History.

The station was opened on 6 August 1900, three weeks after trains began running on the original section of line 1 between Porte de Vincennes and Porte Maillot on 19 July 1900. The line 4 platforms were opened on 21 April 1908 as part of the original section of the line from Porte de Clignancourt to "Châtelet". It was the southern terminus of line 4 until the opening of the connecting section of the line under the Seine to Raspail on 9 January 1910.  The line 7 platforms were opened on 16 April 1926 as part of the line's extension from Palais Royal to Pont Marie with the name "Pont Notre-Dame-Pont au Change". It had no direct connection with "Châtelet". On 15 April 1934 a connecting corridor was opened to the platforms of lines 1 and 4 and the line 7 station was renamed. The line 11 platforms were opened near the line 7 platforms on 28 April 1935 as part of the original section of the line from "Châtelet" to Porte des Lilas.  On 9 December 1977 the Châtelet – Les Halles RER station was opened with a connecting corridor with a moving walkway to "Châtelet". The line 14 platforms were opened near the line 1 and 4 platforms on 15 October 1998 as part of the original section of the line from Madeleine to Bibliothèque François Mitterrand. On 7 and 8 March 2009 the line 1 platforms were restored during the automation of line 1, including the installation of platform screen doors.  It is named after the Place du Châtelet, which is named after the Grand Châtelet, a castle over the northern approach to the old Pont au Change over the Seine to the Île de la Cité, which was demolished by Napoléon in 1802. "Châtelet" is a medieval French term for "barbican", a small castle that commands (overlooks) a bridge or defile.

Châtelet () is a station of the Paris Métro and of Île-de-France's regional high-speed RER in the centre of medieval Paris and the 1st arrondissement and 4th arrondissement. It serves lines line A, line B, and line D of the RER and serves lines 1, 4, 7, 11, and 14 of the Paris Métro and is the southern terminus of Paris Métro Line 11. The station is made up of two parts connected by a long corridor: Lines 7 and 11 under the Place du Châtelet and the Quai de Gesvre (site of the original medieval river port of Paris), next to the Seine; Lines 1, 4 and 14 towards Rue Saint-Denis and the Rue de Rivoli.


Ethnic history.

Before A.D. 600 the whole of Setomaa was within the vast northern Finnic lands of the indigenous Finno-Ugric peoples. The first significant event that separated Setos from Estonians was forced conversion of the latter into Catholicism in the 13th century, while Setos who lived in Novgorod Land remained pagans. In the 15th century Setos were converted into Orthodox Christianity but kept their vernacular beliefs. Later elements of Catholic culture were brought to the Setos by Estonian colonists, while in Estonia itself they nearly disappeared after the Lutheran reformation in Estonia.

The border issue.

In 1920, with the peace treaty of Tartu, the area Setomaa (Setoland) was ceded to the newly created Republic of Estonia and it was included into Petseri County. As a result of World War II, the Republic of Estonia was forcibly annexed to the Soviet Union. And on August 15, 1944 the border between the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic was revised by Moscow authorities to what it is now. The issue became topical as the Republic of Estonia was restored in the borders of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1991 and a national border was established soon afterwards. The establishment of the border brought about the division of Setomaa between two countries for the first time in history.

Seto leelo.

In 2009, the Setos' polyphonic style of folk singing, called leelo, was added to the UNESCO list of intangible cultural heritage. Seto leelo is usually performed by women, dressed in traditional clothing. During the Seto Kingdom Day celebration, the winning lead singer of a leelo group is awarded the title of "Mother of Song".

Representative organisations.

The Seto Congress, a body comprising representatives of Seto villages and organisations, is regularly convened every three years and elects a permanent Council of Elders.  The Society for Seto Congress was a member of the European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages. The Setomaa federation of municipalities in Estonia ("Setomaa Valdade Liit", comprising the communes of Mikitämäe, Värska, Meremäe and Misso) publishes the newspaper "Setomaa", partly in the Seto language, partly in Estonian.  Also, every year the Seto choose a steward of King Peko ("sootska" or "ülebtsootska") for the so-called Kingdom of Setomaa at the annual celebration of the Day of the Kingdom ("Seto Kuningriigi päiv"), a local festival that rotates among the bigger Seto villages. The office is largely ceremonial and has been held by local activists, politicians, entrepreneurs and scholars. The tradition was initiated by Paul Hagu, an ethnic Seto and a researcher of Seto folk songs and traditional vocal polyphony (Leelo) at the University of Tartu.

Setos (, "setoq",, "setud") are an indigenous Finno-Ugric ethnic and linguistic minority in south-eastern Estonia and north-western Russia. Setos are mostly Seto-speaking Orthodox Christians of Estonian nationality. The Seto language (like Finnish and Estonian) belongs to the Finnic group of the Uralic languages. The Setos seek greater recognition, rather than having their language considered a dialect of Estonian. Along with Orthodox Christianity, vernacular traditional folk religion is widely practiced and supported by Setos.


Line 1.

The line 1 station was one of the eight original stations opened as part of the first section of line 1 between Porte de Vincennes and Porte Maillot on 19 July 1900. It was built with a length of 100 metres instead of the 75-metre length used for the stations of the line before their extension during the rebuilding of the line for rubber-tyre operation. The station was built cut and cover and is covered by a 23.90-metre-wide metal deck, which supports the streets above. It originally had four lines flanking two 6-metre-wide platforms in order to accommodate the proposed circular line (then called "Line 2"), although this was never completed. From 1 August 1906 the northern terminus of Line 5 was temporarily located at the spare platforms, requiring a reversal at Quai de la Rapée. On 17 December 1906 Line 5 was extended to Jacques Bonsergent and the section between "Quai de la Rapée" and "Gare de Lyon" was closed. The route of the closed line and the spare platforms at "Gare de Lyon" were used as part of a 60 cm (24 in) gauge railway, known as the "Voie des Finances", operated by the Ministry of Finance to move currency from 1937 to 1957.  The Line 1 platforms were raised during the weekend of 18 and 19 July 2009 as part of the automation of Line 1.

Line 14.

The station of Line 14 was opened on 15 October 1998. It is located south of the Gare de Lyon in the Rue de Bercy, next to the stations of RER lines A and D. It has two lines on either side of a large central platform. Between the eastbound lane from Olympiades and the RATP headquarters is an exotic garden.  The Board of Directors of the Syndicat des transports d'Île-de-France decided on 27 May 2009 to provide funding in 2010 for a third access in the middle of the platform to facilitate movement within the busy and relatively narrow station. This new access will join the existing bridge over the tracks, which currently provides access to the RER, but is not used to access Line 14. This would separate the flow of arriving and departing passengers.

Gare de Lyon () is a station on lines 1 and 14 of the Paris Métro. It is connected to the Gare de Lyon mainline rail and RER stations within one complex and is the third-busiest station on the network with 30.91 million entering passengers in 2004, made up of 15.78m on line 1 and 15.13m on line 14.


Location.

The metro station consisting of three lines is located in front of the Gare de l'Est at the intersection of Rue du 8-Mai-1945 and Boulevard de Strasbourg, Line 4 follows a north/south axis and Lines 5 and 7 follow an east / west axis.

History.

The station was opened on 15 November 1907 as part of the extension of line 5 from "Lancry" (now Jacques Bonsergent) to Gare du Nord. The line 4 platforms were opened on 21 April 1908 as part of the first section of the line from Châtelet to Porte de Clignancourt. The line 7 platforms were opened on 5 November 1910 as part of the first section of the line from Opéra to Porte de la Villette. Lines 5 and 7 are parallel, running as four tracks with an island platform with two side platforms. Line 4 runs under 5 and 7 perpendicularly.  The station bears the name of Gare de l'Est, the station under which it is built. Its full name is Gare de l'Est-Verdun, named after the Avenue de Verdun nearby. The name Verdun is in memory of World War I's Battle of Verdun to which French soldiers were sent from the railway station.  From September 2006 to June 2007, Gare de l'Est and its metro station underwent a major renovation thanks to the "Gares en mouvement" and "Un métro + beau" projects, to accommodate a more beautiful and modern station the LGV Est line. On the platforms of Lines 5 and 7, orange tiles and blue paint gave way to traditional white tiles. The lights were also replaced, and the latest model of "smiley" style seating had been installed. Finally, the "Parisine" typeface replaced the "Motte" typeface, symbolizing the end of work on the platform. The new standard signage was installed throughout the station.  Only slight changes occurred on the platforms of Line 4. Apart from the replacement of the orange "Motte" tiles at the ends of the platforms and the passage of a layer of paint on the damaged tile of the vault.  In 2018, it was the fifth busiest metro station in the network, with 21,432,041 million passengers passing through the train station.

Passenger services.

Access.

The station has eight accesses:

Bus and RER connections.

The station is served by Lines 31, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46, 56, 91 and the OpenTour tourist line of the RATP Bus Network and, at night, by Lines N01, N02, N13, N14, N41, N42, N43, N44, N45, N140, N141, N142, N143, N144 and N145 of the Noctilian network.  As the name suggests, the metro station is connected to the train station Gare de Paris-Est. The maps for metro Line 7 indicate a connection with the RER E at the Gare de Magenta, although it is necessary to use the public road to reach it. This connection does not appear on the plans of Lines 4 and 5, a direct connection with the RER E can be made at the nearby Gare du Nord.

Gare de l'Est-Verdun () is a station of the Paris Métro, serving Lines 4, 5, and 7 is located in the 10th arrondissement in Paris, France. It is the fifth busiest station on the network.


History.

On 15 November 1907, Line 5 was extended from Gare d'Orléans (now known as Gare d'Austerlitz) to Gare du Nord where the station was built on a reversing loop. On 21 April 1908, Line 4 was opened from Châtelet to Porte de Clignancourt through Gare du Nord.  On 5 October 1942, the old Line 5 station was closed and replaced with a through station on 12 October 1942, in preparation for the extension to Église de Pantin. The part of the old loop that was not destroyed during the building of RER B in the 1970s, together with connecting lines to Line 2 and Line 4 under the Boulevard de Magenta and Rue de Dunkerque, are now used for driver training (USFRT). The length of platforms on Line 4 were extended from 75 metres to 90 metres in the 1960s during the upgrading of the line for rubber-tyre operations.  On 10 December 1981, the RER B station at Gare du Nord opened. The RER D station opened on 27 September 1987 with the rest of the line, while Gare de Magenta on the RER E line opened on 14 July 1999. The Church of Saint-Vincent-de-Paul is located nearby.

