Data storage.

Because of their simplicity, text files are commonly used for storage of information. They avoid some of the problems encountered with other file formats, such as endianness, padding bytes, or differences in the number of bytes in a machine word. Further, when data corruption occurs in a text file, it is often easier to recover and continue processing the remaining contents. A disadvantage of text files is that they usually have a low entropy, meaning that the information occupies more storage than is strictly necessary.  A simple text file may need no additional metadata (other than knowledge of its character set) to assist the reader in interpretation. A text file may contain no data at all, which is a case of zero-byte file.

Encoding.

The ASCII character set is the most common compatible subset of character sets for English-language text files, and is generally assumed to be the default file format in many situations. It covers American English, but for the British Pound sign, the Euro sign, or characters used outside English, a richer character set must be used. In many systems, this is chosen based on the default locale setting on the computer it is read on. Prior to UTF-8, this was traditionally single-byte encodings (such as ISO-8859-1 through ISO-8859-16) for European languages and wide character encodings for Asian languages.  Because encodings necessarily have only a limited repertoire of characters, often very small, many are only usable to represent text in a limited subset of human languages. Unicode is an attempt to create a common standard for representing all known languages, and most known character sets are subsets of the very large Unicode character set. Although there are multiple character encodings available for Unicode, the most common is UTF-8, which has the advantage of being backwards-compatible with ASCII; that is, every ASCII text file is also a UTF-8 text file with identical meaning. UTF-8 also has the advantage that it is easily auto-detectable. Thus, a common operating mode of UTF-8 capable software, when opening files of unknown encoding, is to try UTF-8 first and fall back to a locale dependent legacy encoding when it definitely isn't UTF-8.

Formats.

On most operating systems the name "text file" refers to file format that allows only plain text content with very little formatting (e.g., no bold or "italic" types). Such files can be viewed and edited on text terminals or in simple text editors. Text files usually have the MIME type codice_1, usually with additional information indicating an encoding.

Microsoft Windows text files.

MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows use a common text file format, with each line of text separated by a two-character combination: carriage return (CR) and line feed (LF). It is common for the last line of text "not" to be terminated with a CR-LF marker, and many text editors (including Notepad) do not automatically insert one on the last line.  On Microsoft Windows operating systems, a file is regarded as a text file if the suffix of the name of the file (the "filename extension") is codice_2. However, many other suffixes are used for text files with specific purposes. For example, source code for computer programs is usually kept in text files that have file name suffixes indicating the programming language in which the source is written.  Most Microsoft Windows text files use "ANSI", "OEM", "Unicode" or "UTF-8" encoding. What Microsoft Windows terminology calls "ANSI encodings" are usually single-byte ISO/IEC 8859 encodings (i.e. ANSI in the Microsoft Notepad menus is really "System Code Page", non-Unicode, legacy encoding), except for in locales such as Chinese, Japanese and Korean that require double-byte character sets. ANSI encodings were traditionally used as default system locales within Microsoft Windows, before the transition to Unicode. By contrast, OEM encodings, also known as DOS code pages, were defined by IBM for use in the original IBM PC text mode display system. They typically include graphical and line-drawing characters common in DOS applications. "Unicode"-encoded Microsoft Windows text files contain text in UTF-16 Unicode Transformation Format. Such files normally begin with Byte Order Mark ("BOM"), which communicates the endianness of the file content. Although UTF-8 does not suffer from endianness problems, many Microsoft Windows programs (i.e. Notepad) prepend the contents of UTF-8-encoded files with BOM, to differentiate UTF-8 encoding from other 8-bit encodings.

Unix text files.

On Unix-like operating systems text files format is precisely described: POSIX defines a text file as a file that contains characters organized into zero or more lines, where lines are sequences of zero or more non-newline characters plus a terminating newline character, normally LF.  Additionally, POSIX defines a as a text file whose characters are printable or space or backspace according to regional rules. This excludes most control characters, which are not printable.

Apple Macintosh text files.

Prior to the advent of Mac OS X (now called macOS), the classic Mac OS system regarded the content of a file (the data fork) to be a text file when its resource fork indicated that the type of the file was "TEXT". Lines of Macintosh text files are terminated with CR characters.  Being certified Unix, macOS uses POSIX format for text files. Uniform Type Identifier (UTI) used for text files in macOS is "public.plain-text"; additional, more specific UTIs are: "public.utf8-plain-text" for utf-8-encoded text, "public.utf16-external-plain-text" and "public.utf16-plain-text" for utf-16-encoded text and "com.apple.traditional-mac-plain-text" for classic Mac OS text files.

Rendering.

When opened by a text editor, human-readable content is presented to the user. This often consists of the file's plain text visible to the user. Depending on the application, control codes may be rendered either as literal instructions acted upon by the editor, or as visible escape characters that can be edited as plain text. Though there may be plain text in a text file, control characters within the file (especially the end-of-file character) can render the plain text unseen by a particular method.

A text file (sometimes spelled textfile; an old alternative name is flatfile) is a kind of computer file that is structured as a sequence of lines of electronic text. A text file exists stored as data within a computer file system. In operating systems such as CP/M and MS-DOS, where the operating system does not keep track of the file size in bytes, the end of a text file is denoted by placing one or more special characters, known as an end-of-file marker, as padding after the last line in a text file. On modern operating systems such as Microsoft Windows and Unix-like systems, text files do not contain any special EOF character, because file systems on those operating systems keep track of the file size in bytes. There are for most text files a need to have end-of-line delimiters, which are done in a few different ways depending on operating system. Some operating systems with record-orientated file systems may not use new line delimiters and will primarily store text files with lines separated as fixed or variable length records.


History.

Formation and Early years (1982-1984).

Tarot was originally formed by the Hietala brothers in the early 80's. Back then the band was called “Purgatory”. As Purgatory reached the point when they got the record deal, the label wanted them to change their name. Since then the band has been known as Tarot. The line-up settled into the form of Marco Hietala (bass/vocals), Zachary Hietala (guitars), Mako H (guitars) and Pecu Cinnari (drums).

The beginning (1986-1988).

The "Wings of Darkness" single saw the daylight in April 1986 and in December that same year Tarot released their first full-length album "Spell of Iron". In April 1988, following the release of a single "Rose on the Grave", their second album "Follow Me into Madness" was released.

"To Live Forever" and "Stigmata" (1989-1996).

After the second album, there was a hiatus in the band. During this 'vacation' the line-up changed a little bit and a keyboardist was added to the band as Janne Tolsa joined Tarot and replaced the second guitarist Mako H. After long preparation, the third album "To Live Forever" came out in February 1993. Tarot received good publicity in Japan, making their first live album "To Live Again" to be released as a Japanese special edition in November 1994. The live album was recorded at Tavastia Club, Helsinki in August 1994. Some of the songs from the live album were released the following year on a limited edition bonus CD with the next studio album, "Stigmata". "To Live Forever" was remixed and re-released in 2006 together with all the previous albums.

"For the Glory of Nothing" and hiatus (1997-2002).

Much anticipated "For the Glory of Nothing" came out in 1998. "Shining Black", a Tarot compilation album, came out in Japan in December 1998. While Tarot was inactive, Marco also played in the bands Conquest and Sinergy. Together with other members of Conquest, Marco played cover songs under the name Metal Gods. Marco became a member of Nightwish in 2001. Tolsa played the keyboards for Virtuocity's "Secret Visions" album as Marco sang a few songs on it. In summer 2002 Tarot played a special 80s' gig in Kuopio, playing material only from the first two albums.

"Suffer Our Pleasures" (2003).

In March 2003, the compilation "Shining Black" was released again in the rest of the world. Tarot signed a new record deal with Spinefarm Records and the new studio album "Suffer Our Pleasures" was released. While the album did well in Finland, it was barely noticed elsewhere.

Hiatus, remixes and comeback (2004–2008).

During these years Marco was busy with his other band Nightwish by recording and touring around the world. Tolsa worked on an album with Eternal Tears of Sorrow and toured with the industrial metal band Turmion Kätilöt.  Early spring 2006, Tarot's earlier label Bluelight Records released a collection of the band's first six albums remastered with a large amount of bonus material, unreleased demos, live and special versions of the songs and some covers. Some of the albums were also remixed.  The fans had been expecting the re-releases for years and the collection was so successful that in May 2006, when Tarot released the new single "You", it made number one on the Finnish charts for the first time in the history of the band. During that time, the band formalized their long-time roadie/backing vocalist Tommi 'Tuple' Salmela as a band member after being with the band for more than a decade.  Early 2006, Tarot was signed to KingFoo Entertainment in Finland, with Nuclear Blast covering the rest of Europe. During summer of 2006, the band not only toured various clubs and festivals but also composed, demoed and recorded new material. The album "Crows Fly Black" was released in October 2006.  On June 11, 2008, Tarot released their first live DVD, "Undead Indeed". The DVD also had a live album counterpart. They followed the release with a short tour in support of "Undead Indeed", which began January 30, 2009.

Gravity of Light (2009-2010).

Their new album, entitled "Gravity of Light" was released in Finland on March 10, 2010, in Europe on April 23, 2010, the UK on April 26, 2010, and in the US on June 8, 2010.

Spell of Iron MMXI (2011-2015).

Re-recorded first album, some updated lyrics and updated sound. Released in conjunction with the 25th Anniversary of their No. 1 single "Wings of Darkness" back in 1986.

Death of Pecu Cinnari (2016-present).

On September 11, 2016, it was announced on Facebook that drummer Pecu Cinnari had died due to a long-term illness. It is unknown whether the band will continue without him or split up.

Tarot is a heavy metal band from Finland. They are most famous for the song “Wings of Darkness” from the 1986 album "Spell of Iron". While having enjoyed a broad underground popularity in Finland, the band has never been notable elsewhere until gaining new success in recent years, when their singer and bassist Marco Hietala joined Nightwish in 2002.


Early career.

