Name.

The scientific name "Argania" is derived from "argan", the name of the tree in Shilha, the Berber language which is spoken by the majority of the people living in the areas where the tree is endemic. Shilha Berber has a rich vocabulary for the various parts of the fruit, its stages of ripeness, and its harvesting and processing. The oil is also called "argan". In medieval Arabic pharmacological sources, the tree is known as "harjān", a distortion of the Berber word "argan".

Cultivation.

In Morocco, "arganeraie" forests now cover some and are designated as a UNESCO biosphere reserve. Their area has shrunk by about half during the last 100 years, due to charcoal making, grazing, and increasingly intensive cultivation. The best hope for the conservation of the trees may lie in the recent development of a thriving export market for argan oil as a high-value product. However, the wealth brought by argan oil export has also created threats to argan trees in the form of increased goat population. Locals use the newfound wealth to buy more goats and the goats stunt the growth of the argan trees by climbing up and eating their leaves and fruit. It is reported that the display of the tree climbing goats is staged or faked and may be considered animal abuse.  Argan is also grown in the Arabah and Negev regions of Israel.

Uses.

In some parts of Morocco, argan takes the place of the olive as a source of forage, oil, timber, and fuel in Berber society. Especially near Essaouira, the argan tree is frequently climbed by goats.

Fruit.

Argan fruit falls in July, when black and dry. Until this happens, goats are kept out of the argan woodlands by wardens. Rights to collect the fruit are controlled by law and village traditions. The leftover nuts are gathered after consumption and spit out by ruminating goats. Seeds spat out by the goats constitute an overlooked mechanism of seed dispersal.

Argan oil.

Argan oil is produced by several women's co-operatives in the southwestern parts of Morocco. The most labor-intensive part of oil-extraction is removal of the soft pulp (used to feed animals) and the cracking by hand, between two stones, of the hard nut. The seeds are then removed and gently roasted. This roasting accounts for part of the oil's distinctive, nutty flavor.  The traditional technique for oil extraction is to grind the roasted seeds to paste, with a little water, in a stone rotary quern. The paste is then squeezed by hand to extract the oil. The extracted paste is still oil-rich and is used as animal feed. Oil produced this way can be stored and used for 3–6 months, and will be produced as needed in a family, from a store of the kernels, which will keep for 20 years unopened. Dry-pressing is becoming increasingly important for oil produced for sale, as this method allows for faster extraction, and the oil produced can be used for 12–18 months after extraction.  The oil contains 80% unsaturated fatty acids, is rich in essential fatty acids, and is more resistant to oxidation than olive oil. Argan oil is used for dipping bread, on couscous, salads, and similar uses. A dip for bread known as "amlou" is made from argan oil, almonds, and peanuts, sometimes sweetened by honey or sugar. The unroasted oil is traditionally used as a treatment for skin diseases, and has become favoured by European cosmetics manufacturers.  Argan oil is sold in Morocco as a luxury item. Sales of the product have grown since being marketed by the cosmetics industry in the US and Europe in the early 21st century. Its price is notable compared to other oils.  Argan oil contains:

Animal feed.

Argan trees are a major source of forage for sheep, goats, camels and cattle. Fruits and leaves are readily consumed by livestock. The press cake resulting from oil extraction can also be sun dried and fed to ruminants. Bees can nest in argan trees, making them sites for wild honey harvesting.

Argania (Berber: ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵏ "argan") is a genus of flowering plants containing the sole species Argania spinosa, known as argan, a tree endemic to the calcareous semidesert Sous valley of southwestern Morocco and to the region of Tindouf in southwestern Algeria. Argan trees grow to high and live up to approximately 200 years. They are thorny, with gnarled trunks and wide spreading crown. The crown has a circumference of about and the branches lean towards the ground.


Early life.

He was born at the Château de Neuilly, in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France. Educated for the navy, he was commissioned lieutenant in 1836. His first conspicuous service was at the Bombardment of San Juan de Ulua, in November 1838, commanding the corvette, when he headed a landing party and took the Mexican general Mariano Arista prisoner with his own hand at Veracruz.  The prince was promoted to captain of the frigate "La", and in 1840 was entrusted with bringing the remains of Napoleon from Saint Helena to France.