Passenger services.

Access.

Access to the station, designed in 1900 by the architect Hector Guimard of the "Compagnie Générale du Métropolitain de Paris", has been listed as a historic monument since 29 May 1978.  It has four entrances:

Platforms.

The stations of the two lines are of a standard configuration: they include two platforms flanking two tracks under an elliptical vault. However, the Line 4 station also has a later extension, recognizable by its much higher ceiling and mezzanine.  The platforms of Line 5 are decorated in the "Andreu-Motte" style: the fittings are orange, but the tiles are white and beveled. The advertising frames are metallic and the name of the station is indicated on enamelled plates, in Parisine font. Line 4 platforms are under construction and platform screen doors are being installed from September 2019.

Bus and RER connections.

From the station, it is possible, thanks to underground links, to reach the RER B and RER D lines, the Gare de Magenta of the RER E and the La Chapelle of the Line 2.  The station is served by lines 26, 31, 35, 38, 39, 43, 45, 46, 48, 54, 56, 91, 302 and the OpenTour tourist line of the RATP Bus Network and, at night, by lines N01, N02, N14, N43, N44, N140 and N143 of the Noctilien network.

Gare du Nord () is a station on Line 4 and Line 5 of the Paris Métro. It is the busiest station in the system (not including RER stations), with 48 million entrances a year. It is connected to the SNCF railway station Gare du Nord (literally, "North Station", until 1938 run by the well-known company Chemins de Fer du Nord), which is served by RER B, RER D and Transilien Nord commuter trains as well as interurban trains to northern France, Eurostar trains to London and Thalys trains to Brussels, Amsterdam and Cologne. The station is also connected to the La Chapelle Métro station on Line 2 and to the Magenta RER station on RER E.


Family and education.

Conway was the second son of Francis Seymour-Conway, 1st Baron Conway (whose elder brother Popham Seymour-Conway had inherited the Conway estates) by his third wife, Charlotte Seymour-Conway (née Shorter). He entered Eton College in 1732 and from that time enjoyed a close friendship with his cousin Horace Walpole.

Early army career.

Conway joined the Molesworth's Regiment of Dragoons on 27 June 1737 as a lieutenant. He was transferred to the 1st Foot Guards and was promoted to captain on 14 February 1741 and to captain-lieutenant (the equivalent of lieutenant colonel) on 10 May 1742.  During the War of Austrian Succession he served on the staff of Field Marshal George Wade at Dettingen in June 1743 and on the staff of the Duke of Cumberland at the Fontenoy in May 1745. Appointed colonel of the 48th Foot on 6 April 1746, he took part in Culloden later that month during the Jacobite Rebellion. His next battle, in July 1747, was at Lauffeld, in which he narrowly escaped death, being captured by the French but released on parole a few days later. In July 1749, he transferred from the 48th Foot to the 34th Foot, and served with his regiment in the garrison of Menorca in 1751.

Early political career.

Conway was elected unopposed to the Irish Parliament in 1741 for Antrim County, and to the British Parliament for Higham Ferrers in December 1741 on the recommendation of Sir Robert Walpole. He was elected in 1747 for Penryn and for St Mawes in 1754, both in the Boscawen interest. He was promoted to major-general on 12 March 1755.  In April 1755, he was unexpectedly appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland by William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington, the new Lord Lieutenant. He then finally took his seat for County Antrim in the Irish House of Commons in October 1755. It was hoped that he would resolve the conflict in Irish politics between the Speaker, Henry Boyle on the one side and George Stone, Archbishop of Armagh and John Ponsonby: ultimately, he reached a compromise, acceptable to the British Ministry, in which Boyle was bought off with an earldom and John Ponsonby became Speaker. He became a Groom of the Bedchamber in April 1757 to both George II and George III (until 1764).

Seven Years War.

Conway was the British military second in command on the Rochefort expedition in 1757, and repeatedly advocated an attack on Fort Fouras, but his colleagues would only agree a night attack (which failed). Ultimately the expedition returned to Portsmouth having achieved nothing. Though Mordaunt (the commander in chief) was acquitted by his court-martial, the affair damaged both their reputations. In his displeasure, George II refused to employ Conway on the 1758 campaigns. He was not employed again until the next reign, except that he was sent to sign a cartel for an exchange of prisoners at Sluys in 1759. On 21 April 1759 he became colonel of the 1st The Royal Dragoons and on 25 August 1759 he was promoted to lieutenant general.  In 1761, he served in Germany as deputy to John Manners, Marquess of Granby, the British commander in the army led by Ferdinand of Brunswick. At the Battle of Villinghausen in July 1761 he commanded a corps which was at the centre of the line and not attacked. He was also present at the Battle of Wilhelmsthal in June 1762, and captured the castle of Waldeck the following month. After peace preliminaries were signed at Fontainebleau in November, he supervised the embarkation of British troops from Europe, returning to England in March.

Later political career.

Conway was re-elected to the House of Commons in April 1761, this time for Thetford and on 4 July 1761 he became a member of the Privy Council. As a senior member of the Rockingham faction of the Whigs, he opposed the King's legal actions against the reformist John Wilkes in 1763 which resulted in his dismissal in 1764 as a Groom of the Bedchamber and as Colonel of the 1st Royal Dragoons. This led to the publication of accusation and counter-accusation in pamphlets, as it was feared that the government intended to purge the army of its political opponents.  He entered office with Lord Rockingham as Secretary of State for the Southern Department in July 1765 before switching to the Northern Department in May 1766, serving until January 1768, when he became a Minister without Portfolio. In these offices, Conway sought to urge a moderate policy towards the American colonies, being the principal supporter of the repeal of the Stamp Act, and opposing the taxation policies of Chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend.

Return to the Army.

Following his resignation in January 1768, Conway returned to the military, and was made a full general on 26 May 1772 and Governor of Jersey on 22 October 1772. He remained an important figure in the Commons, opposing the British attempt to suppress the American Revolt. He was rewarded with a cabinet position and the office of Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in the new Rockingham ministry in March 1782. His political career came to an end in 1784 when he lost his seat in parliament due to his opposition to the new government of William Pitt and he focused thereafter on his military responsibilities retaining his post as Commander-in Chief until his complete retirement in January 1793. He was promoted to field marshal on 18 October 1793 and died, at his home, Park Place at Remenham in Berkshire, on 9 July 1795.

Family.

On 19 December 1747 he married Caroline, the widow of Charles Bruce, 4th Earl of Elgin and 3rd Earl of Ailesbury, and daughter of Lieutenant-General John Campbell, later the 4th Duke of Argyll. They had one daughter, the sculptor Anne Seymour Damer.

Field Marshal Henry Seymour Conway (1721 – 9 July 1795) was a British general and statesman. A brother of the 1st Marquess of Hertford, and cousin of Horace Walpole, he began his military career in the War of the Austrian Succession. He held various political offices including Chief Secretary for Ireland, Secretary of State for the Southern Department, Leader of the House of Commons and Secretary of State for the Northern Department. He eventually rose to the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Forces.


Location.

The stations of Lines 4 and 12 are located to the north under the Boulevard du Montparnasse while those of Lines 6 and 13 are south under Boulevard de Vaugirard and l'Avenue du Maine respectively.

History.

On 24 April 1906 the station opened as Montparnasse station in the Avenue du Maine at the southern end of the old Gare Montparnasse (at the site currently occupied by the Tour Montparnasse, before the station was moved south of the Avenue du Maine in the 1960s) with the opening of the extension of Line 2 Sud from Passy to Place d'Italie. On 14 October 1907 Line 2 Sud became part of Line 5. On 11 March 1910 the Montparnasse station was renamed Avenue du Maine and on 30 June 1933 it was again renamed, to Bienvenüe in honour of the principal engineer of the Paris Métro, Fulgence Bienvenüe (accounting for the unusual diaeresis in the station's name). On 12 October 1942 the section of Line 5 between Étoile and Place d'Italie, including Bienvenüe, was transferred from Line 5 to Line 6 in order to separate the underground and elevated sections of the Métro (because the latter were more vulnerable to air attack during World War II).  The Line 4 platforms opened as Montparnasse in the Boulevard du Montparnasse, near the main entrance of the old Gare Montparnasse (on its northern side) on 9 January 1910 as part of the connecting section of the line under the Seine between Châtelet and Raspail. The Line 12 platforms were opened in the Boulevard du Montparnasse on 5 November 1910 as part of the first section of the Nord-Sud Company's Line C from Porte de Versailles to Notre-Dame-de-Lorette. This line was taken over by the Compagnie du chemin de fer métropolitain de Paris and was renamed Line 12 on 27 March 1931. In 1913 a connection was opened between the platforms of Lines 4 and Line 12 situated on the Boulevard du Montparnasse, both called Montparnasse.  The Line 13 platforms opened in the Avenue du Maine as Bienvenüe on 21 January 1937 as part of the original Line 14 between there and Porte de Vanves, and were connected to the Line 5 platforms. This line became part of Line 13 on 9 November 1976.

Connecting the southern and northern stations.

At the end of the 1930s, a long corridor was built to connect the Montparnasse and Bienvenüe stations. Accordingly, the stations' names were fused to create Montparnasse-Bienvenüe on 6 October 1942. This long corridor is now equipped with moving walkways to facilitate access between the two parts of the station. The old Bienvenüe station serves lines 6 and 13, while the old Montparnasse station serves lines 4 and 12.  In 2002, in an experimental move, the RATP installed a moving walkway that moved at 12 km/h, which was then termed the "fastest in the world." (The speed has however since been reduced to 9 km/h). The first several metres consist of metal rollers that accelerate passengers as they hold onto the handrail, because it would be dangerous to step directly onto the fast-moving conveyor. However, RATP announced in May 2009 that they would replace the walkway with an ordinary one in March 2011 in response to 'numerous customer complaints concerning safety and unreliability'.

Barrière du Maine.

The southern part of the station in the Avenue du Maine was the location of the "Barrière du Maine", a gate built for the collection of taxation as part of the Wall of the Farmers-General; the gate was built between 1784 and 1788 and demolished in the nineteenth century.

Passenger services.

Access.

The station has seven entrances:

Platforms.