Byrne became interested in motor racing at Witwatersrand University in Johannesburg, South Africa, firstly as a competitor and later the technical aspects of the sport. After graduating in 1964 Byrne began working as a chemist but retained his fascination for racing until by the late 1960s he, with three friends Dave Collier, Ronny and Dougie Bennett, set up a company importing performance car parts called Auto Drag and Speed Den situated in Jules Street, Malvern, Johannesburg and later Voortrekker Road in Alberton. It was in this period that he first began to design racing cars, putting to use his mathematical knowledge even though he lacked formal engineering training. His first car, a Formula Ford racer, was competitive and finished well in the 1972 championship.  Following his success in 1972 Byrne relocated to England to pursue a career in racing car design. Purchasing an ageing Royale Formula Ford car he began putting together the skills required to improve the design and received a lucky break in 1973 when Royale founder Bob King decided to sell the team. The new owner needed an engineer to replace King, who had also been the cars' designer, and offered the job to Rory Byrne, who spent the next four years designing a variety of cars for Royale and its customers.  An introduction to Ted Toleman in 1977 offered the next opportunity for the thirty-three-year-old who was by now an established figure in British motor racing. Toleman was owner of a Formula 2 team and hired the South African as its designer. Several seasons of increasingly respectable results culminated in first and second place in the 1980 European Formula 2 championship. The team with Rory Byrne as its chief designer was now ready to make the jump into Formula One.

Formula One.

Toleman/Benetton.

The first Byrne-designed car to appear at a grand prix was the Hart-powered TG181. Lacking the finances to reach the first three long-haul races Toleman entered Formula One at the San Marino Grand Prix. Two seasons passed before the fledgling team began to score points, but by the conclusion of the 1983 season Derek Warwick and Bruno Giacomelli had collected a very respectable 10 points – enough for the team to finish ninth in the constructors' championship, and enough to earn Byrne credibility in the pit-lane. It was in the off-season of 1983/84 that Toleman signed Ayrton Senna – a move that almost made Byrne, Senna and the team first time winners at that year's Monaco Grand Prix.  The team's steady progress towards the front of the grid was given a boost in 1985 when the Benetton family announced plans to purchase Toleman. With more money, more resources and the most powerful engine available in the form of the inline-four turbocharged BMW, it took only until October 1986 for Gerhard Berger to secure the first win for himself, for the team and for a Byrne-designed car at the Mexican Grand Prix.  Over the following five seasons Rory Byrne–designed cars took four more race wins but the Benetton team was never in a position to truly challenge the likes of Ferrari, Williams and McLaren, with most victories being taken on days when the competition faltered.  After a brief spell with the abortive Reynard F1 project in 1991 Byrne returned to Benetton that fall. What he found was a changed team now firmly under the control of Flavio Briatore and with hotshot Michael Schumacher installed as number one driver. Byrne's B193 car was a substantial technical advancement on the previous season's car, incorporating a semi-automatic gearbox, four-wheel steering, active suspension and traction control. The car took a single win in the hands of Schumacher, but everything was now in place for a title challenge in 1994.  It was immediately obvious at the first race of 1994 that Byrne's B194 chassis would be the car to beat. Critics suggested that the team's domination was more a result of an uncharacteristic slump by Williams star designer Adrian Newey and accusations of cheating dogged the team for the entire season. A late-season charge by Williams robbed Byrne of his first constructors' title, but with his motto of ""Evolution Not Revolution"", everything seemed set for more success in 1995.  With the accusations of cheating behind them, the Benetton team secured both titles before the season was finished – finally Byrne had what he wanted most. His car had won the Formula One constructors' crown. With the hugely influential Schumacher leaving Benetton for Ferrari at the end of the season, the team began to fragment. Byrne announced that he would retire in 1996.

Ferrari.

By the conclusion of the 1996 season Michael Schumacher was being given free rein at Ferrari to build a team of engineers capable of returning the team to the top of the sport after years of underperforming. Benetton technical director Ross Brawn was hired and Ferrari approached Rory Byrne to replace the team's existing chief designer John Barnard who refused to re-locate to Italy. After long negotiations Byrne was lured from his retirement in Thailand back to Europe where he began building a design office at Ferrari's Maranello headquarters. Ferrari were immediately competitive once again, taking the title fight to the final race of the season in both 1997 and 1998. Continuing to build momentum in the following seasons, Ferrari won the constructors' championship in 1999, their first in 17 years. By the end of the 2004 season, Byrne-designed Ferraris had secured 71 race victories, six consecutive constructors' titles and five consecutive drivers' titles for Michael Schumacher with a sustained level of dominance never before seen in the sport.  In 2004 Rory Byrne announced that he would be retiring from Formula One at the end of the 2006 season, handing over the role of chief designer to Aldo Costa, his assistant since 1998. On 19 September 2006, it was announced that Rory had extended his stay, as a consultant, at Ferrari for another two years which led him until early 2009.  In 2012, Byrne was called in to look at the Ferrari F2012 F1 car after it had a troubled start to its life. He was also involved in the design of LaFerrari.  In February 2013, at the launch of F138 – in interview to the German Auto Motor und Sport Rory Byrne said that he is "working full steam" on Ferrari's 2014 F1 car, in an advisory role.  Maurizio Arrivabene revealed that Byrne is working as mentor in Ferrari helping the chief designer Simone Resta.

Discovery Insure.

Byrne is a Special Engineering Advisor to Discovery Insure in South Africa in which he assists the company in improving the driving behaviour of South Africans and making the roads safer for all to use.

F1 championships.

Constructors' Championships:

Rory Byrne (born 10 January 1944) is a South African semi-retired engineer and car designer, most famous for being the chief designer at the Benetton and Scuderia Ferrari Formula One teams.


Life.

Duke Wenceslaus I didn't want to divide the already small Duchy of Legnica between his sons; therefore, he destined Wenceslaus II and his younger brothers Boleslaw IV and Henry VIII to the Church, leaving his oldest son Rupert I as the only and true ruler over Duchy of Legnica. By 1363, Wenceslaus II was appointed as a Canon of the cathedral chapter in Breslau (although he only took formal possession of this post in 1368).  After his father's death in 1364, Wenceslaus II and his brothers were placed under the guardianship of their uncle Ludwik I the Fair and later by his older brother Rupert I. Louis I took a special interest in the spiritual career of his nephew and since 1371, prepared him for the future post of Bishop of Breslau.  Since 1363, Wenceslaus II began his studies in the University of Prague, and in the decade of 1370 he travelled to Montpellier, France, where he obtained a degree in canon law. In 1373, he was chosen as canon of Olomouc.  On 3 December 1375, Wenceslaus II was appointed by Pope Gregory XI as Bishop of Lebus, although by canon law, the legal minimum age for this type of post was thirty years. From the rule of Wenceslaus II in Lebus was known little; only some information was found on Wenceslaus as bishop as to the Synod in Kalisz in 1378, convening the bishops of the suffragans with Lebus' then metropolitan Archdiocese of Gniezno.  The diocese of Lebus produced few incomes. In addition, its location on the border between Brandenburg and Bohemia left Lebus considerably damaged during the war between Wittelsbachs the Luxemburgs. For this, Wenceslaus decided to move the diocesan capital to Fürstenwalde.  In 1378 appeared before Wenceslaus II the chance to obtain the Diocese of Breslau, because the Bishop Elect Theodore of Klatow didn't receive papal approval. Initially it appeared that the election of Wenceslaus II would not cause any problems, but the death of Emperor Charles IV and the Western Schism in the Church left the post vacant during almost six years, until 19 April 1382, when Wenceslaus II finally received confirmation of the Pope as the new Bishop. Facilitated the nomination that during 1379-1382 Wenceslaus II's brother Henry VIII acted as Administrator of the Diocese.  Wenceslaus II quickly became known by his forceful politics, standing invariably at the side of the Roman Papacy; at a reward for his loyalty in 1385, Pope Urban VI wanted to give him the title of Cardinal. For unknown reasons, the Duke-Bishop refused.  The first years of his rule in the Breslau Diocese, Wenceslaus II was merged in a bitter dispute with the local nobility, who tried to eliminate the law immunities of the Church. Shortly afterwards he was requested to make a settlement of the dispute to King Wenceslaus IV, which Breslau, whose bishops resisted to allow the King to grant them the church property, including churches, as a fiefs. The case was even more serious for Wenceslaus II, because he didn't have yet the king's approval for his episcopal dignity.  The settlement was finally made in 1382: Breslau obtained the right to import goods from outside the clergy district (permitted only on the acquisition of their own needs, without the possibility of sales). In addition, King Wenceslaus IV approved for young Liegnitz Duke the Episcopal dignity and then Wenceslaus II officially received the Duchy of Neisse-Ottmachau as a fief belonging to the Diocese of Breslau.  As Bishop of Wroclaw, Wenceslaus II was an efficient administrator. In 1415 he ordered the imposition and modification in the episcopal diocese of a secular law court, which most of his items in the next few centuries become in patterns for the rest of Silesian courts. Wenceslaus II's activities were expressed in Synods organized by him (in 1401, 1405, 1406 and 1410).  The Duke-Bishop was also known for giving large sums to the Church foundations. During this time were founded: the Canon College in Ottmachau, and collegiate churches in both Głogów) and Falkenberg (Niemodlin). In the disputes between the Silesian Duchies and the Church, he didn't hesitate to use the excommunication to his relatives (for example, the ban was applied by him to Duke Bolko IV of Opole).  This attitude caused several problems to Wenceslaus II, in particular the attacks of estates whose leaders were banned by him (like Duke Henry IX of Lüben). In order to raise funds for the defense, Wenceslaus didn't hesitate to pledge Church property.  On 12 January 1409, after the death of his last surviving brother Rupert I without male issue, Wenceslaus II became the sole heir of the Duchy of Legnica; two months later, on 19 March, he designated as his heirs the brothers Henry IX and Louis II of Brieg, grandsons of Louis I the Fair. In 1413, Wenceslaus managed to unite the Diocese of Breslau and the Duchy of Liegnitz in one state, trying in that way to save the title of Bishop to his successors.  On 16 March 1413, Wenceslaus II resigned from the government of the duchy and gave it to Louis II. That decision triggered in several war between Henry IX and Louis II, because the older brother Henry IX resented that the whole principality was given to Louis II. Henry protested to Wenceslaus II and tried to convince him to revert his decision, but the Duke-Bishop maintain the inheritance over Louis.  In 1417, the tired and old Wenceslaus II sent to Pope Martin V his resignation from the bishopric. Soon, Rome decided to approve it and on 17 December 1417 was chosen the new Bishop of Breslau: Duke Conrad the Elder.  Wenceslaus II then retired to the Episcopal seat of Ottmachau, where he spent his last years. He died on 30 December 1419, and was buried in the local collegiate church of St. Nicholas. After the transfer of the Chapter all the Bishop's remains with their tombstones were moved to Neisse. Since 1682 Wenceslaus II's remains and tombstone were placed in the Church of St. Jakob.

