Description.

Most Apiaceae are annual, biennial or perennial herbs (frequently with the leaves aggregated toward the base), though a minority are woody shrubs or small trees such as "Bupleurum fruticosum". Their leaves are of variable size and alternately arranged, or with the upper leaves becoming nearly opposite. The leaves may be petiolate or sessile. There are no stipules but the petioles are frequently sheathing and the leaves may be perfoliate. The leaf blade is usually dissected, ternate or pinnatifid, but simple and entire in some genera, e.g. "Bupleurum". Commonly, their leaves emit a marked smell when crushed, aromatic to foetid, but absent in some species.  The defining characteristic of this family is the inflorescence, the flowers nearly always aggregated in terminal umbels, that may be simple or more commonly compound, often umbelliform cymes. The flowers are usually perfect (hermaphroditic) and actinomorphic, but there may be zygomorphic flowers at the edge of the umbel, as in carrot ("Daucus carota") and coriander, with petals of unequal size, the ones pointing outward from the umbel larger than the ones pointing inward. Some are andromonoecious, polygamomonoecious, or even dioecious (as in "Acronema"), with a distinct calyx and corolla, but the calyx is often highly reduced, to the point of being undetectable in many species, while the corolla can be white, yellow, pink or purple. The flowers are nearly perfectly pentamerous, with five petals, sepals, and stamens. The androecium consists of five stamens, but there is often variation in the functionality of the stamens even within a single inflorescence. Some flowers are functionally staminate (where a pistil may be present but has no ovules capable of being fertilized) while others are functionally pistillate (where stamens are present but their anthers do not produce viable pollen). Pollination of one flower by the pollen of a different flower of the same plant (geitonogamy) is common. The gynoecium consists of two carpels fused into a single, bicarpellate pistil with an inferior ovary. Stylopodia support two styles and secrete nectar, attracting pollinators like flies, mosquitoes, gnats, beetles, moths, and bees. The fruit is a schizocarp consisting of two fused carpels that separate at maturity into two mericarps, each containing a single seed. The fruits of many species are dispersed by wind but others such as those of "Daucus" spp., are covered in bristles, which may be hooked in sanicle "Sanicula europaea" and thus catch in the fur of animals. The seeds have an oily endosperm and often contain essential oils, containing aromatic compounds that are responsible for the flavour of commercially important umbelliferous seed such as anise, cumin and coriander. The shape and details of the ornamentation of the ripe fruits are important for identification to species level.

Taxonomy.

Apiaceae was first described by John Lindley in 1836. The name is derived from the type genus "Apium", which was originally used by Pliny the Elder circa 50 AD for a celery-like plant. The alternative name for the family, Umbelliferae, derives from the inflorescence being generally in the form of a compound umbel. The family was one of the first to be recognized as a distinct group in Jacques Daleschamps' 1586 "Historia generalis plantarum". With Robert Morison's 1672 "Plantarum umbelliferarum distribution nova" it became the first group of plants for which a systematic study was published.  The family is solidly placed within the Apiales order in the APG III system. It is closely related to Araliaceae and the boundaries between these families remain unclear. Traditionally groups within the family have been delimited largely based on fruit morphology, and the results from this have not been congruent with the more recent molecular phylogenetic analyses. The subfamilial and tribal classification for the family is currently in a state of flux, with many of the groups being found to be grossly paraphyletic or polyphyletic.

Genera.

According to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website, 434 genera are in the family Apiaceae.

Ecology.

The black swallowtail butterfly, "Papilio polyxenes", uses the family Apiaceae for food and host plants for oviposition. The 22-spot ladybird is also commonly found eating mildew on these shrubs.

Uses.

Many members of this family are cultivated for various purposes. Parsnip ("Pastinaca sativa"), carrot ("Daucus carota") and Hamburg parsley ("Petroselinum crispum") produce tap roots that are large enough to be useful as food. Many species produce essential oils in their leaves or fruits and as a result are flavourful aromatic herbs. Examples are parsley ("Petroselinum crispum"), coriander ("Coriandrum sativum"), culantro, and dill ("Anethum graveolens"). The seeds may be used in cuisine, as with coriander ("Coriandrum sativum"), fennel ("Foeniculum vulgare"), cumin ("Cuminum cyminum"), and caraway ("Carum carvi").  Other notable cultivated Apiaceae include chervil ("Anthriscus cerefolium"), angelica ("Angelica" spp.), celery ("Apium graveolens"), arracacha ("Arracacia xanthorrhiza"), sea holly ("Eryngium" spp.), asafoetida ("Ferula asafoetida"), galbanum ("Ferula gummosa"), cicely ("Myrrhis odorata"), anise ("Pimpinella anisum"), lovage ("Levisticum officinale"), and hacquetia ("Hacquetia epipactis").

Cultivation.

Generally, all members of this family are best cultivated in the cool-season garden; indeed, they may not grow at all if the soils are too warm. Almost every widely cultivated plant of this group is a considered useful as a companion plant. One reason is because the tiny flowers clustered into umbels, are well suited for ladybugs, parasitic wasps, and predatory flies, which actually drink nectar when not reproducing. They then prey upon insect pests on nearby plants. Some of the members of this family considered "herbs" produce scents that are believed to...mask the odours of nearby plants, thus making them harder for insect pests to find.

Other uses.

The poisonous members of the Apiaceae have been used for a variety of purposes globally. The poisonous "Oenanthe crocata" has been used to stupefy fish, "Cicuta douglasii" has been used as an aid in suicides, and arrow poisons have been made from various other family species.  "Daucus carota" has been used as coloring for butter.  "Dorema ammoniacum", "Ferula galbaniflua", and "Ferula sumbul" are sources of incense.  The woody "Azorella compacta" Phil. has been used in South America for fuel.

Toxicity.

Many species in the family Apiaceae produce phototoxic substances (called furanocoumarins) that sensitize human skin to sunlight. Contact with plant parts that contain furanocoumarins, followed by exposure to sunlight, may cause phytophotodermatitis, a serious skin inflammation. Of all the plant species that have been reported to induce phytophotodermatitis, approximately half belong to the family Apiaceae.  Phototoxic species include "Ammi majus", the parsnip ("Pastinaca sativa") and numerous species of the genus "Heracleum", especially the giant hogweed ("Heracleum mantegazzianum"). The family Apiaceae also includes a smaller number of poisonous species, including poison hemlock, water hemlock, and fool's parsley.  Some members of the family Apiaceae, including carrot, celery, fennel, parsley and parsnip, contain polyynes, an unusual class of organic compounds that exhibit cytotoxic effects.

Apiaceae or Umbelliferae is a family of mostly aromatic flowering plants named after the type genus "Apium" and commonly known as the celery, carrot or parsley family, or simply as umbellifers. It is the 16th-largest family of flowering plants, with more than 3,700 species in 434 genera including such well-known and economically important plants such as ajwain, angelica, anise, asafoetida, caraway, carrot, celery, chervil, coriander, cumin, dill, fennel, poison hemlock, lovage, cow parsley, parsley, parsnip and sea holly, as well as silphium, a plant whose identity is unclear and which may be extinct.


Geography.

The municipal area stretches on a sandy terrace in the Berlin-Warsaw glacial valley ("Urstromtal"). It is bounded by the Oder river in the east, which since 1945 has formed the German–Polish border. Eisenhüttenstadt is the eastern terminus of the Oder–Spree Canal. The town centre is located about south of Frankfurt (Oder) and southeast of Berlin. Eisenhüttenstadt has access to the Berlin–Wrocław railway line.  The town comprises the districts of Diehlo, Fürstenberg (Oder), and Schönfließ.

History.

The present-day township was founded as a socialist model city in 1950 (initially named Stalinstadt after Joseph Stalin) upon decision of the East German Socialist Unity Party (SED), alongside a new steel mill combine located west of the historic town of Fürstenberg (Oder). A few years before the new town arose, a bridge over the Oder river had been constructed, which had been destroyed by retreating Wehrmacht forces in February 1945, near the end of World War II.  The population grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1961, during De-Stalinization, the town was renamed Eisenhüttenstadt. After German reunification in 1990, the state-owned steel works were privatized, and most of its 12,000 employees lost their jobs. Thereafter the factory employed around 2,500 workers. The town experienced a steep decline in population, from just over 50,000 to under 30,000.

Architecture.

The first design for the new residential quarter was developed by the modernist and Bauhaus architect, Franz Ehrlich, in August 1950. His modernist plan, which laid out a dispersed town landscape along functional lines, was rejected by the Ministry for Reconstruction. The same happened to the plan presented by the architects Kurt Junghanns and Otto Geiler. The plan that was ultimately realized was developed by Kurt Walter Leucht.

International relations.

Eisenhüttenstadt is twinned with:

Notable people.

Eisenhüttenstadt was the birthplace of:

Eisenhüttenstadt (literally "ironworks city" in German; ) is a town in the Oder-Spree district of the state of Brandenburg, Germany, on the border with Poland.


Definition.

An electronvolt is the amount of kinetic energy gained or lost by a single electron accelerating from rest through an electric potential difference of one volt in vacuum. Hence, it has a value of one volt,, multiplied by the electron's elementary charge "e", Therefore, one electronvolt is equal to  The electronvolt, as opposed to the volt, is not an SI unit. The electronvolt (eV) is a unit of energy whereas the volt (V) is the derived SI unit of electric potential. The SI unit for energy is the joule (J).

Mass.

By mass–energy equivalence, the electronvolt is also a unit of mass. It is common in particle physics, where units of mass and energy are often interchanged, to express mass in units of eV/"c", where "c" is the speed of light in vacuum (from ). It is common to simply express mass in terms of "eV" as a unit of mass, effectively using a system of natural units with "c" set to 1. The mass equivalent of is  For example, an electron and a positron, each with a mass of, can annihilate to yield of energy. The proton has a mass of. In general, the masses of all hadrons are of the order of, which makes the GeV (gigaelectronvolt) a convenient unit of mass for particle physics:  The unified atomic mass unit (u), almost exactly 1 gram divided by the Avogadro number, is almost the mass of a hydrogen atom, which is mostly the mass of the proton. To convert to electron volts, use the formula:

Momentum.