The platforms of Line 6 are decorated in the "Mouton" style with orange tiles and orange luminous lighting strips. Those of Line 12 are in the "Ouï-dire" style with green lighting strips and "Motte" seats, white flat tiles and white cylindrical advertising frames. The platforms of Line 13 are built in the "Andreu-Motte" style with green lightning strips and green tiled benches, tympanum's and openings. Green "Motte" seats are married with the original CMP decoration (white bevelled tiled walls, the name in faience and honey colour advertising frames). These platforms are equipped with platform screen doors. In 2017, the platforms of Line 4 were under construction.

Bus connections.

The station is served:

Nearby.

Nearby are the Montparnasse district, the Tour Montparnasse office tower, the Musée Bourdelle (art museum), the Montparnasse Cemetery, the Musée de La Poste (postal museum) and the Jardin Atlantique (a rooftop garden on the roof of the Gare Montparnasse rail terminal).

Montparnasse – Bienvenüe () is a station of the Paris Métro which is a transfer point between Line 4, Line 6, Line 12 and Line 13. The fourth busiest station on the Métro system, it is located in Montparnasse at the intersection of the 6th, 14th and 15th arrondissements.


Location.

The Place d'Italie was the site of the "Barrière d'Italie", a gate of in the Wall of the Farmers-General, built to enforce tax collections on goods entering Paris between 1784 and 1791, where the old Roman road towards Lyon and Rome began. The station is situated at the crossing of five large Parisian streets: the "Avenue d'Italie", the "Boulevard Auguste Blanqui", the "Avenue des Gobelins", the "Boulevard de l'Hôpital", and the "Boulevard Vincent Auriol". It was the starting point of the road connecting Paris to Italy, the current N7.

History.

The first platforms opened as part of the former Line 2 South on 24 April 1906, when it was extended from Passy. On 17 December 1906, "Line 2 South" was extended to Lancry. On 14 October 1907 "Line 2 South" was incorporated into Line 5. On 1 March 1909, Line 6 was opened from Place d'Italie to Nation.  The Line 7 platforms opened on 15 February 1930 as part of a planned section of line Line 7, which was temporarily operated as part of Line 10 until the completion of the under-Seine crossing of line 7 from Pont de Sully to Place Monge. The station was integrated into line 7 on 26 April 1931. On 12 October 1942, the "Place d'Italie" Étoile section was transferred from line 5 to line 6 in order to separate the underground and elevated sections of the metro (because the latter were more vulnerable to air attack). As a result, Line 5, rather than Line 6, terminated at "Place d'Italie".  Like one-third of the stations in the network between 1974 and 1984, the three stopping points were modernized by adopting the decorative style "Andreu-Motte", in yellow for line 5, blue for line 6 and green for line 7. However, the wharf of line 5 will be later removed its yellow tiled bench seat, which was surmounted by seats "Motte" features resembling its hue.  From 25 June to 2 September 2007, the platforms of Line 5 were closed to allow a modification of the track plan with the aim of reusing the loop of Italy, to increase the frequency of the line. the terminus was then temporarily shifted to the neighboring Campo-Formio metro station.  As part of the RATP's "Renouveau du métro" program, the corridors of the station were renovated from 31 March 2008. In the mid-2010s, the Line 7 station, in turn, underwent a minor modernization with green tiled benches replaced with contemporary seats of the same color.  From 25 November to 11 December 2015, the platforms of station 6 (as well as the exterior of an MP 73 train) were decorated in a Star Wars theme, during the theatrical release, Star Wars, Episode VII: The Awakening of the Force. At the end of 2016, its blue checked banquettes were replaced by contemporary seats of the same color.  In 2018, 11,508,361 travelers entered this station which places it at the 13th position of the metro stations for its attendance.

Passenger services.

Access.

There are four access points to Place d'Italie station:

Platforms.

Each stopping point has an elliptical vault and an "Andreu-Motte" style decoration, but the characteristic benches and seats have been gradually removed over the years.  The terminus of Line 5 is in the form of a curved station with two lanes framing a central platform. The "Motte" style is only represented by two yellow luminous strips, while the platform has a few white "sit-stand" bars. Bevelled white ceramic tiles cover the walls, vault and tympans. The advertising frames are metallic and the name of the station is written in capital letters on enamelled plates.  The platforms of Line 6 are of standard configuration. Two in number, they are separated by the metro tracks in the center. The decoration is materialized by two blue luminous strips and tympans treated in blue flat tiling, except to the right of the access outlets. The latter are covered with white beveled tiles, as are the walls and the vault. The advertising frames are metallic and the name of the station is written on enamelled plates, with an unusual font for the Paris metro. The seats are "Akiko" style blue.  The Line 7 station is also available. It has two green light luminous and "Akiko" seats of the same color. Bevelled white ceramic tiles cover the piers, the vault, the tympanums and the outlets of the corridors. The advertising frames are a faience honey color and the name of the station is also faience in the style of the original CMP.

Bus connections.

The station is served by Lines 27, 47, 57, 59, 61, 64, 67 and 83 of the RATP Bus Network. At night, it is served by lines N15, N22, N31 and N144 of the Noctilien network.

Place d'Italie (, literally ""Italy Square"") is a rapid transit station of the Paris Métro located in the heart of the 13th arrondissement of Paris, at the Place d'Italie. It is the southern terminus of Line 5 and is also served by Line 6 and Line 7.


Development.

Operational use of the Gotha G.IV demonstrated that the incorporation of the fuel tanks into the engine nacelles was a mistake. In a crash landing the tanks could rupture and spill fuel onto the hot engines. This posed a serious problem because landing accidents caused 75% of operational losses. In response Gothaer produced the G.V, which housed its fuel tanks inside the fuselage. The smaller engine nacelles were mounted on struts above the lower wing.  The Gotha G.V pilot seat was offset to port, with the fuel tanks immediately behind. This blocked the connecting walkway that previously on earlier machines allowed crew members to move between the three gun stations. All bombs were carried externally in this model.  The base variant of G.V offered no performance improvement over the G.IV. The G.V was up to 450 kg (990 lb) heavier than the G.IV due to additional equipment and the use of insufficiently seasoned timber. The Mercedes D.IVa engines could not produce the rated 190 kW (260 hp) due to inferior quality of fuel.

Gotha tunnel.

The Gotha included an important innovation in the form of a "gun tunnel", whereby the underside of the rear fuselage was arched, early versions allowing placement of a rearward-facing machine gun, protecting against attack from below, removing the blind spot. Later versions expanded the tunnel to remove the lower gun, providing a slot in the upper fuselage that allowed the rear gunner to remain stationary.

Operational history.

The G.V entered service in August 1917. For the performance reasons aforementioned, it generally could not operate at altitudes as high as the G.IV.

Variants.

G.Va.

In February 1918, Gother tested a compound tail unit with biplane horizontal stabilizers and twin rudders. The new tail unit, known as the "Kastensteuerung", improved the aircraft's marginal directional control on one engine. The resulting G.Va subvariant incorporated the new tail, as well as a slightly shorter forward fuselage with an auxiliary nose landing gear. All 25 G.Va aircraft were delivered to "Bogohl" 3, the new designation for the former "Kagohl" 3.

G.Vb.

Carried an increased payload comparing to the earlier G.Va, and operated at a maximum takeoff weight of 4,550 kg (10,030 lb). To reduce the danger of flipping over during landing, Gothaer introduced the "Stossfahrgestell" ("shock landing gear"), a tandem two-bogie main landing gear. The "Stossfahrgestell" proved so good that it was fitted to all G.Vs in "Bogohl" 3. Some G.Vb aircraft also had Flettner servo tabs on the ailerons to reduce control forces.  "Idflieg" ordered 80 G.Vb aircraft, the first being delivered to "Bogohl" 3 in June 1918. By the Armistice, all 80 aircraft were built but the last batch did not reach the front and was delivered direct to the Allied special commission.

The Gotha G.V was a heavy bomber used by the "Luftstreitkräfte" (Imperial German Air Service) during World War I. Designed for long-range service, the Gotha G.V was used principally as a night bomber.


Life.

In the 1990s, Rappaz began to fight for the liberalization of the hemp trade and consumption. In November 2008 he was found guilty in Martigny Court for hemp grown between 1996 and 2001, violating the controlled substances law and committing money laundering. The police had seized about 50 tons of hemp with him. During the trial, he confessed to having sold five tons and made a total of about five million francs (= approx. 3.5 million euro). He also made claims about "healing powers of marijuana". Rappaz was sentenced to six years in jail. The state's attorney had asked for ten years.  On March 20, 2010, he was imprisoned in Sion. He joined in a hunger strike to protest against what he considered unlawful criminal proceedings against him. He was transferred to the prison wing of "Inselspital" (University Hospital of Bern). The Conseil d'État Esther Waeber-Kalbermatten ordered a force feeding for the first grant in July 2010. On July 21, the Valais authorities gave him house arrest at his residence in Saxon. For the time being, he ended his hunger strike.  On August 26, 2010, in the Federal Court a public consultation of the judgment dismissed the appeal of Rappaz when his request for a reduced sentence was rejected. decided that the conditions for an interruption of the penitentiary system were not given it. if necessary a force-feeding could be arranged by the prison authority, unless a permanent injury or death of the criminal inmates could not otherwise be averted. Affiliated Rappaz was transferred to jail, where he again joined in a hunger strike. A further appeal against the denial of detention under breakage after 77 days of a hunger strike refused the Valais cantonal court on November 11, 2010.  On November 18, 2010, a pardon was rejected by members of the Pennine great Council in an election.  According to media reports from the 23rd December 2010 Rappaz has decided to end his hunger strike (at times with salt, vitamins and sugared tea) after 120 days to December 24. This was on the advice of the European Court of Human Rights, that he had turned down, after he failed at all domestic instances. The Court had rejected Rappaz' demand for immediate action and requires him to break his hunger strike during the procedure.  In May 2011, Rappaz was sentenced to an additional term of imprisonment of one year without probation. The Court found him of money laundering, of violating the Narcotics Law and document forgery. Rappaz' defender announced appeal.

Bernard Rappaz (born 18 February 1953) is a former Swiss farmer from Valais. He was known for his production of cannabis and was nicknamed "Hanfbauer" (hemp farmer).


Association team allocation.

A total of 76 teams participated in the 2011–12 Champions League from 52 UEFA associations (Liechtenstein organises no domestic league competition). Associations are allocated places according to their 2010 UEFA country coefficients, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2005–06 to 2009–10.  Below is the qualification scheme for the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League:

Distribution.