Marriage.

He married on 1 May 1843 in Rio de Janeiro, Princess Francisca of Brazil, Princess de Bragança, sister of Pedro II of Brazil. They had a son Pierre duc de Penthièvre (1845–1919), also brought up to the navy, and who, for a time, attended the United States Naval Academy. The prince de Joinville visited the academy and asked for a frank estimation of his son's character, conduct, and aptitude for naval service. His son never married, but fathered two illegitimate children. The couple also had a daughter, Françoise who married her cousin Robert, Duke of Chartres in 1863 and had issue. Through this union, François d'Orléans is an ancestor of the present day Orléans claimant to the French throne, Jean, Count of Paris.

Deafness.

In his early 20s he became increasingly deaf, but surgery to cure his hearing loss was totally unsuccessful. His friend Victor Hugo wrote in his memoirs, "The Prince de Joinville's deafness increases. Sometimes it saddens him, sometimes he makes light of it. One day he said to me: 'Speak louder, I am as deaf as a post'".

Naval operations and service in the American Civil War.

In 1844 he conducted naval operations on the coast of Morocco, bombarding Tangier and occupying Mogador, and was rewarded with the rank of vice-admiral. In the following year he published in the "Revue des deux mondes" an article on the deficiencies of the French Navy which attracted considerable attention, and by his hostility to the Guizot ministry, as well as by an affectation of ill-will towards the United Kingdom, he gained considerable popularity. The Revolution of 1848 nevertheless swept him away with the other Orléans princes. He hastened to quit Algeria, where he was then serving, and took refuge at Claremont, in Surrey, with the rest of his family.  Being excluded from continuing a career in the Second Empire's navy, in 1851, he announced his candidacy for the French presidential election to be held in 1852, hoping to pave the way for an eventual restoration of the monarchy. The attempt to become a second "Prince-President" was aborted by 2 December 1851 coup by which the first Prince-President, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, effected his own ascension to the throne. In 1861, upon the outbreak of the American Civil War, he proceeded to Washington, D.C., and placed the services of his son and two of his nephews at the disposal of the United States government. President Lincoln appointed him and his nephews to the staff of Major General George B. McClellan. Toward the end of the Peninsula Campaign (June 1862), difficulties between France and the U.S.A. over Mexico caused the prince to withdraw from the Union forces, and he returned to Europe.  Otherwise, he was little heard of until the overthrow of the Second French Empire in 1870, when he re-entered France, only to be promptly expelled by the government of national defence. Returning incognito, he joined the army of general Louis d'Aurelle de Paladines, under the assumed name of "Colonel Lutherod", fought bravely before Orléans, and afterwards, divulging his identity, formally sought permission to serve. Gambetta, however, arrested him and sent him back to England.

Later life.

In the National Assembly, elected in February 1871, the prince was returned by two "départements" and elected to sit for the Haute-Marne. By an arrangement with Thiers, however, the prince did not take his seat until the latter had been chosen president of the provisional republic. His deafness prevented him from making any contribution in the Assembly, and he resigned his seat in 1876. In 1886 the provisions of the law against pretenders to the throne deprived him of his rank as vice-admiral, but he continued to live in France, and died in Paris in June 1900.

Works.

The prince de Joinville was the author of several essays and pamphlets on naval affairs and other matters of public interest, which were originally published for the most part either unsigned or pseudonymously, and subsequently republished under his own name after the fall of the Empire. They include "Essais sur la marine française" (1853); "Études sur la marine" (1859 and 1870); "Guerre d'Amérique, campagne du Potomac" (1862 and 1872); "Encore un mot sur Sadowa" (Brussels, 1868); and "Vieux souvenirs" (1894). Joinville has also some reputation as a painter. He was present at the July Revolution of 1830 when Charles X was replaced by the Orleanist French King Louis-Philippe. In a number of portraits of French national life he depicted several great events in the life of the Bourbon monarchy. As the King's troops marshalled at the Place de la Concorde he depicted them firing on the crowd. As the mob invaded the Palais Royal he painted Charles X, with Louis-Philippe his usurper, standing behind him, and the king waved to the crowds below. In a famous scene, he drew a woman atop some men handing her the Tricolor as they marched on July 31, 1830 Delacroix's image contrasted heavily to the royal motif of Joinville's paintings. But Joinville remained a patriot himself and without contradiction captured the delivery of Napoleon's body on returning from St Helena. In total Joinville painted 35 watercolours.