Wenceslaus II, Duke of Legnica (1348 – 30 December 1419) was a Duke of Legnica from 1364 (only nominal; from 1409 he reigned alone and personally) until 1413, Bishop of Lebus (1375–82) and Breslau (Wroclaw) (1382–1417; also Duke of Nysa-Otmuchów.


Unix and Unix-like.

In Unix-like computer OSes (such as Linux), "root" is the conventional name of the user who has all rights or permissions (to all files and programs) in all modes (single- or multi-user). Alternative names include "baron" in BeOS and "avatar" on some Unix variants. BSD often provides a "toor" ("root" written backward) account in addition to a root account. Regardless of the name, the superuser always has a user ID of 0. The root user can do many things an ordinary user cannot, such as changing the ownership of files and binding to network ports numbered below 1024.  The name "root" may have originated because "root" is the only user account with permission to modify the root directory of a Unix system. This directory was originally considered to be root's home directory, but the UNIX Filesystem Hierarchy Standard now recommends that root's home be at /root."" The first process bootstrapped in a Unix-like system, usually called init, runs with root privileges. It spawns all other processes directly or indirectly, which inherit their parents' privileges. Only a process running as root is allowed to change its user ID to that of another user; once it's done so, there is no way back. Doing so is sometimes called "dropping root privileges" and is often done as a security measure to limit the damage from possible contamination of the process. Another case is login and other programs that ask users for credentials and in case of successful authentication allow them to run programs with privileges of their accounts.  It is often recommended that no-one use "root" as their normal user account, since simple typographical errors in entering commands can cause major damage to the system. Instead, a normal user account should be used, and then either the su (substitute user) or sudo (substitute user do) command is used. The "su" approach requires the user to know the root password, while the "sudo" method requires that the user has been set up with the power to run "as root" within the "/etc/sudoers" file, typically indirectly by being made a member of the "wheel", "adm", "admin", or "sudo" group.  For a number of reasons, the "sudo" approach is now generally preferred – for example it leaves an audit trail of who has used the command and what administrative operations they performed.  Some OSes, such as macOS and some Linux distributions (most notably Ubuntu), automatically give the initial user created the ability to run as root via "sudo" – but configure this to ask them for their password before doing administrative actions. In some cases the actual root account is disabled by default, so it can't be directly used. In mobile platform-oriented OSs such as Apple iOS and Android, superuser access is inaccessible by design, but generally the security system can be exploited in order to obtain it. In a few systems, such as Plan 9, there is no superuser at all.

Microsoft Windows.

In Windows NT and later systems derived from it (such as Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, and Windows Vista/7/8/10), there must be at least one administrator account (Windows XP and earlier) or one able to elevate privileges to superuser (Windows Vista/7/8/10 via User Account Control). In Windows XP and earlier systems, there is a built-in administrator account that remains hidden when a user administrator-equivalent account exists. This built-in administrator account is created with a blank password. This poses security risks as local users would be able to access the computer via the built-in administrator account if the password is left blank, so the account is disabled by default in Windows Vista and later systems due to the introduction of User Account Control (UAC). Remote users are unable to access the built-in administrator account.  A Windows administrator account is not an exact analogue of the Unix root account – Administrator, the built-in administrator account, and a user administrator account have the same level of privileges. The default user account created in Windows systems is an administrator account. Unlike macOS, Linux, and Windows Vista/7/8/10 administrator accounts, administrator accounts in Windows systems without UAC do not insulate the system from most of the pitfalls of full root access. One of these pitfalls includes decreased resilience to malware infections. To avoid this and maintain optimal system security on pre-UAC Windows systems, it is recommended to simply authenticate when necessary from a standard user account, either via a password set to the built-in administrator account, or another administrator account.  In Windows Vista/7/8/10 administrator accounts, a prompt will appear to authenticate running a process with elevated privileges. Usually, no user credentials are required to authenticate the UAC prompt in administrator accounts but authenticating the UAC prompt requires entering the username and password of an administrator in standard user accounts. In Windows XP (and earlier systems) administrator accounts, authentication is not required to run a process with elevated privileges and this poses another security risk that led to the development of UAC. Users can set a process to run with elevated privileges from standard accounts by setting the process to "run as administrator" or using the "runas" command and authenticating the prompt with credentials (username and password) of an administrator account. Much of the benefit of authenticating from a standard account is negated if the administrator account's credentials being used has a blank password (as in the built-in administrator account in Windows XP and earlier systems), hence why it is recommended to set a password for the built-in administrator account.  In Windows NT, 2000 and higher, the root user is the Administrator account.

Novell NetWare.

In Novell NetWare, the superuser was called "supervisor", later "admin".

OpenVMS.

In OpenVMS, "SYSTEM" is the superuser account for the OS.

Older personal systems.

On many older OSes on computers intended for personal and home use, anyone using the system had full privileges. Many such systems, such as DOS, did not have the concept of multiple accounts, and although others such as Windows 95 did allow multiple accounts, this was only so that each could have its own preferences profile – all users still had full administrative control over the machine.

In computing, the superuser is a special user account used for system administration. Depending on the operating system (OS), the actual name of this account might be root, administrator, admin or supervisor. In some cases, the actual name of the account is not the determining factor; on Unix-like systems, for example, the user with a user identifier (UID) of zero is the superuser, regardless of the name of that account; and in systems which implement a role based security model, any user with the role of superuser (or its synonyms) can carry out all actions of the superuser account. The principle of least privilege recommends that most users and applications run under an ordinary account to perform their work, as a superuser account is capable of making unrestricted, potentially adverse, system-wide changes.


Life.

Delmont was born in 1873 as one of 16 children of Moses (later Maximilian) Pollak and Resi (or Rösi, later Theresia) née Fuchs, in Loywein, Lower Austria (Austria). He grew up as a performer, latterly a trapeze artist, in a travelling circus. After training as a metal worker, he re-joined the circus as an animal trainer and lion tamer, in which capacity he traveled the world. In 1901 he visited the United States, and stayed there in order to work as a manager of an animal business.  After visiting several shows of the new medium of film and becoming interested in it, Delmont started to make his own films in 1903 for the film production company Vitagraph. These were short Westerns, one-act movies or one-reelers lasting only a few minutes. In 1905 he made his first two-act movie.  During 1910 he returned to Vienna where among other things he worked for the Österreichisch-Ungarische Kinoindustrie (later Wiener-Kunstfilm) as a cameraman, and was thus cameraman, and also technical director and director of scenery, on the oldest Austrian drama film to survive in its entirety: "Der Müller und sein Kind" of 1911. Soon afterwards, he went to Germany. In Berlin, he directed in several studios, among them the Rex-Ateliers, sometimes working as co-director with Harry Piel, and sometimes acting with Fred Sauer, Curt Bois and Ilse Bois on a series of adventurous, action-packed, dramatic fantasy films. The sensational part of these films was that, for the first time, extraordinary film footage of beasts of prey was shown and for which his films were well-known.  Later on, Delmont collaborated with film producer Max Nivelli in the making of several films of social and political nature, which made headlines in major newspapers of the Weimar Republic era. In 1919 he directed the film "Der Ritualmord" (Production: Nivo-Film) which was aimed at educating the public on the dangers of anti-Semitism. The movie tried to address the growing concern by the German public of the flood of Jewish immigrants arriving from Eastern Europe.  Another socially important film directed by Delmont, for which he also wrote the screenplay, was "Die Entfesselte Menschheit" in 1920 (Production: Nivo-Film). The film was based on the novel by the same name written by Max Glass. The film was considered as one of the anti-Bolshevik films of that era. The story, although fictional, described an event very similar to the "Spartacist uprising" which occurred only the year before. Most of this film was reused in "Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit" (1926).  For the making of his movies Delmont traveled to Panama, Portugal, England, France, Spain and the Netherlands.  His last project as a director was in the film "Der Millionenraub im Rivieraexpreß" (1927). From then on, he devoted himself to writing, something he had dabbled in since 1892. By the time of his death in 1935 he had written several novels and short stories, and many newspaper articles. Besides detective stories and non-fiction work about his experiences with animals, he also wrote adventure and crime novels. With ""Der Ritt auf dem Funken"" (1928) he published a futuristic science fiction novel about the possibility of travelling with vehicles on electric currents in the near future.  Delmont died in 1935 in Bad Pystian, now Píšťany, Slovakia.

Filmography.

The following is a selected list of films, both short and long, directed by Delmont. In many he also wrote the screenplay or appeared as an actor.

Literary works.

The German National Library knows of 15 novels and 11 other works by Joseph Delmont, of which the following are a selection:

Joseph Delmont (8 May 1873 as Josef Pollak in Loiwein, Austria – 12 March 1935 in Píšťany, Slovakia) was an Austrian film director of some 200 films, largely shorts, in which he was noted for his innovative use of beasts of prey. He was also a cameraman, actor and screenplay writer. During later life he was active as an author.


Location.

The entrance to the cemetery is at 35 rue de Picpus in the 12th arrondissement. It can be visited in the afternoon every day except Sunday and holidays, with hours usually from 2 pm to 4 pm (Admission: €2). The is located at the entrance of the cemetery. The nearest Paris metro stations are Nation and Picpus.

Reign of Terror.