Since the winners of the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League, Barcelona, obtained a place in the group stage through their domestic league placing, the reserved title holder spot in the group stage was effectively vacated. To compensate:

Teams.

League positions of the previous season shown in parentheses.

Round and draw dates.

All draws held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland unless stated otherwise.

Qualifying rounds.

In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2011 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association cannot be drawn against each other.

First qualifying round.

The draw for the first and second qualifying rounds was held on 20 June 2011. The first legs were played on 28 June, and the second legs were played on 5 and 6 July 2011.

Second qualifying round.

The first legs were played on 12 and 13 July, and the second legs were played on 19 and 20 July 2011.

Third qualifying round.

The draw for the third qualifying round was held on 15 July 2011. The first legs were played on 26 and 27 July, and the second legs were played on 2 and 3 August 2011.  The third qualifying round was split into two separate sections: one for champions (called the Champions Route) and one for non-champions (called the League Route). The losing teams in both sections entered the play-off round of the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League.

Play-off round.

The draw for the play-off round was held on 5 August 2011. The first legs were played on 16 and 17 August, and the second legs were played on 23 and 24 August 2011.  The play-off round was split into two separate sections: one for champions (called the Champions Route) and one for non-champions (called the League Route). The losing teams in both sections entered the group stage of the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League.

Group stage.

The group stage features 32 teams, which were allocated into pots based on their 2011 UEFA club coefficients (except the title holders, Barcelona, who were placed in Pot 1 automatically), and then drawn into eight groups of four. Teams from the same association cannot be drawn against each other. The draw was held on 25 August 2011 in Monaco.  In each group, teams play against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The matchdays are 13–14 September, 27–28 September, 18–19 October, 1–2 November, 22–23 November, and 6–7 December 2011. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 16, while the third-placed teams entered the round of 32 of the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League.  If two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following criteria are applied to determine the rankings (in descending order):  The 32 teams contain eleven former winners of the European Cup/Champions League (40 titles combined), and five teams (Manchester City, Napoli, Trabzonspor, Viktoria Plzeň and Oțelul Galați) which made their début appearance in the group stage. Eighteen UEFA member associations are represented in this group stage: England and Spain by four clubs, Italy, Germany and France by three, Russia and Portugal by two, while eleven associations are represented by one club, which are all domestic champions except Trabzonspor, which replaced Fenerbahçe due to match-fixing allegations.

Knockout phase.

In the knockout phase, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final. The draw for the round of 16 was held on 16 December 2011. The draws for the quarter-finals, semi-finals and final (to determine the "home" team) were held on 16 March 2012. Both draws were assisted by German footballer Paul Breitner, the ambassador for the 2012 final.  In the draw for the round of 16, the eight group winners were seeded, and the eight group runners-up were unseeded. The seeded teams were drawn against the unseeded teams, with the seeded team hosting the second leg. Teams from the same group or the same association could not be drawn against each other. In the draws for the quarter-finals onwards, there are no seedings, and teams from the same group or the same association may be drawn with each other.

Round of 16.

The first legs were played on 14, 15, 21 and 22 February, and the second legs were played on 6, 7, 13 and 14 March 2012.

Quarter-finals.

The first legs were played on 27 and 28 March, and the second legs were played on 3 and 4 April 2012.

Semi-finals.

The first legs were played on 17 and 18 April, and the second legs were played on 24 and 25 April 2012.

Final.

The final was played on 19 May 2012 at the Allianz Arena in Munich, Germany.

Statistics.

Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round.

The 2011–12 UEFA Champions League was the 57th season of Europe's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 20th season in its current Champions League format. As part of a trial that started in the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League, two extra officials – one behind each goal – were used in all matches of the competition from the play-off round.


Origin.

Previously, the Syrian plains were not considered as the homeland of Halaf culture, and the Halafians were seen either as hill people who descended from the nearby mountains of southeastern Anatolia, or herdsmen from northern Iraq. However, those views changed with the recent archaeology conducted since 1986 by Peter Akkermans, which have produced new insights and perspectives about the rise of Halaf culture. A formerly unknown transitional culture between the pre-Halaf Neolithic's era and Halaf's era was uncovered in the Balikh valley, at Tell Sabi Abyad (the Mound of the White Boy).  Currently, eleven occupational layers have been unearthed in Sabi Abyad. Levels from 11 to 7 are considered "pre-Halaf"; from 6 to 4, transitional; and from 3 to 1, "early Halaf". No hiatus in occupation is observed except between levels 11 and 10. The new archaeology demonstrated that Halaf culture was not sudden and was not the result of foreign people, but rather a continuous process of indigenous cultural changes in northern Syria, that spread to the other regions.

Culture.

Architecture.

Although no Halaf settlement has been extensively excavated some buildings have been excavated: the tholoi of Tell Arpachiyah, circular domed structures approached through long rectangular anterooms. Only a few of these structures were ever excavated. They were constructed of mud-brick sometimes on stone foundations and may have been for ritual use (one contained a large number of female figurines). Other circular buildings were probably just houses.

Halaf pottery.

The best known, most characteristic pottery of Tell Halaf, called Halaf ware, produced by specialist potters, can be painted, sometimes using more than two colors (called polychrome) with geometric and animal motifs. Other types of Halaf pottery are known, including unpainted, cooking ware and ware with burnished surfaces. There are many theories about why the distinctive pottery style developed.  The theory is that the pottery came about due to regional copying and that it was exchanged as a prestige item between local elites is now disputed. The polychrome painted Halaf pottery has been proposed to be a "trade pottery"—pottery produced for export—however, the predominance of locally produced painted pottery in all areas of Halaf sites including potters settlement questions that theory.  Halaf pottery has been found in other parts of northern Mesopotamia, such as at Nineveh and Tepe Gawra, Chagar Bazar and at many sites in Anatolia (Turkey) suggesting that it was widely used in the region. In addition, the Halaf communities made female figurines of partially baked clay and stone and stamp seals of stone, (see also Impression seal). The seals are thought to mark the development of concepts of personal property, as similar seals were used for this purpose in later times. The Halaf people used tools made of stone and clay. Copper was also known, but was not used for tools.

Stamp seals.

The Halaf culture saw the earliest known appearance of stamp seals in the Near East. They featured essentially geometric patterns.

Economy.

Dryland farming was practiced by the population. This type of farming was based on exploiting natural rainfall without the help of irrigation, in a similar practice to that still practiced today by the Hopi people of Arizona. Emmer wheat, two-rowed barley and flax were grown. They kept cattle, sheep and goats.

Halaf's end (Northern Ubaid).

Halaf culture ended by 5000 BC after entering the so-called Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period. Many Halafians settlements were abandoned, and the remaining ones showed Ubaidian characters. The new period is named Northern Ubaid to distinguish it from the proper Ubaid in southern Mesopotamia, and two explanations were presented for the transformation. The first maintain an invasion and a replacement of the Halafians by the Ubaidians, however, there is no hiatus between the Halaf and northern Ubaid which exclude the invasion theory. The most plausible theory is a Halafian adoption of the Ubaid culture, which is supported by most scholars including Oates, Breniquet and Akkermans.

The Halaf culture is a prehistoric period which lasted between about 6100 BC and 5100 BC. The period is a continuous development out of the earlier Pottery Neolithic and is located primarily in the fertile valley of the Khabur River (Nahr al-Khabur), of south-eastern Turkey, Syria, and northern Iraq, although Halaf-influenced material is found throughout Greater Mesopotamia.


Association team allocation.

A total of 194 teams from 53 UEFA associations participated in the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League. Associations are allocated places according to their 2010 UEFA country coefficients, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2005–06 to 2009–10.  Below is the qualification scheme for the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League:

Distribution.

Since the winners of the 2010–11 UEFA Europa League, Porto, qualified for the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League through domestic performance, the title holder spot reserved for them in the group stage was vacated. As a result, the following changes to the default allocation system were made to compensate for the vacant title holder spot in the group stage:

Redistribution rules.

A Europa League place is vacated when a team qualifies for both the Champions League and the Europa League, or qualifies for the Europa League by more than one method. When a place is vacated, it is redistributed within the national association by the following rules:

Teams.

The labels in the parentheses show how each team qualified for the place of its starting round:

Round and draw dates.

All draws held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland unless stated otherwise.  Matches in the qualifying, play-off, and knockout rounds may also be played on Tuesdays or Wednesdays instead of the regular Thursdays due to scheduling conflicts.

Qualifying rounds.

In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2011 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association cannot be drawn against each other.

First qualifying round.

The draw for the first and second qualifying rounds was held on 20 June 2011. The first legs were played on 30 June, and the second legs were played on 7 July 2011.

Second qualifying round.

The first legs were played on 14 July, and the second legs were played on 21 July 2011.

Third qualifying round.

The draw for the third qualifying round was held on 15 July 2011. The first legs were played on 26 and 28 July, and the second legs were played on 4 August 2011.

Play-off round.

The draw for the play-off round was held on 5 August 2011. The first legs were played on 18 August, and the second legs were played on 25 August 2011.

Group stage.

The group stage features 48 teams, which were allocated into pots based on their 2011 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into twelve groups of four. Teams from the same association cannot be drawn against each other. The draw was held on 26 August 2011 in Monaco.  In each group, teams play against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The matchdays are 15 September, 29 September, 20 October, 3 November, 30 November – 1 December, and 14–15 December 2011. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 32, where they were joined by the 8 third-placed teams from the group stage of the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League.  If two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following criteria are applied to determine the rankings (in descending order):  A total of 24 national associations are represented in this group stage (including Scotland after Celtic were reinstated into the Europa League over Sion), with England having the most teams, with four.

Knockout phase.

In the knockout phase, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final. The draw for the round of 32 and round of 16 was held on 16 December 2011. The draws for the quarter-finals, semi-finals and final (to determine the "home" team) were held on 16 March 2012. Both draws were assisted by Romanian footballer Miodrag Belodedici, the ambassador for the 2012 final.  In the draw for the round of 32, the twelve group winners and the four better third-placed teams from the Champions League group stage (based on their match record in the group stage) are seeded, and the twelve group runners-up and the other four third-placed teams from the Champions League group stage are unseeded. A seeded team is drawn against an unseeded team, with the seeded team hosting the second leg. Teams from the same group or the same association cannot be drawn against each other. In the draws for the round of 16 onwards, there are no seedings, and teams from the same group or the same association may be drawn with each other.

