Neighbouring ranges.

The Wetterstein borders on the following other mountain ranges of the Alps: In the "AVE", the Alpine Club classification of the Eastern Alps, the Wetterstein and the Mieming range are classed as a single group.

Boundaries.

The River Loisach forms the boundary of the range to the west and north, from the Ehrwald Basin to Garmisch-Partenkirchen. To the northeast the boundary runs from Garmisch-Partenkirchen to Mittenwald along the Kankerbach and Kranzbach streams and the Isar river. To the east the Isar forms the boundary from Mittenwald to Scharnitz. South of Scharnitz it continues along the Drahnbach stream to Seestadeln. To the south the boundary extends from Ehrwald along the Gaisbach stream and over the Ehrwalder Alm to the Gaistal valley (Leutascher Ache) and continues via Leutasch-Oberweidach and past the Simmelberg to the north to the Drahnbach.  The saddle between the Kankerbach and the Kranzbach (the Loisach – Isar watershed) links the Wetterstein with the Bavarian Prealps. The saddle near the Ehrwalder Alm is the link between the Wetterstein and Mieming Chain.

Subgroups.

SOIUSA officially divides the "Wettersteingebirge" into two groups and eight subgroups:  The Alpine Club Guide divides the range based on access:

Peaks.

The 10 highest summits of the Wetterstein are: There are over 150 named summits in the Wetterstein with spot heights. Amongst the best known are (in order of height): The Zugspitze is very frequently climbed using various routes and the Alpspitze summit, too, is a popular destination that can be reached on several different routes. The ridge of Jubiläumsgrat is a high alpine climbing route that links these two summits. The climbing along the Blassenkamm ridge over the tops of the Innere, Mittlere and Äußere Höllentalspitze has sections that are classified as UIAA grade III-.  The region around the Oberreintal Hut and the south side of the Schüsselkarspitze and Scharnitzspitze are well known for alpine climbing routes of all levels up the solid, limestone slabs. The south side above the Gaistal is markedly quieter than the north side.  For climbers, the mountains north of Leutasch are very interesting, especially the Oberreintal-Schrofen, the Scharnitzspitze and the Schüsselkarspitze. On the south faces of these three border mountains are alpine climbing routes aplenty. In recent years several alpine classics were renovated by Heinz Zak. This has attracted ever more climbers to the region.

Conservation.

Fauna.

The combination of alms and rugged rocky terrain is not only unique in the German Alpine region, but also offers habitats for several species of animal, such as chamois, Alpine marmots, Alpine choughs, Alpine salamanders, adders, golden eagles and many species of marten.

Tourism.

Huts.

The German Alpine Club maintains six managed Alpine Club huts in the Wetterstein mountains with overnight accommodation: the Münchner Haus (2,962 m), the Meiler Hut (2,366 m), the Knorr Hut (2,052 m), the Kreuzeckhaus (also: Adolf Zoeppritz Haus, 1,652 m), the Höllentalanger Hut (1,379 m) and the Reintalanger Hut (1,366 m). In addition, are the privately run Schachenhaus (1,866 m) and the Wiener Neustädter Hut (2,209 m, maintained by the Austrian Tourist Club) offer food, refuge and accommodation for mountaineers and hikers. The Munich Branch of the German Alpine Club has rented the Waxenstein Hut (also Alpl Hut or Aiple Hut) since 1920 and operates it as self-catered accommodation. In the Oberreintalkar lies the Oberreintal Hut, which is the meeting point for Wetterstein climbers (a self-catering hut although drinks are sold by the proprietor). In winter the Stuiben Hut is used as a self-catering hut for ski tourers and snowshoe trekkers. In addition there are several privately owned huts in the Wetterstein mountains. Of these, the Kreuzjochhaus stands out because of its idyllic setting, which offers one of the best panoramas in the Bavarian Alps in the summer and is located in the middle of the Garmisch-Partenkirchen ski region in the winter.

Long-distance paths.

The Via Alpina, a cross-border long-distance path with five stages through the whole of the Alps, also runs through the Wetterstein. The Red Way of the Via Alpina ("Rote Weg der Via Alpina") runs through the Wetterstein in three stages:  Stage 15 of the North Alpine long-distance path 01 (Limestone Alp Way) runs through the Wetterstein in two route variations.  From Scharnitz over the Hoher Saddle to Leutasch-Ahrn both variations are combined. In Ahrn the long-distance path forks into a high alpine and an easier variant. The high alpine variant runs via the Meiler Hut into the Reintal valley and continues to the summit of the Zugspitze. From there it descends to Ehrwald. The easier variant runs through the Leutascher Achental valley via the Ehrwalder Alm and also ends at Ehrwald.

Klettersteigs.

There are the following klettersteigs (sometimes abbreviated to "Steig") in the Wetterstein:

Lifts.

Several large cable cars and lifts link to the summit regions and high skiing areas: The Bavarian Zugspitze Railway (a metre gauge rack railway from Garmisch to the Zugspitzplatt), the Eibsee Cable Car (from the Eibsee to the Zugspitzplatt), the Tyrolean Zugspitze Cable Car (from Ehrwald to the Zugspitzplatt) and the Ehrwalder Almbahn.

Sights.

Those not interested in a climbing tour or multi-day summit tour, can hike the Partnach Gorge, the Leutasch Gorge or the Höllental Gorge in a day.

Wetterstein Tunnel.

For many years there were discussions about a project to build a railway tunnel between the Tyrolean village of Telfs and the Bavarian town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen. The tunnel would have had a total length of 22 kilometres and would have enabled the journey time of trunk services between Munich Central Station and Innsbruck Central Station to be cut to 90 minutes. The project was assessed in 2013 to cost €2.2 B to build. A tunnel through the Wetterstein would save trains one hour in travelling between Munich and Landeck or Vorarlberg and relieve both the line from Munich via Rosenheim to Innsbruck and the route from Munich to Lindau. By bypassing Garmisch and moving the south portal of the tunnel east of Telfs-Sagl the tunnel would be just under 25 kilometres in length.

The Wetterstein mountains (), colloquially called Wetterstein, is a mountain group in the Northern Limestone Alps within the Eastern Alps. It is a comparatively compact range located between Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Mittenwald, Seefeld in Tirol and Ehrwald along the border between Germany (Bavaria) and Austria (Tyrol). Zugspitze, the highest peak is at the same time the highest mountain in Germany.


Early career.

Ponomariov was born in Horlivka in Ukraine. He was taught to play chess by his father at the age of 5. At 9 he became a first category player, and in September 1993 he moved to Kramatorsk. Here Ponomariov attended the A. V. Momot Chess School and was trained by Boris Ponomariov. In 1994 he placed third in the World Under-12 Championship at the age of ten. In 1996 he won the European Under-18 Championship at the age of just twelve, and the following year won the World Under-18 Championship. In 1998, at the age of fourteen, he was awarded the Grandmaster title, making him the youngest ever player at that time to hold the title. In 1999, he was a member of the Ukrainian national youth team, which won the U-16 Chess Olympiad in Artek, Ukraine.  Among Ponomariov's notable later results are first place at the Donetsk Zonal tournament in 1998, 5/7 score in the European Club Cup 2000 (including a victory over then-FIDE World Champion Alexander Khalifman), joint first with 71⁄2/9 at Torshavn 2000, 81⁄2/11 for Ukraine in the 2001 Chess Olympiad in Istanbul, winning gold medal on board 2, and first place with 7/10 in the 2001 Governor's Cup in Kramatorsk.

FIDE World Chess Champion 2002.

In 2002 he beat his fellow countryman Vassily Ivanchuk in the final of the FIDE World Chess Championship 2002 by a score of 41⁄2-21⁄2 to become FIDE World Champion at the age of 18, the first teenager and youngest person to do so.  In the same year he finished second in the very strong Linares tournament, behind Garry Kasparov. His result in the strong 2003 Corus tournament at Wijk aan Zee was not as good – despite having the third highest Elo rating, he finished only joint eleventh out of fourteen players with 6/13, and at Linares the same year he finished only fifth out of seven with 51⁄2/12.  There were plans for him to play a fourteen-game match against Kasparov in Yalta in September 2003, the winner of which would go on to play the winner of a match between Vladimir Kramnik and Péter Lékó as part of the so-called "Prague Agreement" to reunify the World Chess Championship (from 1993 until 2006 there were two world chess championships). However, this was called off by FIDE on the grounds that Ponomariov failed to sign the contract in time. The latter always alleged lack of equality in the contract for both contenders.  Ponomariov remained FIDE champion until Rustam Kasimdzhanov won the FIDE World Chess Championship 2004.

Post-championship career.

On Ponomariov's 20th birthday, October 11, 2003, he became the first high-profile player to forfeit a game because of his mobile phone ringing during play. This happened in round one of the European Team Chess Championship in Plovdiv, Bulgaria, when Ponomariov was playing Black against Swedish GM Evgenij Agrest.  In 2004, Ponomariov won the gold medal at the 2004 Chess Olympiad held in Calvià, Spain, with the Ukrainian team.  In 2005 he won the 15th edition of the "Ciudad de Pamplona" tournament. He also won a rapid tournament in Odessa, Ukraine, and the Golden Blitz Cup in Moscow. Finally, that year he reached the 2005 Chess World Cup final against Levon Aronian, who won the final.  In 2006 he shared first place with Aronian and Peter Leko in the Tal Memorial tournament in Moscow.  In 2009 he shared first place with Hikaru Nakamura at the Donostia Chess Festival in San Sebastian, Spain. The latter won the tie-break blitz games 2–0. Ponomariov got one more second place by tie-break that year in the 2009 Chess World Cup, where he reached the final against Israeli Boris Gelfand. After four classic games, four rapid games, and two blitz games with a drawn score, Gelfand finally won in one last set of two blitz games.  In July 2010 Ponomariov won the prestigious Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting in Dortmund, one point ahead of Lê Quang Liêm from Vietnam. In September of that year, Ukraine won the gold once more at the 2010 Chess Olympiad in Khanty-Mansiysk with players Vassily Ivanchuk, Ruslan Ponomariov, Pavel Eljanov, Zahar Efimenko, and Alexander Moiseenko.  In February 2011, after occupying an unfortunate last place at the World Blitz Championship in November 2010 in Moscow, Ponomariov showed great improvement at the strong Aeroflot Blitz held in the same city by reaching second place, just half a point behind Shakhriyar Mamedyarov.  In June 2011 he won the 80th Ukrainian Chess Championship, the strongest ever in the country, with 81⁄2/11 and a performance rating of 2853.