In high-energy physics, the electronvolt is often used as a unit of momentum. A potential difference of 1 volt causes an electron to gain an amount of energy (i.e., ). This gives rise to usage of eV (and keV, MeV, GeV or TeV) as units of momentum, for the energy supplied results in acceleration of the particle.  The dimensions of momentum units are. The dimensions of energy units are. Then, dividing the units of energy (such as eV) by a fundamental constant that has units of velocity (), facilitates the required conversion of using energy units to describe momentum. In the field of high-energy particle physics, the fundamental velocity unit is the speed of light in vacuum "c".  By dividing energy in eV by the speed of light, one can describe the momentum of an electron in units of eV/"c". The fundamental velocity constant "c" is often "dropped" from the units of momentum by way of defining units of length such that the value of "c" is unity. For example, if the momentum "p" of an electron is said to be, then the conversion to MKS can be achieved by:

Distance.

In particle physics, a system of "natural units" in which the speed of light in vacuum "c" and the reduced Planck constant "ħ" are dimensionless and equal to unity is widely used:. In these units, both distances and times are expressed in inverse energy units (while energy and mass are expressed in the same units, see mass–energy equivalence). In particular, particle scattering lengths are often presented in units of inverse particle masses.  Outside this system of units, the conversion factors between electronvolt, second, and nanometer are the following:  The above relations also allow expressing the mean lifetime "τ" of an unstable particle (in seconds) in terms of its decay width "Γ" (in eV) via. For example, the B meson has a lifetime of 1.530(9) picoseconds, mean decay length is, or a decay width of.  Conversely, the tiny meson mass differences responsible for meson oscillations are often expressed in the more convenient inverse picoseconds.  Energy in electronvolts is sometimes expressed through the wavelength of light with photons of the same energy:

Temperature.

In certain fields, such as plasma physics, it is convenient to use the electronvolt to express temperature. The electronvolt is divided by the Boltzmann constant to convert to the Kelvin scale:  Where "k" is the Boltzmann constant, K is Kelvin, J is Joules, eV is electronvolts.  The "k" is assumed when using the electronvolt to express temperature, for example, a typical magnetic confinement fusion plasma is (kilo-electronvolts), which is equal to 170 MK (million Kelvin).  As an approximation: "k""T" is about (≈ ) at a temperature of.

Properties.

The energy "E", frequency "v", and wavelength λ of a photon are related by  where "h" is the Planck constant, "c" is the speed of light. This reduces to  A photon with a wavelength of (green light) would have an energy of approximately. Similarly, would correspond to an infrared photon of wavelength or frequency.

Scattering experiments.

In a low-energy nuclear scattering experiment, it is conventional to refer to the nuclear recoil energy in units of eVr, keVr, etc. This distinguishes the nuclear recoil energy from the "electron equivalent" recoil energy (eVee, keVee, etc.) measured by scintillation light. For example, the yield of a phototube is measured in phe/keVee (photoelectrons per keV electron-equivalent energy). The relationship between eV, eVr, and eVee depends on the medium the scattering takes place in, and must be established empirically for each material.

Energy comparisons.

Per mole.

One mole of particles given 1 eV of energy has approximately 96.5 kJ of energy — this corresponds to the Faraday constant ("F" ≈ ), where the energy in joules of "n" moles of particles each with energy "E" eV is equal to "E"·"F"·"n".

In physics, an electronvolt (symbol eV, also written electron-volt and electron volt) is the amount of kinetic energy gained (or lost) by a single electron accelerating from rest through an electric potential difference of one volt in vacuum. When used as a unit of energy, the numerical value of 1 eV in joules (symbol J) is equivalent to the numerical value of the charge of an electron in coulombs (symbol C). Under the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, this sets 1 eV equal to J.


Early life.

Erika Eleniak was born in Glendale, California.

Career.

Eleniak's first feature-film role was at age 12, in the 1982 film "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial" as the girl kissed by Elliott in the classroom scene. Her 10-year-old costar, Henry Thomas, told "People" magazine that he disliked filming the scene: “When I had to kiss the girl, I had to do it two times! I don’t like girls."  Her first film role as an adult was as Vicki De Soto, a victim of the creature in the 1988 horror remake "The Blob".  Eleniak appeared in the July 1989 issue of "Playboy" in a pictorial with a nautical theme. That same year, she began a recurring role in the TV series "Charles in Charge" as Charles's girlfriend Stephanie Curtis, and also won a role on "Baywatch" as female lead Shauni McClain, which she played from 1989 to 1992. She also played Carrie, the high-school girlfriend of Jesse (John Stamos), in "One Last Kiss", the November 16, 1990 episode of "Full House".  In 1992, Eleniak returned to film acting, playing a "Playboy "Playmate hired to perform a striptease for the captain of a U.S. Navy battleship in "Under Siege". In the film, she is described as "Miss July 1989"—the month that Eleniak was Playmate of the Month in real life.  She had a starring role as Elly May Clampett in the screen adaptation of "The Beverly Hillbillies" in 1993. The next year, she starred in the Dennis Hopper-directed romantic comedy film "Chasers" with William McNamara. Eleniak shot another movie with McNamara, "Girl in the Cadillac" (1995), and starred as identical twins in the interactive 1995 video game "Panic in the Park". She continued to make more independent films until 2003.  Eleniak appeared on the reality television series "The Real Gilligan's Island" in June 2005.  Eleniak has suffered from weight issues. At one point, she was underweight due to an eating disorder and was once hospitalized for laxative abuse. By 2006, she was overweight and participated in the fourth season of VH1's "Celebrity Fit Club".  In 2006, she appeared on "80's Movie and Music Fest Cafe", a British comedy podcast on iTunes, in which she discussed her career with presenters Ross Dyer and Julian Bayes. She gave a lighthearted view of "Baywatch" and her challenge during filming of "Celebrity Fit Club".

Personal life.

Eleniak was once engaged to her "Baywatch" co-star Billy Warlock, who had played her love interest on the show, as well. Eleniak married Philip Goglia on May 22, 1998, but after just six months, the marriage ended in divorce. After filming "Snowbound" in 2001 in Calgary, Alberta, Eleniak became enamored of the city. She began dating Roch Daigle, a key grip who worked on the set. She had wanted to leave Los Angeles as she found commuting to and from Telluride, Colorado, difficult. She purchased a home in Calgary, where Daigle lived. The two eventually married. Eleniak became pregnant in 2005, but six and a half weeks into her term, the pregnancy was discovered to be ectopic, which required emergency surgery, and ended in miscarriage. Eleniak later became pregnant again and gave birth to a daughter.

Erika Eleniak (born September 29, 1969) is an American actress, "Playboy" Playmate, and former model best known for her role in "Baywatch" as Shauni McClain. Her film debut was a small part in "" (1982). She later starred in the films "The Blob", "Under Siege", and "The Beverly Hillbillies".


Biography.

Very few original references to Euclid survive, so little is known about his life. He was likely born c. 325 BC, although the place and circumstances of both his birth and death are unknown and may only be estimated roughly relative to other people mentioned with him. He is mentioned by name, though rarely, by other Greek mathematicians from Archimedes (c. 287 BC – c. 212 BC) onward, and is usually referred to as "ὁ στοιχειώτης" ("the author of Elements"). The few historical references to Euclid were written by Proclus c. 450 AD, centuries after Euclid lived.  A detailed biography of Euclid is given by Arabian authors, mentioning, for example, a birth town of Tyre. This biography is generally believed to be fictitious. If he came from Alexandria, he would have known the Serapeum of Alexandria, and the Library of Alexandria, and may have worked there during his time. Euclid's arrival in Alexandria came about ten years after its founding by Alexander the Great, which means he arrived c. 322 BC.  Proclus introduces Euclid only briefly in his "Commentary on the Elements". According to Proclus, Euclid supposedly belonged to Plato's "persuasion" and brought together the "Elements", drawing on prior work of Eudoxus of Cnidus and of several pupils of Plato (particularly Theaetetus and Philip of Opus.) Proclus believes that Euclid is not much younger than these, and that he must have lived during the time of Ptolemy I (c. 367 BC – 282 BC) because he was mentioned by Archimedes. Although the apparent citation of Euclid by Archimedes has been judged to be an interpolation by later editors of his works, it is still believed that Euclid wrote his works before Archimedes wrote his. Proclus later retells a story that, when Ptolemy I asked if there was a shorter path to learning geometry than Euclid's "Elements", "Euclid replied there is no royal road to geometry." This anecdote is questionable since it is similar to a story told about Menaechmus and Alexander the Great. Euclid died c. 270 BC, presumably in Alexandria. In the only other key reference to Euclid, Pappus of Alexandria (c. 320 AD) briefly mentioned that Apollonius "spent a very long time with the pupils of Euclid at Alexandria, and it was thus that he acquired such a scientific habit of thought" c. 247–222 BC.  Because the lack of biographical information is unusual for the period (extensive biographies being available for most significant Greek mathematicians several centuries before and after Euclid), some researchers have proposed that Euclid was not a historical personage, and that his works were written by a team of mathematicians who took the name Euclid from Euclid of Megara (à la Bourbaki). However, this hypothesis is not well accepted by scholars and there is little evidence in its favor.

"Elements".

Although many of the results in "Elements" originated with earlier mathematicians, one of Euclid's accomplishments was to present them in a single, logically coherent framework, making it easy to use and easy to reference, including a system of rigorous mathematical proofs that remains the basis of mathematics 23 centuries later.  There is no mention of Euclid in the earliest remaining copies of the "Elements". Most of the copies say they are "from the edition of Theon" or the "lectures of Theon", while the text considered to be primary, held by the Vatican, mentions no author. Proclus provides the only reference ascribing the "Elements" to Euclid.  Although best known for its geometric results, the "Elements" also includes number theory. It considers the connection between perfect numbers and Mersenne primes (known as the Euclid–Euler theorem), the infinitude of prime numbers, Euclid's lemma on factorization (which leads to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic on uniqueness of prime factorizations), and the Euclidean algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers.  The geometrical system described in the "Elements" was long known simply as "geometry", and was considered to be the only geometry possible. Today, however, that system is often referred to as "Euclidean geometry" to distinguish it from other so-called "non-Euclidean geometries" discovered in the 19th century.

Fragments.

The Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 29 (P. Oxy. 29) is a fragment of the second book of the "Elements" of Euclid, unearthed by Grenfell and Hunt 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. More recent scholarship suggests a date of 75–125 AD.  The fragment contains the statement of the 5th proposition of Book 2, which in the translation of T. L. Heath reads:

Other works.

