be read in an absolutely literal manner, thereby developing an understanding that Yahweh was not the same god spoken of by Jesus. For example, Marcion argued that the Genesis account of Yahweh walking through the Garden of Eden asking where Adam was, had proved Yahweh inhabited a physical body and was without universal knowledge, attributes wholly incompatible with the Heavenly Father professed by Jesus.  According to Marcion, the god of the Old Testament, whom he called the Demiurge, the creator of the material universe, is a jealous tribal deity of the Jews, whose law represents legalistic reciprocal justice and who punishes mankind for its sins through suffering and death. In contrast, the god that Jesus professed is an altogether different being, a universal god of compassion and love who looks upon humanity with benevolence and mercy. Marcion also produced a book titled "Antitheses", which is no longer extant, contrasting the Demiurge of the Old Testament with the Heavenly Father of the New Testament.  Marcion held Jesus to be the son of the Heavenly Father but understood the incarnation in a docetic manner, i.e. that Jesus' body was only an imitation of a material body, and consequently denied Jesus' physical and bodily birth, death, and resurrection.  Marcion was the first to introduce a Christian canon. His canon consisted of only eleven books, grouped into two sections: the "Evangelikon", a shorter version of the Gospel of Luke, and the "Apostolikon", a selection of ten epistles of Paul the Apostle, which were also slightly shorter than the canonical text. Early Christians such as Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Epiphanius claimed that Marcion's editions of Luke and the Pauline epistles were intentionally edited by Marcion to match his theological views, and many modern scholars agree. However, some scholars argue that Marcion's texts were not substantially edited by him, and may in some respects represent an earlier version of these texts than the canonical versions. Like the Gospel of Mark, the gospel used by Marcion did not contain elements relating to Jesus' birth and childhood. Interestingly, it did contain some Jewish elements, and material that challenged Marcion's ditheism—a fact that was exploited by early Christians in their polemics against Marcion.  The centrality of the Pauline epistles in Marcion's canon reflects the fact that Marcion considered Paul to be the correct interpreter and transmitter of Jesus' teachings, in contrast to the Twelve Disciples and the early Jerusalem church.

Gnosticism.

Marcion is sometimes described as a Gnostic philosopher. In some essential respects, Marcion proposed ideas which aligned well with Gnostic thought. Like the Gnostics, he believed that Jesus was essentially a divine spirit who appeared to human beings in human form, but did not actually take on a fleshly human body.  However, Marcionism conceptualizes God in a way which cannot be reconciled with broader Gnostic thought. For Gnostics, some human beings are born with a small piece of God's soul lodged within their spirit (akin to the notion of a Divine Spark). God is thus intimately connected to and part of his creation. Salvation lies in turning away from the physical world (which Gnostics regard as an illusion) and embracing the godlike qualities within oneself. Marcion, by contrast, held that the Heavenly Father (the father of Jesus Christ) was an utterly alien god; he had no part in making the world, nor any connection with it.

Marcion of Sinope (; Greek: ; 85 – c. 160) was an important figure in early Christianity. Marcion preached that the god who sent Jesus into the world was a different, higher deity than the creator god of Judaism. He considered himself a follower of Paul the Apostle, who he believed to have been the only true apostle of Jesus Christ.


Etymology.

According to the Polish Academy of Sciences (1975) the origin of the name goes back to the surname Hawke, a historical alternative spelling for the English word hawk, which changed into "Hawelke" or "Hawelecke". In Poland he is known as "Jan Heweliusz", According to Patrick Moore "Hevelius" is a Latinised version of the name "Hewelcke" other versions of the name include Hewel, Hevel, Hevelke or Hoefel, Höwelcke, Höfelcke. According to Feliks Bentkowski (1814), during his early years he also signed as Hoefelius. Along with the Latinized version of his name, Ludwig Günther-Fürstenwalde (1903) also reports Hevelius' signature as "Johannes Höffelius Dantiscanus" in 1631 and "Hans Höwelcke" in 1639.

Early life.

