Biography.

Tom Fogerty was born in Berkeley, California, United States. He began singing rock and roll in high school. He and his younger brother, John, had separate groups. Tom's band, Spider Webb and the Insects (which featured Jeremy Levine of the Seeds), signed a recording contract with Del-Fi Records but broke up in 1959 before releasing any records. The Blue Velvets—a group led by John—began backing Tom. Eventually Tom joined the band, and the group recorded three singles (with Tom on lead vocals) for Orchestra Records in 1961 and 1962. By the mid 1960s, the group had been renamed The Golliwogs and were recording with Fantasy Records, with Tom and John sharing lead vocal duties. In 1968, the band was again renamed—this time to Creedence Clearwater Revival—and John had become full-time lead singer and primary songwriter. During the few years of the life of CCR, Tom sang backing vocals and wrote songs, but only one of his songs from when CCR was named the Golliwogs ("Walking on the Water") was re-recorded and chosen to be put on CCR's debut album. This lack of vocal and songwriting opportunity, along with festering, long-standing animosity with his brother, led him to leave the band in early 1971, after finishing the recording of "Pendulum".  After leaving the band, Fogerty began performing and recording as a solo artist. He had minor hits like "Goodbye Media Man", "Cast The First Stone", "Joyful Resurrection", and "B.A.R.T". He remained with Fantasy Records and his 1971 solo debut album, "Tom Fogerty", reached No. 78 on the Billboard 200 chart. On the follow-up, "Excalibur", Jerry Garcia and Merl Saunders played on the sessions. Stu Cook and Doug Clifford (CCR's former bass guitarist and drummer) as well as John Fogerty performed on the 1974 follow-up album, "Zephyr National". The song "Joyful Resurrection" features a complete reunion of CCR though John Fogerty recorded his parts separately. Cook and Clifford also backed Tom on his second LP release of 1974 titled "Myopia".  Throughout the rest of the 1970s and 1980s, Tom Fogerty continued to record. He claimed all royalties from the CCR period and sued Fantasy Records. Later, Tom re-signed with Fantasy. At the October 1980 reception for Tom's marriage to Tricia Clapper, all four members of CCR reunited and performed for the first time in a decade. They took the stage once more for a final time at a school reunion three years later. Tom Fogerty lived in Scottsdale, Arizona, for the remainder of his life.

Death.

At some point in the 1980s, Fogerty underwent back surgery, and was given a blood transfusion which was not screened for HIV. This caused him to become infected with the disease and subsequently resulted in his contraction of AIDS alongside his ensuing complications with tuberculosis, all of which eventually led to his death on September 6, 1990. After his death, a music compilation titled "The Very Best of Tom Fogerty" was released.

Thomas Richard Fogerty (November 9, 1941 – September 6, 1990) was an American musician, best known as the rhythm guitarist for Creedence Clearwater Revival. He was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1993.


Biography.

Semyonov was born in the Transbaikal region of eastern Siberia. His father, Mikhail Petrovich Semyonov, was of partial Buryat descent. Semyonov was a fluent Mongolian and Buryat language speaker. He joined the Imperial Russian Army in 1908, and graduated from Orenburg Military School in 1911. He was commissioned as a "yesaul" (Cossack ensign) and distinguished himself in battle against the Germans and Austro-Hungarians in World War I, earning the Saint George's Cross for courage.  According to Pyotr Wrangel:<br>  Semenov was a Transbaikalian Cossack – dark and thickset, and of the rather alert Mongolian type. His intelligence was of a specifically Cossack calibre, and he was an exemplary soldier, especially courageous when under the eye of his superior. He knew how to make himself popular with Cossacks and officers alike, but he had his weaknesses in a love of intrigue and indifference to the means by which he achieved his ends. Though capable and ingenious, he had received no education, and his outlook was narrow. I have never been able to understand how he came to play a leading role. He was somewhat of an outsider among his fellow officers because of his ethnicity. While serving in the Caucasus in World War I he met another officer shunned by his peers, Baron Ungern-Sternberg, whose eccentric nature and disregard of the rules of etiquette and decorum repelled others. He and Sternberg tried to organize a regiment of Assyrian Christians to aid in the fight against the Turks. In July 1917 Semyonov left the Caucasus and was appointed Commissar of the Provisional Government in the Baikal region, responsible for recruiting a regiment of Buryat volunteers.

The Russian Civil War in Transbaikal.

After the October Revolution Semyonov stirred up an anti-Soviet rebellion, but was defeated and fled to the northeastern Chinese city of Harbin. In August 1918 he managed to consolidate his positions in the Transbaikal region with the help of the Czechoslovak Legions and imposed his ruthless regime. In his rule over this region, he has been described as a "plain bandit <nowiki>[who]</nowiki> drew his income from holding up trains and forcing payments, no matter what the nature of the load nor for whose benefit it was being shipped." As a part Buryat Mongol, Ataman Semyonov declared a "Great Mongol State" in 1918 and had designs to unify the Oirat Mongol lands, portions of Xinjiang, Transbaikal, Inner Mongolia, Outer Mongolia, Tannu Uriankhai, Kobdo, Hulunbei'er and Tibet into one Mongolian state. The White Siberian Provisional Government appointed Semyonov commander of a detached unit with headquarters in Chita. Initially Adm. Aleksandr Kolchak refused to recognize Semyonov's authority, but he had no choice and had to accept Semyonov as de facto leader and confirm him as Commander-in-Chief of the Chita military district. In early 1919 Semyonov declared himself " Ataman " of the Transbaikal Cossack Host with support from the Imperial Japanese Army, elements of which had been deployed to Siberia. The region under his control, also called Eastern Okraina, extended from Verkhne-Udinsk near Lake Baikal to the Shilka River and the town of Stretensk, to Manzhouli, where the Chinese Eastern Railway met the Chita Railway, and northeast some distance along the Amur Railway.  Semyonov handed out copies of the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" to the Japanese troops he became associated with.  After the fall of Kolchak's Siberian government, the admiral transferred power to Semyonov in the Far East. However, Semyonov was unable to keep his forces in Siberia under control: they stole, burned, murdered and raped, and developed a reputation for being little better than thugs. In July 1920 the Japanese Expeditionary Corps started a limited withdrawal in accordance with the Gongota Agreement signed with the Far Eastern Republic, undermining support for Semyonov. Transbaikal partisans, internationalists and the 5th Soviet Army under Genrich Eiche launched an operation to retake Chita. In October 1920 units of the Red Army and guerrillas forced Semyonov's army out of the Baikal region. After having retreated to Primorye, Semyonov tried to continue fighting the Soviets, but was finally forced to abandon all Russian territory by September 1921.

In exile.

After failing to settle in Nagasaki via Harbin, Semyonov stayed in the United States for a period of time, where he was soon accused of committing acts of violence against the American soldiers of the Expeditionary Corps. He was eventually acquitted and returned to China, where he was given a monthly 1000-yen pension by the Japanese government. In Tianjin he had ties with the Japanese intelligence community and mobilized exiled Russian and Cossack communities, planning to eventually overthrow the Soviets. He was also employed by Puyi, the dethroned Emperor of China, whom he wished to restore to power.  Semyonov was captured in Dalian by Soviet paratroopers in September 1945 during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, when the Soviet Army conquered Manchukuo. He was charged with counterrevolutionary activities and sentenced to death by hanging by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR. He was executed on August 29, 1946.

Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov, or Semenov (; September 13 (25), 1890 – August 30, 1946), was a Japanese-supported leader of the White movement in Transbaikal and beyond from December 1917 to November 1920, Lieutenant General and "Ataman" of Baikal Cossacks (1919).


Reasons for the Compact.

The "Mayflower" was originally bound for the Colony of Virginia, financed by the Company of Merchant Adventurers of London. Storms forced them to anchor at the hook of Cape Cod in Massachusetts, however, as it was unwise to continue with provisions running short. This inspired some of the non-Puritan passengers (whom the Puritans referred to as 'Strangers') to proclaim that they "would use their own liberty; for none had power to command them" since they would not be settling in the agreed-upon Virginia territory. To prevent this, the Pilgrims determined to establish their own government, while still affirming their allegiance to the Crown of England. Thus, the Mayflower Compact was based simultaneously upon a majoritarian model and the settlers' allegiance to the king. It was in essence a social contract in which the settlers consented to follow the community's rules and regulations for the sake of order and survival.  The Pilgrims had lived for some years in Leiden, a city in the Dutch Republic. Historian Nathaniel Philbrick states, "Just as a spiritual covenant had marked the beginning of their congregation in Leiden, a civil covenant would provide the basis for a secular government in America."

Text.

The original document has been lost, but three versions exist from the 17th century: printed in "Mourt's Relation" (1622), which was reprinted in "Purchas his Pilgrimes" (1625); hand-written by William Bradford in his journal "Of Plimoth Plantation" (1646); and printed by Bradford's nephew Nathaniel Morton in "New-Englands Memorial" (1669). The three versions differ slightly in wording and significantly in spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. William Bradford wrote the first part of "Mourt's Relation", including its version of the compact, so he wrote two of the three versions. The wording of those two versions is quite similar, unlike that of Morton. Bradford's handwritten manuscript is kept in a vault at the State Library of Massachusetts.  Modern version  The document was signed under the Old Style Julian calendar, since England did not adopt the Gregorian calendar until 1752. The Gregorian date would be November 21.

Signers.