During the French Revolution, the guillotine was set up in the Place de la Nation, then called the Place du Trône Renversé. Between 13 June and 28 July, during the time known as the Reign of Terror, as many as 55 people per day were executed.  The Revolutionary Tribunal needed a quick but anonymous way to dispose of the bodies. The cemetery is only five minutes from the Place de la Nation.  A pit was dug at the end of the garden where the decapitated bodies were thrown in together, noblemen and nuns, grocers and soldiers, laborers and innkeepers. A second pit was dug when the first filled up.  The names of those buried in the two common pits, 1,306 men and women, are inscribed on the walls of the chapel. Of the 1,109 men, there were 108 nobles, 108 churchmen, 136 monastics ("gens de robe"), 178 military, and 579 commoners. There are 197 women buried there, with 51 from the nobility, 23 nuns and 123 commoners. The bloodshed stopped when Robespierre himself was beheaded, and the garden was closed off.  Among the women, 16 Carmelite nuns ranging in age from 29 to 78, were brought to the guillotine together, singing hymns as they were led to the scaffold, an incident commemorated in Poulenc's opera, "Dialogues of the Carmelites". They were beatified in 1906 as the Martyrs of Compiègne.

Post-Revolution.

In 1797, under the Directory, the land was secretly acquired by Princess Amalie Zephyrine of Salm-Kyrburg, whose brother, Frederick III, Prince of Salm-Kyrburg, was buried in one of the common graves. In 1803, when Napoleon was First Consul, a group of family members of aristocrats bought up the rest of the land, and built a second cemetery next to the common graves.  In a meeting held in 1802, underwriters designated 11 of them to form a committee:  Many of these noble families still use the cemetery as a place of burial.

The Marquis de Lafayette.

Arguably Picpus Cemetery's most famous tomb is that of the Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, the French aristocrat and general who was a close friend of many American Founding Fathers including George Washington, Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson and fought in the Continental Army even before France officially entered the American Revolutionary War. He died in 1834 from natural causes at the age of 76, and an American flag always flies over his grave, courtesy of the local chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR). He is buried next to his wife, Adrienne de La Fayette, whose sister, mother and grandmother were among those beheaded and thrown into the common pit. The soil that covers the grave is soil that Lafayette brought home to France from Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Boston – site of the Battle of Bunker Hill, one of the most prominent early battles of the American Revolutionary War; in 1825, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the battle, Lafayette had laid the cornerstone of the Bunker Hill Monument.  On 4 July 1917, three months after the United States entered World War I on the side of France and her Allies, U.S. Army Colonel Charles E. Stanton visited the General's tomb. Col. Stanton placed an American flag, uttering the famous phrase: "Lafayette, we are here."  Every Fourth of July, members of the DAR, the Society of the Cincinnati and U.S. embassy officials gather at Lafayette's tomb for a celebration.

Jewish burials.

In 1852, financier James Mayer de Rothschild built a hospital and hospice next door to the cemetery, at 76 rue de Picpus. Initially intended to treat Jewish patients, Rothschild Hospital was transformed into a general hospital open to all during World War I.  During the Nazi occupation of Paris during World War II, French, Polish, and German Jews were rounded up and sent to the Drancy internment camp north of Paris. Pregnant women, the seriously ill and children were sent to the Rothschild Hospital, which became an extension of the Drancy camp, under full guard and surrounded by barbed wire.  Under the collusion of Vichy France with Nazi Germany, its patients who survived their illnesses were all deported to concentration camps. Of the 61,000 from Drancy sent to the camps, only 1,542 remained alive when the Allied forces liberated the camps in 1944. There is a special plaque dedicated to their memory at Picpus Cemetery.

Picpus Cemetery () is the largest private cemetery in Paris, France, located in the 12th arrondissement. It was created from land seized from the convent of the Chanoinesses de St-Augustin, during the French Revolution. Just minutes away from where the guillotine was set up, it contains 1,306 victims executed between 14 June and 27 July 1794, during the height of the Reign of Terror. Today only descendants of those 1,306 victims are eligible to be buried at Picpus Cemetery.


Early life.

Born in Florence, Robert was the elder son of Charles III, Duke of Parma and Louise Marie Thérèse d'Artois, daughter of Charles Ferdinand, duc de Berry and granddaughter of King Charles X of France. He succeeded his father to the ducal throne in 1854 upon the latter's assassination, when he was only six, while his mother stood as regent.  When Robert was eleven years old, he was deposed, as Piedmontese troops annexed other Italian states, ultimately to form the Kingdom of Italy. Despite losing his throne, Robert and his family enjoyed considerable wealth, traveling in a private train of more than a dozen cars from his castles at Schwarzau am Steinfeld near Vienna, to Villa Pianore in northwest Italy, and the magnificent château de Chambord in France.

Marriages and issue.

On 5 April 1869, while in exile in Rome, he married Princess Maria Pia of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1849–1882), daughter of King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies. She was his half first cousin once removed, as her father (Ferdinand II) and Robert's maternal grandmother (Princess Caroline Ferdinande of Bourbon-Two Sicilies) were half-siblings, both being children of Francis I of the Two Sicilies.  Maria Pia belonged to the deposed Royal Family of the Two Sicilies and was thus a Bourbon, like her husband. She bore him 12 children, before dying in childbirth:  After his first wife's death in childbirth, he remarried on 15 October 1884 to Infanta Maria Antonia of Portugal, daughter of the deposed King Miguel I of Portugal and his wife, Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg. Maria Antonia was his second cousin once removed, as her paternal grandmother (Charlotte of Spain) and Robert's paternal great-grandmother (Maria Luisa of Spain) were siblings, both being children of Charles IV of Spain and Maria Luisa of Parma. She bore him another 12 children:

Death and legacy.

Less than four months after Robert's death in November 1907, the Grand Marshal of the Austrian court declared six of the children of his first marriage legally incompetent (they had severe mental retardation), at the behest of his widow, Maria Antonia. Nonetheless, Robert's primary heir was his son Elias, the youngest son of his first marriage and the only one of his sons by that marriage to beget children of his own. Elias also became the legal guardian of his six elder siblings.  Although the eldest half-brothers, Sixte and Xavier, eventually sued their half-brother Elias for trying to obtain a greater share of the ducal fortune, they lost in the French courts, leaving the issue of Robert's second marriage with modest prospects. Some of his younger sons served in the Austrian armed forces.

Ancestry.

Patrilineal descent.

Robert's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son.  Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations - which means that if Duke Robert were to choose an historically accurate house name it would be Robert, as all his male-line ancestors have been of that house.  Robert is a member of the House of Bourbon-Parma, a sub-branch of the House of Bourbon-Spain, itself originally a branch of the House of Bourbon, and thus of the Capetian dynasty and of the Robertians.  Robert's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. It follows the Dukes of Parma as well as the Kings of Spain, France, and Navarre. The line can be traced back more than 1,200 years from Robert of Hesbaye to the present day, through Kings of France & Navarre, Spain and Two-Sicilies, Dukes of Parma and Grand-Dukes of Luxembourg, Princes of Orléans and Emperors of Brazil. It is one of the oldest in Europe.

Robert I (Italian: "Roberto I Carlo Luigi Maria di Borbone, Duca di Parma e Piacenza"; 9 July 1848 – 16 November 1907) was the last sovereign Duke of Parma and Piacenza from 1854 until 1859, when the duchy was annexed to Sardinia-Piedmont during the "Risorgimento". He was a member of the House of Bourbon-Parma and descended from Philip, Duke of Parma, the third son of King Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese.


Training.

Dehaene began his training as a mathematician, studying mathematics at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris from 1984 to 1989. He obtained his master's degree in Applied mathematics and computer science in 1985 from the University of Paris VI. He turned to neuroscience and psychology after reading Jean-Pierre Changeux's book, "L'Homme neuronal" ("Neuronal Man: The Biology of The Mind").  Inspired by his reading of Changeux's work, Dehaene began to collaborate with him on computational neuronal models of human cognition, including working memory and task control, collaborations which continue to the present day. Dehaene then completed his PhD in Experimental Psychology in 1989 with Jacques Mehler at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS), Paris.  After receiving his doctorate, Dehaene became a research scientist at INSERM in the Cognitive Sciences and Psycholinguistics Laboratory ("Laboratoire de Sciences Cognitives et Psycholinguistique") directed by Mehler. He also spent two years, from 1992 to 1994, as a post-doctoral fellow at the Institute of Cognitive and Decision Sciences, with Michael Posner at the University of Oregon.  Dehaene then returned to France, where he began his own research group, which today numbers nearly 30 graduate students, post-doctoral fellows and researchers. In 2005, he was elected to the newly created Chair of Experimental Psychology at the Collège de France.

Expertise.

Numerical cognition.

Dehaene is best known for his work on numerical cognition, a discipline which he popularized and synthesized with the publication of his 1997 book, "The Number Sense" ("La Bosse des maths") which won the for best French language general-audience scientific book. He began his studies of numerical cognition with Jacques Mehler, examining the cross-linguistic frequency of number words, whether numbers were understood in an analog or compositional manner, and the connection between numbers and space (the "SNARC effect"). With Changeux, he then developed a computational model of numerical abilities, which predicted log-gaussian tuning functions for number neurons, a finding which has now been elegantly confirmed with single-unit physiology  With long-time collaborator Laurent Cohen, a neurologist at the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris, Dehaene also identified patients with lesions in different regions of the parietal lobe with impaired multiplication, but preserved subtraction (associated with lesions of the inferior parietal lobule) and others with impaired subtraction, but preserved multiplication (associated with lesions to the intraparietal sulcus). This double dissociation suggested that different neural substrates for overlearned, linguistically mediated calculations, like multiplication, are mediated by inferior parietal regions, while on-line computations, like subtraction are mediated by the intraparietal sulcus. Shortly thereafter, Dehaene began EEG and functional neuroimaging studies of these capacities, showing that parietal and frontal regions were specifically involved in mathematical cognition, including the dissociation between subtraction and multiplication observed in his previous patient studies.  Together with Pierre Pica, and Elizabeth Spelke, Stanislas Dehaene has studied the numeracy and numeral expressions of the mundurucu (an indigenous tribe living in Para, Brazil).

Consciousness.