Ruslan Olegovich Ponomariov (, "Ruslan Olehovych Ponomar'ov"; born 11 October 1983) is a Ukrainian chess grandmaster. He was FIDE World Chess Champion from 2002 to 2004. He won the Ukrainian Chess Championship in 2011.


Universal Time and standard time.

Prior to the introduction of standard time, each municipality throughout the clock-using world set its official clock, if it had one, according to the local position of the Sun (see solar time). This served adequately until the introduction of rail travel in Britain, which made it possible to travel fast enough over long distances to require continuous re-setting of timepieces as a train progressed in its daily run through several towns. Greenwich Mean Time, the mean solar time on the Prime Meridian at Greenwich, England, was established to solve this problem: all clocks in Britain were set to this time regardless of local solar noon. Chronometers or telegraphy were used to synchronize these clocks.  Standard time was originally proposed by Scottish-Canadian Sir Sandford Fleming at a meeting of the Canadian Institute in Toronto on 8 February 1879. He suggested that standard time zones could be used locally, but they were subordinate to his single world time, which he called Cosmic Time. The proposal divided the world into twenty-four time zones, each one covering 15 degrees of longitude. All clocks within each zone would be set to the same time as the others, but differed by one hour from those in the neighboring zones. The local time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich was announced as the recommended base reference for world time on 22 October 1884 at the end of the International Meridian Conference. This location was chosen because by 1884 two-thirds of all nautical charts and maps already used it as their prime meridian. The conference did not adopt Fleming's time zones because they were outside the purpose for which it was called, which was to choose a basis for universal time (as well as a prime meridian).  During the period between 1848 and 1972, all of the major countries adopted time zones based on the Greenwich meridian.  In 1935, the term "Universal Time" was recommended by the International Astronomical Union as a more precise term than Greenwich Mean Time, because GMT could refer to either an astronomical day starting at noon or a civil day starting at midnight. In some countries, the term "Greenwich Mean Time" persists in common usage to this day in reference to civil timekeeping.

Measurement.

Based on the rotation of the Earth, time can be measured by observing celestial bodies crossing the meridian every day. Astronomers found that it was more accurate to establish time by observing stars as they crossed a meridian rather than by observing the position of the Sun in the sky. Nowadays, UT in relation to International Atomic Time (TAI) is determined by Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) observations of distant quasars, a method which can determine UT1 to within 15 microseconds or better.  The rotation of the Earth and UT are monitored by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS). The International Astronomical Union also is involved in setting standards, but the final arbiter of broadcast standards is the International Telecommunication Union or ITU.  The rotation of the Earth is somewhat irregular and also is very gradually slowing due to tidal acceleration. Furthermore, the length of the second was determined from observations of the Moon between 1750 and 1890. All of these factors cause the modern mean solar day, on the average, to be slightly longer than the nominal 86,400 SI seconds, the traditional number of seconds per day. As UT is thus slightly irregular in its rate, astronomers introduced Ephemeris Time, which has since been replaced by Terrestrial Time (TT). Because Universal Time is determined by the Earth's rotation, which drifts away from more precise atomic-frequency standards, an adjustment (called a leap second) to this atomic time is needed since () 'broadcast time' remains broadly synchronised with solar time. Thus, the civil broadcast standard for time and frequency usually follows International Atomic Time closely, but occasionally step (or "leap") in order to prevent them from drifting too far from mean solar time.  Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB), a form of atomic time, is now used in the construction of the ephemerides of the planets and other solar system objects, for two main reasons. First, these ephemerides are tied to optical and radar observations of planetary motion, and the TDB time scale is fitted so that Newton's laws of motion, with corrections for general relativity, are followed. Next, the time scales based on Earth's rotation are not uniform and therefore, are not suitable for predicting the motion of bodies in our solar system.

Versions.

There are several versions of Universal Time:

Adoption in various countries.

The table shows the dates of adoption of time zones based on the Greenwich meridian, including half-hour zones.  Apart from Nepal Standard Time (UTC+05:45), the Chatham Standard Time Zone (UTC+12:45) used in New Zealand's Chatham Islands and the officially unsanctioned Central Western Time Zone (UTC+8:45) used in Eucla, Western Australia and surrounding areas, all time zones in use are defined by an offset from UTC that is a multiple of half an hour, and in most cases a multiple of an hour.

Universal Time (UT) is a time standard based on Earth's rotation. There are several versions of Universal Time, which differ by up to a few seconds. The most commonly used are Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) and UT1 (see ). All of these versions of UT, except for UTC, are based on Earth's rotation relative to distant celestial objects (stars and quasars), but with a scaling factor and other adjustments to make them closer to solar time. UTC is based on International Atomic Time, with leap seconds added to keep it within 0.9 second of UT1.


Biography.

Early life, influences, and education.

Jean-Michel Jarre was born in Lyon on 24 August 1948, to Francette Pejot, a French Resistance member and concentration camp survivor, and composer Maurice Jarre. When Jarre was five, his parents separated and his father moved to the United States, leaving him with his mother. He did not see his father again until reaching the age of 18. For the first eight years of his life, Jarre spent six months each year at his maternal grandparents' flat on the Cours de Verdun, in the Perrache district of Lyon. Jarre's grandfather

1970s.

In 1971 Jarre was commissioned by choreographer Norbert Schmucki to perform a ballet called "AOR" (in Hebrew, "the light"), at the Palais Garnier. He also composed music for ballet, theatre, advertisements and television programs, as well as music and lyrics for artists like Patrick Juvet and Christophe. Jarre composed the soundtrack for "Les Granges Brûlées" and in 1972 wrote music for the International Festival of Magic. That year he also released his first solo album, "Deserted Palace", and from 1973–74 wrote music for Françoise Hardy and Gérard Lenorman, and wrote lyrics for Christophe and directed Christophe's Olympia show.  Jarre's 1976 low-budget solo album "Oxygène", recorded at his home studio, made him famous internationally. It comprises six numbered synthesiser tracks that make strong use of melody, rather than rhythm or dissonance. A Scully eight-track recorder was used to record instruments like the Eminent 310 (with an Electro-Harmonix "Small Stone" phaser on its string pads) and the Korg Minipops drum machine. Liberal use of echo was used on the various sound effects generated by the VCS3 synthesiser. Jarre's ARP 2600 synthesiser, previously used on his collaborations with Christophe, also featured, as did his EMS VCS 3.  "Oxygène" initially proved difficult

1980–1984.

By the time "Les Chants Magnétiques" was released on 20 May 1981, "Oxygène" and "Équinoxe" had achieved global sales of about 6 million units. In its first two months the new album sold a reported 200,000 units in France alone. The album uses sounds from the Fairlight CMI, a new instrument of which Jarre was an early pioneer. Its digital technology allowed him to continue his earlier sonic experimentation in new ways.  The album's release coincided with Jarre's first

1985–1989.

In 1985, Jarre was invited by the musical director of the Houston Grand Opera to perform a concert celebrating Texas's 150th anniversary on 5 April 1986. Although he was busy with other projects and was at first unimpressed by the proposal, on a later visit to the city, he was immediately impressed by the visual grandeur of the city's skyline and agreed to perform. Also, 1985 marked the 25th anniversary of the foundation of the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center; and NASA asked Jarre to integrate the anniversary into the concert.  "Rendez-Vous" was created over a period of about two months and, as with "Zoolook", contains elements of his album "Musique pour Supermarché". Its three movements represent

1990s.

In 1990 Jarre released "En Attendant Cousteau" (Waiting for Cousteau), inspired by the French oceanographer Jacques-Yves Cousteau. On Bastille Day 1990 he performed a concert at La Défense in Paris, attended by a record-breaking audience of about two million people, again beating his earlier world record. He later promoted a concert near the Pyramids of Teotihuacan in Mexico, to be held during the solar eclipse of 11 July 1991. However, with only weeks to go, important equipment had not arrived and the sinking in the Atlantic Ocean of

2000s.

Jarre released his first vocal album, "Métamorphoses", in 2000. It was mixed on an early version of Pro Tools, a digital audio workstation designed to record, edit and play back digital audio. "Métamorphoses" marked a departure from Jarre's earlier work. Sound effects used include radio interference from mobile phones, and Macintalk, a Macintosh program used to generate lyrics on the track "Love, Love, Love". Contributors included Laurie Anderson, who had also appeared on "Zoolook", Natacha Atlas and Sharon Corr.  It was followed in 2001 by "Interior Music", created for use by the audio-visual company Bang & Olufsen, and which did not receive a commercial release. The same year he composed, with Francis Rimbert arrangements, the music for the short-lived French channel Match TV, and contributed music to the soundtrack of the film "Who wants to be a Star".  In 2002 he released "Sessions 2000", a set of experimental

2010–2014.

On 1 March 2010, Jean-Michel Jarre started the second leg of his 2009–10 Indoors tour; on 10 June, he was presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award by Mojo magazine.  On 30 May 2011, "Essentials & Rarities", a double-CD set, was released. This was the last Jarre work to be released by Disques Dreyfus. The "Essentials" disc is a compilation of some of his most famous works. The "Rarities" disc includes pieces

2015–2019.

In Spring 2015, Jarre released the first music from a new studio album, released in October 2015, following around four years of work. The album, "" (working title: "E-Project"), comprises a number of collaborations with other artists. The first of these to be released was the collaboration with Gesaffelstein entitled "Conquistador", followed by "Glory", with M83. The track was also featured as part of the soundtrack of a short film entitled EMIC. Other collaborations on the album include "Zero Gravity", with the late Edgar Froese and Tangerine Dream (with a remix by Above and Beyond); Vince Clarke for "Automatic" (parts 1 and 2); Armin van Buuren for "Stardust", John Carpenter for ""A Question of Blood"", Little Boots for "If..!" and Pete Townshend for "Travelator, Pt. 2". The album became Jarre's first album in over

Personal life.

Jarre is fluent in French and English and understands Spanish.  He has been married four times. He was married to Flore Guillard from 20 January 1975 until 1977; their daughter Émilie Charlotte was born in 1975 or 1976 and became a fashion model. He met his second wife Charlotte Rampling at a dinner party in St Tropez in 1976. Both were in failing marriages, and they each obtained a divorce (Rampling was married to New Zealander Bryan Southcombe). The two married, Jarre gaining custody of his daughter Émilie Charlotte, and Rampling her son Barnaby. Together they have a son, David.  Jarre and Rampling

Public engagement.