A list of 41 male passengers who signed the document was supplied by Bradford's nephew Nathaniel Morton in his 1669 "New England's Memorial". Thomas Prince first numbered the names in his 1736 "A Chronological History of New-England in the form of Annals". The original document has been lost, so Morton is the sole source for the signers. He probably had access to the original document, but he could not have known the actual order in which it was signed simply by inspecting it. Morton's arrangement of names might not have been the arrangement on the original document, and the names on the original may not have been arranged in any orderly fashion. Prince's numbers are based solely on Morton, as he himself stated.  Morton's list of names was unnumbered and untitled in all six editions (1669–1855), although their order changed with successive editions. In his original 1669 edition, the names were placed on two successive pages forming six short columns, three per page. In subsequent editions, these six short columns were combined into three long columns on a single page in two different ways, producing two different orders in unnumbered lists of signers. The second (1721) and third (1772) editions changed the order of the first edition by combining the first and fourth columns into the first long column, and similarly for the other columns. The fifth (1826) and sixth (1855) editions returned the names to their original first edition order by combining the first and second short columns into the first long column, and similarly for the other columns. Prince numbered the names in their original 1669 Morton order. He added titles (Mr. or Capt.) to 11 names that were given those titles by William Bradford in the list of passengers at the end of his manuscript.  The following list of signers is organized into the six short columns of Morton (1669) with the numbers and titles of Prince. The names are given their modern spelling according to Morison. Use the numbers for the order used by genealogists and half of unnumbered lists (Samuel Fuller will be the eighth name), but merge the half columns vertically into full columns for the order used by the other half of unnumbered lists (John Turner will be the eighth name).

The Mayflower Compact, originally titled Agreement Between the Settlers of New Plymouth, was the first governing document of Plymouth Colony. It was written by the male passengers of the "Mayflower," consisting of separatist Puritans, adventurers, and tradesmen. The Puritans were fleeing from religious persecution by King James I of England.


Structure.

Bacteriorhodopsin is an integral membrane protein usually found in two-dimensional crystalline patches known as "purple membrane", which can occupy up to nearly 50% of the surface area of the archaeal cell. The repeating element of the hexagonal lattice is composed of three identical protein chains, each rotated by 120 degrees relative to the others. Each chain has seven transmembrane alpha helices and contains one molecule of retinal buried deep within, the typical structure for retinylidene proteins.

Function.

Bacteriorhodopsin is a light-driven proton pump. It is the retinal molecule that changes its conformation when absorbing a photon, resulting in a conformational change of the surrounding protein and the proton pumping action. It is covalently linked to Lys216 in the chromophore by Schiff base action. After photoisomerization of the retinal molecule, Asp85 becomes a proton acceptor of the donor proton from the retinal molecule. This releases a proton from a "holding site" into the extracellular side (EC) of the membrane. Reprotonation of the retinal molecule by Asp96 restores its original isomerized form. This results in a second proton being released to the EC side. Asp85 releases its proton into the "holding site," where a new cycle may begin.  The bacteriorhodopsin molecule is purple and is most efficient at absorbing green light (wavelength 500-650 nm, with the absorption maximum at 568 nm). Bacteriorhodopsin has a broad excitation spectrum. For a detection wavelength between 700 and 800 nm, it has an appreciable detected emission for excitation wavelengths between 470 nm and 650 nm (with a peak at 570 nm). When pumped at 633 nm, the emission spectrum has appreciable intensity between 650 nm and 850 nm.  Bacteriorhodopsin belongs to the microbial rhodopsins. They have similarities to vertebrate rhodopsins, the pigments that sense light in the retina. Rhodopsins also contain retinal; however, the functions of rhodopsin and bacteriorhodopsin are different, and there is limited similarity in their amino acid sequences. Both rhodopsin and bacteriorhodopsin belong to the 7TM receptor family of proteins, but rhodopsin is a G protein-coupled receptor and bacteriorhodopsin is not. In the first use of electron crystallography to obtain an atomic-level protein structure, the structure of bacteriorhodopsin was resolved in 1990. It was then used as a template to build models of G protein-coupled receptors before crystallographic structures were also available for these proteins. It has been excessively studied on both mica and glass substrates using Atomic force microscopy and Femtosecond crystallography.  Many proteins have homology to bacteriorhodopsin, including the light-driven chloride pump halorhodopsin (for which the crystal structure is also known), and some directly light-activated channels like channelrhodopsin.  All other phototrophic systems in bacteria, algae, and plants use chlorophylls or bacteriochlorophylls rather than bacteriorhodopsin. These also produce a proton gradient, but in a quite different and more indirect way involving an electron transfer chain consisting of several other proteins. Furthermore, chlorophylls are aided in capturing light energy by other pigments known as "antennas"; these are not present in bacteriorhodopsin-based systems. It is possible that phototrophy independently evolved at least twice, once in bacteria and once in archaea.

Bacteriorhodopsin is a protein used by Archaea, most notably by halobacteria, a class of the Euryarchaeota. It acts as a proton pump; that is, it captures light energy and uses it to move protons across the membrane out of the cell. The resulting proton gradient is subsequently converted into chemical energy.


History.

In 1880, Dutch brothers Hendrik Jan and Jacobus Spijker, blacksmiths by profession, start their company for building and maintaining carriages in Hilversum, The Netherlands.  In 1898, Spyker manufactured the "Golden Coach", still in use as one of the two prime ceremonial state coaches of the Dutch monarchy.  In 1899 they started building automobiles, and in 1900 put their first models on display, two-cylinder 3 hp and 5 hp similar to the Benz.  Four-cylinder models were introduced in 1903, along with the six-cylinder "Spyker 60 HP", a racer which was the world's first ever four-wheel drive car with a single engine and four-wheel brakes. It was the first ever car built with front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout, and its engine with six cylinders was also a world's first.  The 1905 cars featured a round radiator grille, which became a feature of many of the pre war cars. In 1907, an 18 hp model competed in the 15,000 km Peking to Paris monster race, finishing second in the most gruelling race of its time.  Hendrik-Jan Spijker died in 1907 on his return journey from England when the ferry he was on, the SS Berlin, sank, and this loss led to the bankruptcy of the original company. A group of investors bought the company and restarted production, but Jacobus Spijker was no longer involved.  In 1913, the company was having financial problems again, and in 1915 was taken over by new owners and renamed "Nederlandsche Automobiel en Vliegtuigfabriek Trompenburg" (Dutch Car and Aircraft company). Under the new owners, the previous complex model range was simplified and a new car, the 13/30 C1, introduced; sales were disappointing.  In 1914, Spyker merged with Dutch Aircraft Factory N.V. and the company motto became "Nulla Tenaci invia est via" latin for "For the tenacious no road is impassable". During World War I, in which the Netherlands were neutral, some 100 Spyker fighter aircraft and 200 aircraft engines were produced.  In 1919, after World War I, a two-seater car, the C1 "Aerocoque", featuring aerodynamically streamlined bodywork influenced by aircraft design, was shown for the first time. It was intended as a show car, but was also produced on a very limited scale. The car's bodywork, featuring swooping fenders and an aircraft-like tail, infused by the company's knowledge of aircraft aerodynamics, was mainly designed by Jaap Tjaarda van Sterkenburg, brother of John Tjaarda and uncle of Tom Tjaarda, both also car designers.  On November 27, 1920 the first Spyker 30/40HP C4 was completed, sporting a 6-cylinder Maybach engine of. The car waws nicknamed "Tenax" (latin for "tenacious") and improved the long-distance endurance record, held since 1907 by the Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost by some 6,000 km. The C4 completed 30,360 km in the Dutch winter weather in just over a month.  In 1922, racing driver Selwyn Edge took to Brooklands in a Spyker C4 fitted with streamlined racing bodywork, setting a new "Double 12" average world speed record, covering 1,782 miles (2,868 km) at an average speed of for the 24 hour aggregate of two 12-hour periods.  Also in 1922, the company went bankrupt again and was acquired by Spyker's distributor in Britain, who renamed the company "Spyker Automobielfabriek". Production continued and prices dropped but the company continued to decline. Final production was of the C2 two-ton truck and the C4 car, which lasted until 1926 when funds finally ran out.  It is estimated total Spyker car production was at most 2000 cars.  In 1999, a new company, Spyker Cars, was founded, unrelated to the original company but for the brand name, motto and logo.

License production and auto rental.

Before Hendrik-Jan Spijker's death, he and his brother had developed a special relationship with Dutch electrical pioneer,. The Spijker brothers had known Hofstede Crull already when he was a young man racing on the velocipede circuits in the Netherlands and in Germany while he was an engineering student first in Mittweida and later in Hannover at the Technische Hochschule in the 1880s. Hofstede Crull had already owned his first automobile in the 1890s. In the first decade, he had accumulated a collection of automobiles which included a number of the Spijker racing models. He housed the collection in one of the wings of the, one of the companies he had founded. Although this was all a hobby for him initially, he began assembling Spijkers at Heemaf with the approval of the Spijker brothers and subsequently with that of those who had taken over Spijker. He provided them with improvements on the automobiles. Heemaf's board of directors complained that Hofstede Crull was using a part of the factory as his personal garage and auto park. To circumvent the criticism, he established the "Spijker Automobiel Verhuur Maatschappij" which along with Amsterdam's "Trompenburg Bedrijf" became the first auto rental companies in the Netherlands. One of his other companies was the "American Refined Motor Company", which helped improve mechanical motor parts. This all stemmed from an automobile accident that he, Hofstede Crull, and his chauffeur, a man named Poorthuis, had in 1909 when he subsequently discovered a defect in the Spijker's steering mechanism which he improved.

Spyker on stamps and in film.

Both Spyker brand automobiles appear on Dutch postage stamps (first day of issue: May 10, 2004).  The car driven by Kenneth More in the 1953 film "Genevieve", about the London to Brighton Veteran Car Run, is a 1905 Spyker 12/16-HP.

Spyker or Spijker was a Dutch carriage, automobile and aircraft manufacturer, started in 1880 by blacksmiths Jacobus and Hendrik-Jan Spijker. Originally located in Hilversum, the company relocated to Trompenburg, Amsterdam in 1898.


Early life and education.