Dehaene subsequently turned his attention to work on the neural correlates of consciousness, leading to numerous scientific articles, an edited book, "The Cognitive Neuroscience of Consciousness" and is the Past President of the Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness. Dehaene has developed computational models of consciousness, based on Bernard Baars's Global Workspace Theory, which suggest that only one piece of information can gain access to a "global neuronal workspace". To explore the neural basis of this global neuronal workspace, he has conducted functional neuroimaging experiments of masking and the attentional blink, which show that information that reaches conscious awareness leads to increased activation in a network of parietal and frontal regions.

Neural basis of reading.

In addition, Dehaene has used brain imaging to study language processing in monolingual and bilingual subjects, and in collaboration with Laurent Cohen, the neural basis of reading. Dehaene and Cohen initially focused on the role of ventral stream regions in visual word recognition, and in particular the role of the left inferior temporal cortex for reading written words. They identified a region they called the "visual word form area" (VWFA) that was consistently activated during reading, and also found that when this region was surgically removed to treat patients with intractable epilepsy, reading abilities were severely impaired.  Dehaene, Cohen and colleagues have subsequently demonstrated that, rather than being a single area, the VWFA is the highest stage in a hierarchy of visual feature extraction for letter and word recognition.  More recently, they have turned their attention to how learning to read may depend on a process of "neuronal recycling" that causes brain circuits originally evolved for object recognition to become tuned to recognize frequent letters, pairs of letters and words, and have tested these ideas examining brain responses in a group of adults who did not learn to read due to social and cultural constraints.

Stanislas Dehaene (born May 12, 1965) is a French author and cognitive neuroscientist whose research centers on a number of topics, including numerical cognition, the neural basis of reading and the neural correlates of consciousness. As of 2017, he is a professor at the Collège de France and, since 1989, the director of INSERM Unit 562, "Cognitive Neuroimaging".


Club career.

Early career.

Lars Bender played from 1993 to 1999 in the youth of the TSV Brannenburg, from 1999 to 2002 he was part of SpVgg Unterhaching youth teams. In summer 2002, he moved to the 1860 München youth team.

1860 Munich.

In August 2006, he played his first game for 1860 Munich II in the Regionalliga Süd. In October, he was an unused substitute in the 1860 Munich senior team, and on 27 November 2006, when he was 17 years old, he made his professional debut at the home game against the TuS Koblenz in the 2. Bundesliga. In his first professional season, he played 13 matches, nine of them in the starting lineup. In this season, Bender won the Fritz-Walter trophy, ahead of then Mönchengladbach's Marko Marin and his twin brother, Sven Bender. In his second season, he was a regular player in the defensive midfield. On the first day of the new season, he scored his first goal. Bender started 2008–09 season again as a regular player. In the second league game against FSV Frankfurt on 3 October 2008, he took over the captaincy and was at 19 the youngest captain in the history of the 1860 Munich, but on 20 October he was seriously injured and after a number of injuries, he finished that season with only 15 matches played. In his three professional seasons played for 1860 München in the 2. Bundesliga, he played 58 games and scored four goals.

Bayer 04 Leverkusen.

On 18 August 2009, Bender signed a three-year contract with Bayer Leverkusen. He played his first match in the Bundesliga coming off the bench on Matchday 6 and was used as a substitute in most of 20 games he played during his first season in Bayer Leverkusen. He scored his first goal in the Bundesliga against Eintracht Frankfurt on 16 September, an eventual 4–0 win. In the following season, his position in the defensive midfield remained competitive and he was often second choice, but he played 27 matches and scored three goals. In the 2011–12 season, he was a regular player and played most of the games over the full season, only interrupted by a forced break for a muscle bundle crack injury in the spring of 2012. On 21 March 2012, Bender signed a new contract with Leverkusen to 2018. In the 2012–13 Bundesliga season, he played 33 games, scored 3 goals and made 6 assists. On 31 October 2013, he extended his contract with Leverkusen until 2019.  In the 2013–14 season, he played 29 games and scored three goals in the Bundesliga, despite being injured for the most of September and October and again in the spring of 2014. In the 2014–2015 season, he's comeback to field and played 26 games in Bundesliga, he's made only one goal in this season against SC Paderborn 07. In UEFA Champions League he helped Leverkusen to finished runner-up in Phase Group behind AS Monaco but later lost by Atlético Madrid on Round of 16. For season 2015/16 coach Roger Schmidt appointed him as the new team captain in place of Simon Rolfes, who had ended his career after the end of the preseason. This season is a struggle for him, after had long time injury in October 2015 until March 2016, and he's only got 10 appearances in Bundesliga and made a pair appearances in Champions League.

International career.

He was part of the German under-19 side that won the 2008 UEFA European Under-19 Football Championship. He and his twin Sven were named jointly as players of the tournament.  Bender was chosen as part of Germany's 23-man squad for Euro 2012. He scored an 80th-minute winner in the final group game against Denmark.  On 29 May 2013 Bender scored twice in a 4–2 win over Ecuador.  He was named in Germany's provisional 30-man squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, but withdrew on 23 May following a thigh injury in training. Manager Joachim Löw said, "I feel personally very sorry for Lars because I know how much he wanted to be in Brazil, when a player is ruled out so close before a tournament then it is very disappointing for everyone". Lars was part of the Germany Olympic football team for Rio along with his twin and Nils Petersen who were the three selected over 23 years old players, winning the silver medal.

Playing style.

Lars Bender normally plays as a central midfielder. He is known for his all-action style and possesses good tackling, passing and ball interception.

Lars Bender (; born 27 April 1989) is a German footballer who plays as a right back and central midfielder and captains Bayer Leverkusen. He is also a member of Germany national team. He was raised in Brannenburg, city in the district of Rosenheim. He is the twin brother of Sven Bender, who also plays for Bayer 04 Leverkusen.


Characters.

Unseen characters.

The play has several important characters who are talked about frequently, but never seen onstage. These include Protopopov, head of the local Council and Natasha's lover; Vershinin's suicidal wife and two daughters; Kulygin's beloved superior the headmaster of the high school and Andrey and Natasha's children Bobik and Sofia. JL Styan contends in his "The Elements of Drama" that in the last act Chekhov revised the text to show that Protopopov is the real father of Sofia: "The children are to be tended by their respective fathers"—Andrey pushes Bobik in his pram, and Protopopov sits with Sofia.

Synopsis.

Act one begins with Olga (the eldest sister) working as a teacher in a school, but at the end of the play she is made headmistress, a promotion in which she had little interest. Masha, the middle sister and the artist of the family (she was trained as a concert pianist), is married to Feodor Ilyich Kulygin, a schoolteacher. At the time of their marriage, Masha, younger than he, was enchanted by what she took to be wisdom, but seven years later, she sees through his pedantry and his clownish attempts to compensate for the emptiness between them. Irina, the youngest sister, is still full of expectation. She speaks of her dream of going to Moscow and meeting her true love. It was in Moscow that the sisters grew up, and they all long to return to the sophistication and happiness of that time. Andrei is the only boy in the family and the sisters idolize him. He is in love with Natalia Ivanovna (Natasha), who is somewhat common in relation to the sisters and suffers under their glance. The play begins on the first anniversary of their father's death, but it is also Irina's name-day, and everyone, including the soldiers (led by the gallant Vershinin) bringing with them a sense of noble idealism, comes together to celebrate it. At the very close of the act, Andrei exultantly confesses his feelings to Natasha in private and fatefully asks her to marry him.  Act two begins almost a year later with Andrei and Natasha married with their first child (offstage), a baby boy named Bobik. Natasha is having an affair with Protopopov, Andrei's superior, a character who is mentioned but never seen onstage. Masha comes home flushed from a night out, and it is clear that she and her companion, Lieutenant-Colonel Vershinin, are giddy with the secret of their mutual love for one another. Little seems to happen but that Natasha manipulatively quashes the plans for a party in the home, but the resultant quiet suggests that all gaiety is being quashed as well. Tuzenbach and Solyony both declare their love for Irina.  Act three takes place about a year later in Olga and Irina's room (a clear sign that Natasha is taking over the household as she asked them to share rooms so that her child could have a different room). There has been a fire in the town, and, in the crisis, people are passing in and out of the room, carrying blankets and clothes to give aid. Olga, Masha and Irina are angry with their brother, Andrei, for mortgaging their home, keeping the money to pay off his gambling debts and conceding all his power to his wife. However, when faced with Natasha's cruelty to their aged family retainer, Anfisa, Olga's own best efforts to stand up to Natasha come to naught. Masha, alone with her sisters, confides in them her romance with Vershinin ("I love, love, love that man"). At one point, Kulygin (her husband) blunders into the room, doting ever more foolishly on her, and she stalks out. Irina despairs at the common turn her life has taken, the life of a municipal worker, even as she rails at the folly of her aspirations and her education ("I can't remember the Italian for 'window'"). Out of her resignation, supported in this by Olga's realistic outlook, Irina decides to accept Tuzenbach's offer of marriage even though she does not love him. Chebutykin drunkenly stumbles and smashes a clock which had belonged to the Prozorov siblings' late mother, whom he loved. Andrei then vents his self-hatred, acknowledges his own awareness of life's folly and his disappointment in Natasha, and begs his sisters' forgiveness for everything.  In the fourth and final act, outdoors behind the home, the soldiers, who by now are friends of the family, are preparing to leave the area. A flash-photograph is taken. There is an undercurrent of tension because Solyony has challenged the Baron (Tuzenbach) to a duel, but Tuzenbach is intent on hiding it from Irina. He and Irina share a heartbreaking delicate scene in which she confesses that she cannot love him, likening her heart to a piano whose key has been lost. Just as the soldiers are leaving, a shot is heard, and Tuzenbach's death in the duel is announced shortly before the end of the play. Masha has to be pulled, sobbing, from Vershinin's arms, but her husband willingly, compassionately and all too generously accepts her back, no questions asked. Olga has reluctantly accepted the position of permanent headmistress of the school where she teaches and is moving out. She is taking Anfisa with her, thus rescuing the elderly woman from Natasha.  Irina's fate is uncertain but, even in her grief at Tuzenbach's death, she wants to persevere in her work as a teacher. Natasha remains as the chatelaine, in charge and in control of everything. Andrei is stuck in his marriage with two children, the only people that Natasha cares about, besides herself. As the play closes, the three sisters stand in a desperate embrace, gazing off as the soldiers depart to the sound of a band's gay march. As Chebutykin sings "Ta-ra-ra-boom-di-ay" to himself, Olga's final lines call out for an end to the confusion all three feel at life's sufferings and joy: "If we only knew... If we only knew".