In addition to the "Elements", at least five works of Euclid have survived to the present day. They follow the same logical structure as "Elements", with definitions and proved propositions.

Lost works.

Other works are credibly attributed to Euclid, but have been lost.

Legacy.

The European Space Agency's (ESA) Euclid spacecraft was named in his honor.

Euclid (; – "Eukleídēs", ; fl. 300 BC), sometimes called Euclid of Alexandria to distinguish him from Euclid of Megara, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the "founder of geometry" or the "father of geometry". He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I (323–283 BC). His "Elements" is one of the most influential works in the history of mathematics, serving as the main textbook for teaching mathematics (especially geometry) from the time of its publication until the late 19th or early 20th century. In the "Elements", Euclid deduced the theorems of what is now called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory, and mathematical rigour.


Definition.

The term epidemic derives from a word form attributed to Homer's "Odyssey", which later took its medical meaning from the "," a treatise by Hippocrates. Before Hippocrates, "epidemios", "epidemeo", "epidamos", and other variants had meanings similar to the current definitions of "indigenous" or "endemic". Thucydides' description of the Plague of Athens is considered one of the earliest accounts of a disease epidemic. By the early 17th century, the terms endemic and epidemic referred to contrasting conditions of population-level disease, with the endemic condition at low rates of occurrence and the epidemic condition widespread. The term "epidemic" has become emotionally charged.  The Atlanta Center for Disease Control defines epidemic broadly: "the occurrence of more cases of disease, injury, or other health condition than expected in a given area or among a specific group of persons during a particular period. Usually, the cases are presumed to have a common cause or to be related to one another in some way (see also outbreak)." The terms "epidemic" and "outbreak" have often been used interchangeably. Researchers Manfred S. Green and colleagues propose that the latter term be restricted to smaller events, pointing out that "Chambers Concise Dictionary" and "Stedman's Medical Dictionary" acknowledge this distinction.

Causes.

There are several changes that may occur in an infectious agent that may trigger an epidemic. These include:  An epidemic disease is not required to be contagious, and the term has been applied to West Nile fever and the obesity epidemic (e.g., by the World Health Organisation), among others.  The conditions which govern the outbreak of epidemics include infected food supplies such as contaminated drinking water and the migration of populations of certain animals, such as rats or mosquitoes, which can act as disease vectors.  Certain epidemics occur at certain seasons. For example, whooping-cough occurs in spring, whereas measles produces two epidemics, one in winter and one in March. Influenza, the common cold, and other infections of the upper respiratory tract, such as sore throat, occur predominantly in the winter. There is another variation, both as regards the number of people affected and the number who die in successive epidemics: the severity of successive epidemics rises and falls over periods of five or ten years.

Types.

Common source outbreak.

In a common source outbreak epidemic, the affected individuals had an exposure to a common agent. If the exposure is singular and all of the affected individuals develop the disease over a single exposure and incubation course, it can be termed a point source outbreak. If the exposure was continuous or variable, it can be termed a continuous outbreak or intermittent outbreak, respectively.

Propagated outbreak.

In a propagated outbreak, the disease spreads person-to-person. Affected individuals may become independent reservoirs leading to further exposures.  Many epidemics will have characteristics of both common source and propagated outbreaks (sometimes referred to as mixed outbreak).  For example, secondary person-to-person spread may occur after a common source exposure or an environmental vectors may spread a zoonotic diseases agent.

Preparation.

Preparations for an epidemic include having a disease surveillance system; the ability to quickly dispatch emergency workers, especially local-based emergency workers; and a legitimate way to guarantee the safety and health of health workers.  Effective preparations for a response to a pandemic are multi-layered. The first layer is a disease surveillance system. Tanzania, for example, runs a national lab that runs testing for 200 health sites and tracks the spread of infectious diseases. The next layer is the actual response to an emergency. According to U.S.-based columnist Michael Gerson in 2015, only the U.S. military and NATO have the global capability to respond to such an emergency. Still, despite the most extensive preparatory measures, a fast-spreading pandemic may easily exceed and overwhelm existing health-care resources. Consequently, early and aggressive mitigation efforts, aimed at the so-called "epidemic curve flattening" need to be taken. Such measures usually consist on non-pharmacological interventions such as social/physical distancing, aggressive contact tracing, "stay-at-home" orders, as well as appropriate personal protective equipment (i.e., masks, gloves, and other physical barriers to spread).

An epidemic (from Greek ἐπί "epi" "upon or above" and δῆμος "demos" "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of people in a given population within a short period of time. For example, in meningococcal infections, an attack rate in excess of 15 cases per 100,000 people for two consecutive weeks is considered an epidemic.


Morphology.

"Crocus sativus" has a corm, which holds leaves, bracts, bracteole, and the flowering stalk. These are protected by the corm underground. "C. sativus" generally blooms with purple flowers in the autumn. The plant grows about 10 to 30 cm high. "C. sativus" is a triploid with 24 chromosomes, which means it has three times the haploid number of chromosomes. This makes the plant sterile due to its inability to pair chromosomes during meiosis.

Cultivation.

"Crocus sativus" is unknown in the wild, and its ancestor is unknown. The species "Crocus cartwrightianus" is the most probable ancestor, but "C. thomassi" and "C. pallasii" are still being considered as potential predecessors. Manual vegetative multiplication is necessary to produce offspring for this species as the plant itself is a triploid that is self-incompatible and male sterile, therefore rendering it incapable of sexual reproduction. This inability to reproduce on its own supports the hypothesis that "C. sativus" is a mutant descending from "C. carthwrightianus" as a result of selective breeding.  Corms of "Crocus sativus" should be planted 4 inches apart and in a trough 4 inches deep. The flower grows best in areas of full sun in well-drained soil with moderate levels of organic content. The corms will multiply after each year, and will last 3–5 years.

Use.

Saffron is considered to be the most valuable spice by weight. See spice. Depending on the size of harvested stigmas, 50,000–75,000 "Crocus sativus" plants are needed to produce about 1 pound of saffron; each flower only produces three stigmas. Stigmas should be harvested mid-morning when the flowers are fully opened. The saffron crocus ("Crocus sativus") should not be confused with "meadow" saffron or autumn crocus ("Colchicum autumnale") which is poisonous.

Crocus sativus, commonly known as saffron crocus, or autumn crocus, is a species of flowering plant of the "Crocus" genus in the iris family Iridaceae. It is best known for producing the spice saffron from the filaments that grow inside the flower. The term "autumn crocus" is also used for species in the "Colchicum" genus, which strongly resemble crocuses. However, crocuses have 3 stamens and 3 styles, while colchicums have 6 stamens and 1 style, and belong to different family, Colchicaceae. They are also toxic.


Physical geography of Metropolitan France.

Land use.

"Irrigated land:" 26,420 km2 (2007)  "Total renewable water resources:" 211 km (2011)  "Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):" 31.62 km/yr (19%/71%/10%) (512.1 m/yr per capita) (2009)

Natural resources.

Coal, iron ore, bauxite, zinc, uranium, antimony, arsenic, potash, feldspar, fluorspar, gypsum, timber, fish, gold

Natural hazards.

Flooding, avalanches, midwinter windstorms, drought, forest fires in the south near the Mediterranean

Environment.

The region that now comprises France consisted of open grassland during the Pleistocene Ice Age. France gradually became forested as the glaciers retreated starting in 10,000 BC, but clearing of these primeval forests began in Neolithic times. These forests were still fairly extensive until the medieval era.  In prehistoric times, France was home to large predatory animals such as wolves and brown bears, as well as herbivores such as elk. The larger fauna have disappeared outside the Pyrenees Mountains where bears live as a protected species. Smaller animals include martens, wild pigs, foxes, weasels, bats, rodents, rabbits, and assorted birds.  By the 15th century, France had largely been denuded of its forests and was forced to rely on Scandinavia and their North American colonies for lumber. Significant remaining forested areas are in the Gascony region and north in the Alsace-Ardennes area. The Ardennes Forest was the scene of extensive fighting in both world wars.  The upper central part of this region is dominated by the Paris Basin, which consists of a layered sequence of sedimentary rocks. Fertile soils over much of the area make good agricultural land. The Normandy coast to the upper left is characterized by high, chalk cliffs, while the Brittany coast (the peninsula to the left) is highly indented where deep valleys were drowned by the sea, and the Biscay coast to the southwest is marked by flat, sandy beaches.

Political geography.

Internal divisions.

France has several levels of internal divisions. The first-level administrative division of Integral France is regions. Besides this the French Republic has sovereignty over several other territories, with various administrative levels.

Extreme points.

This is a list of the extreme points of France; the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.

Temperature Extremes.

These are the extreme temperatures in France.

See also.

Lists:  General:

The geography of France consists of a terrain that is mostly flat plains or gently rolling hills in the north and west and mountainous in the south (including the Pyrenees) and the east (the highest points being in the Alps). Metropolitan France has a total size of (Europe only). It is the third largest country in Europe after Russia and Ukraine.


Description.

This species originated from the mountains of Central America. Most varieties have red flowers and multicolored seeds (though some have white flowers and white seeds), and they are often grown as ornamental plants. The vine can grow to 3 m (9 ft) or more in length.  It differs from the common bean ("P. vulgaris") in several respects: the cotyledons stay in the ground during germination, and the plant is a perennial vine with tuberous roots (though it is usually treated as an annual).  The knife-shaped pods are normally green; however, there are very rare varieties bred by amateurs that have very unusual purple pods. An example of such a purple-podded runner bean is 'Aeron Purple Star'.  Runner beans have also been called "Oregon lima bean", and in Nahuatl "ayocotl" or in Spanish "ayocote". Runner beans, like all beans, contain the toxic protein phytohaemagglutinin and thus should be cooked well before eating.

Usage.