Born in Reims, France, Halbwachs attended the École Normale Supérieure in Paris. There he studied philosophy with Henri Bergson, who had a big influence on his thought. Halbwachs' early work on memory was all in some measure pursued to coincide with Bergson's view on the subject of memory being a particularly personal and subjective experience. He aggregated in Philosophy in 1901. He taught at various "lycées" before traveling to Germany in 1904, where he studied at the University of Göttingen and worked on cataloging Leibniz's papers. He was nominated to co-edit an edition of Leibniz's work which never came to fruition.  He returned to France in 1905 and met Émile Durkheim, who sparked his interest in sociology. Initially, when first meeting Durkheim, Halbwachs was looking for advice on how to move from his previous focus on Philosophy to Sociology. Halbwachs also began to focus on scientific objectivism rather than his Bergsonian Individualism. He soon joined the editorial board of "L'Année Sociologique", where he worked with François Simiand editing the Economics and Statistics sections. In 1909 he returned to Germany to study Marxism and economics in Berlin.  He also had a son, Pierre Halbwachs, who influenced Deleuze in the 1940s.  From Deleuze ABCedaire : "Deleuze says that it was there in Deauville, without his parents and his younger brother, where he was completely nil in his studies, until something happened, such that Deleuze ceased being an idiot. Until Deauville, and the year in the lycee there that he spent during the "funny war," he had been null in class, but at Deauville, he met a young teacher, Pierre Halbwachs (son of a famous sociologist), with fragile health, only one eye, so deferred from military duty. For Deleuze, this encounter was an awakening, and he became something of a disciple to this young "maître". Halbwachs would take him out to the beach in winter, on the dunes, and introduced him, for example, to Gide's _Les Nourritures terrestres_, to Anatole France, Baudelaire, other works by Gide, and Deleuze was completely transformed. But since they spent so much time together, people began to talk, and the lady in whose pension Deleuze and his brother were staying warned Deleuze about Halbwachs, then wrote to his parents about it. The brothers were to return to Paris, but then the Germans invaded, and so they took off on their bicycles to meet their parents in Rochefort... and en route, they ran into Halbwachs with his father! Later in life, Deleuze met Halbwachs, without the same admiration, but at age 14, Deleuze feels he was completely right."

Teaching.

Throughout World War I, Halbwachs worked at the War Ministry. Beginning in 1919, shortly after the end of the war, he became professor of sociology and pedagogy at the University of Strasbourg. He remained in this position for over a decade, taking leave for a year as a visiting professor at the University of Chicago, when he was called to the Sorbonne in 1935. There he taught sociology and worked closely with Marcel Mauss and served as the editor of "Annales de Sociologie", the successor journal to "L'Année Sociologique". In 1944 he received one of France's highest honors, a chair at the Collège de France in Social Psychology. During this time, Halbwachs dedicated his time to in-depth research in the field where sociology and psychology overlap.

Death.

A longtime socialist, Halbwachs was detained by the Gestapo in Paris in July, 1944 after protesting the arrest of his Jewish father-in-law. He was deported to the concentration camp, Buchenwald, where he died of dysentery in February 1945.  In 1940, Halbwachs' brother in-law, Georges Basch committed suicide. His parents in-law Victor and Mme Basch aged 84 years old at the time were murdered by Germans.  Part of his books were offered by his widow to the library of the "Centre d'études sociologiques" and are now held at the Human and Social Sciences Library Paris Descartes-CNRS.  Towards the end of his life, Halbwachs was recognized for his contributions to sociology. He was elected into the Conservative Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. He was also recognized as the Vice President of the French Psychological Society, while also being called to chair at Sorbonne.

Main ideas.

Halbwachs' most important contribution to the field of sociology came in his book "La Mémoire collective", 1950 ("The Collective Memory"), in which he advanced the thesis that a society can have a collective memory and that this memory is dependent upon the "cadre" or framework within which a group is situated in a society. Thus, there is not only an individual memory, but also a group memory that exists outside of and lives beyond the individual. Consequently, an individual's understanding of the past is strongly linked to this group consciousness. This idea of memory Halbwachs pursued to prove through peoples expression of commemoration in our culture. Commemoration offers collective memory tie to society and its conceptions where physical monuments and rituals fix and affirm collectivity.  Halbwachs Collective Memory includes two laws governing how this form of memory will evolve. The two laws are called a Law of Fragmentation, and a Law of Concentration.  Halbwachs also wrote an important book on suicide, "Les Causes du suicide", 1930 ("The Causes of Suicide"). In this book he followed the footsteps of his mentor Émile Durkheim, expanding and elaborating upon the former's theories on suicide. Specifically, he focused on ideas such as, the ways in which rural and urban styles of life explain variations in suicide rates. Halbwachs also continued to further Durkheim's conceptualization of how specific family styles and religious backgrounds alter rates of suicide.  Halbwachs included in his "Les Cadres Sociaux de la Memoire (1952)" the significance of the collective memory operating on the systems of family, religion and social communities.

Maurice Halbwachs (; 11 March 1877 – 16 March 1945) was a French philosopher and sociologist known for developing the concept of collective memory. Halbwachs also contributed to the sociology of knowledge with his "La Topographie Legendaire des Evangiles en Terre Sainte;" study of the spatial infrastructure of the New Testament. (1951)


Plot.

Jérôme Martinaud, a wealthy, influential attorney in a small French town, falls under suspicion for the rape and murder of two little girls. He is the only suspect, but the evidence against him is circumstantial. As the city celebrates New Year's Eve, the police, led by Inspector Antoine Gallien, who is investigating the double rape/murder case, brings the lawyer in for questioning. At first politely, and then less so, the interrogation team consisting of Inspectors Gallien and Marcel Belmont chips away at the suspect's alibi. They interrogate him for hour after hour while Martinaud continues to maintain his innocence. We learn all about the evidence; we meet Martinaud's wife Chantal who tells Gallien about the rift between them and the origin of it, which may be an eight-year-old girl (Camille) Martinaud was in love with. In the face of overwhelming evidence, and feeling let down by his wife, Martinaud confesses to the two rapes and murders. However a fresh corpse is discovered inside the boot of a car that was reported to be stolen, and the car's owner turns out to be guilty of the crime - exonerating Martinaud. Martinaud leaves the police station and finds his wife, who has committed suicide.

Production.

Screenwriter Michel Audiard discovered John Wainwright's novel, published in "Série noire" in 1980, and brought the project to Les Films Ariane. They suggested it to Claude Miller who decided to make Martinaud's character more psychologically complex than he was in the book.  Miller asked Lam Lê to create a complete storyboard for the film before the shooting. Filming started January 27, 1981 and wrapped March 13, 1981. The picture was filmed entirely in a studio and in chronological order.

Reception.

It won the César Award for Best Writing, Best Actor, Best Supporting Actor, and Best Editing. The film had 2,098,038 admissions in France and was the 17th-most-attended film of the year.  The film received mixed reviews from English-speaking critics. "Time Out" said it was "a fine psychological thriller" in which "the potential staginess of the material... is admirably shaken by inspired adaptation, "mise en scène" and editing." In "The New York Times", Janet Maslin called it "a slow, claustrophobic crime melodrama with a lot of talk" but "the actors help keep the film relatively engrossing." Roy Armes wrote that the film "shows Miller's skills at their finest," and added that it is "a pure, hundred-minute spectacle, a story that holds the attention unerringly but which in its unfolding destroys its own painfully built logic."

Awards.

1981: Prix Méliès - Best Film  1981: Montreal World Film Festival - Best Screenplay  1982 César Awards:

Remake.

"Garde à Vue" was remade in 2000 as "Under Suspicion".

Garde à Vue (also known as The Inquisitor) is a 1981 French psychological crime drama directed by Claude Miller and starring Romy Schneider, Michel Serrault, Lino Ventura and Guy Marchand. It is based on the British novel "Brainwash", by John Wainwright.


History.

The territory of what is now Aktau was once inhabited by ancient tribes of Scythians. Archeological finds in the area include old settlements and utensils. The current territory of Mangystau hosted a spur route of the northern silk road, which resulted in the founding of several Sufi shrines in Aktau's vicinity. However, the area had very little population prior to Soviet times and no cities of any relevancy, almost certainly due to the scarcity of fresh water.  In 1958, uranium prospectors settled the site of modern Aktau, naming the settlement Melovoye () after the bay on which it stood. After the development of the uranium deposits was started, the settlement was closed and renamed Guryev-20 (). In 1963, its closed status was lifted, town status was granted, and the name was changed to Aktau. However, in 1964 it was given yet another name, Shevchenko (), to honor the Ukrainian poet Taras Shevchenko who spent 1850–1857 in political exile in Novopetrovskoye, about to the northwest. This Ukrainian name for the city may have been granted due to the large number of Ukrainian workers who settled in the city. Their descendants are easily identifiable to this day by surnames ending in '-enko'. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Kazakhstan gaining independence, the name Aktau was restored in 1991, but the city's airport still retains SCO as its IATA code.

Nuclear power plant.

Aktau was once the site of a nuclear power station. The BN-350 FBR went online in 1973, and was shut down in 1999. The long-term plans of the Government of Kazakhstan include the construction of a new nuclear power station to be built near the site. In addition to producing plutonium, BN-350 was used to provide power and for desalination to supply fresh water to the city. The current station is not considered powerful enough to supply the fresh water and energy needed at this time, and blackouts are a common occurrence.

Transportation.

Aktau has an international airport that was built in 1996. Aktau also has a developed seaport.  Kazakhstan has been increasing the importance of Aktau's port with its changes in international export policy. It has been attempting to halt the transit of grain through the Black Sea and instead use routes over the Caspian or via Turkmenistan. Aktau's port has been expanded (completion achieved summer 2015) to accommodate ever larger quantities and more diverse types of cargo. The intent is for cargo to transit by ship over the Caspian Sea and then by rail through Azerbaijan and Georgia for delivery in Turkey and beyond. This new route was made possible by the opening of a railway connecting Georgia and Turkey in 2014.  There is also a railway station Mangystau, about 12 km away from Aktau's city center. Trip from Aktau to Astana will take around 2 days, to Almaty around 3 days.  Buses and taxis are the principal means of public transport within the city.

Climate and leisure.