Premiere.

The play was written for the Moscow Art Theatre and it opened on 31 January 1901, under the direction of Konstantin Stanislavski and Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko. Stanislavski played Vershinin and the sisters were Olga Knipper (for whom Chekhov wrote the part of Masha), Margarita Savitskaya as Olga and Maria Andreyeva as Irina. Maria Lilina (Stanislavski's wife) was Natasha, Vsevolod Meyerhold appeared as Tusenbach, Mikhail Gromov as Solyony, Alexander Artyom as Artem Chebutykin, Ioasaf Tikhomirov as Fedotik, Ivan Moskvin as Rode, Vladimir Gribunin as Ferapont, and Maria Samarova as Anfisa.  Reception was mixed. Chekhov felt that Stanislavski's "exuberant" direction had masked the subtleties of the work and that only Knipper had shown her character developing in the manner the playwright had intended. In the directors' view, the point was to show the hopes, aspirations and dreams of the characters, but audiences were affected by the pathos of the sisters' loneliness and desperation and by their eventual, uncomplaining acceptance of their situation. Nonetheless the piece proved popular and soon it became established in the company's repertoire.

Three Sisters () is a play by the Russian author and playwright Anton Chekhov. It was written in 1900 and first performed in 1901 at the Moscow Art Theatre. The play is sometimes included on the short list of Chekhov's outstanding plays, along with "The Cherry Orchard", "The Seagull" and "Uncle Vanya".


Analytical jurisprudence.

Analytical jurisprudence seeks to provide a general account of the nature of law through the tools of conceptual analysis. The account is general in the sense of targeting universal features of law that hold at all times and places. Whereas lawyers are interested in what the law is on a specific issue in a specific jurisdiction, philosophers of law are interested in identifying the features of law shared across cultures, times, and places. Taken together, these foundational features of law offer the kind of universal definition philosophers are after. The general approach allows philosophers to ask questions about, for example, what separates law from morality, politics, or practical reason. Often, scholars in the field presume that law has a unique set of features that separate it from other phenomena, though not all share the presumption.  While the field has traditionally focused on giving an account of law's nature, some scholars have begun to examine the nature of domains within law, e.g. tort law, contract law, or criminal law. These scholars focus on what makes certain domains of law distinctive and how one domain differs from another. A particularly fecund area of research has been the distinction between tort law and criminal law, which more generally bears on the difference between civil and criminal law.  Several schools of thought have developed around the nature of law, the most influential of which are:  In recent years, debates about the nature of law have become increasingly fine-grained. One important debate exists within legal positivism about the separability of law and morality. Exclusive legal positivists claim that the legal validity of a norm never depends on its moral correctness. Inclusive legal positivists claim that moral considerations "may" determine the legal validity of a norm, but that it is not necessary that this is the case. Positivism began as an inclusivist theory; but influential exclusive legal positivists, including Joseph Raz, John Gardner, and Leslie Green, later rejected the idea.  A second important debate, often called the "Hart-Dworkin Debate," concerns the battle between the two most dominant schools in the late 20th and early 21st century, legal interpretivism and legal positivism.

Normative jurisprudence.

In addition to analytic jurisprudence, legal philosophy is also concerned with normative theories of law. "Normative jurisprudence involves normative, evaluative, and otherwise prescriptive questions about the law." For example, What is the goal or purpose of law? What moral or political theories provide a foundation for the law? Three approaches have been influential in contemporary moral and political philosophy, and these approaches are reflected in normative theories of law: There are many other normative approaches to the philosophy of law, including critical legal studies and libertarian theories of law.

Philosophical approaches to legal problems.

Philosophers of law are also concerned with a variety of philosophical problems that arise in particular legal subjects, such as constitutional law, Contract law, Criminal law, and Tort law. Thus, philosophy of law addresses such diverse topics as theories of contract law, theories of criminal punishment, theories of tort liability, and the question of whether judicial review is justified.

Philosophy of law is a branch of philosophy that examines the nature of law and law's relationship to other systems of norms, especially ethics and political philosophy. It asks questions like "What is law?", "What are the criteria for legal validity?", and "What is the relationship between law and morality?" Philosophy of law and jurisprudence are often used interchangeably, though jurisprudence sometimes encompasses forms of reasoning that fit into economics or sociology.


First incarnation (1634–1673).

The Théâtre du Marais was founded in 1634, at which time there had been only one theatre company in Paris, the "comédiens du Roi" ("comedians of the King"), at the Hôtel de Bourgogne. The actors Charles Lenoir and Montdory decided to create their own troupe, and situated it in the fashionable Le Marais district of Paris, where they converted the Jeu de Paume des "Maretz", an unused tennis court on the Vieille Rue du Temple opposite the Capuchins, into a theatre.  The new theatre's repertory was made up mainly of farces by Jodelet and works by Pierre Corneille; Corneille debuted "Le Cid" there in 1637. The actor Floridor entered the troupe in 1640, and quickly became a major star.  In 1643, the theatre was heavily damaged by a fire, and closed until its restoration was completed in October 1644. Upon its reopening, due to its technical innovations as a new theatre and being the first theatre to add a proscenium arch, it increasingly developed spectacular sets, with machinery helping to depict shipwrecks and cataclysms. Marie Champmeslé and her husband entered the troupe in 1669. Competition with the "comédiens du Roi" lasted until 1673, when the Théâtre du Marais was dissolved to join with Molière's troupe, forming the "troupe du Roi" at the Théâtre Guénégaud, and eventually part of the Comédie-Française.

Second incarnation (1791–1807).

A new Théâtre du Marais was founded in 1791. It was built using materials recovered from the storming of the Bastille, and presented revolutionary spectacles. The house playwright was Pierre Beaumarchais. This theatre was forced to close in 1807 by Napoleon, and it was destroyed in 1812 to make room for the construction of public baths.

Third incarnation (1976–present).

The current Théâtre du Marais was founded by Jacques Mauclair in 1976. It temporarily closed in 1999, but was reopened as part of the Cours Florent in May 2000.

The Théâtre du Marais has been the name of several theatres and theatrical troupes in Paris, France. The original and most famous theatre of the name operated in the 17th century. The name was briefly revived for a revolutionary theatre in 1791, and revived again in 1976. The present-day Théâtre du Marais operates at 37, rue Volta in the 3rd arrondissement of Paris.


Morphology and ecology.

Corixidae generally have a long flattened body ranging from long. Many have extremely fine dark brown or black striations marking the wings. They tend to have four long rear legs and two short front ones. The hind legs are covered with hairs and shaped like oars, hence the name "water boatman". Their four hindmost legs have scoop- or oar-shaped tarsi to aid swimming. They also have a triangular head with short, triangular mouthparts. Corixidae dwell in slow rivers and ponds, as well as some household pools.  Unlike their relatives the backswimmers (Notonectidae), who swim upside down, Corixidae swim right side up. It is easy to tell the two types of insects apart simply by looking at the swimming position.  Corixidae are unusual among the aquatic Hemiptera in that they are mostly non-predatory, feeding on aquatic plants and algae instead of insects and other small animals. They use their straw-like mouthparts to inject enzymes into plants. The enzymes digest the plant material, letting the insect suck the liquified food back through its mouthparts and into its digestive tract. A few species will eat small invertebrates such as larvae of Nematocera, but the family is primarily herbivorous.  Some species within this family are preyed upon by a number of amphibians including the rough-skinned newt, "Taricha granulosa".  The reproductive cycle of Corixidae is annual. Eggs are typically oviposited (deposited) on submerged plants, sticks, or rocks. In substrate limited waters (waters without many submerged oviposition sites), every bit of available substrate will be covered in eggs.

Genera.

These 55 genera belong to the family Corixidae:

Corixidae is a family of aquatic insects in the order Hemiptera. They are found worldwide in virtually any freshwater habitat and a few species live in saline water. There are about 500 known species worldwide, in 33 genera, including the genus "Sigara".


History.