In the US, in 1978, the scarlet runner was widely grown for its attractive flowers primarily as an ornamental. Since that time, many US gardeners have adopted the bean as a regular member of the vegetable garden. The flower is known as a favourite of hummingbirds. In the UK – where the vegetable is a popular choice for kitchen gardens and allotments – the flowers are often ignored, or treated as an attractive bonus to cultivating the plant for the beans.  The seeds of the plant can be used fresh or as dried beans. The pods are edible whole while they are young and not yet fibrous. The starchy roots are still eaten by Central American Natives.  The beans are used in many cuisines. It is a popular side vegetable in British cuisine. A variety named 'Judión de la Granja' producing large, white, edible beans is cultivated in San Ildefonso, Spain. It is the basis of a Segovian regional dish also named "Judiones de la Granja", in which the beans are mixed with pig's ears, pig's trotters, and chorizo, amongst other ingredients.  In Greece, cultivars of the runner bean with white blossom and white beans are known as "fasolia gigantes" (φασόλια γίγαντες). They are grown under protective law in the north of Greece within the regions of Kato Nevrokopi, Florina and Kastoria. The beans have an important role in Greek cuisine, appearing in many dishes (such as Gigandes plaki). In English, they are sometimes colloquially referred to as elephant beans. In Austria the coloured versions are cultivated and served as "Käferbohnen" ("beetle-bean"), a dish made of the dry beans with pumpkin seed oil. It is considered a typical dish of regional Austrian cuisine, but dried runner beans are also consumed to a small extent in Germany.  Greece and northern Africa are the sources of pods of the runner beans sold as "green beans" in European markets during the cold period. The pods can be identified by their big size and the rougher surface.  Cultivars include:  "P. coccineus" subsp. "darwinianus " is a cultivated subspecies, commonly referred to as the "botil" bean in Mexico.  The related species considered most useful for interbreeding with "P. coccineus" to increase its genetic diversity are "P. dumosus" and "P. vulgaris".

Phaseolus coccineus, known as runner bean, scarlet runner bean, or multiflora bean, is a plant in the legume family, Fabaceae. Another common name is butter bean, which, however, can also refer to the lima bean, a different species.


Early life.

Dürrenmatt was born in Konolfingen, canton of Bern, the son of a Protestant pastor. His grandfather, Ulrich Dürrenmatt, was a conservative politician. The family moved to Bern in 1935. Dürrenmatt began studies in philosophy, German philology and German literature at the University of Zürich in 1941, but moved to the University of Bern after one semester where he also studied natural science. In 1943, he decided to become an author and dramatist and dropped his academic career. In 1945–46, he wrote his first play "It Is Written". On 11 October 1946, he married the actress Lotti Geissler. She died on 16 January 1983. Dürrenmatt married another actress, Charlotte Kerr, in 1984.  Dürrenmatt also enjoyed painting. Some of his own works and his drawings were exhibited in Neuchâtel in 1976 and 1985, as well as in Zürich in 1978.

Dramatic works.

Like Bertolt Brecht, Dürrenmatt explored the dramatic possibilities of epic theatre. Next to Brecht, he has been called its "most original theorist".  When he was 26, his first play, "It Is Written", premiered to great controversy. The story of the play revolves around a battle between a sensation-craving cynic and a religious fanatic who takes scripture literally, all of this taking place while the city they live in is under siege. The play's opening night in April 1947, caused fights and protests in the audience. Between 1948 and 1949, Dürrenmatt wrote several segments and sketches for the anti-Nazi Cabaret Cornichon in Zürich; among these, the single-act grotesque short play "Der Gerettete" ("The Rescued").  His first major success was the play "Romulus the Great". Set in the year A.D. 476, the play explores the last days of the Roman Empire, presided over, and brought about by its last emperor, Romulus. "The Visit" ("Der Besuch der alten Dame", 1956) is a grotesque fusion of comedy and tragedy about a wealthy woman who offers the people of her hometown a fortune if they will execute the man who jilted her years earlier. The satirical drama "The Physicists" ("Die Physiker", 1962), which deals with issues concerning science and its responsibility for dramatic and dangerous changes to the world, has also been presented in translation.  Radio plays published in English include "Hercules in the Augean Stables" ("Herkules und der Stall des Augias", 1954), "Incident at Twilight" ("Abendstunde im Spätherbst", 1952) and "The Mission of the Vega" ("Das Unternehmen der Wega", 1954). The two late works "Labyrinth" and "Turmbau zu Babel" are a collection of unfinished ideas, stories, and philosophical thoughts.

Later life.

In 1990, he gave two famous speeches, one in honour of Václav Havel ("Die Schweiz, ein Gefängnis?/Switzerland a Prison?"), the other in honour of Mikhail Gorbachev ("Kants Hoffnung/Kant's Hope"). Dürrenmatt often compared the three Abrahamic religions and Marxism, which he also saw as a religion.  He traveled in 1969 to the United States, in 1974 to Israel, and in 1990 to Auschwitz in Poland.  Dürrenmatt died from heart failure on 14 December 1990 in Neuchâtel.

Adaptations.

His novel, "A Dangerous Game" (also known as "Die Panne" ("Traps")) was adapted into a Marathi play, "Shantata! Court Chalu Aahe" (Silence! The Court Is in Session) by Indian playwright Vijay Tendulkar in 1967. The play has since then been performed in various Indian languages, and made into a film by the same name by Satyadev Dubey.  His play "The Visit" has been adapted and Indianised into a play called "Miss.Meena" by Chennai-based theatre group 'perch'. "The Visit" has also been adapted as a musical by Kander and Ebb.

Friedrich Dürrenmatt (; 5 January 1921 – 14 December 1990) was a Swiss author and dramatist. He was a proponent of epic theatre whose plays reflected the recent experiences of World War II. The politically active author's work included avant-garde dramas, philosophical crime novels, and macabre satire. Dürrenmatt was a member of the Gruppe Olten, a group of left-wing Swiss writers who convened regularly at a restaurant in the town Olten.


Finnish euro design.

For images of the common side and a detailed description of the coins, see euro coins.  In Finland, the euro was introduced in 2002. However, the first sets of coins were minted, as preparation, in 1999. Hence the first euro coins of Finland have minted the year 1999 instead of 2002.  Finnish euro coins dated 1999–2006 carry the mint mark M which is the initial of the mint master at the Mint of Finland, Raimo Makkonen.

Amendments.

In December 2006, the Bank of Finland announced the following:  "The national sides of euro coins will be amended so that each issuing Member State will add its name or abbreviation (FI for Finland) on the coins. On Finnish coins the first letter of the Mint of Finland’s President and CEO (M for Raimo Makkonen) will also be replaced with the Mint’s logo. Amendments to the national sides affect all denominations of euro coins.  "Each euro area Member State will decide on the schedule for the introduction of their new coins. In Finland the new coins will be put into circulation in January 2007. The current coins will remain valid, and coins in stock will be put into circulation as necessary. This way coins with the new designs will mix with the current coins in circulation."  Finland was the first state in the EMU (European Monetary Union) to implement these changes.

Circulating mintage quantities.

The following table shows the mintage quantity for all Finnish euro coins, per denomination, per year (the numbers are represented in millions).  <nowiki>*</nowiki> No coins were minted that year for that denomination <nowiki>**</nowiki> Data not available yet <nowiki>€2 CC</nowiki> €2 commemorative coins

Other commemorative coins (collectors' coins).

Finland has a collection of euro commemorative coins, mainly in silver and gold, although other materials are used. Their face values range from 5 euro to 100 euro. This is mainly done as a legacy of old national practice of minting gold and silver coins. These coins are not intended to be used as means of payment, so generally they do not circulate.

International coin trading.

In June 2009, Finland and the Netherlands coordinated a unique trade at European level. Excess Finnish 5 cent coins were traded for Dutch two-euro coins. In total five truckloads containing 30 million five cent coins were traded for 3 million Dutch two-euro coins. This trade saved both countries a lot of money in production and material costs. An estimated 120,000 kg of metal has been saved with this trade alone. In 2010 this exact trade has been repeated, helping Finland rid some of its 5-cent excesses, pumping in a new supply of two-euro coins, and saving both countries a lot of money.

Usage of 1 cent and 2 cent coins.

Finnish businesses and banks have employed a method known as "Swedish rounding" when tallying sums. Due in large part to the inefficiency of producing and accepting the 1 cent and 2 cent coins, Finland has opted to remove these coins from general circulation in order to offset the cost involved in accepting them.  While individual prices are still shown and summed up with €0.01 precision, the total sum is then rounded to the nearest five cents when paying with cash. Sums ending in 1, 2, 6 and 7 cents are rounded down; sums ending in 3, 4, 8 and 9 cents are rounded up.  The 1 cent and 2 cent coins are legal tender and are minted for collector sets as required by the EMU agreement.  When paying in cash in Finland, while by law a shopkeeper should accept the coins, usually they will decline, and ask for higher denominations to match the Swedish rounding, even when presented with exact change.

Designers.

The 1 euro coin is designed by the sculptor Pertti Mäkinen and the two-euro coin by the designer Raimo Heino.

Finnish euro coins feature three designs. Heikki Häiväoja provided the design for the 1 cent – 50 cent coins, Pertti Mäkinen provided the design for the 1 euro coin, and Raimo Heino provided the design for the 2 euro coin, which shows cloudberry, the golden berry of northern Finland. All designs feature the 12 stars of the EU and the year of imprint.


Function.

Tempelhof was often called the "City Airport". In its later years, it mostly had commuter flights to other parts of Germany and neighbouring countries; but it had in the past received long-haul, wide-bodied airliners, such as the Boeing 747, the Lockheed L-1011 Tristar and the Lockheed C-5A Galaxy. The first of these three first appeared at Tempelhof on 18 September 1976, when Pan American World Airways (Pan Am) flew in Boeing 747SP "Clipper Great Republic" to participate in the static exhibition of contemporary military, non-combat and civil aircraft at the annual "Day of Open House" of the United States Air Force (USAF) at the airport.  The Galaxy had its first appearance at

History.