Aktau experiences a cold desert climate (Köppen "BWk"), with warm to hot dry summers and cold winters, with a mean January temperature of, and a mean July temperature of. It is notable that most of the city of Aktau lies below sea level in the Caspian Depression and is proximate to the lowest point in Kazakhstan and the former Soviet Union at Karagiye.  The beach season lasts from May to September, with an average sea temperature of. Aktau has both rocky hills and sandy beaches along the seashore. There are several modern resorts on the coast to the south of the city. The beaches of the Caspian shore are popular in the summer, due to the hot climate of the season. Tourists come mainly from other parts of Kazakhstan. The city has a variety of local hotels and western chains of Renaissance and Holiday Inn.

Sights.

The main attraction in the city remains the Caspian Sea with its long side walks and beaches. Other sights include:

Sports.

Aktau is the home of football club FC Caspiy. The club's home ground is Zhastar Stadium which has a capacity of 5,000. In 2019, they finished 2nd place in the Kazakhstan First Division and gained outright promotion to the Kazakhstan Premier League, the top division of football in Kazakhstan.

Time capsule.

In 1967 the people of Aktau erected a Time capsule to send a message to future generations of the Mangyshlak Peninsula, including names of people who helped to build the town in the desert. The letter was put in a metallic cylinder in a triangular marble urn. It was opened in November 2017. The capsule is located in District 2, opposite the 'Kazakhstan Trade Center.'  A ceremony to open the capsule was arranged and people traveled from far and wide to attend. This was subsequently postponed and then cancelled when it became known that capsule was, in fact, missing. Previously the capsule had been buried in another part of the town but building works in that location caused it to be relocated to the District 2 location. Sadly the capsule didn't make the move. An official from the time of the creation of the capsule who had been involved in the drafting of a message to be included within the capsule was able to remember word for word the message that was written which by all accounts contained a theme of hope for the future.

Industry.

Major industry of the city remains hydrocarbon production as one of the biggest producing regions of the country. In addition to its strategic location as the main seaport, Aktau attracted the biggest players of the oil service industry:

Aktau city project.

On September 11, 2007, President Nursultan Nazarbayev started the "Aktau city" project in order to develop tourism and attract investment. A totally new city was to have been built to the north-west of the current city with 4 million square meters of new residential and business buildings. The architecture style would have been derived from UAE's construction experience under the patronage of Sheikh Abdullah ibn Zaid Al Nahayan. In August 2013, the project was called off.

Twin towns and sister cities.

Aktau is twinned with:

Aktau (; ) is a city in Kazakhstan, located on the Eastern shore of the Caspian Sea. Its current name means "white mountain" in Kazakh, which may be due to its cliffs that overlook the Caspian. From 1964 to 1991 city was known as Shevchenko (). Its former name was given due to the eponymous Ukrainian poet's period of exile in the area. It is located on the Mangyshlak Peninsula and is the capital of Mangystau Region.


Habitat.

"Tsuga heterophylla" is an integral component of Pacific Northwest forests west of the Coast Ranges, where it is a climax species. It is also an important timber tree throughout the region, along with many of its large coniferous associates.

Description.

Western hemlock is a large evergreen coniferous tree growing to tall, exceptionally, and with a trunk diameter of up to. It is the largest species of hemlock, with the next largest (mountain hemlock, "T. mertensiana") reaching a maximum of. The bark is brown, thin and furrowed. The crown is a very neat broad conic shape in young trees with a strongly drooping lead shoot, becoming cylindric in older trees; old trees may have no branches in the lowest. At all ages, it is readily distinguished by the pendulous branchlet tips. The shoots are very pale buff-brown, almost white, with pale pubescence about long. The leaves are needle-like, long and broad, strongly flattened in cross-section, with a finely serrated margin and a bluntly acute apex. They are mid to dark green above; the underside has two distinctive white bands of stomata with only a narrow green midrib between the bands. They are arranged spirally on the shoots but are twisted at the base to lie in two ranks on either side of the shoot. The cones are small, pendulous, slender cylindrical, long and broad when closed, opening to broad. They have 15–25 thin, flexible scales long. The immature cones are green, maturing gray-brown 5–7 months after pollination. The seeds are brown, long, with a slender, long pale brown wing.

Ecology.

Western hemlock is closely associated with temperate rain forests, and most of its range is less than from the Pacific Ocean. There is however an inland population in the Columbia Mountains in southeast British Columbia, northern Idaho and western Montana. It mostly grows at low altitudes, from sea level to, but up to in the interior part of its range in Idaho.  It is a very shade-tolerant tree; among associated species in the Pacific Northwest, it is matched or exceeded in shade tolerance only by Pacific yew and Pacific silver fir. Young plants typically grow up under the canopy of other conifers such as Sitka spruce or Douglas-fir, where they can persist for decades waiting to exploit a gap in the canopy. They eventually replace these conifers, which are relatively shade-intolerant, in climax forest. However, storms and wildfires will create larger openings in the forest where these other species can then regenerate.  Initial growth is slow; one-year-old seedlings are commonly only tall, and two-year-old seedlings tall. Once established, saplings in full light may have an average growth rate of (rarely ) annually until they are tall, and in good conditions still annually when tall. The tallest specimen, tall, is in Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California (United States). It is long-lived, with trees over 1200 years old known.  Western hemlock forms ectomycorrhizal associations with some well-known edible fungi such as chanterelles ("Cantharellus formosus", "C. subalbidus", and "Craterellus tubaeformis"). It is capable of associating with wood-decay fungi in addition to soil fungi; this enables its seedlings to survive on rotting stumps and logs.

Uses.

Western hemlock is the state tree of Washington.

Cultivation.

Western hemlock is cultivated as an ornamental tree in gardens in its native habitats and along the U.S. Pacific Coast, where its best reliability is seen in wetter regions. In relatively dry areas, as at Victoria, British Columbia, it is exacting about soil conditions. It needs a high level of organic matter (well-rotted wood from an old log or stump is best; animal manures may have too much nitrogen and salt), in a moist, acidic soil. It is also cultivated in temperate regions worldwide. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Forestry.

When planted well upon the banks along a river, western hemlock can help to reduce erosion.  Outside of its native range, western hemlock is of importance in forestry, (as a softwood) for timber and paper production, it is used for making doors, joinery and furniture. It can also be an ornamental tree in large gardens, in northwest Europe and southern New Zealand.  It has naturalised in some parts of Great Britain and New Zealand, not so extensively as to be considered an invasive species, but an introduced species tree.

Food.

The edible cambium can be collected by scraping slabs of removed bark. The resulting shavings can be eaten immediately, or can be dried and pressed into bread, as was done by the Native Americans of southeastern Alaska. The bark also serves as a source of tannin for tanning.  Tender new growth needles (leaves) can be chewed directly or made into a bitter tea, rich in vitamin C (similar to some other hemlock and pine species).  Western hemlock boughs are used to collect herring eggs during the spring spawn in southeast Alaska. The boughs provide an easily collectible surface for the eggs to attach to as well as providing a distinctive taste. This practice originates from traditional gathering methods used by Native Alaskans from southeast Alaska, specifically the Tlingit people.

Tsuga heterophylla, the western hemlock or western hemlock-spruce, is a species of hemlock native to the west coast of North America, with its northwestern limit on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, and its southeastern limit in northern Sonoma County, California.


Early life.

Wilhelmine was born to Peter von Biron, the last Duke of Courland, and his third wife Anna Charlotte Dorothea von Medem (1761–1821). She had three conjugal sisters: Maria Luise Pauline (1782–1845), Johanna Katharina (1783–1876), wife of Fürst Don Francesco, Duke of Acerenza (brother of the 8th Prince of Belmonte), and Dorothea (1793–1862), later wife of Edmond de Talleyrand-Périgord (1787–1872), nephew of the French statesman Talleyrand.  Wilhelmine spent her earliest childhood in Mitau. In 1795 the Duke was forced to cede his Duchy to the Russian Empire, and the family moved to the Duchy of Sagan (Żagań) in Silesia, which had been acquired in 1786. Among other properties bought by her father during the 1780s was County Náchod in Bohemia, which included Ratibořice Castle. Wilhelmine, who inherited both Sagan and Náchod, selected this castle as her summer residence.  The young duchess was very beautiful, intelligent, eloquent and educated in philosophy and history. She fell in love with Finnish general Gustav Armfelt, her mother's lover and her tutor. The secret relationship with a much older and married Armfelt resulted in the birth of an illegitimate daughter named Adelaide Gustava Aspasia (nicknamed "Vava"), who was born in secrecy in Hamburg on 13 January 1801. The delivery was traumatic, and, due to an incompetent midwife, she lost the ability to have further children. Wilhelmine gave up her child to one of Armfelt's relatives in Finland and never saw her again. Wilhelmine greatly regretted this decision as time went on. To protect her reputation, Armfelt organized a marriage for her with an émigré French nobleman, (1768–1836), the son of the Princesse de Guéméné, the original governess of the children of King Louis XVI of France. The marriage did not last and ended in divorce in 1805.  Wilhelmine spent the rest of her life moving between Vienna, Prague, Ratibořice and Sagan (Żagań). She also undertook journeys to Italy, England and France. Her second marriage with prince Vasily Troubetzkoy (1776–1841), which lasted from 1805 to 1806, also ended in divorce. In Vienna, she set up a salon attended by the highest nobility. An attractive woman, she attracted many aristocratic lovers. She had a short-lived and turbulent relationship during the spring of 1810 with Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, an Austrian army commander.

Metternich.

Although Wilhelmine first met Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (1773–1859) in 1801, their love affair did not start until the spring of 1813. The passion between the two is documented by over 600 letters written by Metternich that were discovered in 1949 by Marie Ulrichová in Plasy Cloister. These letters also describe the minute details of the political situation of the day and the corresponding decisions made by Metternich as a diplomat and government official.  Modern historians speculate that Wilhelmine, who hated Napoleon, was the one who pushed Metternich away from a cautious pro-French position. The negotiations in 1813 that resulted in an anti-Napoleonic coalition between Prussia, Austria and Russia were held in one of Wilhelmine's homes, Ratibořice Castle.  During the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), the relationship ended, as Wilhelmine didn't like playing the role of an unacknowledged mistress, a role forced onto her as Metternich was married, and also because Alfred Windischgraetz (alternative spelling) appeared in Vienna, and she could not resist resuming her affair with him, writing "with friends one counts the days, with you I count the nights, and I would not wish to miss a single one of them". This distracted Metternich at a critical stage in the negotiations.  Because of the impossibility of having any more children, she became a foster parent to many young girls. From 1819 until 1828, Wihelmine was married to Prince Karl Rudolf von der Schulenburg (1788–1856). This marriage also ended in divorce. What she feared the most - being alone - eventually became reality toward the end of her life.