Children.

Francois' son, Pierre (1845–1919), entered the United States Naval Academy on 15 October 1861. He received an honorary appointment as an ensign in the United States Navy on 28 May 1863 and served on the frigate USS "John Adams". He was granted a leave of absence from the Navy as of 1 January 1864 and resigned from the Navy on May 30, 1864. He returned to France in June of that year.

François-Ferdinand-Philippe-Louis-Marie d'Orléans, prince de Joinville (14 August 1818 – 16 June 1900) was the third son of Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, afterwards king of the French and his wife Marie Amalie of Bourbon-Sicilies. He was an admiral of the French Navy, and a talented artist.


Etymology.

Other names for the product include autoclaved cellular concrete (ACC), autoclaved lightweight concrete (ALC), autoclaved concrete, cellular concrete, porous concrete, Aircrete, Thermalite, Hebel Block, Starken, and Ytong.

History.

AAC was perfected in the mid-1920s by the Swedish architect and inventor Dr. Johan Axel Eriksson, working with Professor Henrik Kreüger at the Royal Institute of Technology. The process was patented in 1924. In 1929, production started in Sweden at the city of Yxhult. From "Yxhults Ånghärdade Gasbetong" later became the first registered building materials brand in the world: Ytong. Another brand “Siporex” was established in Sweden in 1939 and presently licences and owns plants in 35 locations around the world. The second major international cellular concrete Hebel brand goes back to company founder and technicians Josef Hebel from Memmingen. In 1943, the first Hebel-plant was opened in Germany.  Originally Ytong autoclaved aerated concrete in Sweden was produced with alum shale, whose combustible carbon content was beneficial in the production process. Unfortunately, the slate deposits used for Ytong in Sweden also contain a very low level of natural uranium, which makes the material give off radioactive radon gas in the building. In 1972, the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority pointed out the unsuitability of a radon-emitting construction material, and the use of alum slate in the production of Ytong ceased in 1975. By using new formulations, containing only quartz sand, calcined gypsum, lime (mineral), cement, water and aluminum powder, Ytong produced a new type of aerated concrete which no longer contains alum slate and thus has eliminated the problem of radon exposure from this raw material. The production of this white autoclaved aerated concrete is now state of the art and similar formulations are used by all producers around the world.  In 1978 The Swedish team of Siporex Sweden opened the Siporex Factory in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia - the "Lightweight Construction Company - Siporex - LCC SIPOREX" which have supplied the Middle-East and Africa and Japan by most of its need. The LCC SIPOREX FACTORY has operated for more than 40 years. Today aerated concrete is produced by many companies, particularly in Europe and Asia. There is some production in the Americas and in Africa, there is one plant in Egypt. AAC production in Europe has slowed down considerably, but the industry is growing rapidly in Asia due to strong demand in housing and commercial space. China is now the largest aircrete market in the world with several hundred factories. China, Central Asia, India, and the Middle-East are the biggest in terms of AAC manufacturing and consumption.  The product aircrete is sold, like other masonry materials, under many different brand names. Ytong and Hebel are brands of the international operating company Xella headquartered in Duisburg. Other more internationally renowned brand names in Europe are H + H Celcon (Denmark), or Solbet (Poland).

Uses.