The site of the airport was originally Knights Templar land in medieval Berlin, and from this beginning came the name "Tempelhof". Later, the site was used as a parade field by Prussian forces, and by unified German forces from 1720 to the start of World War I. In 1909, Frenchman Armand Zipfel made the first flight demonstration in Tempelhof, followed by Orville Wright later that same year. Tempelhof was first officially designated as an airport on 8 October 1923. Deutsche Luft Hansa was founded in Tempelhof on 6 January 1926.  The old terminal, originally constructed in 1927, became the world's first with an underground railway. The station has since been renamed "Paradestraße", because the rebuilding of the airport in the 1930s required the airport access to be moved to a major intersection with a station now called Platz der Luftbrücke after the Berlin Airlift.  As part of Albert Speer's plan for the reconstruction of Berlin during the Nazi era, Prof. Ernst Sagebiel was ordered to replace the old terminal with a new terminal building in 1934. The airport halls and the adjoining buildings, intended to become the gateway to Europe and a symbol of Hitler's "world capital" Germania, are still known as one of the largest built entities worldwide, and have been described by British architect Sir Norman Foster as "the mother of all airports". With its façades of shell limestone, the terminal building, built between 1936 and 1941, forms a 1.2 kilometre long quadrant. Arriving passengers walked through customs controls to the reception hall. Tempelhof was served by the U6 U-Bahn line along Mehringdamm and up Friedrichstraße (Platz der Luftbrücke station).  Zentralflughafen Tempelhof-Berlin had the advantage of a central location just minutes from the Berlin city centre and quickly became one of the world's busiest airports. Tempelhof saw its greatest pre-war days during 1938–1939, when up to 52 foreign and 40 domestic flights arrived and departed daily from the old terminal while the new one was still under construction.  The new air terminal was designed as headquarters for Deutsche Luft Hansa (moved in 1938), the German national airline at that time. As a forerunner of today's modern airports, the building was designed with many unique features, including giant arc-shaped aircraft hangars. Although under construction for more than ten years, it was never finished because of World War II. For passengers and freight, the 1927-built terminal stayed in use until 24 April 1945.  The building complex was designed to resemble an eagle in flight with semicircular hangars forming the bird's spread wings. A -long hangar roof was to have been laid in tiers to form a stadium for spectators at air and ground demonstrations. Norman Foster called Tempelhof "one of the really great buildings of the modern age".

Airlines and destinations.

Most airlines moved to Tegel or Schönefeld in the years before Tempelhof closed down. When it was actually closed down in 2008 there were only scheduled flights from Brussels Airlines and Cirrus Airlines still operating from there.

Accidents and incidents.

On 12 June 1897, in one of the earliest recorded aircraft accidents, Friedrich Hermann Wölfert and his mechanic Robert Knabe were killed when Wölfert's lighter than air craft "Deutschland" caught fire at 200 m (670 ft) and crashed at Tempelhof Field.  On 29 April 1952, an Air France Douglas C-54A (registration F-BELI) operating a scheduled service from Frankfurt Rhein-Main Airport to Berlin Tempelhof came under sustained attack from two Soviet MiG 15 fighters while passing through one of the Allied air corridors over East Germany. Although the attack had severely damaged the plane, necessitating the shutdown of engines number three and four, the pilot in command of the aircraft managed to carry out a safe emergency landing at Tempelhof Airport.  A subsequent inspection of the aircraft's damage at Tempelhof revealed that it had been hit by 89 shots fired from the Soviet MiGs during the preceding air attack. There were no fatalities among the 17 occupants (six crew, 11 passengers) despite the severity of the attack. The Soviet military authorities defended this attack on an unarmed civilian aircraft by claiming the Air France plane was outside the air corridor at the time of attack.  On 19 January 1953, a Silver City Airways Bristol 170 Freighter Mark 21 (registration: G-AICM) operating a non-scheduled cargo flight from West Berlin crash-landed near Tempelhof Airport as a result of fuel starvation when bad weather at the destination forced it to return to Berlin. Although the accident damaged the aircraft beyond repair, both pilots survived.  In 1978, LOT Polish Airlines flight 165 was hijacked and forced to land at Tempelhof. The US military authorities who were in charge of Tempelhof during the Cold War era arrested the East German hijacker on arrival. Following the hijacker's arrest, the US authorities returned the aircraft, its crew and those passengers who wished to resume their journey to Poland.  In 1981, a LOT Polish Airlines Antonov AN-24 operating an internal scheduled service from Katowice to Gdańsk was hijacked en route and forced to land at Tempelhof. Jerzy Dygas, the hijacker, was on military service while taking over the aircraft. He was armed with a grenade and a single-shot pistol. The US military authorities arrested the hijacker on arrival and handed him over to the local police. At that time, he was expected to be sentenced to a five-and-a-half years prison term under West German law. Following the hijacker's arrest, the US authorities released the aircraft, its crew and all 50 passengers to resume their flight to Gdańsk.  On 26 June 2010, a private Socata TB 10 Tobago had to perform an emergency landing on the now closed Tempelhof Airport due to engine failure. It was on a sightseeing flight and the pilot was looking for a free space to land safely. The aircraft was occupied by the pilot and three passengers and had taken off from Tegel Airport. Upon consultation with air traffic control in Schönefeld, it was agreed to land on a Tempelhof runway. No one was injured during the emergency landing as the visitors of the now Tempelhofer Park scurried aside to make room for the TB 10, which came to a halt after a very short distance. Four days later, the Socata TB 10 Tobago was transported – with wings removed – by lorry back to Tegel airport. The Senate of Berlin now intends to prohibit sightseeing flights over Berlin by single-engine planes for safety reasons. It has been reported that the pilot had forgotten to switch over to the second fuel tank.

Berlin Tempelhof Airport () was one of the first airports in Berlin, Germany. Situated in the south-central Berlin borough of Tempelhof-Schöneberg, the airport ceased operating in 2008 amid controversy, leaving Tegel and Schönefeld as the two main airports serving the city, with the new Berlin Brandenburg Airport still under construction as of 2020.


Overview.

The Institute was founded in 1921, as the Institute for Theoretical Physics of the University of Copenhagen, by the Danish theoretical physicist Niels Bohr, who had been on the staff of the University of Copenhagen since 1914, and who had been lobbying for its creation since his appointment as professor in 1916. On the 80th anniversary of Niels Bohr's birth – October 7, 1965 – the Institute officially became the Niels Bohr Institute. Much of its original funding came from the charitable foundation of the Carlsberg brewery, and later from the Rockefeller Foundation.  During the 1920s, and 1930s, the Institute was the center of the developing disciplines of atomic physics and quantum physics. Physicists from across Europe (and sometimes further abroad) often visited the Institute to confer with Bohr on new theories and discoveries. The Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics is named after work done at the Institute during this time.  On January 1, 1993 the institute was merged with the Astronomic Observatory, the Ørsted Laboratory and the Geophysical Institute. The new resulting institute retained the name Niels Bohr Institute.

Research sections.

Research at the Niels Bohr Institute is organised in ten research sections covering a broad range of physics, i.e. astrophysics, biophysics, solid state physics, geophysics, particle physics and e-science.

Medal of Honour.

in 2010, the year of the 125th anniversary of the birth of Niels Bohr, the Institute established the Niels Bohr Institute Medal of Honour. It is an annual award for "a particularly outstanding researcher who is working in the spirit of Niels Bohr: International cooperation and the exchange of knowledge".  The medal is made by Danish sculptor Rikke Raben for the Niels Bohr Institute. On the front is a portrait of Niels Bohr, the atom sign and stars. The illustration on the back is inspired by a quote from Bohr: "What is it that we human beings ultimately depend on? We depend on our words. We are suspended in language. Our task is to communicate experience and ideas to others". On the back of the medal: "Unity of Knowledge" – the title of a lecture given by Bohr at Columbia University in 1954. "Nosce te ipsum" is Latin and means "know thyself". This quote originates from the Oracle of Delphi, in the Temple of Apollo in Greece.  Recipients:

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of computer files between a client and server on a computer network.


Name.

In Berber languages, "Fezzan" (or "ifezzan") means "rough rocks". "Fezzan" could also be a derivation from the region's Latin name "Phasania" or "Phazania", which may mean "the country of the pheasants".

Geography.

Fezzan is crossed in the north by the ash-Shati Valley ("Wadi Al Shatii") and in the west by the Wadi Irawan. These two areas, along with portions of the Tibesti Mountains crossing the Chadian border and a sprinkling of remote oases and border posts, are the only parts of the Fezzan able to support settled populations. The large dune seas known as ergs of the Idehan Ubari and the Idehan Murzuq cover much of the remaining land of Fezzan.

History.

From the 5th century BCE to the 5th century CE, Fezzan was home to the Garamantes, who operated the Trans-Saharan trade routes successively between Carthage and the Roman Empire in North Africa and Sahelian states of west and central Africa.  The Roman generals Septimus Flaccus in 19 BCE and Suetonius Paulinus in 50 CE led small-scale military expeditions into the northern reaches of the Sahara, and the Roman explorer Julius Maternus traveled there in early 1st century CE. Paulinus reached Fezzan and went further south.  With the end of the Roman Empire and the following commercial crisis, Fezzan began to lose importance. The population was greatly reduced due to the desertification process of the Sahara during the early Middle Ages.  During the 13th and 14th centuries, portions of Fezzan were part of the Kanem Empire. Wars against the Kanem–Bornu Empire in the early sixteenth century led to the founding of the Awlad Muhammad dynasty, with Murzuk becoming the capital of Fezzan. Around 1565 it was ruled by Muhammad ibn al-Muntasir.  The Ottoman rulers of North Africa asserted their control over the region in the 17th century. In the reign of Abdulhamid II (1876–1909) Fezzan was used as a place of political exile for Young Turks because it was the most remote province from Istanbul.  Beginning in 1911, Fezzan was occupied by Italy. However, Italy's control of the region was precarious until at least 1923, with the rise of the Benito Mussolini. The Italians were resisted in their early attempts at conquest by tribal Arab adherents to the militant Sanusiya Sufi religious order. The Tuareg clans of the region were only pacified by European expansion shortly before the Second World War, and some of them collaborated with the Italian Army in the North African Campaign. Free French troops occupied Murzuk, a chief town of Fezzan, on 16 January 1943, and proceeded to administer Fezzan with a staff stationed in Sabha, forming the Military Territory of Fezzan-Ghadames. French administration was largely exercised through Fezzan notables of the family of Sayf Al Nasr. Disquieting to the tribes in western Fezzan was the administrative attachment of Ghat, and its surrounding area, to French-ruled Algeria. However, when the French military control ceased in 1951, all of Fezzan became part of the Kingdom of Libya.  Fezzan was a stronghold for Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi through much of the 2011 Libyan Civil War, though starting in July, anti-Gaddafi forces began to gain ground, taking control of the region's largest city of Sabha in mid-to-late September.  The LF country code (.lf) was reserved "on behalf" of Libya Fezzan (for an "indeterminate period of time") by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).  There are oil wells in Fezzan capable of 400,000 barrels per day, but oil companies fly in staff from northern Libya. The local tribes are not getting any money from the oil trade, and so have turned to smuggling migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa, which is feeding the European migrant crisis and is a $1 billion per year industry.