Relation with Božena Němcová.

Famous Czech author Božena Němcová (1820–1862) was one of the poor family girls supported by Wilhelmine. Němcová portrayed Wilhelmine in her 1855 novel "Babička (The Grandmother)" as an ideal woman. The portrait is so touching that Czech collocation ""paní kněžna"" (meaning "the princess") became a synonym for Wilhelmine.  All four Courland sisters are known to have had illegitimate children, Johanna at age sixteen. Because of her unknown origin (even the date of her birth is disputed) and the favour shown her by the duchess, several historians believe that Němcová could have been an illegitimate daughter of Wilhelmine and either Metternich, Count Karel Clam-Martinic or Windischgrätz.  Helena Sobková, a writer of popular-history books about Němcová, believes that Němcová may actually have been the niece of Wilhelmine. In 1816 an illegitimate daughter was born to Wilhelmine's younger sister, Dorothea, and Karel Clam-Martinic (1792–1840). The child's fate is unknown, and it is possible that Wilhelmine gave the child to Němcová's parents to raise as their own. This suggestion, however, has not been definitely proven.

External links.

Katharina Friederike "Wilhelmine" Benigna, Princess of Courland, Duchess of Sagan (born 8 February 1781 in Mitau, Duchy of Courland and Semigallia; died 29 November 1839 in Vienna, Austrian Empire) was a German noble from the ruling family of Courland and Semigallia (today part of Latvia) and a sovereign Duchess of Sagan. Wilhelmine is mainly known for her relationship with Klemens Metternich, a statesman of the Austrian Empire.


Life and career.

Tadeusz Rydzyk was according to articles linked in Polish Wikipedia born out of wedlock to his mother, the widowed Mrs. Rydzyk, and her boyfriend Bronisław Kordaszewski and spent his childhood in Olkusz. He studied at the Higher Spiritual Seminary of Redemptorists in Tuchów, and later at the Catholic Theology Academy in Warsaw. He was ordained a priest in 1971 and taught religion in Toruń, Szczecinek and Kraków. In 1986 Fr. Rydzyk left for West Germany where he was involved with a radio station "Radio Maria International in Balderschwang" (later closed by the Catholic Church authorities for moving away from Catholic doctrine).  Following his return to Poland in 1991, Rydzyk started Radio Maryja, the second worldwide Catholic radio station (the first being Vatican Radio). He established the Catholic newspaper "Nasz Dziennik" ('Our Daily') and the television station "Trwam" ('I Persist').  On 8 October 2009, Fr. Rydzyk earned a PhD in Theology from the Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw.

Awards.

During XIX International Catholic Film Festival Niepokalanów 2004 for the first time awards Multimedia in service of a Gospel were given and recipients were Fr. Tadeusz Rydzyk and Mel Gibson.  On September 15, 2007 he was awarded the Mater Verbi Catholic weekly „Niedziela” prize on Jasna Góra. The prize is given to people who contributed to "Niedziela" from Poland and abroad.  On June 28, 2009, Fr. Tadeusz Rydzyk received św. Stanisław Medal in appreciation of works that he has inspired.  On October 26, 2009 he received medal „Zło dobrem zwyciężaj” for his work for the Church and for Poland and for promoting teachings of Jerzy Popiełuszko.  In 2010, Tadeusz Rydzyk received the Blessed Jerzy Ciesielski Award.  In September 2010, he received "Sursum Corda" prize of the weekly "Niedziela."  In December 2013, he received the „Tibi Mater Polonia” Cross.

Controversies.

In February 2011, Fr. Rydzyk was fined 3500 zlotys after the local district court in Toruń found that he broke the law by using Radio Maryja to call for donations to TV Trwam, the University of Social and Media Culture and the geothermal drilling conducted by the Lux Veritatis Foundation.  In June 2011, while meeting members of the European Parliament, he called Poland "an uncivilized country" and "a totalitarian regime," and claimed that it was not ruled by Poles. The Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs protested against these statements and sent a diplomatic note to the Holy See, to which Catholic religious orders, including the Redemptorists, are subject.  In 2006, the US-based Anti-Defamation League accused Rydzyk and his Radio Maryja station of antisemitism. However, Rydzyk also has Jewish backers, including Jonny Daniels, an Orthodox Jew from England who heads the "From the Depths Foundation" in Warsaw that highlights the heroism of Poles who rescued Jews during the war and who is a frequent guest on Rydzyk's media outlets. Daniels said that he "feels like a part of the Radio Maryja family."

Father Tadeusz Rydzyk (; born 3 May 1945 in Olkusz) is a Roman Catholic priest and Redemptorist, founder and director of the conservative Radio Maryja station, and founder of the University of Social and Media Culture in Toruń.


Early life.

Tadeusz Kamil Marcjan Żeleński (of the "Ciołek" coat-of-arms) was born on 21 December 1874 in Warsaw, to Wanda, "née" Grabowska, who was from a Frankist family, and Władysław Żeleński, a prominent composer and musician. Tadeusz's cousin was the notable Polish neo-romantic poet Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer. Because higher education in Polish was forbidden in Warsaw under Russian rule, in 1892 Żeleński left for Kraków, in Austrian-ruled Galicia, where he enrolled at the Jagiellonian University medical school.  Completing his studies in 1900, Żeleński began medical practice as a pediatrician. In 1906 he opened a practice as a gynaecologist, which gave him financial freedom. The same year, he co-organised the famous "Zielony Balonik" ("Green Balloon") cabaret, which gathered notable personalities of Polish culture, including his brother Edward and Jan August Kisielewski, Stanisław Kuczborski, Witold Noskowski, Stanisław Sierosławski, Rudolf Starzewski, Edward Leszczyński, Teofil Trzciński, Karol Frycz, Ludwik Puget, Kazimierz Sichulski, Jan Skotnicki and Feliks Jasieński.  In the sketches, poems, satirical songs, and short stories that he wrote for "Zielony Balonik", Boy-Żeleński criticized and mocked the conservative authorities and the two-faced morality of the city folk, but also the grandiloquent style of "Młoda Polska" and Kraków's bohemians. This earned him a reputation as the ""enfant terrible"" of Polish literature.

World War I and interbellum.

At the outbreak of World War I, Żeleński was conscripted into the Austro-Hungarian Army and served as medic to railway troops. After the war, he returned to Poland and, in 1922, moved to Warsaw. He did not return to his medical practice but instead focused entirely on writing.  Working for various dailies and magazines, Boy-Żeleński soon became one of the authorities of the Polish liberal and democratic intelligentsia. He criticized the two-faced morality of the clergy, promoted the secularization of public life and culture, and was one of the strongest advocates for the equality of women. He was one of the first public figures in Poland to support the women's right to legal abortion. Also, Boy-Żeleński often fought in his essays against the Polish romantic tradition, which he saw as irrational and as seriously distorting the way Polish society thought about its past.  In addition, Boy translated over 100 classics of French literature, which ever since have been considered among the best translations of foreign literature into Polish. In 1933, Boy-Żeleński was admitted to the prestigious Polish Academy of Literature.

World War II.

After the outbreak of World War II, Boy-Żeleński moved to Soviet-occupied Lwów, where he stayed with his wife's brother-in-law. In Lviv, Boy joined the Soviet-led University as the head of the Department of French Literature. Criticized by many for his public and frequent collaboration with the Soviet occupation forces, he maintained contacts with many prominent professors and artists, who found themselves in the city after the Polish Defensive War. He also took part in creating the Communist propaganda newspaper "Czerwony Sztandar" (Red Banner) and became one of the prominent members of the Society of Polish Writers.  After Nazi Germany broke the German–Soviet treaty and attacked the USSR and the Soviet-held Polish Kresy, Boy remained in Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine). The city was captured on the night of 4 July 1941; he was arrested and taken to the Wulka hills where he was murdered for being "a Soviet spy", together with 45 other Polish professors, artists and intelligentsia in what became known as the massacre of Lviv professors.

Tadeusz Kamil Marcjan Żeleński (better known by his pen name, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński; 21 December 1874 – 4 July 1941) was a Polish stage writer, poet, critic and, above all, the translator of over 100 French literary classics into Polish. He was a pediatrician and gynecologist by profession.


Description.

The stone loach is a small, slender bottom-dwelling fish that can grow to a length of, but typically is around. Its eyes are situated high on its head and it has three pairs of short barbels on its lower jaw below its mouth. It has a rounded body that is not much laterally flattened and is a little less deep in the body than the spined loach ("Cobitis taenia") and lacks that fish's spines beneath the eye. It has rounded dorsal and caudal fins with their tips slightly notched, but the spined loach has even more rounded fins. The general colour of this fish is yellowish-brown with blotches and vertical bands of darker colour. An indistinct dark line runs from the snout to the eye. The fins are brownish with faint dark banding.

Distribution and habitat.

The stone loach is a common species and is found over most of Europe in suitable clear rivers and streams with gravel and sandy bottoms. It is present in upland areas, also chalk streams, lakes and reservoirs as long as the water is well-oxygenated. These fish sometimes venture into estuaries but not into brackish water. They live on the bottom, often partly buried, and they are particularly active at night when they rootle among the sand and gravel for the small invertebrates on which they feed.  It is found in Baltic states, Eastern Europe, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Moldova, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. It has been extirpated from Greece.

Biology.