On 5 October 2016, Democracy in Europe Movement

Honours.

An asteroid, 4422 Jarre, has been named

Discography.

As of 2004, Jarre

Filmography, soundtracks, documentaries.

Jarre composed for movies and also participated in documentaries.

Jean-Michel André Jarre (; born 24 August 1948) is a French composer, performer and record producer. He is a pioneer in the electronic, ambient and new-age genres, and is known for organising outdoor spectacles featuring his music, vast laser displays, large projections and fireworks.


Ascension and reign.

Although early authors, such as Aeschylus refer in passing to Menelaus’ early life, detailed sources are quite late, post-dating 5th-century BC Greek tragedy. According to these sources, Menelaus' father, Atreus, had been feuding with his brother Thyestes over the throne of Mycenae. After a back-and-forth struggle that featured adultery, incest, and cannibalism, Thyestes gained the throne after his son Aegisthus murdered Atreus. As a result, Atreus’ sons, Menelaus and Agamemnon, went into exile. They first stayed with King Polypheides of Sicyon, and later with King Oeneus of Calydon. But when they thought the time was ripe to dethrone Mycenae’s hostile ruler, they returned. Assisted by King Tyndareus of Sparta, they drove Thyestes away, and Agamemnon took the throne for himself.  When it was time for Tyndareus’ stepdaughter Helen to marry, many kings and princes came to seek her hand. Among the contenders were Odysseus, Menestheus, Ajax the Great, Patroclus, and Idomeneus. Most offered opulent gifts. Tyndareus would accept none of the gifts, nor would he send any of the suitors away for fear of offending them and giving grounds for a quarrel. Odysseus promised to solve the problem in a satisfactory manner if Tyndareus would support him in his courting of Tyndareus’s niece Penelope, the daughter of Icarius. Tyndareus readily agreed, and Odysseus proposed that, before the decision was made, all the suitors should swear a most solemn oath to defend the chosen husband in any quarrel. Then it was decreed that straws were to be drawn for Helen’s hand. The suitor who won was Menelaus (Tyndareus, not to displease the mighty Agamemnon offered him another of his daughters, Clytaemnestra). The rest of the suitors swore their oaths, and Helen and Menelaus were married, Menelaus becoming a ruler of Sparta with Helen after Tyndareus and Leda abdicated the thrones. Menelaus and Helen had a daughter Hermione as supported, for example, by Sappho, while some variations of the myth suggest they had three sons as well: Aithiolas, Maraphius, and Pleisthenes.  Their supposed palace (ἀνάκτορον) has been discovered (the excavations started in 1926 and continued until 1995) in Pellana, Laconia, to the north-west of modern (and classical) Sparta. Other archaeologists consider that Pellana is too far away from other Mycenaean centres to have been the "capital of Menelaus".

Trojan War.

According to legend, in return for awarding her a golden apple inscribed "to the fairest," Aphrodite promised Paris the most beautiful woman in all the world. After concluding a diplomatic mission to Sparta during the latter part of which Menelaus was absent to attend the funeral of his maternal grandfather Catreus in Crete, Paris ran off to Troy with Helen despite his brother Hector's prohibition. Invoking the oath of Tyndareus, Menelaus and Agamemnon raised a fleet of a thousand ships and went to Troy to secure Helen's return; the Trojans refused, providing a "casus belli" for the Trojan War.  Homer's "Iliad" is the most comprehensive source for Menelaus’s exploits during the Trojan War. In Book 3, Menelaus challenges Paris to a duel for Helen’s return. Menelaus soundly beats Paris, but before he can kill him and claim victory, Aphrodite spirits Paris away inside the walls of Troy. In Book 4, while the Greeks and Trojans squabble over the duel’s winner, Athena inspires the Trojan Pandarus to shoot Menelaus with his bow and arrow. However, Athena never intended for Menelaus to die and she protects him from the arrow of Pandarus. Menelaus is wounded in the abdomen, and the fighting resumes. Later, in Book 17, Homer gives Menelaus an extended "aristeia" as the hero retrieves the corpse of Patroclus from the battlefield.  According to Hyginus, Menelaus killed eight men in the war, and was one of the Greeks hidden inside the Trojan Horse. During the sack of Troy, Menelaus killed Deiphobus, who had married Helen after the death of Paris.  There are four versions of Menelaus’ and Helen’s reunion on the night of the sack of Troy:

After the war.

Book 4 of the "Odyssey" provides an account of Menelaus’ return from Troy and his homelife in Sparta. When visited by Odysseus’ son Telemachus, Menelaus recounts his voyage home. As happened to many Greeks, Menelaus' homebound fleet was blown by storms to Crete and Egypt where they were becalmed, unable to sail away. They trapped Proteus and forced him to reveal how to make the voyage home. After their homecoming, Menelaus and Helen’s marriage is strained; Menelaus continually revisits the losses of the Trojan War, particularly as he and Helen have no male heir. Menelaus is fond of Megapenthes and Nicostratus, his sons by slave women. According to Euripides’ "Helen", Menelaus is reunited with Helen after death, on the Isle of the Blessed.

In vase painting.

Menelaus appears in Greek vase painting in the 6th to 4th centuries BC, such as: Menelaus’s reception of Paris at Sparta; his retrieval of Patroclus’s corpse; and his reunion with Helen.

In Greek tragedy.

Menelaus appears as a character in a number of 5th-century Greek tragedies: Sophocles’ "Ajax", and Euripides’ "Andromache", "Helen", "Orestes", "Iphigenia at Aulis", and "The Trojan Women".

External links.

In Greek mythology, Menelaus (;, "Menelaos", from μένος "vigor, rage, power" and λαός "people," "wrath of the people") was a king of Mycenaean (pre-Dorian) Sparta, the husband of Helen of Troy, and the son of Atreus and Aerope. According to the "Iliad", Menelaus was a central figure in the Trojan War, leading the Spartan contingent of the Greek army, under his elder brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae. Prominent in both the "Iliad" and "Odyssey", Menelaus was also popular in Greek vase painting and Greek tragedy, the latter more as a hero of the Trojan War than as a member of the doomed House of Atreus.


History.

In Tom Hirschfeld's 1981 book "How to Master the Video Games", he divides the included games into broad categories in the table of contents: "Space Invaders"-type, "Asteroids"-type, maze, reflex, and miscellaneous. The first two of these correspond to the still-used genres of fixed shooter and multidirectional shooter. Maze is also a modern genre.  Chris Crawford attempted to classify video games in his 1984 book "The Art of Computer Game Design". In this book, Crawford primarily focused on the player's experience and activities required for gameplay. Here, he stated that "the state of computer game design is changing quickly. We would therefore expect the taxonomy presented [in this book] to become obsolete or inadequate in a short time." Since then, among other genres, the platformer and 3D shooter genres, which hardly existed at the time, have gained in popularity. As hardware capabilities have increased, new genres have become possible, with examples being increased memory, the move from 2D to 3D, new peripherals, online functionalities, and location-based mechanics.  The video game industry expanded in the 1990s and both smaller and independent publishers had little chance of surviving. Because of this, game developers settled more into set genres that larger publishers and retailers could use for marketing.

Definition.

Due to "direct and active participation" of the player, video game genres differ from literary and film genres. Though one could state that "Space Invaders" is a science fiction video game, author Mark J.P. Wolf wrote that such a classification "ignores the fundamental differences and similarities which are to be found in the player's experience of the game." In contrast to the visual aesthetics of games, which can vary greatly, it is argued that it is interactivity characteristics that are common to all games.  Like film genres, the names of video game genres have come about generally as a common understanding between the audience and the producers. Descriptive names of genres take into account the goals of the game, the protagonist and even the perspective offered to the player. For example, a first-person shooter is a game that is played from a first-person perspective and involves the practice of shooting. Whereas "shooter game" is a genre name, "first-person shooter" and "third-person shooter" are common subgenres of the shooter genre. Other examples of such prefixes are real-time, turn based, top-down and side-scrolling. Genre names are not fixed and may change over time because of the nature of audience-producer agreement on genre naming. One of the best known examples of such changes is with the waning of ""Doom" clones", initially used for games like 1993's "Doom", into "first-person shooters" over the next several years with the latter becoming most predominate for the genre by around 2000.  The target audience, underlying theme or purpose of a game are sometimes used as a genre identifier, such as with "Christian game" and "serious game" respectively. However, because these terms do not indicate anything about the gameplay of a video game, these are not considered genres.

In practice.

Video game genres vary in specificity, with popular video game reviews using genre names varying from "action" to "baseball". In this practice, basic themes and more fundamental characteristics are used alongside each other.  A game may combine aspects of multiple genres in such a way that it becomes hard to classify under existing genres. For example, because "Grand Theft Auto III" combined shooting, driving and roleplaying in an unusual way, it was hard to classify using existing terms. The term "Grand Theft Auto" clone has been used to describe games mechanically similar to "Grand Theft Auto III". Similarly, the term roguelike has been developed for games that share similarities with "Rogue".  Elements of the role-playing genre, which focuses on storytelling and character growth, have been implemented in many different genres of video games. This is because the addition of a story and character enhancement to an action, strategy or puzzle video game does not take away from its core gameplay, but adds an incentive other than survival to the experience.  In addition to gameplay elements, some games may be categorized by other schemes, those these are typically not used as genres:

Popularity.

According to some analysts, the percentage of each broad genre in the best-selling physical games worldwide is broken down as follows. The most popular genres are shooter, action, role-playing and sports, with platformer and racing having both declined in the last decade. Puzzle games have declined when measured by sales, however, on mobile, where the majority of games are free-to-play, this genre remains the most popular worldwide.

A video game genre is a classification assigned to a video game based primarily on its gameplay (type of interaction) rather than visual or narrative features. A video game genre is normally defined by a set of gameplay challenges considered independently of setting or game-world content, unlike works of fiction that are expressed through other media, such as films or books. For example, a shooter game is still a shooter game, regardless of where or when it takes place.


Background.