Administration.

Fezzan was a province under the Ottoman Turks and Italy, and a province ("wilayah") or governorate ("muhafazah") of independent Libya (alongside Tripolitania and Cyrenaica) until 1963. With the introduction of the new administrative division of Libya in 1963, Fezzan was abolished as an independent administrative unit and was divided into the "muhafazat" of Awbari and Sabha. In 1983, these administrative divisions were abolished in favour of smaller districts or "baladiyah". The Baladiyat-system was reorganized in 1987 and was replaced in 1995 by the "sha'biyat"-system.  The former Fezzan province contains the districts ("sha'biyat") of Wadi al Shatii, Wadi al Hayaa, Jufra, Ghadames, Murzuq, Sabha and Ghat (some maps allocate Ghadames to the neighbouring region of Tripolitania). The historic capital, largest city, political and administrative centre is Sabha.

Population.

The region's inhabitants include the Dawada, the nomadic Tuareg in the southwest, and the Toubou in the southeast. These pastoralist populations often cross the borders of Algeria, Chad and Niger freely. In the north, Arab, Berber and settled Tuareg and Toubou mix. While making up some 30% of the land area of Libya, the Fezzan supports only a small percentage of its population. Large towns like Sabha survive on near-surface water in the wadis of the north and west. The northeast area is dominated by Haruj, a large and unpopulated volcanic field.  Fezzan's population has grown rapidly since the mid-20th century along with the overall growth in Libya's population, and the province's share of the national population has increased by half. "Source: Gathered from bulletins of censuses 1964, 1973, 1995, 2006."

Fezzan (, ; ; ; ) is the southwestern region of modern Libya. It is largely desert, but broken by mountains, uplands, and dry river valleys (wadis) in the north, where oases enable ancient towns and villages to survive deep in the otherwise inhospitable Sahara Desert. The term originally applied to the land beyond the coastal strip of Africa proconsularis, including the Nafusa and extending west of modern Libya over Ouargla and Illizi. As these Berber areas came to be associated with the regions of Tripoli, Cirta or Algiers, the name was increasingly applied to the arid areas south of Tripolitania. Fezzan is Libya’s poorest region.


History.

The first edition of the "F.A.Z." appeared on 1 November 1949; its founding editor was. Some editors had worked for the moderate "Frankfurter Zeitung", which had been banned in 1943. However, in their first issue, the F.A.Z. editorial expressly refuted the notion of being the earlier paper's successor or of continuing its legacy: Until 30 September 1950 the "F.A.Z." was printed in Mainz.  Traditionally, many of the headlines in the "F.A.Z." were styled in orthodox blackletter format and no photographs appeared on the title page. Some of the rare exceptions were a picture of the celebrating people in front of the Reichstag in Berlin on German Unity Day on 4 October 1990, and the two pictures in the edition of 12 September 2001 showing the collapsing World Trade Center and the American president George W. Bush.  In the early 2000s, "F.A.Z." expanded aggressively, with customized sections for Berlin and Munich. An eight-page six-day-a-week English-language edition was distributed as an insert in "The International Herald Tribune" (which is owned by The New York Times Company); the articles were selected and translated from the same day's edition of the parent newspaper by the "F.A.Z." staff in Frankfurt. However, F.A.Z. group suffered a loss of 60.6 million euros in 2002. By 2004 the customized sections were scrapped. The English edition shrank to a tabloid published once a week.  On 5 October 2007, the "F.A.Z." altered their traditional layout to include color photographs on the front page and exclude blackletter typeface outside the nameplate. Due to its traditionally sober layout, the introduction of colour photographs in the F.A.Z. was controversially discussed by the readers, becoming the subject of a 2009 comedy film that was still current three years later.  Currently, the F.A.Z. is produced electronically using the Networked Interactive Content Access (NICA) and Hermes. For its characteristic comment headings, a digital "Fraktur" font was ordered. The Fraktur has since been abandoned, however, with the above-mentioned change of layout.  After having introduced on 1 August 1999 the new spelling prescribed by the German spelling reform, the F.A.Z. returned exactly one year later to the old spelling, declaring that the reform had failed to achieve the primary goals of improving language mastery and strengthening the unity of the language. After several changes had been made to the new spelling, F.A.Z. accepted it and started using it (in a custom version) on 1 January 2007.

Orientation.

Its political orientation is centre right and liberal-conservative, occasionally providing a forum to commentators with different opinions. In particular, the "Feuilleton" and some sections of the Sunday edition cannot be said to be specifically conservative or liberal at all.  In the 2013 elections the paper was among the supporters of the Christian Democrats.

Ownership.

It has the legal form of a GmbH; the independent "FAZIT-Stiftung" (FAZIT Foundation) is its majority shareholder (93.7%). The FAZIT-Stiftung was born in 1959 by the transformation of the then FAZ owner "Allgemeine Verlagsgesellschaft mbH" into a private foundation. The FAZIT-Stiftung is 'owned' by up to nine persons who can't sell or buy their share but have to transmit it free of charge to a successor which is co-opted by the remaining shareholders. The foundations statute prescribe that only such persons shall be co-opted as new member, who "by their standing and personality" can guarantee the "independence" of the FAZ. The current group of seven is composed of active or former CEOs, company owners, board members, and corporate lawyers. The FAZIT foundation also owns more than 90% of the shares of the company 'Frankfurter Societät' which in turn is owner of the printing enterprise 'Frankfurter Societätsdruckerei' and the regional paper Frankfurter Neue Presse.

Circulation.

The "F.A.Z." is one of several high-profile national newspapers in Germany (along with "Süddeutsche Zeitung", "Die Welt", "Die Zeit", "Frankfurter Rundschau" and "Die Tageszeitung") and among them has the second largest circulation nationwide. It maintains the largest number of foreign correspondents of any European newspaper (53 as of 2002).  The "F.A.Z." had a circulation of 382,000 copies during the third quarter of 1992. The 1993 circulation of the paper was 391,013 copies. In 2001 it had a circulation of 409,000 copies. The "F.A.Z." had a circulation of 382,000 copies in 2003. The 2007 circulation of the daily was 382,499 copies. The 2016 (IVW II/2016) circulation of the daily was 256,188 copies.

Controversies and bans.

In December 1999, future German Chancellor Angela Merkel published a sensational article in the "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung", lamenting the "tragedy" that had befallen the party (CDU donations scandal), blaming former Chancellor Helmut Kohl and urging a new course.  In 2006, the "F.A.Z." was banned in Egypt for publishing articles which were deemed as "insulting Islam". The paper was again banned in Egypt in February 2008 due to the publication of Prophet Mohammad's cartoons. In November 2012, the paper provoked strong criticism in Spain because of its stance against Spanish immigration to Germany during the economic crisis.  In July 2019, the "F.A.Z." website, along with other major German media, including Spiegel Online, was blocked by China's Great Firewall. The reasons for the ban remain unclear, while "F.A.Z." believed it was possibly due to its reports on the massive protests in Hong Kong.

Popularity.

In 2017, the online version of the "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung" was among the ten most cited sources in the German Wikipedia. Currently, it is in 129th place in the ranking of the most visited websites in Germany.

The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (, "Frankfurt General Newspaper"), abbreviated FAZ, is a centre-right, liberal-conservative German newspaper, founded in 1949. It is published daily in Frankfurt am Main. Its Sunday edition is the Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung (, abbreviated FAS).


History.

Around 900, the language spoken in the Faroes was Old Norse, which Norse settlers had brought with them during the time of the settlement of Faroe Islands () that began in 825. However, many of the settlers were not from Scandinavia, but descendants of Norse settlers in the Irish Sea region. In addition, women from Norse Ireland, Orkney, or Shetland often married native Scandinavian men before settling in the Faroe Islands and Iceland. As a result, the Irish language has had some influence on both Faroese and Icelandic.  There is some debatable evidence of Irish language place names in the Faroes: for example, the names of Mykines, Stóra Dímun, Lítla Dímun and Argir have been hypothesized to contain Celtic roots. Other examples of early-introduced words of Celtic origin are: / (buttermilk), cf. Middle Irish ; (tail-piece of an animal), cf. Middle Irish ; (head, headhair), cf. Middle Irish ; (hand, paw), cf. Middle Irish ; (bull), cf. Middle Irish ; and (pasture in the outfield), cf. Middle Irish.  Between the 9th and the 15th centuries, a distinct Faroese language evolved, although it was probably still mutually intelligible with Old West Norse, and remained similar to the Norn language of Orkney and Shetland during Norn's earlier phase.  Faroese ceased to be a written language after the union of Norway with Denmark in 1380, with Danish replacing Faroese as the language of administration and education. The islanders continued to use the language in ballads, folktales, and everyday life. This maintained a rich spoken tradition, but for 300 years the language was not used in written form.  In 1823 the Danish Bible Society published a diglot of the Gospel of Matthew, with Faroese on the left and Danish on the right.  Venceslaus Ulricus Hammershaimb and the Icelandic grammarian and politician Jón Sigurðsson published a written standard for Modern Faroese in 1854, which still exists. They set a standard for the orthography of the language, based on its Old Norse roots and similar to that of Icelandic. The main purpose of this was for the spelling to represent the diverse dialects of Faroese in equal measure. Additionally, it had the advantages of being etymologically clear and keeping the kinship with the Icelandic written language. The actual pronunciation, however, often differs considerably from the written rendering. The letter "ð", for example, has no specific phoneme attached to it.  Jakob Jakobsen devised a rival system of orthography, based on his wish for a phonetic spelling, but this system was never taken up by the speakers.  In 1908 Scripture Gift Mission published the Gospel of John in Faroese.  In 1937, Faroese replaced Danish as the official school language, in 1938 as the church language, and in 1948 as the national language by the Home Rule Act of the Faroes. However, Faroese did not become the common language of media and advertising until the 1980s. Today Danish is considered a foreign language, although around 5% of residents on the Faroes learn it as a first language, and it is taught in school from the first grade.  In 2017, the tourist board Visit Faroe Islands launched the Faroe Islands Translate, available in 13 languages including English, Chinese, Russian, Japanese, and Portuguese.

Old Faroese.