The larvae of stone loaches are benthic, they and small juveniles prefer sandy substrates with a slower current, as they grow they move on to gravel bottoms and faster currents. As adults they prey on relatively large benthic invertebrates such as gammarids, chironomids and other insect larvae. It normally feeds at nights when it uses the barbels around its mouth to detect its prey. They are tolerant of moderate organic pollution and stream canalization but they are highly sensitive to heavy metal pollution, chemical pollution and low oxygen levels which mean that the presence of stone loaches in a river is an indicator of good water quality. They are short-lived fish, normally living to age 3–4 years with 5 years being exceptional.  Stone loaches breed over gravel or sand or among aquatic vegetation. In streams with low productivity spawning may be annual but where the water has higher productivity there may be multiple spawning events within a season. The females release eggs in open water, often close to the surface. The eggs drift and adhere to different substrates and are often covered by sand or detritus. A female stone loach may spawn each day for short periods. In Great Britain spawning lasts from April to August and the females may lay as many as 10,000 eggs.

The stone loach ("Barbatula barbatula") is a European species of fresh water ray-finned fish in the family Nemacheilidae. It is one of nineteen species in the genus "Barbatula". Stone loaches live amongst the gravel and stones of fast flowing water where they can search for food. The most distinctive feature of this small fish is the presence of barbels around the bottom jaw, which they use to detect their invertebrate prey. The body is a mixture of brown, green and yellow.


Life.

Already at a high school, Frič joined the illegal activities of radical democrats. He had to flee from Prague (1846) and worked in Paris and London, among the Polish emigration. In 1847, he returned to Prague and joined secret society "Repeal". In June 1848, Repeal launched an armed struggle. Frič organized fighting on the barricades. After the defeat of the rebellion he fled to Vienna, then to Zagreb and later he joined the Slovak revolutionary army of Ľudovít Štúr. In Slovakia he was seriously wounded. In 1849, after an amnesty in Austria Frič returned to Prague. He formed a new radical democratic organization "Českomoravské bratrstvo" ("Bohemian-Moravian Brotherhood"). During preparations for a new rebellion he was arrested. He was sentenced to 18 years in prison in Komárno. In 1854, Frič was released. He lived in Prague under police supervision. He joined the literary life. He helped to form the almanac "Máj", in which he announced a new generation of poets, with Jan Neruda as the leader). However, in 1858 Frič was arrested again. He was sent into exile in Transylvania. In 1859 he was allowed to emigrate, subsequently living in London and Paris. In exile he founded the magazines "Čech" and "Blaník". In 1879, he was allowed to return to Prague. The new political situation for him was unintelligible, so he focused only on literature and writing memoirs. He was one of the few Czech politicians of the 19th century to demand a break of Austria-Hungary. Frič worked closely with the radical democrats in other countries (Mieroslawski, Gercen, Bakunin, Kinkel, Garibaldi, Teleki, Kossuth). His most important literary work is the patriotic poem "The Vampire" (1849).

Josef Václav Frič (5 September 1829 – 14 October 1890) was a Czech poet, journalist and radical democrat revolutionary. He was a participant in the revolution of 1848.


Youth.

He comes from Telnice. His family moved to Slavkov u Brna in the early 1980s. There he completed Primary School Tyršova. He studied at Gymnasium Bučovice from 1986 to 1990. He studied at Masaryk University where he received a Master's degree in Law.

Political career.

Sobotka was first elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1996. From 2002 to 2006, he was Finance Minister of the Czech Republic. Sobotka was also a Deputy Prime Minister from 2003 to 2004 and from 2005 to 2006.

Minister of Finance.

As the minister of finance he formed an advisory body of economists. It later became the National Economic Council of Czech government. His austerity policy included dismissal of employees and restrictions on savings accounts and health benefits, a policy he later criticized. When Jiří Paroubek became the new prime minister in 2005, Sobotka reduced his restrictions which led to an increase in the deficit.  Sobotka was elected to the chamber again in 2006 but his party lost the election and went into opposition. Sobotka became a Minister of Finance in a Shadow Cabinet of Social democrats. His party won legislative election in 2010 but failed to form a governing coalition and remained in opposition.  Sobotka then served as interim leader of ČSSD after the resignation of Jiří Paroubek following the election. He also briefly served as interim chairman in 2006, after the resignation of Stanislav Gross. Sobotka was elected the chairman of the party on 18 March 2011 when he defeated Michal Hašek who became the First Deputy Chairman. On 18 March 2011, Sobotka was officially elected the party chairman.

Leader of ČSSD.

Sobotka led his party in the legislative elections of 2013. The party won the election, gaining 20.45% of votes. The formation of a new government was marked by a conflict between Bohuslav Sobotka and Michal Hašek who, along his allies from the Party, attended a secret post-election meeting with the Czech President Miloš Zeman. They called on Sobotka to resign due to the party's poor election result. Hašek and his allies also eliminated Sobotka from the team negotiating the next government. The secret meeting was later revealed and Hašek was accused of publicly lying about it. It led to public protests in the country in support of Sobotka, which in turn led to Hašek's retreat and a creation of a new government-formation negotiations led by Sobotka. Bohuslav Sobotka resigned on 14 June 2017 as Leader of the Social Democrats after some opinion polls showed his party with support of 10% saying that “party has to undergo deeper changes, so that it would be able to better address people and to mobilize its supporters and members” ahead of the 2017 legislative election. However, Sobotka will compete in the election as leader of the party in the South Moravian Region. After his resignation, Minister of Interior Milan Chovanec has assumed the position of acting Leader of the ČSSD, while Minister of Foreign Affairs Lubomír Zaorálek became its candidate for Prime Minister.

Prime Minister (2014–17).

Sobotka was designated as prime minister on 17 January 2014 and appointed, alongside his Cabinet, by President Miloš Zeman on 29 January 2014. His cabinet consisted of members of the coalition government – the ČSSD, ANO 2011, and Christian and Democratic Union–Czechoslovak People's Party.  He was the 11th Prime Minister of the Czech Republic and the 1st left-wing Prime Minister after 6 years of right-wing political control in the Czech Republic. Sobotka's government coalition had in the Chamber of Deputies 111 seats out of 200 and his ČSSD had 50 seats.  Bohuslav Sobotka's views on the European Union and the Czech Republic's membership in the European Union as Prime Minister were relatively positive. Sobotka noted that ˈˈmembership of the Czech Republic in the European Union is a benefit.ˈˈ He has also said that membership provides better security measures and economic stability. However, in early 2016, Sobotka said there would be a national debate on the country's place in the European Union in the case of British withdrawal from it.  On 26 May 2015, he and his coalition government faced the first attempt to overthrow the Government when opposition called on vote of no-confidence to the Government of the Czech Republic because of Finance Minister of the Czech Republic Andrej Babiš. The attempt was unsuccessful as Members of Parliament did not support the vote of no confidence in the current Government.  In December 2016, Sobotka called for higher corporate taxes, saying: “The way taxation is set up right now it only obliges the big and rich players, who export their profits out of the Czech Republic. Annually, these sums amount to 200 to 300 billion [crowns].”  On 2 May 2017, Sobotka announced that he will resign because he cannot bear responsibility for Finance Minister Andrej Babiš. Sobotka stated that Babiš failed to clear up questions surrounding financial transactions connected to his business activity. Sobotka changed his mind on 5 May 2017 and instead decided to dismiss Babiš from his position.  On 15 June 2017, Bohuslav Sobotka resigned as leader of ČSSD.  On 5 December 2017, Sobotka's Cabinet resigned following his loss at the general elections in October. Andrej Babiš was appointed prime minister on 6 December 2017, and his new government assumed office on 13 December 2017.

Post-premiership.

Sobotka resided to his hometown Vyškov in January 2018 and stated that he plans to restart his political career. Members of local ČSSD stated they don't intend him to run in the upcoming municipal election.  On 22 March 2018, Sobotka announced that he will resign as member of the Chamber of Deputies (MP) effective 1 April 2018.

Personal life.

Sobotka was married from 2003 till 2017 to Olga Sobotková, the wife of the 11th Prime Minister of the Czech Republic since its founding. He has 2 sons - David (2003) and Martin (2009). Prime Minister Sobotka likes to read historical mystery, sci-fi, and contemporary literature. He also likes going to theatre and to the cinema where he prefers Czech films.

Bohuslav Sobotka (; born 23 October 1971) is a Czech former politician who served as the Prime Minister of the Czech Republic from January 2014 to December 2017 and Leader of the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) from 2010 until his resignation in June 2017. He was Member of the Chamber of Deputies (MP) from 1996 to 2018. Sobotka also served as Finance Minister from 2002 to 2006.


Uses of nitrides.

Like carbides, nitrides are often refractory materials owing to their high lattice energy which reflects the strong attraction of "N" for the metal cation. Thus, titanium nitride and silicon nitride are used as cutting materials and hard coatings. Hexagonal boron nitride, which adopts a layered structure, is a useful high-temperature lubricant akin to molybdenum disulfide. Nitride compounds often have large band gaps, thus nitrides are usually insulators or wide bandgap semiconductors; examples include boron nitride and silicon nitride. The wide band gap material gallium nitride is prized for emitting blue light in LEDs. Like some oxides, nitrides can absorb hydrogen and have been discussed in the context of hydrogen storage, e.g. lithium nitride.

Examples.

Classification of such a varied group of compounds is somewhat arbitrary. Compounds where nitrogen is not assigned −3 oxidation state are not included, such as nitrogen trichloride where the oxidation state is +3; nor are ammonia and its many organic derivatives.

Nitrides of the s-block elements.

Only one alkali metal nitride is stable, the purple-reddish lithium nitride (LiN), which forms when lithium burns in an atmosphere of N. Sodium nitride has been generated, but remains a laboratory curiosity. The nitrides of the alkaline earth metals have the formula MN are however numerous. Examples include BeN, MgN, CaN, and SrN. The nitrides of electropositive metals (including Li, Zn, and the alkaline earth metals) readily hydrolyze upon contact with water, including the moisture in the air:

Nitrides of the p-block elements.