AAC is a highly thermally insulating concrete-based material used for both interior and exterior construction. Besides AAC's insulating capability, one of its advantages is quick and easy installation, because the material can be routed, sanded, or cut to size on site using standard power tools with carbon steel cutters.  AAC is well suited for high-rise buildings and those with high temperature variations. Due to its lower density, high-rise buildings constructed using AAC require less steel and concrete for structural members. The mortar needed for laying of AAC blocks is reduced due to the lower number of joints. Similarly, the material required for rendering is also lower due to the dimensional accuracy of AAC. The increased thermal efficiency of AAC makes it suitable for use in areas with extreme temperatures, as it eliminates the need for separate materials for construction and insulation, leading to faster construction and cost savings.  Even though regular cement mortar can be used, most of the buildings erected with AAC materials use thin bed mortar in thicknesses around 1⁄8 inch, depending on the national building codes. AAC materials can be coated with a stucco or plaster compound to guard against the elements, or covered with siding materials such as brick or vinyl.

Manufacturing.

Unlike most other concrete applications, AAC is produced using no aggregate larger than sand. Quartz sand, calcined gypsum, lime (mineral) and/or cement and water are used as a binding agent. Aluminum powder is used at a rate of 0.05%–0.08% by volume (depending on the pre-specified density). In some countries, like India and China, fly ash generated from coal fire power plants and having 50-65% silica content is used as an aggregate.  When AAC is mixed and cast in forms, several chemical reactions take place that gives AAC its light weight (20% of the weight of concrete) and thermal properties. Aluminum powder reacts with calcium hydroxide and water to form hydrogen. The hydrogen gas foams and doubles the volume of the raw mix creating gas bubbles up to 3mm (1⁄8 inch) in diameter. At the end of the foaming process, the hydrogen escapes into the atmosphere and is replaced by air.  When the forms are removed from the material, it is solid but still soft. It is then cut into either blocks or panels, and placed in an autoclave chamber for 12 hours. During this steam pressure hardening process, when the temperature reaches 190° Celsius (374° Fahrenheit) and the pressure reaches 8 to 12 bar, quartz sand reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium silicate hydrate, which gives AAC its high strength and other unique properties. Because of the relatively low temperature used AAC blocks are not considered fired brick but a lightweight concrete masonry unit. After the autoclaving process, the material is ready for immediate use on the construction site. Depending on its density, up to 80% of the volume of an AAC block is air. AAC's low density also accounts for its low structural compression strength. It can carry loads of up to 8 MPa (1,160 PSI), approximately 50% of the compressive strength of regular concrete.  In 1978, the first AAC material was opened in the Persian Gulf state of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia - LCC SIPOREX- Lightweight Construction Company supplying the GCC countries with the Aerated products of blocks and panels.  Since 1980, there has been a worldwide increase in the use of AAC materials. New production plants are being built in Australia, Bahrain, China, Eastern Europe, India, and the United States. AAC is increasingly used by developers, architects, and home builders worldwide.

Advantages.

AAC has been produced for more than 70 years, and it offers several advantages over other cement construction materials, one of the most important being its lower environmental impact.

Disadvantages.

AAC has been produced for more than 70 years, however, some disadvantages were found when it was introduced in the UK (where cavity wall with clay brick two-skin construction has been the norm).

Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) is a lightweight, precast, foam concrete building material suitable for producing concrete masonry unit (CMU) like blocks. Composed of quartz sand, calcined gypsum, lime, cement, water and aluminum powder, AAC products are cured under heat and pressure in an autoclave. Invented in the mid-1920s, AAC simultaneously provides structure, insulation, and fire- and mold-resistance. Forms include blocks, wall panels, floor and roof panels, cladding (façade) panels and lintels.


History.