Bracket.

<section begin=bracket />

Round of 32.

The first legs were played on 14 and 16 February, and the second legs were played on 22 and 23 February 2012.

Round of 16.

The first legs were played on 8 March, and the second legs were played on 15 March 2012.

Quarter-finals.

The first legs were played on 29 March, and the second legs on 5 April 2012.

Semi-finals.

The first legs were played on 19 April, and the second legs were played on 26 April 2012.

Final.

The 2012 UEFA Europa League Final was played on 9 May 2012 at the Arena Națională in Bucharest, Romania.

Statistics.

Excluding qualifying rounds and play-off round.

The 2011–12 UEFA Europa League was the third season of the UEFA Europa League, Europe's secondary club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 41st edition overall including its predecessor, the UEFA Cup. It began on 30 June 2011 with the first legs of the first qualifying round, and ended on 9 May 2012 with the final held at Arena Națională in Bucharest, Romania. As part of a trial that started in the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League, two extra officials – one on each goal line – were used in all matches of the competition from the group stage.


Life and times.

He was born Wang Shouren () in Yuyao, Zhejiang Province, to a scholarly family with a tradition of bureaucratic service. His father, Wang Hua, was first ("Zhuangyuan", 狀元) in the Imperial Examination of 1481, and rose to become the vice-minister of the Ministry of Rites, but was later demoted and subsequently expelled from government service due to having offended Liu Jin, a eunuch.  Wang earned the "juren" degree in 1492 and the "jinshi" degree in 1499. He later served as an executive assistant in various government departments until banishment for offending a eunuch in 1506. However, his professional career resumed when he became the Governor of Jiangxi.

Military exploits.

Wang became a successful general and was known for the strict discipline he imposed on his troops. In 1517 and 1518, he was dispatched in response to petitions to suppress peasant revolts in Jiangxi, Fujian and Guangdong. Concerned with the destruction that came with war, he petitioned the court to allow amnesty, and successfully destroyed rebel military forces.

Suppressing the Prince of Ning.

In 1519 AD, while he was governor of Jiangxi province and on his way to suppress the revolts in Fujian, Wang was suddenly faced with the Prince of Ning rebellion, led by Zhu Chenhao the fourth Prince of Ning. Given that the prince's base in Nanchang allowed him to sail down the Yangtze River and capture the southern capital of Nanjing, Wang actively prepared for battle to prevent that possibility, while engaging in deception to convince the prince that armies were moving to surround him. The prince, deceived by this, hesitated and gave time for Nanjing to be reinforced. Eventually, forced to engage governmental forces, the Prince of Ning was defeated and captured.  In this campaign, Wang also made one of the earliest references to using the "fo-lang-ji" in battle, a breech loading culverin cannon imported from the newly arrived Portuguese venturers to China. As governor of Jiangxi he also built schools, rehabilitated the rebels, and reconstructed what was lost by the enemy during the revolt. Though he was made an earl, he was ostracized for opposing Zhu Xi.  Thirty-eight years after his death, he was given the titles Marquis and Completion of Culture. In 1584 he was offered sacrifice in the Confucian Temple, the highest honour for a scholar.

Philosophy.

Wang was the leading figure in the Neo-Confucian School of heart, founded by 陸九淵 Lu Jiuyuan of Southern Song. This school championed an interpretation of Mencius, a Classical Confucian who became the focus of later interpretation, that unified knowledge with action. Their rival school, the School of Principle ("Li") treated gaining knowledge as a kind of preparation or cultivation that, when completed, could guide action.

Innate knowing.

Out of Cheng-Zhu's Neo-Confucianism that was mainstream at the time, Wang Yangming developed the idea of "innate knowing", arguing that every person knows from birth the difference between good and evil. Wang claimed that such knowledge is intuitive and not rational. These revolutionizing ideas of Wang Yangming would later inspire prominent Japanese thinkers like Motoori Norinaga, who argued that because of the Shinto deities, Japanese people alone had the intuitive ability to distinguish good and evil without complex rationalization. His school of thought ("Ōyōmei-gaku" in Japanese, "Ō" stands for the surname "Wang", "yōmei" stands for "Yangming", "gaku" stands for "school of learning") also greatly influenced the Japanese samurai ethic.

Integration of Knowledge and Action.

Wang's rejection of the pure investigation of knowledge comes from the then traditional view of Chinese belief that once one gained knowledge, one had a duty to put that knowledge into action. This presupposed two possibilities:  Wang rejected both of these which allowed him to develop his philosophy of action. Wang believed that only through simultaneous action could one gain knowledge and denied all other ways of gaining it. To him, there was no way to use knowledge after gaining it because he believed that knowledge and action were unified as one. Any knowledge that had been gained "then put" into action was considered delusion or false.

Mind and the world.

He held that objects do not exist entirely apart from the mind because the mind shapes them. He believed that it is not the world that shapes the mind, but the mind that gives reason to the world. Therefore, the mind alone is the source of all reason. He understood this to be an inner light, an innate moral goodness and understanding of what is good.  In order to eliminate selfish desires that cloud the mind's understanding of goodness, one can practice his type of meditation often called "tranquil repose" or "sitting still" ( 靜坐 "jingzuo"). This is similar to the practice of Chan (Zen) meditation in Buddhism.

Others.

The local government in Wang's hometown, Yuyao, Zhejiang Province, named a middle school after his honorific name.

Wang Shouren (26 October 1472 – 9 January 1529), courtesy name Bo'an, was a Chinese calligrapher, military general, philosopher, politician, and writer during the Ming dynasty. After Zhu Xi, he is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker, with interpretations of Confucianism that denied the rationalist dualism of the orthodox philosophy of Zhu Xi. Wang was known as Yangming Xiansheng and/or Yangming Zi in literary circles; both mean "Master Yangming".


History.

Construction of the present building began in the 12th century, when the city was being extended towards the left bank of the Po River; the new cathedral was consecrated in 1135. The former cathedral, also dedicated to Saint George, still stands on the right bank of the river outside the city walls and is now known as St George's Basilica Outside the Walls ("San Giorgio fuori le mura").

Exterior.

The original Romanesque design is manifest in the façade, which resembles those of Modena and Parma Cathedrals: it is in white marble, with three cusps and a series of loggias, small arcades and rose windows, statues and numerous bas-reliefs. On the right side is a statue of Alberto d'Este, while on the side is a bronze bust of Pope Clement VIII, over an inscription in memory of his capture of the city.  In the centre of the façade is a porch, supported by two columns with Atlases seated on lions at the bases. It is decorated with a "Last Judgement" by an unknown master and a loggia with a Madonna and Child (a late Gothic addition). The portal is the work of the sculptor, a pupil of Wiligelmus. The lunette shows Saint George, patron saint of Ferrara, slaying the dragon; scenes from the Life of Christ appear on the lintel. The jambs framing the entrance are embellished with figures depicting the Annunciation and the four prophets who foretold the coming of Christ. According to a now-destroyed inscription, Nicholaus was responsible for the design of the original building. The two side portals on the west front are also his work, as is the lower loggia here and on the south side of the building. A second portal by Nicholaus with additions by Benedetto Antelami was present on the south side, but it was demolished during the 18th-century restorations. Some of the sculptures which decorated it are now on the piazza in front of the building (the supporting griffins), in the narthex and in the Cathedral Museum. The portal was used by pilgrims on their way to Rome. Also on the southern side is the unfinished Renaissance bell tower, in white and pink marble, attributed to Leon Battista Alberti and built in 1451-1493. The apse, in brickwork, has arches and marble capitals, and was designed by the Ferrarese architect Biagio Rossetti.

Interior.

The interior, entirely remade in Baroque style after a fire in the 18th century, has a nave and two aisles. It houses bronze statues of the Crucifixion, by Niccolò Baroncelli, and of Saints George and Maurelius, by Domenico Alfani (15th century), as well as a "Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence" by Guercino (17th century). In the side chapels are a "Madonna Enthroned with Saints" by Il Garofalo, an "Incoronation of the Virgin" by Francesco Francia and a "Virgin in Glory with Saints Barbara and Catherine" by Bastianino, who also painted the "Last Judgement" in the apse choir (1577-1581).

Museum.

The Cathedral Museum, housed in the former church of San Romano across the square, houses two works by Cosmè Tura ("Annunciation" and "St. George and the Dragon"), the "Madonna della melagrana" by Jacopo della Quercia and eight tapestries with stories of the two patron saints of Ferrara based on cartoons by Garofalo and Camillo Filippi.

Ferrara Cathedral (, "Duomo di Ferrara") is a Roman Catholic cathedral and minor basilica in Ferrara, Northern Italy. Dedicated to Saint George, the patron saint of the city, it is the seat of the Archbishop of Ferrara and the largest religious building in the city.


Motivation.

Limits.

It is often useful to describe the behavior of a function formula_2, as either the argument formula_3 or the function value formula_2 gets "infinitely large" in some sense. For example, consider the function  The graph of this function has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. Geometrically, when moving increasingly farther to the right along the formula_3-axis, the value of formula_7 approaches 0. This limiting behavior is similar to the limit of a function at a real number, except that there is no real number to which formula_3 approaches.  By adjoining the elements formula_9 and formula_10 to formula_11, it enables a formulation of a "limit at infinity", with topological properties similar to those for formula_11.  To make things completely formal, the Cauchy sequences definition of formula_11 allows defining formula_9 as the set of all sequences formula_15 of rational numbers, such that every formula_16 is associated with a corresponding formula_17 for which formula_18 for all formula_19. The definition of formula_10 can be constructed similarly.

Measure and integration.

In measure theory, it is often useful to allow sets that have infinite measure and integrals whose value may be infinite.  Such measures arise naturally out of calculus. For example, in assigning a measure to formula_11 that agrees with the usual length of intervals, this measure must be larger than any finite real number. Also, when considering improper integrals, such as  the value "infinity" arises. Finally, it is often useful to consider the limit of a sequence of functions, such as  Without allowing functions to take on infinite values, such essential results as the monotone convergence theorem and the dominated convergence theorem would not make sense.

Order and topological properties.