Boron nitride exists as several forms (polymorphs). Nitrides of silicon and phosphorus are also known, but only the former is commercially important. The nitrides of aluminium, gallium, and indium adopt diamond-like wurtzite structure in which each atom occupies tetrahedral sites. For example, in aluminium nitride, each aluminium atom has four neighboring nitrogen atoms at the corners of a tetrahedron and similarly each nitrogen atom has four neighboring aluminium atoms at the corners of a tetrahedron. This structure is like hexagonal diamond (lonsdaleite) where every carbon atom occupies a tetrahedral site (however wurtzite differs from sphalerite and diamond in the relative orientation of tetrahedra). Thallium(I) nitride, TlN is known, but thallium(III) nitride, TlN, is not.

Transition metal nitrides.

For the group 3 metals, ScN and YN are both known. Group 4, 5, and 6 transition metals (the titanium, vanadium and chromium groups) all form nitrides. They are refractory, with high melting point and are chemically stable. Representative is titanium nitride. Sometimes these materials are called "interstitial nitrides."  Nitrides of the group 7 and 8 transition metals decompose readily. For example, iron nitride, FeN decomposes at 200 °C. Platinum nitride and osmium nitride may contain N units, and as such should not be called nitrides. Nitrides of heavier members from group 11 and 12 are less stable than copper nitride, CuN and ZnN: dry silver nitride (AgN) is a contact explosive which may detonate from the slightest touch, even a falling water droplet.

Molecular nitrides.

Many metals form molecular nitrido complexes, as discussed in the specialized article. The main group elements also form some molecular nitrides. Cyanogen ((CN)) and tetrasulfur tetranitride (SN) are rare examples of a molecular binary (containing one element aside from nitrogen) nitrides. They dissolve in nonpolar solvents. Both undergo polymerization. SN is also unstable with respect to the elements, but less so that the isostructural SeN. Heating SN gives a polymer, and a variety of molecular sulfur nitride anions and cations are also known.  Related to but distinct from nitride is pernitride,.

In chemistry, a nitride is a compound of nitrogen where nitrogen has a formal oxidation state of −3. Nitrides are a large class of compounds with a wide range of properties and applications.


Mining.

Chalk is mined from chalk deposits both above ground and underground. Chalk mining boomed during the Industrial Revolution, due to the need for chalk products such as quicklime and bricks. Some abandoned chalk mines remain tourist destinations due to their massive expanse and natural beauty.

Deposits.

The Chalk Group is a European stratigraphic unit deposited during the late Cretaceous Period. It forms the famous White Cliffs of Dover in Kent, England, as well as their counterparts of the Cap Blanc Nez on the other side of the Dover Strait. The Champagne region of France is mostly underlain by chalk deposits, which contain artificial caves used for wine storage. Some of the highest chalk cliffs in the world occur at Jasmund National Park in Germany and at Møns Klint in Denmark – both once formed a single island.

Formation.

Ninety million years ago what is now the chalk downland of Northern Europe was ooze accumulating at the bottom of a great sea. Chalk was one of the earliest rocks made up of microscopic particles to be studied under the microscope, when it was found to be composed almost entirely of coccoliths. Their shells were made of calcite extracted from the rich seawater. As they died, a substantial layer gradually built up over millions of years and, through the weight of overlying sediments, eventually became consolidated into rock. Later earth movements related to the formation of the Alps raised these former sea-floor deposits above sea level.

Composition.

The chemical composition of chalk is calcium carbonate, with minor amounts of silt and clay. It is formed in the sea by sub-microscopic plankton, which fall to the sea floor and are then consolidated and compressed during diagenesis into chalk rock.

Uses.

Most people first encounter chalk in school where it refers to blackboard chalk, which was originally made of mineral chalk, since it readily crumbles and leaves particles that stick loosely to rough surfaces, allowing it to make writing that can be readily erased. Blackboard chalk manufacturers now may use mineral chalk, other mineral sources of calcium carbonate, or the mineral gypsum (calcium sulfate). While gypsum-based blackboard chalk is the lowest cost to produce, and thus widely used in the developing world, calcium-based chalk can be made where the crumbling particles are larger and thus produce less dust, and is marketed as "dustless chalk". Colored chalks, pastel chalks, and sidewalk chalk (shaped into larger sticks and often colored), used to draw on sidewalks, streets, and driveways, are primarily made of gypsum.  Chalk is a source of quicklime by thermal decomposition, or slaked lime following quenching of quicklime with water. In southeast England, deneholes are a notable example of ancient chalk pits. Such bell pits may also mark the sites of ancient flint mines, where the prime object was to remove flint nodules for stone tool manufacture. The surface remains at Cissbury are one such example, but perhaps the most famous is the extensive complex at Grimes Graves in Norfolk.  Woodworking joints may be fitted by chalking one of the mating surfaces. A trial fit will leave a chalk mark on the high spots of the corresponding surface. Chalk transferring to cover the complete surface indicates a good fit. Builder's putty also mainly contains chalk as a filler in linseed oil.  Chalk may be used for its properties as a base. In agriculture, chalk is used for raising pH in soils with high acidity. The most common forms are CaCO (calcium carbonate) and CaO (calcium oxide). Small doses of chalk can also be used as an antacid. Additionally, the small particles of chalk make it a substance ideal for cleaning and polishing. For example, toothpaste commonly contains small amounts of chalk, which serves as a mild abrasive. Polishing chalk is chalk prepared with a carefully controlled grain size, for very fine polishing of metals. Chalk can also be used as fingerprint powder.

Previous uses.

Several traditional uses of chalk have been replaced by other substances, although the word "chalk" is often still applied to the usual replacements. Tailor's chalk is traditionally a hard chalk used to make temporary markings on cloth, mainly by tailors. It is now usually made of talc (magnesium silicate).  Chalk was traditionally used in recreation. In field sports, such as tennis played on grass, powdered chalk was used to mark the boundary lines of the playing field or court. If a ball hits the line, a cloud of chalk or pigment dust will be visible. In recent years, powdered chalk has been replaced with titanium dioxide. In gymnastics, rock-climbing, weightlifting and tug of war, chalk — now usually magnesium carbonate — is applied to the hands and feet to remove perspiration and reduce slipping.  Chalk may also be used as a house construction material instead of brick or wattle and daub: quarried chalk was cut into blocks and used as ashlar, or loose chalk was rammed into blocks and laid in mortar. There are still houses standing which have been constructed using chalk as the main building material. Most are pre-Victorian though a few are more recent.

Chalk is a soft, white, porous, sedimentary carbonate rock, a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite. Calcite is an ionic salt called calcium carbonate or CaCO. It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite shells (coccoliths) shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores. Flint (a type of chert) is very common as bands parallel to the bedding or as nodules embedded in chalk. It is probably derived from sponge spicules or other siliceous organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction. Flint is often deposited around larger fossils such as Echinoidea which may be silicified (i.e. replaced molecule by molecule by flint).


History.

The history of Kohtla-Järve is closely tied to the history of extraction of oil shale – the main mineral of Estonia.  There is evidence that a number of settlements existed on the territory of modern Kohtla-Järve since the High Middle Ages. In the Danish Land Book, Järve and Kukruse villages were first mentioned in 1241 by the names "Jeruius" and "Kukarus" respectively, and Sompa village in 1420 by the name "Soenpe". Local residents were aware of oil shale's flammable capability in ancient times, but its industrial extraction in Estonia began only in the 20th century. In 1916, researches showed that oil shale could be used both as fuel and as a raw material for chemical industry, and mining started near Järve village. In 1919 the State Oil Shale Industrial Corporation was formed and extraction by shaft and open-pit mining was extended. Settlements for workers began to appear adjacent to the mines. In 1924 the oil shale processing factory was built near Kohtla railway station, and the nearby settlement, named Kohtla-Järve, started to grow.  During World War II the value of the Estonian oil shale deposit grew. The Germans, who occupied Estonia, considered it as an important source of fuel. However, they failed to begin full-scale extraction.  After the war, the next occupier of Estonia, the Soviet Union, required constantly increasing quantities of oil shale for its industries and extraction greatly expanded. Kohtla-Järve, as the main settlement in the mining area, received city status on 15 June 1946. Since that time, during the next twenty years, there was a process of administrative amalgamation of neighboring settlements within the limits of Kohtla-Järve. Kohtla and Kukruse were added to the city in 1949; Jõhvi, Ahtme and Sompa in 1960. The town of Kiviõli and the boroughs of Oru, Püssi and Viivikonna were subordinated to the city in 1964. Thus, Kohtla-Järve greatly expanded, becoming a city with a unique layout, as its parts remained scattered among woods, agricultural areas and oil shale mines. Total population of the city increased mainly by workers sent from different parts of Soviet Union, reaching (with subordinated settlements) 90,000 in 1980.  After Soviet Union collapsed and Estonia regained independence in 1991 the number of city districts decreased, as Jõhvi, Kiviõli and Püssi became separate towns. The volume of oil shale extraction and processing decreased dramatically during the 1990s, and many Kohtla-Järve citizens moved to Tallinn or Russia, due to high unemployment in Ida-Viru County.

Economy.

Kohtla-Järve is known for its chemical industry. It is the headquarters of Viru Keemia Grupp, an Estonian holding group of oil shale industry, power generation, and public utility companies. Eastman Chemical Company also has a manufacturing site located in Kohtla-Järve.

Geography.

Kohtla-Järve has a unique layout. The districts of the city are scattered across the northern part of Ida-Viru County in a considerably large area. The distance between Järve and Sirgala districts is about 30 km. After the administrative reform of 2017, Viivikonna and Sirgala are not part of the municipality anymore.  The city is subdivided into four administrative districts (): Viivikonna (including Sirgala) had a population of 99, totaling 37,201 people in the whole municipality in 2011.  The populations of many of the smaller exclaves have rapidly declined since the 1990s.

International relations.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Kohtla-Järve is twinned with:

Kohtla-Järve (Russian: Кохтла-Ярве) is a city and municipality in north-eastern Estonia, founded in 1924 and incorporated as a town in 1946. The city is highly industrial, and is both a processor of oil shales and is a large producer of various petroleum products. The city is also very diverse ethnically: it contains people of over 40 ethnic groups Only 21% of the population are ethnic Estonians; most of the rest are Russians. Kohtla-Järve is the fifth-largest city in Estonia.