In the early 10th century, Western monasticism, which had flourished several centuries earlier with St Benedict of Nursia, was experiencing a severe decline due to unstable political and social conditions resulting from the nearly continuous Viking raids, widespread poverty and, especially, the dependence of abbeys on the local nobles who controlled all that belonged to the territories under their jurisdiction.  The impetus for the reforms lay in abuses thought to be a result of secular interference in the monasteries and of the Church's tight integration with the feudal and manorial systems. Since a Benedictine monastery required land, it needed the patronage of a local lord. However, the lord would often demand rights and assert prerogatives that interfered with the operation of the monastery. Patrons normally retained a proprietary interest and expected to install their kinsmen as abbots. Local aristocrats often established churches, monasteries, and convents that they then considered as family property, taking revenues from them, and leaving the monks that remained subsisting in poverty.  Some monasteries were established by feudal lords with the intention of retiring there at some point. The Benedictine Rule, in these monasteries, was modified to schedule matins when it would not interrupt sleep and expanded the vegetarian diet. Monks in these houses wore richer, warmer clothing and were free to disregard the rules pertaining to fasting. The Cluny reform was an attempt to remedy these practices in the hope that a more independent abbot would better enforce the Rule of Saint Benedict.

Cluny Abbey.

William I, Duke of Aquitaine (935–963) had acquired a piece of land in Burgundy. In 910 he founded Cluny Abbey and asked Abbot Berno of Baume Abbey to preside. The Abbot of Cluny retained authority over the daughter houses his order founded. By the twelfth century, the Congregation of Cluny included more than a thousand monasteries.  Berno had established St. Peter's monastery at Gigny and Baume Abbey on the rule as interpreted by Benedict of Aniane, who had sought to restore the primitive strictness of the monastic observance wherever it had been relaxed. The rule focused on prayer, silence, and solitude.  Among the most notable supporters of the Cluniac reforms were Pope Urban II, Lambert of Hersfeld, and Richard of Verdun. The reforms encouraged the Church in the West to be more attentive to business and led the papacy to attempt to assert control over the Eastern Church.

Result.

During its height ("c." 950–c.1130), the Cluniac movement was one of the largest religious forces in Europe. At least as significantly as their political consequences, the reforms demanded greater religious devotion. The Cluniacs supported the Peace of God, and promoted pilgrimages to the Holy Lands. An increasingly rich liturgy stimulated demand for altar vessels of gold, fine tapestries and fabrics, stained glass, and polyphonic choral music to fill the Romanesque churches.

The Cistercian Order.

In 1075 Robert de Molesme, a Benedictine monk from Cluny Abbey, had obtained the permission of Pope Gregory VII to found a monastery at Molesme in Burgundy. At Molesme, Robert tried to restore monastery practice to the simple and severe character of the original Rule of Saint Benedict, called "Strict Observance". Being only partly successful in this at Molesme, Robert in 1098 led a band of 21 monks from their abbey at Molesme to establish a new monastery. The monks acquired a plot of marsh land just south of Dijon called Cîteaux ("Latin:" "Cistercium") and set about building a new monastery there which became Cîteaux Abbey, the mother Abbey of the newly founded Cistercian Order.

The Cluniac Reforms (also called the Benedictine Reform) were a series of changes within medieval monasticism of the Western Church focused on restoring the traditional monastic life, encouraging art, and caring for the poor. The movement began within the Benedictine order at Cluny Abbey, founded in 910 by William I, Duke of Aquitaine (875–918). The reforms were largely carried out by Saint Odo (c. 878 – 942) and spread throughout France (Burgundy, Provence, Auvergne, Poitou), into England (the English Benedictine Reform), and through much of Italy and Spain.


Occurrence.

The type location for aragonite is Molina de Aragón in the Province of Guadalajara in Castilla-La Mancha, Spain, for which it was named in 1797. The mineral is not (as often assumed) named for the region of Aragon: Molina de Aragón is located in the historic region of Castile, albeit only 25 kilometers away from the border with Aragon. Aragonite is found in this locality as cyclic twins inside gypsum and marls of the Keuper facies of Triassic. This type of aragonite deposits are very common in Spain, and there are also some in France and Morocco.  An aragonite cave, the Ochtinská Aragonite Cave, is situated in Slovakia. In the US, aragonite in the form of stalactites and "cave flowers" (anthodite) is known from Carlsbad Caverns and other caves. Massive deposits of oolitic aragonite sand are found on the seabed in the Bahamas.  Aragonite is the high pressure polymorph of calcium carbonate. As such, it occurs in high pressure metamorphic rocks such as those formed at subduction zones.  Aragonite forms naturally in almost all mollusk shells, and as the calcareous endoskeleton of warm- and cold-water corals (Scleractinia). Several serpulids have aragonitic tubes. Because the mineral deposition in mollusk shells is strongly biologically controlled, some crystal forms are distinctively different from those of inorganic aragonite. In some mollusks, the entire shell is aragonite; in others, aragonite forms only discrete parts of a bimineralic shell (aragonite plus calcite). The nacreous layer of the aragonite fossil shells of some extinct ammonites forms an iridescent material called ammolite.  Aragonite also forms in the ocean and in caves as inorganic precipitates called marine cements and speleothems, respectively. Aragonite is not uncommon in serpentinites where high Mg in pore solutions apparently inhibits calcite growth and promotes aragonite precipitation.  Aragonite is metastable at the low pressures near the Earth's surface and is thus commonly replaced by calcite in fossils. Aragonite older than the Carboniferous is essentially unknown. It can also be synthesized by adding a calcium chloride solution to a sodium carbonate solution at temperatures above or in water-ethanol mixtures at ambient temperatures.

Physical properties.

Aragonite is thermodynamically unstable at standard temperature and pressure, and tends to alter to calcite on scales of 10 to 10 years. The mineral vaterite, also known as μ-CaCO, is another phase of calcium carbonate that is metastable at ambient conditions typical of Earth's surface, and decomposes even more readily than aragonite.

Uses.

In aquaria, aragonite is considered essential for the replication of reef conditions. Aragonite provides the materials necessary for much sea life and also keeps the pH of the water close to its natural level, to prevent the dissolution of biogenic calcium carbonate.  Aragonite has been successfully tested for the removal of pollutants like zinc, cobalt and lead from contaminated wastewaters.

Aragonite is a carbonate mineral, one of the three most common naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate, (the other forms being the minerals calcite and vaterite). It is formed by biological and physical processes, including precipitation from marine and freshwater environments.


Background and education.

Wladimir Koppen was born in St. Petersburg, Russia, and lived there until he was 20 years old. He died in Graz, Nazi Germany. Köppen's grandfather was one of several German doctors invited to Russia by Empress Catherine II to improve sanitation and was later personal physician to the tsar. His father, Peter von Köppen (1793–1864), was a noted geographer, historian and ethnographer of ancient Russian cultures and an important contributor to intellectual exchanges between western European slavists and Russian scientists. He attended secondary school in Simferopol, Crimea, and began his studies of botany in 1864 at the University of St. Petersburg.  He frequently traveled to his family's estate on the Crimean coast from St. Petersburg and to and from Simferopol, in the interior of the peninsula. The floral and geographical diversity of the Crimean peninsula, as well as the starker geographical transitions between the capital and his home, did much to awaken an interest in the relationship between climate and the natural world. In 1867, he transferred to the University of Heidelberg and in 1870 he defended his doctorate dissertation on the effects of temperature on plant growth at the University of Leipzig. He served in the Prussian ambulance corps in the Franco-Prussian War and later worked at the Central Physical Observatory in St. Petersburg.  He identified five major climatic groups, which correspond with the five main vegetation groups:

Career and contributions.

Köppen was a principal founder of modern climatology and meteorology. Between 1850 and 1860, Köppen contributed to Seewart's sailing handbooks for the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans by studying ship reports over the winds of different oceans. Between 1872 and 1873 Köppen was employed in the Russian meteorological service as an assistant where he helped prepare the daily synoptic weather map. In 1875, he moved back to Germany and became the chief of the new Division of Marine Meteorology at the German naval observatory (Deutsche Seewarte) based in Hamburg. There, he was responsible for establishing a weather forecasting service for the northwestern part of Germany and the adjacent sea areas. After four years of service, he was able to move on to his primary interest fundamental research, and left the meteorological office.  Köppen began a systematic study of the climate and also experimented with balloons to obtain data from upper layers of the atmosphere. In 1884, he published the first version of his map of climatic zones in which the seasonal temperature ranges were plotted. It led to the development of the Köppen climate classification system around 1900, which he kept improving for the rest of his life. The full version of his system appeared first in 1918; after several modifications, the final version was published in 1936.  Apart from the description of various climate types, he was acquainted with paleoclimatology as well. In 1924, he and his son-in-law Alfred Wegener published a paper called "Die Klimate der Geologischen Vorzeit" (The climates of the geological past) providing crucial support to the Milanković theory on ice ages. Also, in 1911 he co-wrote "The Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere", a textbook that became very popular.  Towards the end of his life, Köppen cooperated with the German climatologist Rudolf Geiger to produce a five-volume work, "Handbuch der Klimatologie" (Handbook of Climatology). It was never completed, but several parts, three of them by Köppen, were published. After Köppen's death in 1940, Geiger continued to work on modifications to the climate classification system.  Köppen was a prolific scientist, producing more than 500 papers, and he retained his intellectual curiosity and wide range of interests throughout his life. In 1890, he co-authored the first cloud atlas. Alongside scientific pursuits, he was actively involved in social questions, devoting much time and energy to such problems of land-use and school reform and nutrition for the underprivileged. He was a strong advocate for the use of Esperanto in the cause of world peace, translating several of his publications into Esperanto.  He had a wife, Marie, and five children including daughter Else. Marie's sister Sophie and her children moved in with the Köppens in 1888.

Wladimir Peter Köppen (;, "Vladimir Petrovich Kyoppen"; 25 September 1846 – 22 June 1940) was a Russian-German geographer, meteorologist, climatologist and botanist. After studies in St. Petersburg, he spent the bulk of his life and professional career in Germany and Austria. His most notable contribution to science was the development of the Köppen climate classification system, which, with some modifications, is still commonly used. Köppen made significant contributions to several branches of science.


Ingredients.