Also known as the "Basilica Eudoxiana", it was first rebuilt on older foundations in 432–440 to house the relic of the chains that bound Saint Peter when he was imprisoned in Jerusalem, the episode called "Liberation of Saint Peter". The Empress Eudoxia (wife of Emperor Valentinian III), who received them as a gift from her mother, Aelia Eudocia, consort of Valentinian II, presented the chains to Pope Leo I. Aelia Eudocia had received these chains as a gift from Iuvenalis, bishop of Jerusalem.  According to legend, when Leo compared them to the chains of St. Peter's final imprisonment in the Mamertine Prison, in Rome, the two chains miraculously fused together. The chains are now kept in a reliquary under the main altar in the basilica. The only link outside of Rome can be found in the Diocese of Burlington (Vermont).  The basilica, consecrated in 439 by Sixtus III, has undergone several restorations, among them a restoration by Pope Adrian I, and further work in the eleventh century. From 1471 to 1503, in which year he was elected Pope Julius II, Cardinal Della Rovere, the nephew of Pope Sixtus IV, effected notable rebuilding. The front portico, attributed to Baccio Pontelli, was added in 1475. The cloister (1493–1503) has been attributed to Giuliano da Sangallo. Further work was done at the beginning of the 18th century, under Francesco Fontana, and there was also a renovation in 1875.

Interior.

The interior has a nave and two aisles, with three apses divided by antique Doric columns. The aisles are surmounted by cross-vaults, while the nave has an 18th-century coffered ceiling, frescoed in the center by Giovanni Battista Parodi, portraying the "Miracle of the Chains" (1706). In this scene, Pope Alexander heals the neck goiter of Saint Balbina by touching her with the chains that once bound St Peter.  Michelangelo's "Moses" (completed in 1515), while originally intended as part of a massive 47-statue, free-standing funeral monument for Pope Julius II, became the centerpiece of the Pope's funeral monument and tomb in this, the church of della Rovere family. Moses is depicted with horns, connoting "the radiance of the Lord", due to the similarity in the Hebrew words for "beams of light" and "horns". This kind of iconographic symbolism was common in early sacred art, and for an artist horns are easier to sculpt than rays of light.  Other works of art include two canvases of "Saint Augustine" and "St. Margaret" by Guercino, the monument of Cardinal Girolamo Agucchi designed by Domenichino, who is also the painter of a sacristy fresco depicting the "Liberation of St. Peter" (1604). The altarpiece on the first chapel to the left is a "Deposition" by Cristoforo Roncalli. The tomb of Cardinal Nicholas of Kues (d 1464), with its relief, "Cardinal Nicholas before St Peter", is by Andrea Bregno. Painter and sculptor Antonio Pollaiuolo is buried at the left side of the entrance. He is the Florentine sculptor who added the figures of Romulus and Remus to the sculpture of the Capitoline Wolf on the Capitol.  The tomb monument of Cardinal Cinzio Aldobrandini was erected 1705-07 by prince Giovanni Battista Pamphili Aldobrandini to a design by his architect Carlo Francesco Bizzaccheri and with the sculptures of putti and a winged skeleton by Pierre Le Gros the Younger.  In 1876 archeologists discovered the tombs of those once believed to be the seven Maccabean martyrs depicted in 2 Maccabees 7–41. It is highly unlikely that these are in fact the Jewish martyrs that had offered their lives in Jerusalem. They are remembered each year on 1 August, the same day as the miracle of the fusing of the two chains. The third altar in the left aisle holds a mosaic of Saint Sebastian from the seventh century. This mosaic is related to an outbreak of plague in Pavia, in northern Italy. The relics of Sebastian were taken there in order to stop a 680 outbreak of plague, since Sebastian was believed to have been born in Lombardy, and an altar was constructed for his relics at a San Pietro in Vincoli in Pavia. As a symbol of the subsequently reinforced relationship between Pavia and Rome, an identical altar to Sebastian was built at the Roman church of the same name, resulting in a parallel cult for the saint in both regions.

List of Cardinal-Priests since 1405.

List of the cardinal titulars of the church

San Pietro in Vincoli (Saint Peter in Chains) is a Roman Catholic titular church and minor basilica in Rome, Italy, best known for being the home of Michelangelo's statue of Moses, part of the tomb of Pope Julius II.


History.