The affinely extended real number system can be turned into a totally ordered set, by defining formula_24 for all formula_25. With this order topology, formula_26 has the desirable property of compactness: every subset of formula_26 has a supremum and an infimum (the infimum of the empty set is formula_28 and its supremum is formula_10). Moreover, with this topology, formula_26 is homeomorphic to the unit interval formula_31. Thus the topology is metrizable, corresponding (for a given homeomorphism) to the ordinary metric on this interval. There is no metric that is an extension of the ordinary metric on formula_11.  In this topology, a set formula_33 is a neighborhood of formula_9, if and only if it contains a set formula_35 for some real number formula_25. The notion of the neighborhood of formula_10 can be defined similarly. Using this characterization of extended-real neighborhoods, the specially defined limits for formula_3 tending to formula_9 and formula_10, and the specially defined concepts of limits equal to formula_9 and formula_10, reduce to the general topological definition of limits.

Arithmetic operations.

The arithmetic operations of formula_11 can be partially extended to formula_44 as follows:  For exponentiation, see Exponentiation#Limits of powers. Here, "formula_46" means both "formula_47" and "formula_48", while "formula_49" means both "formula_50" and  The expressions formula_51 and formula_52 (called indeterminate forms) are usually left undefined. These rules are modeled on the laws for infinite limits. However, in the context of probability or measure theory, formula_53 is often defined as formula_54.  When dealing with both positive and negative extended real numbers, the expression formula_55 is usually left undefined, because, although it is true that for every real nonzero sequence formula_56 that converges to formula_54, the reciprocal sequence formula_58 is eventually contained in every neighborhood of formula_59, it is "not" true that the sequence formula_58 must itself converge to either formula_10 or formula_62. Said another way, if a continuous function formula_56 achieves a zero at a certain value formula_64, then it need not be the case that formula_58 tends to either formula_10 or formula_62 in the limit as formula_3 tends to formula_64. This is the case for the limits of the identity function formula_70 when formula_3 tends to 0, and of formula_72 (for the latter function, neither formula_10 nor formula_62 is a limit of formula_75 even if only positive values of are considered).  However, in contexts where only non-negative values are considered, it is often convenient to define formula_76. For example, when working with power series, the radius of convergence of a power series with coefficients formula_77 is often defined as the reciprocal of the limit-supremum of the sequence formula_78. Thus, if one allows formula_55 to take the value formula_9, then one can use this formula regardless of whether the limit-supremum is formula_54 or not.

Algebraic properties.

With these definitions, formula_44 is not even a semigroup, let alone a group, a ring or a field as in the case of formula_11. However, it has several convenient properties:  In general, all laws of arithmetic are valid in formula_44—as long as all occurring expressions are defined.

Miscellaneous.

Several functions can be continuously extended to formula_44 by taking limits. For instance, one may define the extremal points of the following functions as follow:formula_105  Some singularities may additionally be removed. For example, the function formula_106 can be continuously extended to formula_44 (under "some" definitions of continuity), by setting the value to formula_9 for formula_109, and formula_54 for formula_111 and formula_112. On the other hand, the function formula_113 can "not" be continuously extended, because the function approaches formula_10 as formula_3 approaches formula_54 from below, and formula_9 as formula_3 approaches formula_54 from above.  A similar but different real-line system, the projectively extended real line, does not distinguish between formula_9 and formula_10 (i.e., infinity is unsigned). As a result, a function may have limit formula_62 on the projectively extended real line, while in the affinely extended real number system, only the absolute value of the function has a limit, e.g. in the case of the function formula_113 at formula_109. On the other hand  correspond on the projectively extended real line to only a limit from the right and one from the left, respectively, with the full limit only existing when the two are equal. Thus, the functions formula_127 and formula_128 cannot be made continuous at formula_129 on the projectively extended real line.

In mathematics, the affinely extended real number system is obtained from the real number system by adding two elements: and (read as positive infinity and negative infinity respectively), where the infinities are treated as actual numbers. It is useful in describing the algebra on infinities and the various limiting behaviors in calculus and mathematical analysis, especially in the theory of measure and integration. The affinely extended real number system is denoted formula_1 or or.


Description.

Saintpaulias, which grow from 6–15 cm tall, can be anywhere from 6–30 cm wide. The leaves are rounded to oval, 2.5–8.5 cm long with a 2–10 cm petiole, finely hairy, and have a fleshy texture. The flowers are 2–3 cm in diameter, with a five-lobed velvety corolla ("petals"), and grow in clusters of 3–10 or more on slender stalks called peduncles. Wild species can have violet, purple, pale blue, or white flowers.  The plants get their common name "African violet" from their superficial resemblance to true violets ("Viola", family Violaceae).

Taxonomy.

The section was initially regarded as a separate genus. Baron Walter von Saint Paul-Illaire (1860–1940) was the district commissioner of Tanga province when he discovered the plant in Tanganyika (now Tanzania) in Africa in 1892 and sent seeds back to his father, an amateur botanist in Germany. The genus was named for Saint Paul-Illaire and his father. Two British plant enthusiasts, Sir John Kirk and the Reverend W.E. Taylor, had earlier collected and submitted specimens to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 1884 and 1887 respectively, but the quality of specimens was insufficient to permit scientific description at that time. The genus "Saintpaulia", and original species "S. ionantha", were scientifically described by H. Wendland in 1893.  Revisions of the genus by B.L. Burtt expanded the genus to approximately 20 species. Following studies which showed most of the species to be very poorly differentiated, both genetically and morphologically, the number of species was reduced to six in a 2006 treatment, with the majority of former species reduced to subspecies under "S. ionantha". In 2009, 9 species, 8 subspecies, and 2 varieties were recognized.  A molecular phylogenetic study in 2015 confirmed previous studies showing that species placed in "Saintpaulia" were deeply embedded within the genus "Streptocarpus", supporting the transfer of all "Saintpaulia" species to "Streptocarpus" in 2012. Former "Saintpaulia" species did form a monophyletic group, and were placed in section "Saintpaulia" of "Streptocarpus" subgenus "Streptocarpella".

Species.

All the species previously placed in the genus "Saintpaulia" are now placed in "Streptocarpus" in section "Saintpaulia". Ten species are recognized,.  Formerly recognized "Saintpaulia" species and infraspecies are listed below with their accepted name in "Streptocarpus".

Distribution.

Saintpaulias are native to eastern tropical Africa. There is a concentration of species in the Nguru mountains of Tanzania.

Cultivation.

Saintpaulias are widely cultivated as house plants. Until recently, only a few of these species have been used in breeding programs for the hybrids available in the market; most available as house plants are cultivars derived from "Streptocarpus ionanthus" (syn. "S. kewensis"). A wider range of species is now being looked at as sources of genes to introduce into modern cultivars.  The African Violet Society of America is the International Cultivar Registration Authority for the section and its cultivars.

Sizes.

Plants can be classified as one of several sizes based on its above-ground diameter. Although the size per category is not set in stone, these are a general guideline.

Temperature.

Saintpaulias are highly sensitive to temperature changes, especially rapid leaf cooling. Spilling cold water on African violet leaves causes discoloration. This is thought to be because rapid leaf cooling causes cell vacuole collapse in the palisade mesophyll cells.

Propagation.

African violets are commonly propagated asexually. Plants can be divided into smaller daughter plants or even grown from leaf cuttings. Growing African violets from seed is rare and most commercially available plants are produced from cuttings and tissue culture.

Flowering.

The African violet is a day-neutral plant regarding flower development.

In culture.

African violets have long been associated with mothers and motherhood. For this reason they have been a traditional gift to mothers in many cultures around the world. African violets are also associated with Easter and Valentine's Day.

Streptocarpus" sect. "Saintpaulia is a section within "Streptocarpus" subgenus "Streptocarpella" consisting of about ten species of herbaceous perennial flowering plants in the family Gesneriaceae, native to Tanzania and adjacent southeastern Kenya in eastern tropical Africa. The section was previously treated as a separate genus, but molecular phylogenetic studies showed that it was nested within the genus "Streptocarpus".


Events.

Nicholas II and his wife Alexandra were crowned Emperor and Empress of Russia on. Four days later, a banquet was going to be held for the people at Khodynka Field. In the area of one town square, theatres, 150 buffets for distribution of gifts, and 20 pubs were built for the celebrations. Near the celebration square was a field that had a ravine and many gullies. On the evening of 29 May, people who had heard rumours of coronation gifts began to gather in anticipation. The gifts which everybody was to receive were a bread roll, a piece of sausage, pretzels, gingerbread and a commemorative cup.  At about 6 o'clock in the morning of the celebration day, several thousand people (estimates reached 500,000) were already gathered on the field. Rumours spread among the people that there was not enough beer or pretzels for everybody, and that the enamel cups contained a gold coin. A police force of 1,800 men failed to maintain civil order, and in a catastrophic crowd crush and resulting panic to flee the scene, 1,389 people were trampled to death, and roughly 1,300 were injured. Most of the victims were trapped in the ditch and were trampled or suffocated there. Despite the tragedy, the program of festivities continued as planned elsewhere on the large field, with many people unaware of what had happened. The Emperor and Empress made an appearance in front of the crowds on the balcony of the Tsar's Pavilion in the middle of the field around 2 p.m. By that time the traces of the incident had been cleaned up.

Aftermath.

Emperor Nicholas and Empress Alexandra were informed of the tragedy, but not immediately. A festive ball had been scheduled that night at the French embassy to Russia. Nicholas, under the circumstances, thought it best not to attend. His uncles, however, still wielded influence at court, and considered it worse for him not to attend, and to offend the French, than for him to appear callous towards the Russian people. Nicholas, therefore, attended the ball regardless. The next day, the Emperor and his new bride visited hospitalized victims of the stampede.  The government distributed a large amount of aid to the families of the dead, and a number of minor officials were dismissed. The negligence and the tone-deaf response of the imperial authorities, however, caused further public indignation in Russia. The Emperor's uncle, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, then Governor-General of Moscow, became known as "the Prince of Khodynka" and the Emperor received the nickname of "Nicholas the Bloody". The fact that the court had declared mourning over the death of Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria a few days prior, but there was none over the deaths of 1,300 ordinary Russians, sent the wrong message.

The Khodynka Tragedy () was a human stampede that occurred on, on Khodynka Field in Moscow, Russia during the festivities after the coronation of the last Emperor of Russia, Nicholas II, which resulted in the deaths of 1,389 people.


History.