The dough is made from flour and water, sometimes adding a small portion of eggs.  The filling can be minced meat (pork, lamb, beef, fish or any other kind of meat, venison being particularly traditional for colder regions) or mushrooms. The mixing together of different kinds of meat is also popular. The traditional Udmurt recipe requires a mixture of 45% beef, 35% mutton, and 20% pork. Various spices, such as black pepper and diced onions as well as garlic, are mixed into the filling. They are commonly topped with sour cream, mayonnaise, dill, red onions or vinegar, all of which are traditional to the region and can be produced in the Siberian climate.  Adding small amounts of cabbage, tomato and horseradish as well right into the mince is common for certain regions.  It is really critical to remember that the temperature and humidity will affect the dough consistency and stability.

Origin and history.

The first mention of a dish similar to dumplings comes from ancient Greece, but the Ural region seems to be the origin place of the pelmeni. The word pelmeni is derived from "pel'n'an"' (пельнянь)—literally "ear bread" in the native Finno-Ugric Komi and Udmurt languages. It is unclear when pelmeni entered the cuisines of the indigenous Siberian people and when they first appeared in Russian cuisine. One theory suggests pelmeni, or stuffed boiled dumplings in general, originated in Siberia, possibly a simplified adaptation of the Chinese jiaozi (in some dialects it is called Bāomiàn "包面"). Another theory suggests that pelmeni were carried by the Mongols to Siberia and the Urals, from where they gradually spread as far as Eastern Europe. Pelmeni became especially popular by Russian hunters.  Pelmeni are particularly good means of quickly preserving meat during long Siberian winter, especially eliminating the need to feed livestock during the long winter months. Thus, despite their Uralic origin, pelmeni were much influenced by the Siberian way of cooking.

Differences.

Pelmeni belong to the family of dumplings, and are related to Ukrainian "varenyky" and Polish "pierogi". In the United States and Canada, the term "pierogi" or "perogies" is often used to describe all kinds of Eastern European dumplings, regardless of the shape, size, or filling. Pelmeni are also similar to Mongolian "bansh", Chinese "jiaozi" (Cantonese "gaau") or Chinese "húndùn" (Cantonese wonton). They are cousins to the Turkish and Kazakh "manti", the Nepalese and Tibetan "momo", the Uyghur and Uzbek "chuchvara", the Korean "mandu", the Japanese "gyoza", and the Italian "tortellini" and Swabian "Maultaschen". Somewhat similar are the fried or baked "empanadas" encountered in Hispanic-influenced cultures.  The most important difference between pelmeni, "varenyky", and "pierogi" is the thickness of the dough shell—in pelmeni and vareniki this is as thin as possible, and the proportion of filling to dough is usually higher. Pelmeni are never served with a sweet filling, which distinguishes them from "vareniki" and Polish "pierogi", which sometimes are. Also, the fillings in pelmeni are usually raw, while the fillings of "vareniki" and "pierogi" are typically precooked.  The main difference between pelmeni and momos is their size—a typical pelmeni is about in diameter, whereas momos are often at least twice that size.

Regional differences.

In Siberia, pelmeni are traditionally frozen outdoors in the winter and treated as preserved food. Hunters or explorers heading into the taiga would carry sacks of frozen pelmeni with their provisions as easily cooked, nonperishable food. Pelmeni can be stored frozen for a long time and they are prepared immediately before eating by boiling in salted water until they float, and then two to five minutes more. Regional differences exist in the boiling of pelmeni. In the Urals, they are always boiled in water, while in Siberia they are boiled in salted water or sometimes meat or chicken broth. The cooked pelmeni are served on their own or topped with melted butter or smetana (sour cream). Mustard, horseradish, tomato sauce, and vinegar are popular, as well. The people of the Russian Far East generally add soy sauce. Some recipes suggest frying pelmeni after boiling until they turn golden brown. Pelmeni can also be served in a clear soup, although in Siberia this is considered in poor taste and pelmeni are carefully strained before serving. In Tatar cuisine, "Pilmän" (the Tatar equivalent of pelmeni) are a traditional dish, where they have always been served with clear soup and added dill or other freshly cut herbs. Pelmeni are also a part of the Polish cuisine.  Packed frozen, pelmeni can be found in Russian and Ukrainian food stores, as well as everywhere Russian communities exist. Packets of frozen pelmeni are usually labeled "Siberian pelmeni" because of the Siberian practice of storing and transporting pelmeni in frozen form. Store-bought pelmeni are made on industrial machinery, much of which is made by Italian companies such as Arienti and Cattaneo, Ima, Ostoni, Zamboni, etc. These pelmeni usually weigh around 15 grams (1⁄2 oz) each and look like a larger version of tortellini, which is why, for industrial production, Italian pasta machines are commonly used. Pelmeni are also commonly made at home. The easiest (if somewhat laborious) way is simply to make them by hand; many cooks use specialized "pelmeni makers" (, "pelmennitsa"), which are essentially molds that resemble muffin pans or ravioli molds, allowing one to quickly make a few dozen pelmeni out of two sheets of dough and a quantity of ground meat.  In modern Russian and Ukrainian culture, and also in the Baltic states and Poland, store-bought pelmeni are considered a kind of convenience food and are associated with students' or bachelors' lifestyles, much like instant ramen, etc., while home-made pelmeni remain perceived as nutritious and healthy food.

Pelmeni (; —plural, пельмень —singular) are dumplings of Russian cuisine that consist of a filling wrapped in thin, unleavened dough.


Biography.

Ungerer was born in Strasbourg in Alsace, France, the youngest of four children to Alice (Essler) and Theo Ungerer. The family moved to Logelbach, near Colmar, after the death of Tomi's father, Theodore—an artist, engineer, and astronomical clock manufacturer—in 1936. Ungerer also lived through the German occupation of Alsace when the family home was requisitioned by the Wehrmacht.  As a young man, Ungerer was inspired by the illustrations appearing in "The New Yorker" magazine, particularly the work of Saul Steinberg. In 1957, the year after he moved to the U.S., Harper & Row published his first children's book, "The Mellops Go Flying", and his second, "The Mellops Go Diving for Treasure"; by the early 1960s he had created at least ten children's picture books with Harper, plus a few others, and had illustrated some books by other writers. He also did illustration work for publications including "The New York Times", Esquire, "Life", "Harper's Bazaar", "The Village Voice", and for television during the 1960s, and began to create posters denouncing the Vietnam War.  Maurice Sendak called "Moon Man" (1966) "easily one of the best picture books in recent years." After "", subtitled "With Due Respect to Hans Christian Andersen, the Grimm Brothers, and the Honorable Ambrose Bierce" in 1974, he ceased writing children's books, focusing instead on adult-level books, many of which focused on sexuality. He eventually returned to children's literature with "Flix" 1998. Ungerer donated many of the manuscripts and artwork for his early children's books to the Children's Literature Research Collection at the Free Library of Philadelphia.  One consistent theme in Ungerer's illustrations is his support for European construction, beginning with Franco-German reconciliation in his home region of Alsace, and in particular European values of tolerance and diversity. In 2003, he was named Ambassador for Childhood and Education by the 47-nation Council of Europe.  In 2007, his home town dedicated a museum to him, the "Musée Tomi Ungerer/Centre international de l’illustration".  Ungerer divided his time between Ireland, where he and his wife had moved in 1976, and Strasbourg. In addition to his work as a graphic artist and 'drawer', he was also a designer, toy collector and "archivist of human absurdity."  A biographical documentary film, "", was produced in 2012. The film was featured at the 2013 Palm Springs International Film Festival. In 2015–2016, the Kunsthaus Zurich and the Museum Folkwang in Essen devoted a large exhibition to Ungerer's artistic oeuvre and in particular his collages. A comprehensive book has been published by Philipp Keel from Diogenes with essays by Tobias Burg, Cathérine Hug and Thérèse Willer.  Ungerer died on 9 February 2019 in Cork, Ireland, aged 87.

Work.

Tomi Ungerer described himself first and foremost as a story teller and satirist. Prevalent themes in his work include political satire (such as drawings and posters against the Vietnam War and against animal cruelty), eroticism, and imaginative subjects for children's books. Ungerer's publications are held by the German National Library, including:

Awards.

The biennial Hans Christian Andersen Award conferred by the International Board on Books for Young People is the highest recognition available to a writer or illustrator of children's books. Ungerer received the illustration award in 1998.  Ungerer received the 2014 "Lifetime Achievement of the Year" award at the Sexual Freedom Awards. In 2018, he was made a commander of the Legion of Honour.

Jean-Thomas "Tomi" Ungerer (28 November 1931 – 9 February 2019) was an Alsatian artist and writer. He published over 140 books ranging from children's books to adult works and from the fantastic to the autobiographical. He was known for sharp social satire and witty aphorisms. Ungerer is also famous as a cartoonist and designer of political posters and film posters.


Etymology.

"War driving" originated from wardialing, a method popularized by a character played by Matthew Broderick in the film "WarGames", and named after that film. War dialing consists of dialing every phone number in a specific sequence in search of modems.

Variants.

"Warbiking" or "warcycling" is similar to wardriving, but is done from a moving bicycle or motorcycle. This practice is sometimes facilitated by mounting a Wi-Fi enabled device on the vehicle.  "Warwalking", or "warjogging", is similar to wardriving, but is done on foot rather than from a moving vehicle. The disadvantages of this method are slower speed of travel (but leading to discovery of more infrequently discovered networks) and the absence of a convenient computing environment. Consequently, handheld devices such as pocket computers, which can perform such tasks while users are walking or standing, have dominated this practice. Technology advances and developments in the early 2000s expanded the extent of this practice. Advances include computers with integrated Wi-Fi, rather than CompactFlash (CF) or PC Card (PCMCIA) add-in cards in computers such as Dell Axim, Compaq iPAQ and Toshiba pocket computers starting in 2002. More recently, the active Nintendo DS and Sony PSP enthusiast communities gained Wi-Fi abilities on these devices. Further, many newer smartphones integrate Wi-Fi and Global Positioning System (GPS).  "Warrailing", or "Wartraining", is similar to wardriving, but is done on a train or tram rather than from a slower more controllable vehicle. The disadvantages of this method are higher speed of travel (resulting in less discovery of more infrequently discovered networks) and often limited to major roads with a higher traffic.  "Warkitting" is a combination of wardriving and rootkitting. In a warkitting attack, a hacker replaces the firmware of an attacked router. This allows them to control all traffic for the victim, and could even permit them to disable TLS by replacing HTML content as it is being downloaded. Warkitting was identified by Tsow, Jakobsson, Yang, and Wetzel.

Mapping.