Old Faroese ("miðaldarføroyskt", ca. mid-14th to mid-16th centuries) is a form of Old Norse spoken in medieval times in the Faroe Islands. The language shares many features with both Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian; Old Norwegian appears closer to Old Faroese, whereas Old Icelandic remained rather archaic compared to other medieval varieties of Old West Norse. The most crucial aspects of the development of Faroese are diphthongisation and palatalisation.  There is not enough data available to establish an accurate chronology of Faroese, but a rough one may be developed through comparison to the chronologies of Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian. In the 12th/13th centuries, "á" and "ǫ́" merged as ; later on at the beginning of the 14th century, delabialization took place: "y", "øy", "au" > /i, ɔi, ɛi/; "í" and "ý" merged in addition to "i" and "y", but in the case of "í" and "ý", it appears that labialisation took place instead as is documented by later development to. Further, the language underwent a palatalisation of "k", "g" and "sk" before Old Norse "e", "i", "y", "ø", "au" > > >. Before the palatalisation "é" and "ǽ" merged as and approximately in the same period epenthetic "u" is inserted into word-final and clusters.  A massive quantity shift also operated in Middle Faroese. In the case of "skerping", it took place after delabialization but before loss of post-vocalic "ð" and "g". The shift of "hv" to, the deletion of in (remaining) word-initial –sonorant clusters ("hr", "hl", "hn" > "r", "l", "n"), and the dissolution of "þ" ("þ" > "t"; "þ" > "h" in demonstrative pronouns and adverbs) appeared before the end of the 13th century. Another undated change is the merger of "ǫ", "ø" and "ǿ" into ; pre-nasal "ǫ", "ǫ́" > "o", "ó". "enk", "eng" probably became "eing", "eink" in the 14th century; the development of "a" to before "ng", "nk" appeared after the palatalisation of "k", "g", and "sk" had been completed, such a change is quite a recent development, as well as change "Cve" > "Cvø".

Alphabet.

The Faroese alphabet consists of 29 letters derived from the Latin script:

Phonology.

As with most other Germanic languages, Faroese has a large number of vowels, with 26 in total. Vowel distribution is similar to other North Germanic languages in that short vowels appear in closed syllables (those ending in consonant clusters or long consonants) and long vowels appearing in open syllables. provides the following alternations:  Faroese shares with Icelandic and Danish the feature of maintaining a contrast between stops based exclusively on aspiration, not voicing. Geminated stops may be pre-aspirated in intervocalic and word-final position. Intervocalically the aspirated consonants become pre-aspirated unless followed by a closed vowel. In clusters, the preaspiration merges with a preceding nasal or apical approximant, rendering them voiceless.  There are several phonological processes involved in Faroese, including:

Grammar.

Faroese grammar is related and very similar to that of modern Icelandic and Old Norse. Faroese is an inflected language with three grammatical genders and four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and genitive.

Faroese ( or ;, ) is a North Germanic language spoken as a first language by about 72,000 people, around 49,000 of whom reside on the Faroe Islands and 23,000 in other areas, mainly Denmark.


History.

The first Peace Race was held in 1948, when there were two editions connecting cities of Warsaw and Prague. The one to Prague was won by August Prosinek, the other one to Warsaw by Alexander Zoric, both from Yugoslavia. During the Cold War the Peace Race was known as the 'Tour de France of the East'.  Because cyclists from the Eastern Bloc were not allowed to become professional; it was a purely amateur race. It attracted the best cyclists from communist countries, plus guest teams from non-communist countries. Communist-bloc riders tended to dominate the event, but there were exceptions: Briton Ian Steel won the 1952 race, and the British League of Racing Cyclists team also won the team competition – the first time that both classifications had gone to the same nation.  An Indian team took part in the race in 1952, 1954 and 1955. Indian racers were popular with the public, although they were not competitive. In 1954, Supravat Chravati completed the race in 77th position, 19 hours and 16 seconds after the winner. In 1955, Dhana Singh finished 28 hours, 24 minutes and 38 seconds after the winner.  One of the later winners was Sergei Sukhoruchenkov, who also won the gold medal on the Olympic Road Race in 1980.  The most successful riders in the Peace Race were: Steffen Wesemann from Germany who won the race five times; Ryszard Szurkowski from Poland and Uwe Ampler from East Germany each won the race four times. Gustav-Adolf Schur, who won the race twice, was voted the most popular East German sportsman ever in 1989.  After the end of the Cold War the race lost its significance. No race was held in 2005, and the 2006 race turned out to be the last.  In 2006, the 58th edition took place on May 13–20. It started in Austria's Linz and via Czech Republic headed to Germany where it ended in Hannover. No capital city of these countries were crossed during the race.  After 2006, the race has been cancelled from the cycling calendar.

Legacy.

In April/May 2012 Alan Buttler organised a re-run of the 1955 Peace Race as a tribute to his father, Alf Buttler, who was the GB cycling team mechanic for many events in the 1950s, 60s and 70s. He was joined by former peace riders including Gustav-Adolf Schur, Geoff Wiles, John Woodburn, Alan Jacob, and.  There is a museum in Kleinmühlingen in Germany dedicated to the Peace Race.

Junior Peace Race.

A Junior Peace Race was first held in 1965 and held again the following year. After a hiatus it was revived in 1974 and has been held every year since, continuing after the senior race was no longer organised. Several riders who won the junior race have gone on to senior success, including Roman Kreuziger, Sr., Roman Kreuziger, Jr., Denis Menchov, Fabian Cancellara, Peter Velits, Tanel Kangert and Michal Kwiatkowski.

Peace Race U23.

An Under-23 Peace Race for riders under 23 years was added in 2013. From 2015 the race has been part of the UCI Under 23 Nations' Cup.

List of races.

P=prologue, E=epilogue

Most individual wins.

"Cyclists with three wins at least listed"  Overall:  Sprinter competition:  Mountain climbers competition:

Winners by country.

Individual overall competitions were won by cyclist from following countries:

Further reading.

01. K. Małcużyński, Zygmund Weiss : "Kronika wielkiego wyścigu", Ksiażka i wiedza, Warszawa, 1952  02. Adolf Klimanschewsky: "Warschau-Berlin-Prag. Ein Erlebnisbericht von der Friedensfahrt 1952". Sportverlag, Berlin, 1953.  03. Brigitte Roszak/Klaus Kickbusch (Redaktion): "Friedensfahrt". Sportverlag, Berlin, 1954.  04. "VII. Internationale Friedensfahrt". Volkskunstverlag Reichenbach, 1955.  05. "VIII. Wyscig Pokoju, Zavod Miru, Friedensfahrt." Verlag: Sport i Turystika, Warszawa 1955.  06. Horst Schubert: "Etappengefüster." Sportverlag, Berlin, 1956.  07. Horst Schubert u.a.:"Jedes Jahr im Mai." Sportverlag, Berlin, 1957.  08. Herbert Kronfeld: "Zwischen Start und Ziel." Sportverlag, Berlin, 1957.  09. Egon Lemke: "Giganten der Pedale." Verlag Junge Welt, Berlin, 1958.  10. Autorenkollektiv: "Friedensfahrt". Sportverlag, Berlin, 1962.  11. Klaus Ullrich: "Kluge Köpfe - schnelle Beine." Sportverlag, Berlin, 1963.  12. "Alles über alle Friedensfahrer". Verlag Neues Deutschland, Berlin, 1964.  13. "Täves Friedensfahrtlexikon". Verlag Neues Deutschland, Berlin, 1965.  14. Klaus Ullrich (Hrsg.): "Fahrt der Millionen." Sportverlag, Berlin, 1967.  15. "Trzdziesci lat Wyscigu Pokoju." Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza, Warszawa, 1977.  16. Klaus Ullrich: "Die große Fahrt." Sportverlag, Berlin, 1977.  17. Günter Teske: "Das gelbe Trikot." Verlag Neues Leben, Berlin, 1981.  18. Klaus Ullrich: "Jedes Mal im Mai", Sportverlag, Berlin, 1986,.  19. Ulf Harms: "Der verschwundene Friedensfahrer." Militärverlag der DDR, Berlin, 1987,.  20. Gustav-Adolf Schur (Hrsg.): "Friedensfahrt," Spotless-Verlag, Berlin, 1995,.  21. Tilo Köhler: "Der Favorit fuhr Kowalit: Täve Schur und die Friedensfahrt." Gustav Kiepenheuer Verlag, 1997,.  22. Manfred Hönel/Olaf Ludwig: "100 Highlights Friedensfahrt." Sportverlag, Berlin,1997,.  23. Maik Märtin: "50 Jahre Course de la Paix", Agentur Construct, Leipzig, 1998, ISBN: ohne.  24. Klaus Ullrich Huhn: "Die Geschichte der Friedensfahrt." Spotless-Verlag, Berlin, 2001,.  25. Bogdan Tuszynski/ Daniel Marszalek: "Wyscik Pokoju 1948-2001", Verlag FDK Warszawa, Warszawa, 2002,  26. Andreas Ciesielski: "Das Wunder von Warschau", Scheunen-Verlag, Kückenshagen, 2005,  27. Alan Buttler/Klaus Huhn: "Wie die Friedensfahrt "ausgegraben" wurde", NORA Verlagsgemeinschaft Dyck & Westerheide, Berlin, o.J.,  28. Rainer Sprehe: "Alles Rower? Ein Wessi auf Friedensfahrt." Covadonga-Verlag, Bielefeld 2012,  Audio/Video:

The Peace Race (,,, (),,,, ) was an annual multiple stage bicycle race held in the Eastern Bloc states of Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and Poland. First organized in 1948, it was originally created with the intent of relieving tensions existing between Central European countries following the interwar period and World War II.


Description.

Vegetative characters.

Most species in the Amaranthaceae are annual or perennial herbs or subshrubs; others are shrubs; very few species are vines or trees. Some species are succulent. Many species have stems with thickened nodes. The wood of the perennial stem has a typical "anomalous" secondary growth; only in subfamily Polycnemoideae is secondary growth normal.  The leaves are simple and mostly alternate, sometimes opposite. They never possess stipules. They are flat or terete, and their shape is extremely variable, with entire or toothed margins. In some species, the leaves are reduced to minute scales. In most cases, neither basal nor terminal aggregations of leaves occur.

Inflorescence and flowers.