The first person known to have sighted the island was the Spanish explorer Juan Sebastián de Elcano, on 18 March 1522, during his circumnavigation of the world. Elcano did not give the island a name. On 17 June 1633, after sighting it, Dutch mariner Anthonie van Diemen named the island after his ship, "Nieuw Amsterdam". The first recorded landing on the island occurred in December 1696, led by the Dutch explorer Willem de Vlamingh.  French mariner Pierre François Péron wrote that he was marooned on the island between 1792 and 1795. Péron's "Memoires", in which he describes his experiences, were published in a limited edition, now an expensive collectors' item. However, Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul were often confused at the time and Péron may have been marooned on Saint-Paul.  Sealers are said to have landed on the island, for the first time, in 1789. Between that date and 1876, 47 sealing vessels are recorded at the island, 9 of which were wrecked. Relics of the sealing era can still be found.  The island was a stop on the Macartney Mission during its voyage to China in 1793.  On 11 October 1833, the British barque "Lady Munro" was wrecked at the island. Of the 97 persons aboard, 21 survivors were picked up two weeks later by a US sealing schooner, "General Jackson".  John Balleny in command of the exploration and sealing vessel "Eliza Scott" (154 tons) visited the island in November 1838 in search of seals. He returned with a few fish and reported having seen the remains of a hut and the carcase of a whale.  The islands of Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul were first claimed by Martin Dupeyrat for France in 1843. However, the governor of Réunion refused to ratify the act of possession and France took formal control only in October 1892.  In January 1871 an attempt to settle the island was made by a party led by Heurtin, a French resident of Réunion. After seven months, their attempts to raise cattle and grow crops were fruitless, and they returned to Réunion, abandoning the cattle on the island.  In May 1880 circumnavigated the island searching for a missing ship the "Knowsley Hall". A cutter and gig were despatched to the island to search for signs of habitation. There was a flagpole on Hoskin Point and north were two huts, one of which had an intact roof and contained three bunks, empty casks, an iron pot and the eggshells and feathers of sea-birds. There was also an upturned serviceable boat in the other hut, believed to belong to the fishermen who visited the island.  The islands were attached to the French colony of Madagascar from 21 November 1924 until 6 August 1955 when the French Southern and Antarctic Lands was formed. (Madagascar gained independence in 1958.)  The first French base on Île Amsterdam was established in 1949, and was originally called Camp Heurtin. It is now the Martin-de-Viviès research station.  The Global Atmosphere Watch still maintains a presence on Île Amsterdam.

Amateur radio.

From 1987–98, there were frequent amateur radio operations from Amsterdam Island. There was a resident radio amateur operator in the 1950s, using callsign FB8ZZ.  In January 2014 Clublog listed Amsterdam and St Paul Islands as the seventh most-wanted DXCC entity. On 25 January 2014 a DX-pedition landed on Amsterdam Island using MV "Braveheart" and began amateur radio operations from two separate locations using callsign FT5ZM. The DX-pedition remained active until 12 February and achieved over 170,000 two-way contacts with amateur radio stations worldwide.

Environment.

Geography.

The volcanic island is a potentially active volcano. No historical eruptions are known, although the fresh morphology of the latest volcanism at Dumas Crater on the NE flank suggests it may have occurred as recently as a century ago.. It has an area of, measuring about on its longest side, and reaches as high as at the Mont de la Dives. The high central area of the island, at an elevation of over, containing its peaks and caldera, is known as the Plateau des Tourbières ("Plateau of Bogs"). The cliffs that characterise the western coastline of the island, rising to over, are known as the Falaises d'Entrecasteaux after the 18th-century French navigator Bruni d'Entrecasteaux.

Climate.

Île Amsterdam has a mild, oceanic climate under the Köppen climate classification, with a mean annual temperature of, rainfall of, persistent westerly winds and high levels of humidity. Under the Trewartha climate classification the island is well inside the maritime subtropical zone due to its very low diurnal temperature variation keeping means high.

Flora and fauna.

Vegetation.