Wardrivers use a Wifi-equipped device together with a GPS device to record the location of wireless networks. The results can then be uploaded to websites like WiGLE, openBmap or Geomena where the data is processed to form maps of the network neighborhood. There are also clients available for smartphones running Android that can upload data directly. For better range and sensitivity, antennas are built or bought, and vary from omnidirectional to highly directional.  The maps of known network IDs can then be used as a geolocation system—an alternative to GPS—by triangulating the current position from the signal strengths of known network IDs. Examples include Place Lab by Intel, Skyhook, Navizon by Cyril Houri, SeekerLocate from Seeker Wireless, openBmap and Geomena. Navizon and openBmap combines information from Wi-Fi and cell phone tower maps contributed by users from Wi-Fi-equipped cell phones. In addition to location finding, this provides navigation information, and allows for the tracking of the position of friends, and geotagging.  In December 2004, a class of 100 undergraduates worked to map the city of Seattle, Washington over several weeks. They found 5,225 access points; 44% were secured with WEP encryption, 52% were open, and 3% were pay-for-access. They noticed trends in the frequency and security of the networks depending on location. Many of the open networks were clearly intended to be used by the general public, with network names like "Open to share, no porn please" or "Free access, be nice." The information was collected into high-resolution maps, which were published online. Previous efforts had mapped cities such as Dublin.

Legal and ethical considerations.

Some portray wardriving as a questionable practice (typically from its association with piggybacking), though, from a technical viewpoint, everything is working as designed: many access points broadcast identifying data accessible to anyone with a suitable receiver. It could be compared to making a map of a neighborhood's house numbers and mail box labels.  While some may claim that wardriving is illegal, there are no laws that specifically prohibit or allow wardriving, though many localities have laws forbidding unauthorized access of computer networks and protecting personal privacy. Google created a privacy storm in some countries after it eventually admitted systematically but surreptitiously gathering WiFi data while capturing video footage and mapping data for its Street View service. It has since been using Android-based mobile devices to gather this data.  Passive, listen-only wardriving (with programs like Kismet or KisMAC) does not communicate at all with the networks, merely logging broadcast addresses. This can be likened to listening to a radio station that happens to be broadcasting in the area or with other forms of DXing.  With other types of software, such as NetStumbler, the wardriver actively sends probe messages, and the access point responds per design. The legality of active wardriving is less certain, since the wardriver temporarily becomes "associated" with the network, even though no data is transferred. Most access points, when using default "out of the box" security settings, are intended to provide wireless access to all who request it. The war driver's liability may be reduced by setting the computer to a static IP, instead of using DHCP, preventing the network from granting the computer an IP address or logging the connection.  In the United States, the case that is usually referenced in determining whether a network has been "accessed" is "State v. Allen". In this case, Allen had been wardialing in an attempt to get free long-distance calling through Southwestern Bell's computer systems. When presented with a password protection screen, however, he did not attempt to bypass it. The court ruled that although he had "contacted" or "approached" the computer system, this did not constitute "access" of the company's network.  There are also homebrew wardriving applications for handheld game consoles that support Wi-Fi, such as sniff jazzbox/wardive for the Nintendo DS/Android, Road Dog for the Sony PSP, WiFi-Where for the iPhone, G-MoN, Wardrive, Wigle Wifi for Android, and WlanPollution for Symbian NokiaS60 devices. There also exists a mode within "" for the Sony PSP (wherein the player is able to find new comrades by searching for wireless access points) which can be used to wardrive. "Treasure World" for the DS is a commercial game in which gameplay wholly revolves around wardriving.

Wardriving is the act of searching for Wi-Fi wireless networks by an attacker usually in a moving vehicle, using a laptop or smartphone. Software for wardriving is freely available on the internet.


Life.

Forssmann was born in Berlin on 29 August 1904. Upon graduating from, he entered the University of Berlin to study medicine, passing the State Examination in 1929.  He hypothesized that a catheter could be inserted directly into the heart, for such applications as directly delivering drugs, injecting radiopaque dyes, or measuring blood pressure. The fear at the time was that such an intrusion into the heart would be fatal. To prove his point, he decided to try the experiment on himself.  In 1929, while working in Eberswalde, he performed the first human cardiac catheterization. He ignored his department chief and persuaded the operating-room nurse in charge of the sterile supplies, Gerda Ditzen, to assist him. She agreed, but only on the promise that he would do it on her rather than on himself. However, Forssmann tricked her by restraining her to the operating table and pretending to locally anaesthetise and cut her arm whilst actually doing it on himself. He anesthetized his own lower arm in the cubital region and inserted a urinary catheter into his antecubital vein, threading it partly along before releasing Ditzen (who at this point realised the catheter was not in her arm) and telling her to call the X-ray department. They walked some distance to the X-ray department on the floor below where under the guidance of a fluoroscope he advanced the catheter the full 60 cm into his right ventricular cavity. This was then recorded on X-Ray film showing the catheter lying in his right atrium.  The head clinician at Eberswalde, although initially very annoyed, recognized Werner's discovery when shown the X-rays; he allowed Forssmann to carry out another catheterization on a terminally ill woman whose condition improved after being given drugs in this way. An unpaid position was created for Forssmann at the Berliner Charité Hospital, working under Ferdinand Sauerbruch, although once Sauerbruch saw his paper, he was dismissed for continuing without his approval. Sauerbruch commented, "You certainly can't begin surgery in that manner". Facing such disciplinary action for self-experimentation, he was initially forced to leave the Charité, but was later re-instated until again being forced to leave in 1932 for not meeting scientific expectations. His surgical skills were noted, however, and he was recommended to another hospital where he worked for a while before leaving in 1933 after marrying Dr. Elsbet Engel, a specialist in urology there. Finding it difficult to get a job with his reputation, he quit cardiology and took up urology. He then went on to study urology under Karl Heusch at the in Berlin. Later, he was appointed Chief of the Surgical Clinic at both the City Hospital at Dresden-Friedrichstadt and the in Berlin.  From 1932 to 1945, he was a member of the Nazi Party. At the start of World War II, he became a medical officer. In the course of his service, he rose to the rank of Major, until he was captured and put into a U.S. POW camp. Upon his release in 1945, he worked as a lumberjack and then as a country medic in the Black Forest with his wife. In 1950, he began practice as a urologist in Bad Kreuznach.  During the time of his imprisonment, his paper was read by André Frédéric Cournand and Dickinson W. Richards. They developed ways of applying his technique to heart disease diagnosis and research. In 1954, he was given the Leibniz Medal of the German Academy of Sciences. In 1956, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Cournand, Richards, and Forßmann.  After winning the Nobel Prize, he was given the position of Honorary Professor of Surgery and Urology at the University of Mainz. In 1961, he became an honorary professor at the National University of Córdoba. In 1962, he became a member of the Executive Board of the German Society of Surgery. He also became a member of the American College of Chest Physicians, honorary member of the Swedish Society of Cardiology, the, and the German Child Welfare Association.  He and Elsbet had six children: Klaus Forßmann in 1934, Knut Forßmann in 1936, Jörg Forßmann in 1938, Wolf Forßmann in 1939 (who was first to isolate the atrial natriuretic peptide), Bernd Forßmann in 1940 (who helped develop the first clinical lithotriptor), and Renate Forßmann in 1943.  He died in Schopfheim, Germany of heart failure on 1 June 1979. His wife died in 1993.

Werner Theodor Otto Forßmann (Forssmann in English; 29 August 1904 – 1 June 1979) was a physician from Germany who shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Medicine (with Andre Frederic Cournand and Dickinson W. Richards) for developing a procedure that allowed cardiac catheterization. In 1929, he put himself under local anesthesia and inserted a catheter into a vein of his arm. Not knowing if the catheter might pierce a vein, he put his life at risk. Forssmann was nevertheless successful; he safely passed the catheter into his heart.


History.

It was created out of the former Middle Frankish realm of Lotharingia under King Lothair II, that had been established in 855. Lotharingia was divided for much of the later ninth century, reunited under Louis the Younger by the 880 Treaty of Ribemont and upon the death of East Frankish king Louis the Child in 911 it joined West Francia under King Charles the Simple. It then formed a duchy in its own right, and about 925 Duke Gilbert declared homage to the German king Henry the Fowler, an act which King Rudolph of France was helpless to revert. From that time on Lotharingia (or Lorraine) remained a German stem duchy, the border with France did not change throughout the Middle Ages.  In 959 King Henry's son Duke Bruno the Great divided Lotharingia into two duchies: Lower and Upper Lorraine (or Lower and Upper Lotharingia) and granted Count Godfrey I of Mons (Hainaut) the title of a Duke of Lower Lorraine. Godfrey's lands were to the north (lower down the Rhine river system), while Upper Lorraine was to the south (further up the river system). Both duchies formed the western part of the Holy Roman Empire established by Bruno's elder brother Emperor Otto I in 962.  Both Lotharingian duchies took very separate paths thereafter: Upon the death of Godfrey's son Duke Richar, Lower Lorraine was directly ruled by the Emperor, until in 977 Otto II enfeoffed Charles, the exiled younger brother of King Lothair of France. Lower and Upper Lorraine were once again briefly reunited under Gothelo I from 1033 to 1044. After that, the Lower duchy was quickly marginalised, while Upper Lorraine came to be known as simply the Duchy of Lorraine.  Over the next decades the significance of the Duchy of Lower Lorraine diminished and furthermore was affected by the conflict between Emperor Henry IV and his son Henry V: In 1100 Henry IV had enfeoffed Count Henry of Limburg, who Henry V, having enforced the abdication of his father, immediately deposed and replaced by Count Godfrey of Louvain. Upon the death of Duke Godfrey III in 1190, his son Duke Henry I of Brabant inherited the ducal title by order of Emperor Henry VI at the Diet of Schwäbisch Hall. Thereby the Duchy of Lower Lorraine finally lost its territorial authority, while the remnant Imperial fief held by the Dukes of Brabant was later called the Duchy of Lothier (or Lothryk).

Successor states.

After the territorial power of the duchy was shattered, many fiefdoms came to independence in its area. The most important ones of these were:  The following successor states remained under the authority of the titular dukes of Lower Lorraine (Lothier):

The Duchy of Lower Lorraine, or Lower Lotharingia (also referred to as "Lothier" or "Lottier" in titles), was a stem duchy established in 959, of the medieval Kingdom of Germany, which encompassed almost all of the modern Netherlands (including Friesland), central and eastern Belgium, Luxemburg, the northern part of the German Rhineland province and the eastern parts of France's Nord-Pas de Calais region.