Caliban was formed in Essen, Germany in 1997 under the name "Never Again". After six months of playing together, the band recorded their first two songs for a demo, which were never released. The songs were sent to several record labels, and Lifeforce Records was the first to offer the band a record deal. The band's first self-titled EP came out in the summer of 1998. To promote it, Caliban played many shows all over Europe and a few support shows for bands including Morning Again, Earth Crisis and Cro-Mags.  After their European tour in 1999, Caliban entered the studio to record their first full-length entitled "A Small Boy and a Grey Heaven". The CD received favorable reviews in many big magazines and many smaller hardcore and metal zines. They also released the first part of a split-CD with Heaven Shall Burn, named "The Split Program".  "Vent" came out in April 2001. "Vent" was released by Imperium Records and by Howling-Bull Records in Japan. Shortly after the release, Caliban was offered the opportunity to tour Japan to play the Beast-Feast 2001 in the Yokohama Arena, sharing stage with bands including Slayer, Pantera, Machine Head, Biohazard and Morbid Angel. The Japan trip was followed by a U.S. tour with Bloodjinn, which was interrupted by the September 11, 2001 attacks.  In August 2002, Caliban recorded their third official release "Shadow Hearts". This record was more melodic and harmonic than its predecessors. In 2004 the band got a record deal with Roadrunner Records in Europe (Abacus Recordings in the US) and started to record their fourth Album "The Opposite from Within" alongside producer Anders Fridén, who is known for fronting In Flames.  In July 2005, the band released the second part of their split-CD with their friends from Heaven Shall Burn, called "The Split Program II". The band released their fifth album called "The Undying Darkness" in February 2006 and toured with All Shall Perish, Bleeding Through and I Killed The Prom Queen for the "Darkness over Europe" tour.  In 2007, Caliban recorded their album "The Awakening" with producer Benny Richter and it was released in Germany on May 25. The album reached 36 in the German charts.  In 2009, the band toured with German band Kreator on the "Chaos Over Europe Tour". They also signed a worldwide contract with Century Media Records. They released their new album, "Say Hello to Tragedy", on August 24, 2009. This album - just like "The Awakening" - reached 36th place on the German media charts. In October and November they toured Europe on the "Beastfest European Tour 2009" with Suicide Silence, German friend-band Maroon and American acts Emmure and After the Burial.  Caliban entered the studio in February and recorded a cover EP titled "Coverfield", released in May 2011. The album consists of 4 songs, although more songs were recorded and may be released later. In mid August, the band entered the studio to finish writing and recording a new full-length album to be released in early 2012. At the beginning of September the band posted a message on their official site, saying that the songwriting is complete and that 12 songs were made. The new album titled "I Am Nemesis" was released on February 3.  Stormbringer Magazin of Germany Caliban is writing and recording a new full-length album for January 2014. The band released "Ghost Empire" on 24 January 2014 via Century Media Records. On February 2014, Caliban entered the German Media Control Charts at #7 for this album. In the beginning of 2015 they toured with Bury Tomorrow, Dream On, Dreamer and Any Given Day.  Caliban then released the album, Gravity, in the spring of 2016, and via social media teased an upcoming project in 2017, with a possible release date of 2018.  On April 6, 2018 Caliban released their latest album, entitled "Elements".

Band members.

Current members Former members Timeline

Caliban are a German metalcore band from Essen. They have released eleven studio albums to-date, and two split albums with Heaven Shall Burn.


Historical representations.

Ancient Egypt.

The first known appearance of the ouroboros motif is in the Enigmatic Book of the Netherworld, an ancient Egyptian funerary text in KV62, the tomb of Tutankhamun, in the 14th century BC. The text concerns the actions of the god Ra and his union with Osiris in the underworld. The ouroboros is depicted twice on the figure: holding their tails in their mouths, one encircling the head and upper chest, the other surrounding the feet of a large figure, which may represent the unified Ra-Osiris (Osiris born again as Ra). Both serpents are manifestations of the deity Mehen, who in other funerary texts protects Ra in his underworld journey. The whole divine figure represents the beginning and the end of time.  The ouroboros appears elsewhere in Egyptian sources, where, like many Egyptian serpent deities, it represents the formless disorder that surrounds the orderly world and is involved in that world's periodic renewal. The symbol persisted in Egypt into Roman times, when it frequently appeared on magical talismans, sometimes in combination with other magical emblems. The 4th-century AD Latin commentator Servius was aware of the Egyptian use of the symbol, noting that the image of a snake biting its tail represents the cyclical nature of the year.

Alchemy and Gnosticism.

The famous ouroboros drawing from the early alchemical text, "The Chrysopoeia of Cleopatra" (), probably originally dating to third century Alexandria but first known in a tenth century copy, encloses the words "hen to pan" (), "the all is one". Its black and white halves may perhaps represent a Gnostic duality of existence, analogous to the Taoist yin and yang symbol. The chrysopoeia ouroboros of Cleopatra the Alchemist is one of the oldest images of the ouroboros to be linked with the legendary "opus" of the alchemists, the philosopher's stone.  An aim of alchemists and adepts, described as "individual self-perfection through physical transmutation and spiritual transcendence", was familiar to the alchemist and physician Sir Thomas Browne. It focused on the eternal unity of all things as well as the cycle of birth and death (from which the alchemist sought release and liberation). In his "A Letter to a Friend", a medical treatise full of case-histories and witty speculations upon the human condition, he wrote:  In Gnosticism, a serpent biting its tail symbolized eternity and the soul of the world. The Gnostic "Pistis Sophia" (c. 400 AD) describes the ouroboros as a twelve-part dragon surrounding the world with its tail in its mouth.  A 15th-century alchemical manuscript, "The Aurora Consurgens", features the ouroboros, where it is used amongst symbols of the sun, moon, and mercury.

The "world serpent" in mythology.

In Norse mythology, the ouroboros appears as the serpent Jörmungandr, one of the three children of Loki and Angrboda, which grew so large that it could encircle the world and grasp its tail in its teeth. In the legends of Ragnar Lodbrok, such as "Ragnarssona þáttr", the Geatish king Herraud gives a small lindworm as a gift to his daughter Þóra Town-Hart after which it grows into a large serpent which encircles the girl's bower and bites itself in the tail. The serpent is slain by Ragnar Lodbrok who marries Þóra. Ragnar later has a son with another woman named Kráka and this son is born with the image of a white snake in one eye. This snake encircled the iris and bit itself in the tail, and the son was named Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye.  It is a common belief among indigenous people of the tropical lowlands of South America that waters at the edge of the world-disc are encircled by a snake, often an anaconda, biting its own tail.

Symbol of Birth, death and rebirth.

The Ouroboro symbol is a common sight on 17th and 18th century gravestones. Varying from region to region some have legs and even torso like bodies while others are carved in a bracelet like circle. They appear alongside the Hourglass, skulls, bible and cherubs that are so common in depictions of mortality of this era. And like those other symbols they disappeared from gravestones in the 19th century Gothic revival.

Connection to Indian thought.

In the "Aitareya Brahmana", a Vedic text of the early 1st millennium BCE, the nature of the Vedic rituals is compared to "a snake biting its own tail."  Ouroboros symbolism has been used to describe the Kundalini. According to the medieval "Yoga-kundalini Upanishad", "The divine power, Kundalini, shines like the stem of a young lotus; like a snake, coiled round upon herself she holds her tail in her mouth and lies resting half asleep as the base of the body" (1.82).  Storl (2004) also refers to the ouroboros image in reference to the "cycle of samsara".

Modern references.

Jungian psychology.

Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung saw the ouroboros as an archetype and the basic mandala of alchemy. Jung also defined the relationship of the ouroboros to alchemy:  The Jungian psychologist Erich Neumann writes of it as a representation of the pre-ego "dawn state", depicting the undifferentiated infancy experience of both mankind and the individual child.

Kekulé's dream.

The German organic chemist August Kekulé described the eureka moment when he realized the structure of benzene, after he saw a vision of Ouroboros:  I was sitting, writing at my text-book; but the work did not progress; my thoughts were elsewhere. I turned my chair to the fire and dozed. Again the atoms were gamboling before my eyes. This time the smaller groups kept modestly in the background. My mental eye, rendered more acute by the repeated visions of the kind, could now distinguish larger structures of manifold conformation: long rows, sometimes more closely fitted together; all twining and twisting in snake-like motion. But look! What was that? One of the snakes had seized hold of its own tail, and the form whirled mockingly before my eyes. As if by a flash of lightning I awoke; and this time also I spent the rest of the night in working out the consequences of the hypothesis.

Cosmos.

Martin Rees used the ouroboros to illustrate the various scales of the universe, ranging from 10 cm (subatomic) at the tail, up to 10 cm (supragalactic) at the head. Rees stressed "the intimate links between the microworld and the cosmos, symbolised by the "ouraborus"", as tail and head meet to complete the circle.

Armadillo girdled lizard.

The genus of the armadillo girdled lizard, "Ouroborus cataphractus", takes its name from the animal's defensive posture: curling into a ball and holding its own tail in its mouth.

The ouroboros or uroboros (,, ) is an ancient symbol depicting a serpent or dragon eating its own tail. Originating in ancient Egyptian iconography, the ouroboros entered western tradition via Greek magical tradition and was adopted as a symbol in Gnosticism and Hermeticism and most notably in alchemy. The term derives from, from ("oura"), "tail" + ("bora"), "food", from ("bibrōskō"), "I eat". The "ouroboros" is often interpreted as a symbol for eternal cyclic renewal or a cycle of life, death, and rebirth. The skin-sloughing process of snakes symbolizes the transmigration of souls, the snake biting its own tail is a fertility symbol. The tail of the snake is a phallic symbol, the mouth is a yonic or womb-like symbol.


Biography.