The palace had its origins in a single-storey structure without wings built for Alberto V d'Este (1385), a small retreat intended solely for suppers and diversions ("delizie"), as a sort of banqueting house, with an urban front and a garden front. As the equivalent of a Roman "villa suburbana", the Palazzo Schifanoia long predated the first such pleasure villa built in Renaissance Rome, the Belvedere built for Nicholas V.  In 1452 Borso d'Este received the title of Duke for the imperial fiefs of Modena and Reggio Emilia that he held from Emperor Frederick III. The occasion for the cycle of frescoes was the expected investiture of Borso d'Este as Duke of Ferrara in 1471 by Pope Paul II. The subtext of the festivities embodied in the fresco cycle is the right ordering of mankind and nature under the good government of the Duke, the guarantor of peace and prosperity in the Este dominions. Under the commissions of Borso d'Este, the architect Pietro Benvenuto degli Ordini was called upon to develop a ducal apartment on an upper level, providing the building with a "salone" suitable for presentations of ambassadors and delegations, a counterpart of the governing structure of Ferrara housed in the former Palazzo della Ragione, destroyed in World War II. The palace was often used by Marfisa d'Este, a great patron of the arts.  There, in the "Salone dei Mesi" ("Hall of the Months"), Cosimo Tura's purely pagan cycle of the months presents the cycle of the year as an allegorical pageant with the appropriate Olympian gods presiding on their fanciful cars drawn by the beasts proper to each deity, with appropriate personifications of the constellations of the zodiac. The frescoes were realized circa 1469–70 by artisans of the d'Este household, the larger figures based on cartoons by Cosmé Tura, and the vignettes of the labors of the year and the activities of the Ferrarese court under the benevolent eye of Borso d'Este, flanked by astrological figures to designs by Francesco del Cossa and Ercole de' Roberti. The learned and elaborate scheme of the allegorical presentations must have come from the immediate circle of Borso d'Este, perhaps from the court astrologer, Pellegrino Prisciani, with some details drawn from Boccaccio's "Genealogia deorum".  In the "Sala delle Virtù" ("Hall of Virtues") nearby, the sculptor Domenico di Paris painted the stucco reliefs in a frieze of putti and symbols of the Cardinal and Theological Virtues, under a painted compartmented ceiling.  The façade was originally decorated with a cornice of feigned battlements, its surface smoothly stuccoed and decorated with geometric designs of highly colorful imitation marbles, which have been lost, lending a somewhat dour public face to Palazzo Schifanoia that was not what Borso d'Este intended. The rich white marble entrance door survives, though its tinted colors have weathered away and art historians disagree whether it is to be attributed to the painter-designer Francesco del Cossa or to Biagio Rossetti. Above the arched door, flanked by pilasters, the Este arms are displayed and the unicorn, a symbol of ducal benevolence and the source of patronage. In 1493 the terracotta cornice was added to designs by Biagio Rossetti, who was also commissioned by Ercole I d'Este to extend the palace.  From the Salone dei Mesi the visitor once passed directly into the gardens reached by a monumental stair from the summer loggia, structures that were demolished in the 18th century. After the Este left Ferrara in 1598, the palazzo was inherited through successive heirs, eventually by the Tassoni family, its frescoes whitewashed over. Eventually, during administration of the duchy as part of the Papal States, with a Habsburg garrison, it became a tobacco warehouse and manufactory. When Palazzo Schifanoia came into the possession of the comune of Ferrara in the aftermath of World War I, only seven of the months in the "Salone" remained legible.  Palazzo Schifanoia forms part of the heritage of Ferrara conserved under the umbrella of the Musei Civici d'Arte Antica di Ferrara. The 14th and 15th century rooms contain collections of antiquities, a numismatic collection and medals cast by Pisanello and other Quattrocento artists to commemorate members of the Este family.

Palazzo Schifanoia is a Renaissance palace in Ferrara, Emilia-Romagna (Italy) built for the Este family. The name "Schifanoia" is thought to originate from "schivar la noia" meaning literally to "escape from boredom" which describes accurately the original intention of the palazzo and the other villas in close proximity where the Este court relaxed. The highlights of its decorations are the allegorical frescoes with details in tempera by or after Francesco del Cossa and Cosmè Tura, executed ca 1469–70, a unique survival of their time.


Analysis.

Content, meaning and ideology.

"The Scholars" is a satirical novel that describes the life activities of various Chinese Confucian scholars, mostly under the early Jiajing period of the Ming dynasty. Many of them are portrayed as hypocritical individuals, however. Some of them are overly obsessed by the fame and glory of civil service to the point of losing all sanity and became mentally unstable. Some of them are theoretically dogmatic, rigidly follow the old ways and denied all flexibility and innovation. Some of them are hypocrites, spending days talking about morality and ethics but actually live a despicable and useless life. Some of them are corrupted by fame and glory, they are eager to sacrifice friends, relatives and family for more fame and more glory. Via these scholars, Wu Jingzi indirectly criticized the civil service examination and education system under the Qing dynasty. The author could not directly attack the ruling Qing dynasty which could lead to capital punishment, therefore he chose to portray his story in the previous Ming period, which was depicted as increasingly dogmatic and meaningless. The novel further criticized the backward feudal "moral codes" which confined people in an ideological prison.  Wu Jingzi did create several "good" characters as model for an ideal Confucian scholar; they cannot be corrupted by fame or money and they despise the contemporary civil service under Chinese feudal government. One of them, the scholar Du, bears strong similarity to the author: descended from a well-to-do family, spent all of the family assets and later became poverty-stricken, hated the civil officials, expressed progressive ideas and was strongly critical of the popular Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucianism dogma. Via the character Du, Wu Jingzi portrayed women sympathetically as Du treated his wife kindly and equally in the time when women were considered inferior to men.

Structure.

Chinese commentators have traditionally seen "The Scholars" as having a loose structure. The famous author Lu Xun wrote that "the novel has no central linking element" and is more like "a group of short stories". Hu Shih echoed this view, writing that the novel "lacks a general structural basis". The same opinion has been put forth by Western scholars. James R. Hightower described the work as "amorphous and plotless".  However, more recent scholarship by Zbigniew Slupski detects organization in "The Scholars" on three levels. The first is the anecdotal level, in which the work can be divided into various "units" centered around a comical fact or occurrence. The second level is that of biography, in which the author constructs a multifaceted view of main characters in the work. An example is the portrayal of Zhou Jin, the elderly examination candidate. The final level is that of autobiography, the author's attitude toward the events of the story. This is revealed in chapter titles, poems, and occasional narrative interludes.

Chapter 37.

Chapter 37 of the novel depicts in great detail a Confucian ceremony honoring a Confucian sage of antiquity, Wu Taibo. Both modern and Qing dynasty commentators have noted that this chapter constitutes the "high point" and "structural apex" of the novel. Shang Wei believes that the chapter points to Wu Jingzi's simultaneous desire to follow Confucian ritual and his need to critique it.

Editions.

The earliest extant edition of "The Scholars" is the 1803 Wo Xian Caotang edition, commonly referred to as the "Wo" edition. This was followed in 1816 by the Qingjiang Pu Zhu Li Ge ("Qing") and Yi Gu Tang ("Yi") editions, which are both essentially copies of the Wo edition. The Suzhou Fan Shi Chao ("Chao") edition was the personal reading edition of a Qing Dynasty official. While this edition was quite rare, the following Suzhou Qun Yu Ji ("Su") edition was quite popular, and there are many extant versions of it in circulation. The first Shen Bao Guan ("Shen One") edition corrected the mistakes of previous editions, and the second Shen Bao Guan edition ("Shen Two") carried these corrections further.  In addition to further corrections, the Ji edition greatly shortened the text, by for example deleting characters' titles. The Zeng Bu Ji Sheng Tang ("Zeng Bu Ji") edition added four additional chapters of text to the novel. The Commercial Press edition of the novel was arranged according to the Shen Two edition, and made further corrections to the text. The Yadong edition was first published in 1920, and reissued a number of times in subsequent years. The 16th edition was released in 1948. This version of the text has greatly influenced modern printings of the novel.

External links.

Rulin waishi, or Unofficial History of the Scholars () or The Scholars, is a Chinese novel authored by Wu Jingzi and completed in 1750 during the Qing dynasty. It is considered one of the six classics of Chinese novels.


Habitat.

Black bullheads are found throughout the central United States, often in stagnant or slow-moving waters with soft bottoms. They have been known to congregate in confined spaces, such as lake outlets or under dams. They are very tolerant fish, and are able to live in muddy water, with warmer temperatures and in water with lower levels of oxygen, which reduce competition from other fish. Black bullheads also occur as an invasive species in large parts of Europe.

Diet.

They are omnivorous, so eat almost anything, from grains and other plant matter to insects, dead or living fish, and crustaceans. They have short, pointed, conical teeth, formed in multiple rows called cardiform teeth. Black bullheads have no scales; instead, they have about 100,000 taste receptors placed all over their bodies. Many of these are located on the barbels near their mouths. The receptors help the fish to identify food in their dark habitats. During the winter, black bullheads decrease food intake, and may stop eating altogether. Instead, they bury themselves around the shore line of the lake in debris, with only their gills exposed. This "hibernation" allows them to survive conditions of low oxygen and low temperature.

Reproduction.

Black bullheads start to spawn in April and continue through June. The females scoop out a small hole or depression in the lake floor and lay 2000 to 6000 eggs. The males fertilize the eggs, then care for them. When the eggs hatch a week later, both parents watch over the fry for a short while.

Angling.

Considered rough fish, black bullheads are not as popular for sport fishing as their larger relatives, channel catfish, blue catfish, and flat head catfish. However, they have pale flesh and make excellent table fare when water quality is good despite their small size. As with channel catfish, the flesh around the bellies and gills of larger individuals can be strong tasting due to yellow fat, but these flavors can be avoided by removing the fatty portions of a large specimen when cleaning. They are the largest of the bullheads and are one of several catfish informally referred to as mud catfish.  They have been introduced in many areas of the US because of their ability to survive (and even thrive) in less than ideal conditions, but they are seldom used in active stocking programs due to their relatively low desirability. Fisheries experts tend to not recommend them because they compete with bluegill and channel catfish for food and do not grow as fast or get as big as channel catfish. For that reason, finding them commercially for pond stocking is difficult. That said, in clean water, meat quality is very good, and unlike channel catfish, black bullheads reproduce and indefinitely maintain healthy populations without restocking in ponds populated with bass and crappie. In fact, as with bluegill, a pond with black bullhead in it needs a predator species such as bass to keep the bullhead population under control. Due to their ability to reproduce in a pond with bass, bullheads are the best catfish for mixed-species ponds that are not fished out and restocked regularly.  Black bullheads can be caught using similar techniques as for channel or blue catfish, although their small size may require smaller bait and hooks. They respond well to earthworms and tend to feed higher up in the water column than channel catfish. Like most catfish, they are most active at night, and tend to be less active during the day, bedding under piers or in shady shore areas.  In some areas of little to no fishing pressure, black bullheads have been found to be more aggressive and have been caught while casting and retrieving metal spoon lures.

Defense.

At the base of their pectoral and dorsal fins are spines, which they can use as spurs to cut predators.

The black bullhead or black bullhead catfish ("Ameiurus melas") is a species of bullhead catfish. Like other bullhead catfish, it has the ability to thrive in waters that are low in oxygen, brackish, turbid and/or very warm. It also has barbels located near its mouth, a broad head, spiny fins, and no scales. It can be identified from other bullheads as the barbels are black, and it has a tan crescent around the tail. Its caudal fin is truncated (squared off at the corners). Like virtually all catfish, it is nocturnal, preferring to feed at night, although young feed during the day. It generally does not get as large as the channel or blue catfish, with average adult weights are in the 1- to 2-lb range, and almost never as large as 4 lb. It has a typical length of 8-14 in, with the largest specimen being 24 in, making it the largest of the bullheads. It is typically black or dark brown on the dorsal side of its body and yellow or white on the ventral side.