Description.

The Norway lemming has a bold pattern of black and yellow-brown, which is variable between individuals. It grows to a size of 155 mm. The tail is very short (10 – 19 mm). It weighs up to 130 g. The dental formula is 1/1, 0/0, 3/3.

Behavior.

The Norway lemming has a dramatic three- to four-year population cycle, in which the species' population periodically rises to unsustainable levels, leading to high mortality, which causes the population to crash again.  The Norway lemming spends the winter in nests under the snow. When the spring thaws begin and the snow starts to collapse, they must migrate to higher ground, where the snow is still firm enough for safety, or, more commonly, to lower ground, where they spend the summer months. In autumn, they must time their movement back to sheltered higher ground carefully, leaving after alpine snow cover is available for their burrows and nests, and before the lowlands are made uninhabitable by frost and ice.  When the seasons are particularly good (short winters without unexpected thaws or freezes, and long summers), the Norway lemming population can increase exponentially: they reach sexual maturity less than a month after birth, and breed year-round if conditions are right, producing a litter of six to eight young every three to four weeks. Being solitary creatures by nature, the stronger lemmings drive the weaker and younger ones off long before a food shortage occurs. The young lemmings disperse in random directions looking for vacant territory. Where geographical features constrain their movements and channel them into a relatively narrow corridor, large numbers can build up, leading to social friction, distress, and eventually a mass panic can follow, where they flee in all directions. Lemmings do migrate, and in vast numbers sometimes, but noion of a deliberate march into the sea is false.  According to genetic research, the Norwegian lemming survived the Pleistocene glaciation in western Europe, inhabiting various refugia which were not covered by ice. Alternatively, some researchers have contended the Norwegian lemming populations had arisen from ancestors of the present-day brown lemming ("Lemmus sibiricus"), moving in after glaciers receded.  When confronted with a predator, Norway lemmings do not try to run away, attacking the predator or intruder, instead. They have also been known to attack approaching humans. With their colorful body and brave behavior, it has been suggested that they belong to aposematic species

The Norway lemming, also Norwegian lemming ("Lemmus lemmus") is a common species of lemming found in northern Fennoscandia. It is the only vertebrate species endemic to the region. The Norway lemming dwells in tundra and fells, and prefers to live near water. Adults feed primarily on sedges, grasses and moss. They are active at both day and night, alternating naps with periods of activity.


Taxonomy and naming.

The fungus was first described scientifically as "Agaricus edodes" by Miles Joseph Berkeley in 1877. It was placed in the genus "Lentinula" by David Pegler in 1976. The fungus has acquired an extensive synonymy in its taxonomic history:  The mushroom's Japanese name is composed of, for the tree "Castanopsis cuspidata" that provides the dead logs on which it is typically cultivated, and. The specific epithet "" is the Latin word for "edible".  It is also commonly called "sawtooth oak mushroom", "black forest mushroom", "black mushroom", "golden oak mushroom", or "oakwood mushroom".

Habitat and distribution.

Shiitake grow in groups on the decaying wood of deciduous trees, particularly shii, chestnut, oak, maple, beech, sweetgum, poplar, hornbeam, ironwood, mulberry, and chinquapin. Its natural distribution includes warm and moist climates in southeast Asia.

Cultivation history.

The earliest written record of shiitake cultivation is seen in the "Records of Longquan County" () compiled by He Zhan () in 1209 during the Han dynasty in China. The 185-word description of shiitake cultivation from that literature was later crossed-referenced many times and eventually adapted in a book by a Japanese horticulturist in 1796, the first book on shiitake cultivation in Japan. Han The Japanese cultivated the mushroom by cutting shii trees with axes and placing the logs by trees that were already growing shiitake or contained shiitake spores. Before 1982, the Japan Islands' variety of these mushrooms could only be grown in traditional locations using ancient methods. A 1982 report on the budding and growth of the Japanese variety revealed opportunities for commercial cultivation in the United States.  Shiitake are now widely cultivated all over the world, and contribute about 25% of total yearly production of mushrooms. Commercially, shiitake mushrooms are typically grown in conditions similar to their natural environment on either artificial substrate or hardwood logs, such as oak.

Culinary.

Nutrition.

In a 100 gram amount, raw shiitake mushrooms provide 34 kilocalories and are 90% water, 7% carbohydrates, 2% protein and less than 1% fat (table for raw mushrooms). Raw shiitake mushrooms are rich sources (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of B vitamins and contain moderate levels of some dietary minerals (table). When dried to about 10% water, the contents of numerous nutrients increase substantially.  Like all mushrooms, shiitakes produce vitamin D2 upon exposure of their internal ergosterol to ultraviolet B (UVB) rays from sunlight or broadband UVB fluorescent tubes.

Uses.

Fresh and dried shiitake have many uses in the cuisines of East Asia. In Japan, they are served in miso soup, used as the basis for a kind of vegetarian "dashi", and as an ingredient in many steamed and simmered dishes. In Chinese cuisine, they are often sautéed in vegetarian dishes such as Buddha's delight.  One type of high-grade shiitake is called in Japanese and'in Chinese, literally "winter mushroom". Another high-grade of mushroom is called'() in Chinese, literally "flower mushroom", which has a flower-like cracking pattern on the mushroom's upper surface. Both of these are produced at lower temperatures.

Research.

Dermatitis.

Rarely, consumption of raw or slightly cooked shiitake mushrooms may cause an allergic reaction called "shiitake dermatitis", including an erythematous, micro-papular, streaky pruriginous rash that occurs all over the body including face and scalp, appearing about 24 hours after consumption, possibly worsening by sun exposure and disappearing after 3 to 21 days. This effect – presumably caused by the polysaccharide, lentinan – is more common in Asia, but may be growing in occurrence in Europe as shiitake consumption increases. Thorough cooking may eliminate the allergenicity.

Other uses.

There is research investigating the use of shiitake mushrooms in production of organic fertilizer and compost from hardwood.

The shiitake (; Lentinula edodes) is an edible mushroom native to East Asia, which is cultivated and consumed in many Asian countries. It is considered a medicinal mushroom in some forms of traditional medicine.


Early life and education.

Luise Rinser was born on 30 April 1911 in Pitzling, a constituent community of Landsberg am Lech, in Upper Bavaria. The house in which she was born still exists. She was educated at a Volksschule in Munich, where she scored high marks in her exams. After the exams, she worked as an assistant in various schools in Upper Bavaria, where she learned the reformed pedagogical methods of Franz Seitz, who influenced her teaching and writing.  During these years, she wrote her first short stories for the journal "Herdfeuer." Although she refused to join the Nazi Party, after 1936 she belonged to the NS-Frauenschaft and until 1939 she also belonged to the Teachers' Association. In 1939, she gave up teaching and got married.

Later life.

Imprisonment.

In 1944, she was denounced by a Nazi 'friend' for undermining military morale and was imprisoned; the end of the war stopped the legal proceedings against her, which would probably have concluded with a death sentence for treason. She described her experiences in the Traunstein women's prison in her "Prison Journal" ("Gefängnistagebuch") of 1946. The inmates of the prison were not just political dissidents. She shared her life there with common thieves, sex offenders, vagrants and Jehovah's witnesses. Being among such people was a new experience for Rinser, with her middle-class background. The prisoners had to contend with filth, stench and disease. Starvation was rampant.  Rinser herself managed to survive by helping herself to what she could pilfer in the breadcrumb factory where she was placed. She discovered for the first time how the under-privileged and the downtrodden lived and survived. She also discovered herself. The book became a bestseller and the English-speaking world discovered her through the English translation, "Prison Journal." In 1947, Rinser changed her views about the usefulness of the book when she compared her experiences in Traunstein to what had taken place in Nazi concentration camps. However, the book was reissued twenty years later.  She described herself in an ode to Adolf Hitler as opposed to the Nazis.

Marriage.

Her first husband and the father of her two sons, the composer and choir director Horst Günther Schnell, died on the Russian Front. After his death, she married the communist writer Klaus Herrmann. This marriage was annulled around 1952. From 1945 to 1953, she was a freelance writer for the newspaper "Neue Zeitung München", and took up residence in Munich.  In 1954, she married the composer Carl Orff, and they divorced in 1960. She formed a close friendship with the Korean composer Isang Yun, with the abbot of a monastery, and with the theologian Karl Rahner. In 1959, she moved to Rome, and later from 1965 onwards she lived in Rocca di Papa, near Rome, where she was recognised as an honored resident in 1986. Afterwards, she lived at her apartment in Munich (Unterhaching) where she died on 17 March 2002.

Political activities.

Rinser kept herself active in political and social discussions in Germany. She supported Willy Brandt in his 1971-72 campaign and demonstrated with the writers Heinrich Böll, Günter Grass and many others against the deployment of Pershing II missiles in Germany. She became a sharp critic of the Catholic Church without ever leaving it and was an accredited journalist at the Second Vatican Council. She also criticized, in open letters, the prosecution of Andreas Baader, Gudrun Ensslin and others, and wrote to Ensslin's father: "Gudrun has a friend in me for life.".  In 1984, she was proposed by the Greens as a candidate for the office of President of Germany.

Travel.

In 1972, she travelled to the Soviet Union, the United States, Spain, India, Indonesia, South Korea, North Korea, and Iran. She saw the Revolutionary leader Ruhollah Khomeini as "a shining model for the states of the Third World." – Japan, Colombia and many other countries. She stood up vociferously for the abolition of the Abortion paragraph in its current form. She also served as a leading voice for the Catholic left in Germany.  Between 1980 and 1992, she traveled to North Korea 11 times, where she met with North Korean leader Kim Il Sung 45 times. She wrote about her travels in her book "", in which she approvingly described North Korea as a "farm-loving country owned by a farmer father" and a model example of "socialism with a human face" where crime, poverty, and prison camps are unknown and praised the minimal environmental impact of its rationed economy. On her 1981 trip, she was accompanied by Rudolf Bahro, who also found much to admire in North Korea, saying that "It is a lot of crap to put Hitler, Stalin, and Kim Il Sung in the same bag. I believe that [Kim] is, in fact, a great man".

Posthumous revelations.