Anne was born in Paris the second of the three daughters of Prince Palatine Edward. Her mother was Anna Gonzaga, a well known Parisian political hostess and sister of the Queen of Poland.  At the age of fifteen, she was engaged to Henri Jules, Duke of Enghien, the only surviving child of the famous military commander the "Grand Condé". The Grand Condé was the most senior "Prince du Sang" at the French court ("First Prince of the Blood"). Henri Jules was his heir and prior to his succession to the purely honorary title of Prince of Condé, was styled the Duke of Enghien and was addressed "Monsieur le Duc". The marriage ceremony took place at the Palais du Louvre on 11 December 1663 with Louis XIV of France and the rest of the royal family in attendance. At this time, Anne became "Madame la Duchesse", as Duchess of Enghien. At the death of her father-in-law in 1684, Anne took on the style of "Madame la Princesse". She was also known as "Anne, princesse Palatine".  Anne and Henri Jules had ten children. Henri Jules, who suffered from clinical lycanthropy, was greatly supported by his wife. Anne is described as very pious, generous, and charitable, and was praised by many at court for her very supportive nature towards her husband. Despite that her husband, who was prone to great rages, would often beat his quiet wife, even in the presence of other courtiers. Of her many children, five survived infancy. Four of those went on to marry.  Her mother was instrumental in helping bring about a marriage between her niece by marriage, Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate and the brother of Louis XIV, Philippe, Duke of Orléans in 1671. Elisabeth Charlotte was Anne's first cousin, their fathers being brothers. In 1708, when her cousin Charles IV, Duke of Mantua died, being his heiress, Anne Henriette became the Princess of Arches in her own right. Charles IV was the last Duke of Mantua. The next year, Anne's husband died in Paris on 1 April 1709, aged 65, making her son, Louis, the next Prince of Condé.  Louis died the next year and his son Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon became the next holder of the title. Anne also owned the Château du Raincy which was sold to the House of Orléans in 1769. She died in Paris at the age of 74, having outlived her husband and all but two of her children, namely the Princess of Conti and the Duchess of Maine. On her death, the principality of Arches became extinct; the title was claimed by her son, the Prince of Condé and her nephew, the son of her sister, Louise Marie of Bavaria. She was buried at the Carmel du Faubourg Saint-Jacques in Paris.

Legacy.

Anne was the princess for whom the Rue Palatine was named - the road in the 6th arrondissement of Paris where she had lived in the Petit Luxembourg, next to the Luxembourg Palace in Paris.

Issue.

Anne had ten children.

Anne of the Palatinate known in France as Anne of Bavaria, Princess Palatine (Anne Henriette Julie; 13 March 1648 – 23 February 1723) was a Princess of the Palatinate and Countess Palatine of Simmern by birth and was the wife of Henri Jules de Bourbon eldest son of "Louis, Grand Condé". Following her father-in-law's death, her husband succeeded as Prince of Condé, a purely honorary title, but one of the highest ranking in France. She was also the "Princesse of Arches and Charleville" in her own right from 1708.


History.

For more than 100 years, Repower has been one of the largest providers of electricity in Switzerland. Founded in 1904 as "Kraftwerke Brusio AG", the same year the company started construction of its first power plant − at the time the largest high-pressure hydropower installation in Europe − in Campocologno in the Poschiavo region of Canton Graubünden, Switzerland. Proximity to the Italian border precipitated the company's involvement in international projects and business activities. In 2000, Kraftwerke Brusio AG (Poschiavo), "AG Bündner Kraftwerke" (Klosters) and "Rhätische Werke für Elektrizität AG" (Thusis) merged to create the "Rätia Energie AG" group, which was subsequently joined by "aurax ag" (Ilanz) in 2004. In 2002 the group embarked on business in Italy. In 2010, Rätia Energie AG was renamed Repower AG.

Shareholder structure.

The company's shareholders are:

Financial highlights.

Repower prepares its accounts in Swiss francs. Its 2019 results were announced on 7 April 2020.

Executive board.

The executive board comprises the following members:

Offices.

In Switzerland the group has offices in Bever, Küblis, Ilanz, Landquart, Poschiavo and Zurich. In Italy it operates out of an office in Milan.

Generation.

Repower has its own generation assets in Switzerland, Italy and Germany, producing electricity on the basis of different technologies: hydro, thermal and wind. In 2018 the group's own installations generated around 1.66 TWh of electricity. In addition to this, the company has long term contracts with nuclear power plants in Switzerland and France.

Thermal power plants.

Repower has a 61% interest in SET S.p.A. (Milan), which operates the Teverola combined cycle gas power plant in the Italian province of Caserta. This 400 MW installation went into operation at the end of 2006.

Nuclear power.

Repower has long term contracts with nuclear power plants in Switzerland and France, representing an installed capacity of around 50 MW.

Renewable energy.

Hydropower.

The group operates 15 of its own hydropower plants in Canton Graubünden, Switzerland. It also has interests and drawing rights in other plants. The company's installed hydropower capacity totals 405 MW.  Some of these hydropower facilities generate naturemade star certified green power. The naturemade star label is awarded by the Association for Environmentally Sound Energy (VUE).

Wind.

In Italy the group operates a wind farm in Corleto Perticara (9.3 MW), and in Lucera (26 MW) and holds an interest in another wind farm in Giunchetto on Sicily (Repower's interest: 11.6 MW). In Germany the Repower subsidiary Repartner Produktions AG owns two wind farms, in Prettin (10 MW) and Lübbenau (16 MW).

Trading.

Repower generates around two thirds of its energy turnover in trading; in 2018 this came to around 12 terawatt hours. Repower operates on the most important European energy exchanges from trading floors located in Poschiavo (Switzerland) and Milan (Italy). The group sees itself as an asset-based trader, trading electricity, gas and carbon certificates. On the physical side of the business Repower delivers electricity – part of which is generated by Repower itself, part of which is bought in from outside – to wholesale customers, usually via the high-voltage grid. The company also deals in certificates to deliver environmental value-added to larger end-consumers, independently of the grid. At the wholesale level the group delivers standard products such as base, peak and off-peak, as well as profiles.

Transmission.

Repower has played a significant role in increasing cross-border capacity between northern and southern Europe by building the international Bernina Line (380 kV/220 kV), commissioned in 2005 and transferred to the Swiss national grid operator Swissgrid at the beginning of 2013.  In October 2009, Repower joined forces with Edison and the municipality of Tirano to inaugurate the first A/C merchant line in Europe. It runs underground for its entire length between Tirano (Italy) and Campocologno (Switzerland). This 150 kV merchant line increases cross-border transport capacity by 150 MW, helping assure a secure energy supply in Italy and Switzerland. Currently a new 220 kV merchant line between Val Bregaglia (Switzerland) and Italy is being planned.

Sales and distribution.

Switzerland.

Repower is the leading supplier of electricity in Southeast Switzerland. Its customers range from private households to industrial, commercial and public sector consumers and downstream municipal utilities. Repower's supply area includes municipalities in the Engadine, Prättigau, Rhine Valley and Surselva areas of Graubünden. Via municipal utilities it supplies customers in the Upper Engadine, Münstertal, Poschiavo Valley, Rhine Valley and Surselva. Repower's customers in Switzerland can choose between different products. The standard product, Aquapower, comes from Swiss hydropower plants. The two renewable products, Purepower (100% Graubünden green power) and Solarpower (100% Graubünden solar power) are both naturemade starcertified, fulfilling stringent environmental quality criteria.

Italy.

In Italy, Repower is one of the biggest suppliers of electricity and gas to small and medium-sized enterprises and public institutions. The company serves around 27,000 customers in Italy with electricity, and supplies an additional 12,000 customers with gas. The range includes green power (VerdeDentro), electric mobility solutions (Palina) and energy efficiency consulting services (eFFettiva).

Repower (until May 2010 "Rätia Energie AG") is an international energy utility with its operational headquarters in Poschiavo (Canton Graubünden, Switzerland). The company's history goes back more than 100 years. Its key markets include Switzerland and Italy. The group operates along the entire value chain, from generation and trading to sales.


Competition schedule.

The venue for the track and field events was the Olympic Stadium while the walks and the marathons started and finished on The Mall. In the tables below, M stands for "morning" and A for "afternoon".

Medal summary.

Medal table.

Note: "Three competitors tied for bronze in the men's high jump event."

Records.

World and Olympic records.

A total of four world records in athletics and eleven Olympic records were broken during the competition. This was fewer than were set at the Beijing Olympics (5 world, 17 Olympic records) but greater than the number set at the 2004 Games in Athens (2 world, 10 Olympic records).  China's Chen Ding was the first Olympic record breaker, improving the men's 20 km walk record. All three Olympic walk records were broken in London as Sergey Kirdyapkin bettered the Olympic 50 km walk time and Elena Lashmanova set a new world record in the women's 20 km walk.  Usain Bolt was the first track athlete to improve an Olympic record as he defended his 100 m title with a run of 9.63 s. He later joined the Jamaican 4 × 100 metres relay team (featuring Nesta Carter, Michael Frater and Yohan Blake) to set a world record time of 36.84 s. The women's 4 × 100 metres relay event also saw a world record: an American team of Tianna Madison, Allyson Felix, Bianca Knight and Carmelita Jeter ran 40.82 seconds to take half a second off a record which had stood for nearly 27 years. Further women's Olympic records were set by Ethiopia's Tiki Gelana in the marathon and Sally Pearson in the 100 metres hurdles.  David Rudisha improved his own 800 metres world record to 1:40.91 minutes, becoming the first man to break that record at the Olympics since Ralph Doubell did so at the 1968 Games. Renaud Lavillenie was the only man to break a field event record, as he cleared an Olympic best of 5.97 m to win the pole vault competition.

Doping.

Prior to the Olympic competition, several prominent athletes were ruled out of the competition due to failed tests. World indoor medallists Dimitrios Chondrokoukis, Debbie Dunn, and Mariem Alaoui Selsouli were withdrawn from their Olympic teams in July for doping, as was 2004 Olympic medallist Zoltán Kővágó. At the Olympic competition, Tameka Williams admitted to taking a banned stimulant and was removed from the games. Ivan Tsikhan did not compete in the hammer throw as a re-test of his sample from the 2004 Athens Olympics, where he won silver, was positive. Hassan Hirt, Amine Laâlou, Marina Marghieva, Diego Palomeque, and defending 50 km walk champion Alex Schwazer were also suspended before taking part in their events.  Syrian hurdler Ghfran Almouhamad became the first track-and-field athlete to be suspended following a positive in-competition doping sample. Nadzeya Astapchuk was stripped of the women's shot put title after her sample came back positive for the banned anabolic agent metenolone. Karin Melis Mey was withdrawn before the long jump final when an earlier failed doping test was confirmed.  Multiple medalists were found guilty of doping after the Olympics. Russia has the most (9) medals stripped.

The athletics competitions at the 2012 Olympic Games in London were held during the last 10 days of the Games, on 3–12 August. Track and field events took place at the Olympic Stadium in east London. The road events, however, started and finished on The Mall in central London.