Montenegro and Serbia.

The Lim rises below Maglić peak in the Kuči area of eastern Montenegro, very close to the Albanian border, under the name of "Vrmoša". Its source is only few kilometers away from the source of the Tara river, but the two rivers go in opposite directions: the Tara to the north-west and the Vrmoša to the east, and after only few kilometers it crosses over to Albania (). Passing through Prokletije mountains and the village of Vermosh, it re-enters Montenegro under the name of "Grnčar". Receiving the Vruje stream from Ali Pasha's Wellsprings from the right at Gusinje, it continues as "Ljuča" for a few more kilometers where it empties into the Lake Plav, creating small delta. It flows out of the lake to the north, next to the high mountain Visitor, under the name Lim for the remaining.  It passes through Murino, continuing generally to the north through areas of Vasojevići, Gornji Kolašin, Donji Kolašin and Komarani, the Tivran gorge and the cities of Andrijevica, Berane, Bijelo Polje, Resnik and Nedakusi, entering Serbia between villages of Dobrakovo and Gostun. It receives the right tributaries of Lješnica (between the villages of Poda and Skakavac) and Bistrica (near the border) and left tributary of Ljuboviđa, near Bijelo Polje.

Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In the border area, the Lim carved a long gorge "Kumanička klisura", between the mountains of Lisa (in Montenegro) and Ozren (in Serbia). Lim continues between the mountains of Jadovnik, Pobijenik and Zlatar, and runs through the northern part of the Sandžak area (or Raška oblast). Upstream of Priboj, the river is dammed by the hydro power plant "Potpeć", creating Potpeć Reservoir. The villages of Garčanica and Lučice and the towns of Brodarevo, Prijepolje, Pribojska Banja and Priboj. After Priboj it turns north-west and enters Bosnia and Herzegovina, but only for a few kilometers when it flows back to Serbia and then again to Bosnia at Rudo. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Lim flows between the mountains of Bić, Javorje and Vučevica from the south, and the Varda mountain from the north, before it empties into the Drina near the village of Međeđa. The lowest section of the river is flooded by the Višegrad Reservoir, created by the Višegrad hydroelectrical power plant on the Drina.

Characteristics.

Lim belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin through Drina, Sava and Danube. Its drainage basin covers and the river is not navigable.  It receives many smaller streams in Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina, however, the two most important are its major right tributaries in Serbia, the Uvac and the Mileševa river.  Two hypotheses exist about the origin of its name:

Polimlje.

The fertile valley of the river is called Polimlje (Полимље), meaning "Lim valley". It represents area around composite river valley, made of several gorges and depressions. The valley is divided in three large parts, Montenegrin, Stari Vlah and Bosnian.  It is important agricultural region, especially for cultivating fruits and stockbreeding. It is also important route for the both road and railways from Serbia to Montenegro and Adriatic coast, most notably, Belgrade-Bar railway. Industry is not much developed (smaller industrial centers are Berane, Bijelo Polje and Prijepolje), except for heavily industrialized Priboj. Most use of the river has Serbian electricity production, with power station Potpeć being constructed and several more stations on the Lim's major tributary, the Uvac.  Despite the potentials, the entire area the Lim flows through is undeveloped and for decades highly depopulating.

Border dispute.

After breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991-1992, on the part of Lim's course entering and re-entering Serbia and Bosnia, several villages of Serbia remained physically cut off from the rest of the republic's territory. The governments in Belgrade and Sarajevo proposed an exchange of territories but no agreement was reached.

Lim River tragedy.

On 4 April 2004, around 10 PM, a bus carrying Bulgarian tourists (34 students and 16 adults) back to their native Svishtov from a trip to Dubrovnik in Croatia fell and sank in the river near the Serbian village of Gostun close to the border with Montenegro as the driver lost control over it during a turn on a mountain road. Twelve children died, the other 38 people being saved with the aid of the locals.

The Lim (Bosnian, Montenegrin and Serbian: Лим / "Lim", ) is a river flowing through Montenegro, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. long, it is the right and the longest tributary of the Drina.


Life and career.

He was born in Neosho, Missouri to James Scott, Sr. and Molly Thomas Scott, both former slaves. In 1901 his family moved to Carthage, Missouri, where he attended Lincoln High School. In 1902 he began working at the music store of Charles L. Dumars, first washing windows, then demonstrating music at the piano as a song plugger, including his own pieces. Demand for his music convinced Dumars to print the first of Scott's published compositions, "A Summer Breeze - March and Two Step", in 1903. By 1904, two more compositions by Scott, "Fascinator March" and "On the Pike March" were published and sold well, but not enough to keep Dumars in business and soon the company ceased publishing.  Ragtime Historians Rudi Blesh and Harriet Janis recount that Scott went to St. Louis, Missouri in search of his idol Scott Joplin in 1905. He located Joplin and asked if he would listen to one of his ragtime compositions. Upon hearing the rag, Joplin introduced him to his own publisher, John Stillwell Stark, and recommended he publish the work. Stark published the rag a year later as "Frog Legs Rag". It quickly became a hit and was second in sales in the Stark catalogue only to that of Joplin's own "Maple Leaf Rag". Scott became a regular contributor to the Stark catalogue until 1922.  In 1914 Scott moved to Kansas City, Missouri, where he married Nora Johnson, taught music, and accompanied silent movies as an organist and arranger at the Panama Theater. Those that knew him recall that theater work was a large part of his activity. His cousin Patsy Thomas remembers, "Everybody called him 'Little Professor' He always walked rapidly, looking at the ground - would pass you on the street and never see you - seemed always deep in thought."  In the last years of his life, Scott busied himself with teaching, composing and leading an eight-piece band that played for various beer parks and movie theaters in the area. With the arrival of sound movies, however, his fortunes declined. He lost his theater work, his wife died without child, and his health deteriorated. He moved in with his cousin Ruth Callahan in Kansas City, Kansas, and even though was suffering from chronic dropsy, he continued to compose and play piano. Scott died at Douglas Hospital on August 30, 1938 at age 52 and was laid beside his wife in Westlawn Cemetery.  Scott's best-known compositions include "Climax Rag", "Frog Legs Rag", "Grace and Beauty", "Ophelia Rag" and "The Ragtime Oriole".  Scott was a cousin of blues singer Ada Brown.

Aftermath.

In the Third Season of the HBO series Boardwalk Empire, Scott is portrayed by an uncredited actor in the episode "Spaghetti and Coffee".

Published works.

"See list of compositions by James Scott"

James Sylvester Scott (February 12, 1885 – August 30, 1938) was an American ragtime composer and pianist, regarded as one of the three most important composers of classic ragtime, along with Scott Joplin and Joseph Lamb.


Biography.

Jánošík was born shortly before his baptism on January 25, 1688. His parents were Martin Jánošík and Anna Čišníková from Terchová. His godparents were Jakub Merjad and Barbara Krištofíková.  He grew up in the village of Terchová in the Habsburg monarchy's Kingdom of Hungary area (present-day Žilina District in northwestern Slovakia). He fought with the Kuruc insurgents when he was fifteen. After the lost Battle of Trenčín, Jánošík was recruited by the Habsburg army. In autumn 1710, as a young prison guard in Bytča, he helped the imprisoned Tomáš Uhorčík escape. They formed a highwayman group and Jánošík became its leader at the age of 23, after Uhorčík left to settle in Klenovec. The group was active mostly in northwestern Kingdom of Hungary (today's Slovakia), around the Váh river between Važec and Východná, but the territory of their activity extended also to other parts of today's Slovakia, as well as to Poland and Moravia. Most of their victims were rich merchants. Under Jánošík's leadership, the group was exceptionally chivalrous: They did not kill any of the robbed victims and even helped an accidentally injured priest. They are also said to share their loot with the poor and this part of the legend may be based on the facts too.  Jánošík was captured in autumn 1712 and detained at the Mansion of Hrachov, but was released soon afterwards. He was captured again in spring of 1713, in the Uhorčík's residence in Klenovec (Klenóc). Uhorčík lived there under the false name Martin Mravec at that time. According to a widespread legend, he was caught in a pub run by Tomáš Uhorčík, after slipping on spilled peas, thrown in his way by a treacherous old lady. Jánošík was imprisoned and tried in Liptovský Svätý Mikuláš, present Liptovský Mikuláš).  His trial took place on March 16 and March 17, 1713 when he was sentenced to death. The date of his execution was not recorded, but it was customary to carry it out as soon as the trial was over. The manner of his execution, not in public awareness until the early 19th century, became part of his modern legend. A hook was pierced through his left side and he was left dangling on the gallows to die. This brutal way of execution was reserved for leaders of robber bands. However, sources diverge about how he was executed, and it is also possible that Jánošík was hanged. A legend says that he refused the grace offered in exchange for enlisting soldiers of his abilities with the words: "If you have baked me so you should also eat me!" and jumped on the hook.

Juraj Jánošík (first name also "Juro" or " Jurko", ; baptised January 25, 1688, died March 17, 1713) was a Slovak highwayman. Jánošík has been the main character of many Slovak novels, poems and films. According to the legend, he robbed nobles and gave the loot to the poor, a deed often attributed to the famous Robin Hood. The legend is known in neighboring Poland (under the name Jerzy Janoszik or Janiczek / Janicek) and the Czech Republic. The actual robber had little to do with the modern legend, whose content partly reflects the ubiquitous folk myths of a hero taking from the rich and giving to the poor. However, the legend was also shaped in important ways by the activists and writers in the 19th century when Jánošík became the key highwayman character in stories that spread in the north counties of the Kingdom of Hungary (much in present Slovakia) and among the local Gorals tourists in the Podhale region north of the Tatras. The image of Jánošík as a symbol of resistance to oppression was reinforced when poems about him became part of the Slovak and Czech middle and high school literature curriculum, and then again with the numerous films that propagated his modern legend in the 20th century. During the anti-Nazi Slovak National Uprising, one of the partisan groups bore his name.