Hevelius' father was Abraham Hewelke (1576–1649), his mother Kordula Hecker (1576–1655). They were German-speaking Lutherans, wealthy brewing merchants of Bohemian origin. As a young boy, Hevelius was sent to Gądecz (Gondecz) where he studied the Polish language.  Hevelius brewed the famous Jopen beer, which also gave its name to the "Jopengasse"/"Jopejska" Street, after 1945 renamed as Piwna Street (Beer Street), where St. Mary's Church is located.  After "gymnasium" (secondary school), where he was taught by Peter Crüger, Hevelius in 1630 studied jurisprudence at Leiden, then travelled in England and France, meeting Pierre Gassendi, Marin Mersenne and Athanasius Kircher. In 1634 he settled in his native town, and on 21 March 1635 married Katharine Rebeschke, a neighbour two years younger who owned two adjacent houses. The following year, Hevelius became a member of the beer-brewing guild, which he led from 1643 onwards.

Astronomy.

Throughout his life, Hevelius took a leading part in municipal administration, becoming town councillor in 1651; but from 1639 on, his chief interest was astronomy. In 1641 he built an observatory on the roofs of his three connected houses, equipping it with splendid instruments, ultimately including a large Keplerian telescope of focal length, with a wood and wire tube he constructed himself. This may have been the longest "tubed" telescope before the advent of the tubeless aerial telescope.  The observatory was known by the name "Sternenburg" (; ) or "Star Castle". This private observatory was visited by Polish Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga on 29 January 1660. As a subject of the Polish kings, Hevelius enjoyed the patronage of four consecutive kings of Poland, and his family was raised to the position of nobility by the King of Poland Jan Kazimierz in 1660, who previously visited his observatory in 1659. While the noble status was not ratified by the Polish Sejm Hevelius's coat of arms includes the distinctive Polish royal crown. The Polish King John III Sobieski who regularly visited Hevelius numerous times in years 1677–1683 released him from paying taxes connected to brewing and allowed his beer to be sold freely outside the city limits. In May 1679 the young Englishman Edmond Halley visited him as emissary of the Royal Society, whose fellow Hevelius had been since 1664. The Royal Society considers him one of the first German fellows. Małgorzata Czerniakowska (2005) writes that "Jan Heweliusz was the first Pole to be inducted into the Royal Society in London. This important event took place on 19th March 1664". Hevelius considered himself as being citizen of the Polish world ("civis Orbis Poloniae") and stated in a letter dated from 9 January 1681 that he was "Civis orbis Poloni, qui in honorem patriae suae rei Literariae bono tot labores molestiasque, absit gloria, cum maximo facultatum suarum dispendio perduravit"-"citizen of Polish world who, for glory of his country and for the good of science, worked so much, and while not boasting much, executed his work with most effort per his abilities" Halley had been instructed by Robert Hooke and John Flamsteed to persuade Hevelius to use telescopes for his measurements, yet Hevelius demonstrated that he could do well with only quadrant and alidade. He is thus considered the last astronomer to do major work without the use of a telescope.  Hevelius made observations of sunspots, 1642–1645, devoted four years to charting the lunar surface, discovered the Moon's libration in longitude, and published his results in "Selenographia, sive Lunae descriptio" (1647), a work which entitles him to be called "the founder of lunar topography".  He discovered four comets, in 1652, 1661 (probably Ikeya-Zhang), 1672 and 1677. These discoveries led to his thesis that such bodies revolve around the Sun in parabolic paths.  A complex halo phenomenon was observed by many in the city on 20 February 1661, and was described by Hevelius in his "Mercurius in Sole visus Gedani" the following year.  Katharine, his first wife, died in 1662, and a year later Hevelius married Elisabeth Koopmann, the young daughter of a merchant family. The couple had four children. Elisabeth supported him, published two of his works after his death, and is considered the first female astronomer. His observatory, instruments and books were destroyed by fire on 26 September 1679. The catastrophe is described in the preface to his "Annus climactericus" (1685). He promptly repaired the damage enough to enable him to observe the great comet of December 1680. He named the constellation "Sextans" in memory of this lost instrument. In late 1683, in commemoration of the victory of Christian forces led by Polish King John III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna, he invented and named the constellation "Scutum Sobiescianum" (Sobieski's Shield), now called Scutum. This constellation first occurred publicly in his star atlas "Firmamentum Sobiescianum", that was printed in his own house at lavish expense, and he himself engraved many of the printing plates.  His health had suffered from the shock of the 1679 fire and he died on his 76th birthday, 28 January 1687. Hevelius was buried in St. Catherine's Church in his hometown.  Descendants of Hevelius live in Urzędów in Poland where they support local astronomy enthusiasts.