The flowers are solitary or aggregated in cymes, spikes, or panicles and typically perfect (bisexual) and actinomorphic. Some species have unisexual flowers. Bracts and bracteoles are either herbaceous or scarious. Flowers are regular with an herbaceous or scarious perianth of (one to) mostly five (rarely to eight) tepals, often joined. One to five stamens are opposite to tepals or alternating, inserting from a hypogynous disc, which may have appendages (pseudostaminodes) in some species. The anthers have two or four pollen sacs (locules). In tribe Caroxyloneae, anthers have vesicular appendages. The pollen grains are spherical with many pores (pantoporate), with pore numbers from a few to 250 (in "Froelichia"). One to three (rarely six) carpels are fused to a superior ovary with one (rarely two) basal ovule. Idioblasts are found in the tissues.

Fruits and seeds.

The diaspores are seeds or fruits (utricles), more often the perianth persists and is modified in fruit for means of dispersal. Sometimes even bracts and bracteoles may belong to the diaspore. More rarely the fruit is a circumscissile capsule or a berry. The horizontal or vertical seed often has a thickened or woody seed coat. The green or white embryo is either spirally (and without perisperm) or annular (rarely straight).

Chromosome number.

The basic chromosome number is (rarely 6) mostly 8–9 (rarely 17).

Phytochemistry.

Widespread in the Amaranthaceae is the occurrence of betalain pigments. The former Chenopodiaceae often contain isoflavonoids.  In phytochemical research, several methylenedioxyflavonols, saponins, triterpenoids, ecdysteroids, and specific root-located carbohydrates have been found in these plants.

Photosynthesis pathway.

Although most of the family use the more common photosynthesis pathway, around 800 species are plants; this makes the Amaranthaceae the largest group with this photosynthesis pathway among the eudicots (which collectively includes about 1,600 species). Within the family, several types of photosynthesis occur, and about 17 different types of leaf anatomy are realized. Therefore, this photosynthesis pathway seems to have developed about 15 times independently during the evolution of the family. About two-thirds of the species belong to the former Chenopodiaceae. The first occurrence of photosynthesis dates from the early Miocene, about 24 million years ago, but in some groups, this pathway evolved much later, about 6 (or less) million years ago.  The multiple origin of photosynthesis in the Amaranthaceae is regarded as an evolutionary response to inexorably decreasing atmospheric levels, coupled with a more recent permanent shortage in water supply as well as high temperatures. Species with higher water-use efficiency had a selective advantage and were able to spread out into arid habitats.

Distribution.

Amaranthaceae is a widespread and cosmopolitan family from the tropics to cool temperate regions. The Amaranthaceae ("sensu stricto") are predominantly tropical, whereas the former Chenopodiaceae have their centers of diversity in dry temperate and warm temperate areas. Many of the species are halophytes, tolerating salty soils, or grow in dry steppes or semi-deserts.

Economic importance.

Some species, such as spinach ("Spinacia oleracea") or forms of beet ("Beta vulgaris") (beetroot, chard), are used as vegetables. Forms of "Beta vulgaris" include fodder beet ("Mangelwurzel") and sugar beet. The seeds of "Amaranthus", lamb's quarters ("Chenopodium berlandieri"), quinoa ("Chenopodium quinoa") and kañiwa ("Chenopodium pallidicaule") are edible and are used as pseudocereals.  "Dysphania ambrosioides" (epazote) and "Dysphania anthelmintica" are used as medicinal herbs. Several amaranth species are also used indirectly as a source of soda ash, such as members of the genus "Salicornia" (see glasswort).  A number of species are popular garden ornamental plants, especially species from the genera "Alternanthera", "Amaranthus", "Celosia", and "Iresine". Other species are considered weeds, e.g., redroot pigweed ("Amaranthus retroflexus") and alligatorweed ("Alternanthera philoxeroides"), and several are problematic invasive species, particularly in North America, including "Kali tragus" and "Bassia scoparia". Many species are known to cause pollen allergies.

Systematics.

In the APG IV system of 2016, as in the previous Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classifications, the family is placed in the order Caryophyllales and includes the plants formerly treated as the family Chenopodiaceae. The monophyly of this broadly defined Amaranthaceae has been strongly supported by both morphological and phylogenetic analyses.  The family Amaranthaceae was first published in 1789 by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in "Genera Plantarum", p. 87–88. The first publication of family Chenopodiaceae was in 1799 by Étienne Pierre Ventenat in "Tableau du Regne Vegetal", 2, p. 253. The older name has priority and is now the valid scientific name of the extended Amaranthaceae ("s.l." = "sensu lato").  Some publications still continued to use the family name Chenopodiaceae. Phylogenetic research revealed the important impact of the subfamily Polycnemoideae on the classification (see cladogram): if Polycnemoideae are considered a part of Chenopodiaceae, then Amaranthaceae ("s.str." = "sensu stricto") have to be included, too, and the name of the extended family is Amaranthaceae. If Polycnemoideae would be separated as its own family, Chenopodiaceae and Amaranthaceae ("s.str.") would form two distinct monophyletic groups and could be treated as two separate families.  Amaranthaceae ("s.l.") includes the former families Achyranthaceae, Atriplicaceae, Betaceae, Blitaceae, Celosiaceae, Chenopodiaceae "nom. cons.", Corispermaceae, Deeringiaceae, Dysphaniaceae "nom. cons.", Gomphrenaceae, Polycnemaceae, Salicorniaceae, Salsolaceae, and Spinaciaceae.  The systematics of Amaranthaceae are the subject of intensive recent research. Molecular genetic studies revealed the traditional classification, based on morphological and anatomical characters, often did not reflect the phylogenetic relationships.  The former Amaranthaceae (in their narrow circumscription) are classified into two subfamilies, Amaranthoideae and Gomphrenoideae, and contain about 65 genera and 900 species in tropical Africa and North America. The Amaranthoideae and some genera of Gomphrenoideae were found to be polyphyletic, so taxonomic changes are needed.  Current studies classified the species of former Chenopodiaceae to eight distinct subfamilies (the research is not yet completed): Polycnemoideae, which are regarded as a basal lineage, Betoideae, Camphorosmoideae, Chenopodioideae, Corispermoideae, Salicornioideae, Salsoloideae, and Suaedoideae. In this preliminary classification, the Amaranthaceae "s.l." are divided into 10 subfamilies with approximately 180 genera and 2,500 species.

Genera.

A short synoptic list of genera is given here. For further and more detailed information, see the subfamily pages.

Amaranthaceae is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the amaranth family, in reference to its type genus "Amaranthus". It includes the former goosefoot family Chenopodiaceae and contains about 165 genera and 2,040 species, making it the most species-rich lineage within its parent order, Caryophyllales.


History.

In 1836, Michael Faraday observed that the excess charge on a charged conductor resided only on its exterior and had no influence on anything enclosed within it. To demonstrate this fact, he built a room coated with metal foil and allowed high-voltage discharges from an electrostatic generator to strike the outside of the room. He used an electroscope to show that there was no electric charge present on the inside of the room's walls.  Although this cage effect has been attributed to Michael Faraday's famous ice pail experiments performed in 1843, it was Benjamin Franklin in 1755 who observed the effect by lowering an uncharged cork ball suspended on a silk thread through an opening in an electrically charged metal can. In his words, "the cork was not attracted to the inside of the can as it would have been to the outside, and though it touched the bottom, yet when drawn out it was not found to be electrified (charged) by that touch, as it would have been by touching the outside. The fact is singular." Franklin had discovered the behavior of what we now refer to as a Faraday cage or shield (based on Faraday's later experiments which duplicated Franklin's cork and can).  Additionally, in 1754 the Abbe Nollet published an early account of an effect attributable to the cage effect in his "Leçons de physique expérimentale".

Operation.

Continuous.

A continuous Faraday shield is a hollow conductor. Externally or internally applied electromagnetic fields produce forces on the charge carriers (usually electrons) within the conductor; the charges are redistributed accordingly due to electrostatic induction. The redistributed charges greatly reduce the voltage within the surface, to an extent depending on the capacitance; however, full cancellation does not occur.

Interior charges.

If a charge is placed inside an ungrounded Faraday cage, the internal face of the cage becomes charged (in the same manner described for an external charge) to prevent the existence of a field inside the body of the cage; however, this charging of the inner face re-distributes the charges in the body of the cage. This charges the outer face of the cage with a charge equal in sign and magnitude to the one placed inside the cage. Let's denote this charge quantity as Q. Since the internal charge and the inner face cancel each other out (i.e., the charge distribution on the inner surface produces a static electric field that's exactly the opposite of what's produced by the internal charge, hence the net charge, net dipole moment, etc., are all zero), the spread of charges on the outer face is not affected by the position of the internal charge inside the cage, but rather determined by the shape of outer face. So for all intents and purposes, the cage generates the same static electric field that it would generate if it were simply charged with Q. However, note that the same is not true for electromagnetic waves.  If the cage is grounded, the excess charges will be neutralized as the ground connection creates an equipotential bonding between the outside of the cage and the environment, so there is no voltage between them and therefore also no field. The inner face and the inner charge will remain the same so the field is kept inside.

Exterior fields.

Effectiveness of shielding of a static electric field is largely independent of the geometry of the conductive material; however, static magnetic fields can penetrate the shield completely.  In the case of a varying electromagnetic fields, the faster the variations are (i.e., the higher the frequencies), the better the material resists magnetic field penetration. In this case the shielding also depends on the electrical conductivity, the magnetic properties of the conductive materials used in the cages, as well as their thicknesses.  A good idea of the effectiveness of a Faraday shield can be obtained from considerations of skin depth. With skin depth, the current flowing is mostly in the surface, and decays exponentially with depth through the material. Because a Faraday shield has finite thickness, this determines how well the shield works; a thicker shield can attenuate electromagnetic fields better, and to a lower frequency.

Faraday cage.

Faraday cages are Faraday shields which have holes in them and are therefore more complex to analyze. Whereas continuous shields essentially attenuate all wavelengths shorter than the skin depth, the holes in a cage may permit shorter wavelengths to pass through or set up "evanescent fields" (oscillating fields that do not propagate as EM waves) just beneath the surface. The shorter the wavelength, the better it passes through a mesh of given size. Thus to work well at short wavelengths (i.e., high frequencies), the holes in the cage must be smaller than the wavelength of the incident wave. Faraday cages may therefore be thought of as high pass filters.

A Faraday cage or Faraday shield is an enclosure used to block electromagnetic fields. A Faraday shield may be formed by a continuous covering of conductive material, or in the case of a Faraday cage, by a mesh of such materials. Faraday cages are named after scientist Michael Faraday, who invented them in 1836.