The Altmark Incident.

"Altmark" (Captain Heinrich Dau) was assigned to support "Admiral Graf Spee" during her raid in the South Atlantic between September and December 1939. Seamen rescued from the ships sunk by "Admiral Graf Spee" were transferred to "Altmark". After "Admiral Graf Spee" was heavily damaged by British cruisers in Battle of the River Plate and subsequently scuttled by her crew, in the Río de la Plata in December 1939, "Altmark" attempted to return to Germany, steaming around the north of Great Britain and then within the Norwegian littoral. On 14 February 1940 "Altmark", proceeding south within Norwegian territorial waters, was discovered by three British Lockheed Hudson Mk.II aircraft from RAF Thornaby and pursued by several British destroyers led by. Late on 16 February 1940 in Jøssingfjord she was fired upon while the Norwegian Navy stood by and took no action save for raising a protest flag. The German tanker then received a boarding party from HMS "Cossack". During an attempted escape across the ice, seven of the "Altmark" crew were shot down. During the skirmish "Altmark" was run onto the rocks. It had been the British intention to tow the ship back to a Scottish port, but the damage to the tanker's stern frustrated this idea.  An attack by one belligerent upon its enemy in neutral waters is a breach of neutrality, in this case a breach of Norwegian neutrality by Britain. Because Hitler feared Norway would be insufficiently resolute to protect the German iron-ore traffic that passed legitimately along the Norwegian littoral, at Admiral Erich Raeder's urging he decided on the invasion of Norway and Denmark in March 1940.  The British justification for the attack on the "Altmark" was set out in a Note to the Norwegian Government from Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax dated 10 March 1940. The problem the British Government faced was the wording of The Hague Convention XIII of 1907 to which it was a signatory. Article 10 provides that: "The neutrality of a Power is not affected by the mere passage through its territorial waters of warships or prizes belonging to belligerents."  This meant that the "Altmark" was within its rights to sail through Norwegian waters with prisoners aboard providing that it did not come to a protracted stop longer than 24 hours. In the diplomatic letter, the British government confirmed that it was not contrary to the law of neutrality to sail a prison ship through neutral waters, and Britain often did this herself. In fact the British complaint had nothing to do with the prisoners. "Altmark" was a fleet tanker assimilated to a warship and was proceeding to Germany from the Atlantic by the north-about route. Instead of sailing down the North Sea as he would do in peacetime, the master of the "Altmark" had elected to sail the entire leg of the voyage southwards within Norwegian territorial waters in order to attract immunity from attack there under international law. There was no other reason for him to want to voyage through waters so dangerous to navigation. With no valid breach of international law, the British excused their violation of international law by contriving that the "Altmark's" course abused international law even without a violation, and since the Norwegians had declined to stop a voyage that was not in violation of international convention the British Admiralty decided it was justified in taking action contrary to law, essentially announcing that it had the right to determine what course an enemy ship must travel to be entitled to the protections of international law.  The question remains unresolved to this day as to whether, as the Hague Conventions stood in 1940, a warship could legitimately seek immunity from attack in neutral waters by widely varying its course to reach them.

Subsequent history.

The ship, renamed Uckermark on 6 August 1940, then resumed the role for which she had been built. During Admiral Lütjens' Atlantic adventure with the battleships and between January and March 1941, "Uckermark", under Captain Zatorski, was a supply ship and scout attached to the squadron. As the result of her reports the battleships were directed to various merchant vessels, which were then sunk.  On 9 September 1942 she left France for Japan with a cargo of vegetable oil and fuel, supplying the auxiliary cruiser on the way, arriving at Yokohama on 24 November 1942. "Uckermark" was then intended as the replenishment ship for the German raider, which was raiding merchant shipping in the Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean areas.  On 30 November 1942, "Uckermark" was anchored in Yokohama, Japan, next to "Thor" and the Australian passenger liner "Nankin", which "Thor" had captured in March five days out from Fremantle, Australia, en route to Colombo, Ceylon. While the crew was at lunch, "Uckermark" suffered a huge explosion that ripped the vessel apart. "Uckermark", "Thor", and "Nankin" were sunk by the explosion. The cause of the explosion was thought to be a spark from tools used by a repair gang working near the cargo tanks. The "Uckermark" had delivered 5000ts of gasoline to Yokohama. It seems to be logical that the residual fumes and gasoline did explode. Diesel fuel does not explode the way the ship went up. 53 crewmen from "Uckermark" died in the explosion. The severely damaged ship was beyond repair and was scrapped.  Some of the survivors of the ship were sent to France on the blockade runner "Doggerbank" and perished when the ship was mistakenly sunk by the on 3 March 1943 with all but one of the 365 strong crew lost at sea.

Altmark was a German oil tanker and supply vessel, one of five of a class built between 1937 and 1939. She is best known for her support of the German commerce raider, the "pocket battleship" and her subsequent involvement in the "Altmark Incident". In 1940 she was renamed the "Uckermark" and used as supply tanker for the battleships and during Operation Berlin before sailing to Japan on September 1942 as a blockade breaker.


Protocols.

Aside from the Orthographic, six standard principal views (Front; Right Side; Left Side; Top; Bottom; Rear), descriptive geometry strives to yield four basic solution views: the true length of a line (i.e., full size, not foreshortened), the point view (end view) of a line, the true shape of a plane (i.e., full size to scale, or not foreshortened), and the edge view of a plane (i.e., view of a plane with the line of sight perpendicular to the line of sight associated with the line of sight for producing the true shape of a plane). These often serve to determine the direction of projection for the subsequent view. By the 90° circuitous stepping process, projecting in any direction from the point view of a line yields its true length view; projecting in a direction parallel to a true length line view yields its point view, projecting the point view of any line on a plane yields the plane's edge view; projecting in a direction perpendicular to the edge view of a plane will yield the true shape (to scale) view. These various views may be called upon to help solve engineering problems posed by solid-geometry principles

Heuristics.

There is heuristic value to studying descriptive geometry. It promotes visualization and spatial analytical abilities, as well as the intuitive ability to recognize the direction of viewing for best presenting a geometric problem for solution. Representative examples:

The best direction to view.

A standard for presenting computer-modeling views analogous to orthographic, sequential projections has not yet been adopted. One candidate for such is presented in the illustrations below. The images in the illustrations were created using three-dimensional, engineering computer graphics.  Three-dimensional, computer modeling produces virtual space "behind the tube", as it were, and may produce any view of a model from any direction within this virtual space. It does so without the need for adjacent orthographic views and therefore may seem to render the circuitous, stepping protocol of Descriptive Geometry obsolete. However, since descriptive geometry is the science of the legitimate or allowable imaging of three or "more" dimensional space, on a flat plane, it is an indispensable study, to enhance computer modeling possibilities.

Examples.

Finding the shortest connector between two given skew lines PR and SU.

Given the X, Y and Z coordinates of P, R, S and U, projections 1 and 2 are drawn to scale on the X-Y and X-Z planes, respectively.  To get a true view (length in the projection is equal to length in 3D space) of one of the lines: SU in this example, projection 3 is drawn with hinge line H parallel to SU. To get an end view of SU, projection 4 is drawn with hinge line H perpendicular to SU. The perpendicular distance "d" gives the shortest distance between PR and SU.  To get points Q and T on these lines giving this shortest distance, projection 5 is drawn with hinge line H parallel to PR, making both PR and SU true views (any projection of an end view is a true view). Projecting the intersection of these lines, Q and T back to projection 1 (magenta lines and labels) allows their coordinates to be read off the X, Y and Z axes.

General solutions.

General solutions are a class of solutions within descriptive geometry that contain all possible solutions to a problem. The general solution is represented by a single, three-dimensional object, usually a cone, the directions of the elements of which are the desired direction of viewing (projection) for any of an infinite number of solution views.  For example: To find the general solution such that two, unequal length, skew lines in general positions (say, rockets in flight?) appear:  In the examples, the general solution for each desired characteristic solution is a cone, each element of which produces one of an infinite number of solution views. When two or more characteristics of, say those listed above, are desired (and for which a solution exists) projecting in the direction of either of the two elements of intersections (one element, if cones are tangent) between the two cones produces the desired solution view. If the cones do not intersect a solution does not exist. The examples below are annotated to show the descriptive geometric principles used in the solutions. TL = True-Length; EV = Edge View.  Figs. 1-3 below demonstrate (1) Descriptive geometry, general solutions and (2) simultaneously, a potential standard for presenting such solutions in orthographic, multiview, layout formats.  The potential standard employs two adjacent, standard, orthographic views (here, Front and Top) with a standard "folding line" between. As there is no subsequent need to 'circuitously step' 90° around the object, in standard, two-step sequences in order to arrive at a solution view (it is possible to go directly to the solution view), this shorter protocol is accounted for in the layout. Where the one step protocol replaces the two-step protocol, "double folding" lines are used. In other words, when one crosses the double lines he is not making a circuitous,90° turn but a non-orthodirectional turn directly to the solution view. As most engineering computer graphics packages automatically generates the six principal views of the glass box model, as well as an isometric view, these views are sometimes added out of heuristic curiosity.

Descriptive geometry is the branch of geometry which allows the representation of three-dimensional objects in two dimensions by using a specific set of procedures. The resulting techniques are important for engineering, architecture, design and in art. The theoretical basis for descriptive geometry is provided by planar geometric projections. The earliest known publication on the technique was "Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt", published in Linien, Nuremberg: 1525, by Albrecht Dürer. Italian architecr Guarino Guarini was also a pioneer of projective and descriptive geometry, as is clear from his "Placita Philosophica" (1665), "Euclides Adauctus" (1671) and "Architettura Civile" (1686—not published until 1737), anticipating the work of Gaspard Monge (1746–1818), who is usually credited with the invention of descriptive geometry. Gaspard Monge is usually considered the "father of descriptive geometry" due to his developments in geometric problem solving. His first discoveries were in 1765 while he was working as a draftsman for military fortifications, although his findings were published later on.