Johannes Hevelius (in German also known as "Hevel"; ; – 28 January 1687) was a councillor and mayor of Danzig (Gdańsk), Kingdom of Poland. As an astronomer, he gained a reputation as "the founder of lunar topography", and described ten new constellations, seven of which are still used by astronomers.


Purpose.

For centuries, beekeepers assumed that bees sealed the beehive with propolis to protect the colony from the elements, such as rain and cold winter drafts. However, 20th-century research revealed that bees not only survive, but also thrive, with increased ventilation during the winter months throughout most temperate regions of the world.  Propolis properties may include:

Composition.

The composition of propolis varies from hive to hive, from district to district, and from season to season. Normally, it is dark brown in color, but it can be found in green, red, black, and white hues, depending on the sources of resin found in the particular hive area. Honey bees are opportunists, gathering what they need from available sources, and detailed analyses show that the chemical composition of propolis varies considerably from region to region, along with the vegetation. In northern temperate climates, for example, bees collect resins from trees, such as poplars and conifers (the biological role of resin in trees is to seal wounds and defend against bacteria, fungi and insects). "Typical" northern temperate propolis has approximately 50 constituents, primarily resins and vegetable balsams (50%), waxes (30%), essential oils (10%), and pollen (5%). Propolis also contains persistent lipophilic acaricides, a natural pesticide that deters mite infestations.  In neotropical regions, in addition to a large variety of trees, bees may also gather resin from flowers in the genera "Clusia" and "Dalechampia", which are the only known plant genera that produce floral resins to attract pollinators. "Clusia" resin contains polyprenylated benzophenones. In some areas of Chile and Argentina Andean valleys, propolis contains viscidone, a terpene from "Baccharis" shrubs, and in Brazil and Paraguay, naphthoquinone epoxide has recently been isolated from red propolis, and prenylated acids such as 4-hydroxy-3,5-diprenyl cinnamic acid have been documented. An analysis of propolis from Henan, China found sinapinic acid, isoferulic acid, caffeic acid, and chrysin, with the first three compounds demonstrating antibacterial properties. Also, Brazilian red propolis, largely derived from "Dalbergia ecastaphyllum" plant resin, has high relative percentages of the isoflavonoids 3-hydroxy-8,9-dimethoxypterocarpan and medicarpin. Other flavonoids commonly present include galangin and pinocembrin. Caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) is also a component of some varieties of propolis from New Zealand.  Occasionally, worker bees will even gather various caulking compounds of human manufacture, when the usual sources are more difficult to obtain. The properties of the propolis depend on the exact sources used by each individual hive; therefore any potential medicinal properties that may be present in one hive's propolis may be absent from another's, or from another sample in the same hive.

Traditional medicine and research.

Propolis has been used in traditional medicine. There is insufficient evidence to rate the effectiveness of propolis for any condition.  The propolis made by some Brazilian bees is under preliminary research for the potential development of new drugs associated with control of "Candida albicans" and immunomodulatory effects. Studies have suggested propolis may be effective treatment for allergic rhinitis by inhibiting histamine release.

Other uses.

Musical instruments.

Propolis is used by some string instrument makers (violin, viola, cello and bass) as a varnish ingredient. A tincture of propolis may be used to seal the surface of newly made violin family bridges, and may be used in the maintenance of the bores of pan flute tubes. Propolis was purportedly used by Antonio Stradivari in the varnish of his instruments.

Food.

Propolis is used by some chewing gum manufacturers to make propolis gum.

Car wax.

Propolis is used to bring about a chemical reaction to convert fats and oils into automobile wax during application.

Propolis or bee glue is a resinous mixture that honey bees produce by mixing saliva and beeswax with exudate gathered from tree buds, sap flows, or other botanical sources. It is used as a sealant for unwanted open spaces in the hive. Propolis is used for small gaps (approximately or less), while larger spaces are usually filled with beeswax. Its color varies depending on its botanical source, with dark brown as the most common. Propolis is sticky at and above, while at lower temperatures it becomes hard and brittle.


Birth and marriage.