Rinser died in 2002. Contrary to what she had said and written about herself and what others had written about her previously, the biography "Luise Rinser – Ein Leben in Widersprüchen " (Luise Rinser – A Life of Contradictions), published in 2011 by the spanish author Murillo exposed her as an 'early' ambitious Nazi. As a schoolteacher, she had herself denounced her Jewish headmaster to further her own career. Murillo says, "She lied to all of us." Her son, Christoph Rinser, collaborated with Murillo in researching this 'authorised' biography.

Luise Rinser (30 April 1911 – 17 March 2002) was a German writer, best known for her novels and short stories.


History.

Archaeological finds suggest that the area was inhabited since 4500 - 2500 BC.  The medieval bishoprics of Olomouc and Wrocław both attempted to control it. In the end, Olomouc won the dispute and the area became part of the March of Moravia. In 1269, Hlučín belonged to the lands that were split off Moravia by King Ottokar II of Bohemia as the Duchy of Opava, ruled by his illegitimate son Duke Nicholas I. Differences in culture, traditions, and economic development from the rest of Moravia grew during the time, mainly caused by Germanisation in the course of the Ostsiedlung. From 1526 onwards, the Duchy of Troppau together with the Lands of the Bohemian Crown was part of the Habsburg Monarchy.  The history of Hlučínsko as an entity began with the Treaty of Breslau signed on 11 June 1742 between King Frederick II of Prussia and Empress Maria Theresa of Austria. In 1740, Prussia started the First Silesian War and conquered most of Silesia. According to the terms of the treaty, the Duchy of Troppau was partitioned; while the lands south of the Opava River remained with Austrian Silesia, the northern part around Hlučín fell to Prussia and was incorporated into the Province of Silesia in 1815.  With Prussia part of the German Empire from 1871 onwards, the area after the German defeat in World War I became the site of an international dispute, as it was inhabited by a majority of Czech-speaking people. On February 4, 1920, Hlučínsko was handed over without a referendum to Czechoslovakia, according to Art. 83 of the Treaty of Versailles, though surveys suggested that its people felt more as Upper Silesians, and mostly would have preferred to join the Weimar Republic. Minor border corrections followed in the next few years.  Even though the German-speakers of the region were officially protected in their rights by the Czechoslovak state, repressions regarding language policy and schooling in German were instituted. The enforcement of a Czech identity on the citizens rather raised public opposition.  On 1 October 1938, Hlučínsko was occupied by Nazi Germany as a part of areas lost by Czechoslovakia in accordance with the Munich Agreement. However, as distinct from other lost Czechoslovakian domains, it was not attached to the "Reichsgau" Sudetenland, but again to the Prussian Province of Silesia (Upper Silesia from 1941). After the Second World War, Hlučínsko, like the rest of the Sudetenland, returned to Czechoslovakia, but, different from the rest of the millions of German-speakers in the country, the region was spared a mass expulsion, and only 3000 citizens had to emigrate. In the 1993 dissolution, it became part of the Czech Republic. Today, a sizeable fraction of the region's citizens are bi-nationals also having a German citizenship.

Municipalities.

Towns are shown in bold.  Bělá (Bielau) - Bohuslavice (Buslawitz) - Bolatice (Bolatitz) - Darkovice (Groß Darkowitz) - Dolní Benešov (Beneschau) - Hať (Haatsch) - Hlučín (Hultschin) - Hněvošice (Schreibersdorf) - Chlebičov (Klebsch) - Chuchelná (Kuchelna) - Kobeřice (Köberwitz) - Kozmice (Kosmütz) - Kravaře (Deutsch Krawarn) - Ludgeřovice (Ludgierzowitz) - Markvartovice (Markersdorf) - Oldřišov (Odersch) - Píšť (Pyschcz / Sandau) - Rohov (Rohow) - Služovice (Schlausewitz)- Strahovice (Strandorf) - Sudice (Zauditz) - Šilheřovice (Schillersdorf) - Štěpánkovice (Schepankowitz) - Třebom (Thröm) - Velké Hoštice (Groß Hoschütz) - Vřesina (Wreschin) - Závada (Zawada bei Beneschau)  These municipalities cooperate in microregion Sdružení obcí Hlučínska since 1992.  Also, the former municipalities of Malé Hoštice (Klein Hoschütz), now district of Opava, and Hošťálkovice (Hoschialkowitz), Lhotka (Ellguth), Petřkovice (Petershofen), Koblov (Koblau) and Antošovice (Antoschowitz), now districts or parts of Ostrava, once belonged to the region.

Attractions.

Hlučínsko lies between the Beskids (east) and Hrubý Jeseník (west). The Opava River flows through Hlučínsko. The area attracts tourists, especially for its cycle trails. Many historical buildings, unique architecture, and folk customs are found there.  Its main attractions are:

Hlučín Region ( (familiarly "Prajzsko"),, ) is a historically significant part of Czech Silesia, today a part of the Moravian-Silesian Region in the Czech Republic, named after its largest town Hlučín. Its area is and in 2001, it had about 73,914 inhabitants.


Host city selection.

On October 18, 1963, at the 60th IOC Session in Baden-Baden, West Germany, Mexico City finished ahead of bids from Detroit, Buenos Aires and Lyon to host the Games.

Olympic torch relay.

The 1968 torch relay recreated the route taken by Christopher Columbus to the New World, journeying from Greece through Italy and Spain to San Salvador Island, Bahamas, and then on to Mexico. American sculptor James Metcalf, an expatriate in Mexico, won the commission to forge the Olympic torch for the 1968 Summer Games.

Controversies.

South Africa.

South Africa was provisionally invited to the Games, on the understanding that all segregation and discrimination in sport would be eliminated by the 1972 Games. However, African countries and African American athletes promised to boycott the Games if South Africa was present, and Eastern Bloc countries threatened to do likewise. In April 1968 the IOC conceded that "it would be most unwise for South Africa to participate".

Tlatelolco massacre.

Responding to growing social unrest and protests, the government of Mexico had increased economic and political suppression, against labor unions in particular, in the decade building up to the Olympics. A series of protest marches in the city in August gathered significant attendance, with an estimated 500,000 taking part on August 27. President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz ordered the occupation of the National Autonomous University of Mexico in September, but protests continued. Using the prominence brought by the Olympics, students gathered in Plaza de las Tres Culturas in Tlatelolco to call for greater civil and democratic rights and showed disdain for the Olympics with slogans such as "¡No queremos olimpiadas, queremos revolución!" ("We don't want Olympics, we want revolution!").  Ten days before the start of the Olympics, the government ordered the gathering in Plaza de las Tres Culturas to be broken up. Some 5000 soldiers and 200 tankettes surrounded the plaza. Hundreds of protesters and civilians were killed and over 1000 were arrested. At the time, the event was portrayed in the national media as the military suppression of a violent student uprising, but later analysis indicates that the gathering was peaceful prior to the army's advance.

Black Power salute.

On October 16, 1968, African American sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlos, the gold and bronze medalists in the men's 200-meter race, took their places on the podium for the medal ceremony wearing black socks without shoes and human rights badges, lowered their heads and each defiantly raised a black-gloved fist as the "Star Spangled Banner" was played, in solidarity with the Black Freedom Movement in the United States. Both were members of the Olympic Project for Human Rights. International Olympic Committee (IOC) president Avery Brundage deemed it to be a domestic political statement unfit for the apolitical, international forum the Olympic Games were intended to be. In response to their actions, he ordered Smith and Carlos suspended from the US team and banned from the Olympic Village. When the US Olympic Committee refused, Brundage threatened to ban the entire US track team. This threat led to the expulsion of the two athletes from the Games.  Peter Norman, the Australian sprinter who came second in the 200 m race, also wore an Olympic Project for Human Rights badge during the medal ceremony. Norman was the one who suggested that Carlos and Smith wear one glove each. His actions resulted in him being ostracized by Australian media and a reprimand by his country's Olympic authorities. He was not sent to the 1972 games, despite several times making the qualifying time, though opinion differ over whether that was due to the 1968 protest. When Australia hosted the 2000 Summer Olympics, he had no part in the opening ceremony, though the significance of that is also debated. In 2006, after Norman died of a heart attack, Smith and Carlos were pallbearers at Norman's funeral.

Věra Čáslavská.

In another notable incident in the gymnastics competition, while standing on the medal podium after the balance beam event final, in which Natalia Kuchinskaya of the Soviet Union had controversially taken the gold, Czechoslovakian gymnast Věra Čáslavská quietly turned her head down and away during the playing of the Soviet national anthem. The action was Čáslavská's silent protest against the recent Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. Her protest was repeated when she accepted her medal for her floor exercise routine when the judges changed the preliminary scores of the Soviet Larisa Petrik to allow her to tie with Čáslavská for the gold. While Čáslavská's countrymen supported her actions and her outspoken opposition to communism (she had publicly signed and supported Ludvik Vaculik's "Two Thousand Words" manifesto), the new regime responded by banning her from both sporting events and international travel for many years and made her an outcast from society until the fall of communism.

Sports.

The 1968 Summer Olympic program featured 172 events in the following 18 sports:

Demonstration sports.

The organizers declined to hold a judo tournament at the Olympics, even though it had been a full-medal sport four years earlier. This was the last time judo was not included in the Olympic games.

Participating National Olympic Committees.

East Germany and West Germany competed as separate entities for the first time at a Summer Olympiad, and would remain so through 1988. Barbados competed for the first time as an independent country. Also competing for the first time in a Summer Olympiad were British Honduras (now Belize), Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (as Congo-Kinshasa), El Salvador, Guinea, Honduras, Kuwait, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Sierra Leone, and the United States Virgin Islands. Singapore returned to the Games as an independent country after competing as part of the Malaysian team in 1964. Suriname and Libya actually competed for the first time (in 1960 and 1964, respectively, they took part in the Opening Ceremony, but their athletes withdrew from the competition.)  <div class="center" >

Boycotting countries.

North Korea withdrew from the 1968 Games because of two incidents that strained its relations with the IOC. First, the IOC had barred North Korean track and field athletes from the 1968 Games because they had participated in the rival Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO) in 1966. Secondly, the IOC had ordered the nation to compete under the name "North Korea" in the 1968 Games, whereas the country itself would have preferred its official name: "Democratic People's Republic of Korea".

Medal count.

These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1968 Games. Host Mexico won 9 medals in total.

The 1968 Summer Olympics (Spanish: "Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1968"), officially known as the Games of the XIX Olympiad, was an international multi-sport event held in Mexico City, Mexico, from October 12 to the 27th.