Teresa was the illegitimate daughter of King Alfonso VI of León and Castile by Jimena Muñoz. In 1093, her father married her to a French nobleman, Henry of Burgundy, nephew of Queen Constance, a brother of the Duke of Burgundy, a descendant of the kings of France in the male line. Henry was providing military assistance to his father-in-law against the Muslims on the Portuguese march.  In the first months of 1096, Henry and his cousin Raymond of Burgundy, husband of Queen Urraca, reached an agreement whereby each swore under oath that Raymond would give Henry the kingdom of Toledo and one-third of the royal treasury after King Alfonso's death and, if that was not possible, Henry would receive the kingdom of Galicia, while Henry, in turn, promised to support his cousin Raymond in securing all of the king's dominions and two-thirds of the treasury. King Alfonso, however, after becoming aware of this covenant, appointed Henry governor of all the land between the Minho River and Santarém, governed until then by Raymond, thereby limiting his son-in-law's government to Galicia. The two cousins then, instead of being allies, became rivals, each vying to obtain the king's favor. Upon the death of King Alfonso, Henry and Teresa continued governing these lands south of the Minho and extending to the Mondego river and valley, and later, in December 1111, under the reign of Queen Urraca, were also governing Zamora.

Struggle with sister.

At first, Teresa and Henry were vassals of her father, but Alfonso VI died in 1109, leaving his legitimate daughter, Queen Urraca of Castile as the heir to the throne. Henry invaded León, hoping to add it to his lands. When he died in 1112, Teresa was left to deal with the military and political situation. She took on the responsibility of government, and occupied herself at first mainly with her southern lands, that had only recently been reconquered from the Moors as far as the Mondego River. In recognizing her victory in defending Coimbra, she was called "Queen" by Pope Paschal II and in light of this recognition, she appears in her documents as "Daughter of Alphonso and elected by God", explicitly being called queen in an 1117 document, leading some to refer to her as the first monarch of Portugal.  In 1116, in an effort to expand her power, Teresa fought her half-sister, Queen Urraca. They fought again in 1120, as she continued to pursue a larger share in the Leonese inheritance, and allied herself as a widow to the most powerful Galician nobleman for that effect. This was Fernando Pérez, Count of Trava, who had rejected his first wife to openly marry her, and served her on her southern border of the Mondego. In 1121, she was besieged and captured at Lanhoso, on her northern border with Galicia, while fighting her sister Urraca. A negotiated peace was coordinated with aid from the Archbishops of Santiago de Compostela and Braga. The terms included that Teresa could go free only if she held the County of Portugal as a vassal of the Kingdom of León as she had received it initially.

Rebellions.

By 1128, the Archbishop of Braga and the main Portuguese feudal nobles had had enough of her persistent Galician alliance, which the first feared could favour the ecclesiastical pretensions of his new rival, the Galician Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela, Diego Gelmírez, who had just started to assert his pretensions to an alleged discovery of relics of Saint James in his town, as his way to gain power and riches over the other cathedrals in the Iberian Peninsula.  The Portuguese nobles and warlords rebelled, and the Queen was deposed after a short civil war. Her son and heir, Afonso, defeated Teresa's troops at the Battle of São Mamede near Guimarães and led her, along with the Count of Traba and their children, into exile in the 'kingdom' of Galicia, near the Portuguese border, where the Traba had founded the monastery of Toxos Outos. Teresa died soon afterwards in 1130. She was succeeded by her son, who would eventually lead Portugal into becoming a fully independent kingdom, and later, nation state.

Issue.

By Henry, Count of Portugal, Teresa had:  She had two daughters with count Fernando Pérez de Traba:

Theresa (Portuguese: "Teresa"; Galician-Portuguese: "Tareja" or "Tareixa"; Latin: "Tarasia") (1080 – 11 November 1130) was Countess and Queen of Portugal. She rebelled against vassalic ties with her half-sister Urraca and was recognised as Queen by Pope Paschal II in 1116. After being captured she was forced to accept 'Portugal's vassalage to the Kingdom of León in 1121, although she was allowed to keep her royal title. Her political alliance and amorous liaison with Galician nobleman Fernando Pérez de Traba led to her being ousted by her son, Afonso Henriques, who with the support of the Portuguese nobility and clergy, defeated her at the Battle of São Mamede in 1128.