"Phylica arborea" trees occur on Amsterdam, which is the only place where they form a low forest, although the trees are also found on Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island. It was called the "Grand Bois" ("Great Forest"), which covered the lowlands of the island until forest fires set by sealers cleared much of it in 1825. Only eight fragments remain.  Some sailors from HMS "Raleigh" landed on the island on 27 May 1880. They described the vegetation as Rough ground, grass several feet high, myrtle high in sheltered ravines, sedge, ferns (principally "polypodium") and cabbages, grown into bushes with stumps several inches thick in the garden...

Birds.

The island is home to the endemic Amsterdam albatross, which breeds only on the Plateau des Tourbières. Other rare species are the brown skua, Antarctic tern and western rockhopper penguin. The Amsterdam duck is now extinct, as are the local breeding populations of several petrels. There was once possibly a species of rail inhabiting the island, as a specimen was taken in the 1790s (which has been lost), but this was either extinct by 1800 or was a straggler of an extant species. The common waxbill has been introduced. Both the Plateau des Tourbières and Falaises d'Entrcasteaux have been identified as Important Bird Areas by BirdLife International, the latter for its large breeding colony of Indian yellow-nosed albatrosses.

Mammals.

There are no native land mammals. Subantarctic fur seals and southern elephant seals breed on the island. Introduced mammals include the house mouse and brown rat. Feral cats are present.  A distinct breed of wild cattle, Amsterdam Island cattle, also inhabited the island from 1871 to 2010. They originated from the introduction of five animals by Heurtin during his brief attempt at settlement of the island in 1871, and by 1988 had increased to an estimated 2,000. Following recognition that the cattle were damaging the island ecosystems, a fence was built restricting them to the northern part of the island. In 2007 it was decided to eradicate the population of cattle entirely, resulting in the slaughter of the cattle between 2008 and 2010.

Île Amsterdam (), also known as Amsterdam Island, New Amsterdam, or Nouvelle Amsterdam, is an island of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in the southern Indian Ocean that together with neighbouring Île Saint-Paul to the south forms one of the five districts of the territory. The research station at Martin-de-Viviès, first called "Camp Heurtin" and then "La Roche Godon", is the only settlement on the island and is the seasonal home to about thirty researchers and staff studying biology, meteorology, and geomagnetics.


Biography.

Early life.

Tancred was a son of Emma of Hauteville and Odo the Good Marquis. His maternal grandparents were Robert Guiscard and Guiscard's first wife Alberada of Buonalbergo. Emma was also a sister of Bohemond I of Antioch.

First Crusade.

In 1096, Tancred joined his maternal uncle Bohemond on the First Crusade, and the two made their way to Constantinople. There, he was pressured to swear an oath to Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus, promising to give back any conquered land to the Byzantine Empire. Although the other leaders did not intend to keep their oaths, Tancred refused to swear the oath altogether. He participated in the siege of Nicaea in 1097, but the city was taken by Alexius' army after secret negotiations with the Seljuk Turks. Because of this, Tancred was very distrustful of the Byzantines.  In 1097 the Crusaders divided their forces at Heraclea Cybistra and Tancred entered the Levant by passing south through the Cilician Gates. He displayed the skills of a brilliant tactician by seizing five of the most important sites in Cilicia Pedias, which included the ancient cities of Tarsus and Adana, the great emporium at Mopsuestia, and the strategic castles at Sarvandikar and Anazarbus. The last three settlements were annexed to the Principality of Antioch. During their fourteen-year occupation of Anazarbus the Crusaders built the magnificent donjon atop the center of the fortified outcrop. At Sarvandikar, which controlled the strategic Amanus Pass, Tancred imprisoned Raymond of Saint-Gilles in 1101/02.  He assisted in the siege of Antioch in 1098. One year later, during the assault on Jerusalem, Tancred, along with Gaston IV of Béarn, claimed to have been the first Crusader to enter the city on July 15. However, the first crusader to enter Jerusalem was Ludolf of Tournai, and he was followed by his brother Englebert. When the city fell, Tancred gave his banner to a group of the citizens who had fled to the roof of the Temple of Solomon. This should have assured their safety, but they were massacred, along with many others, during the sack of the city. The author of the "Gesta Francorum" (Deeds of the Franks) records that, when Tancred realised this, he was "greatly angered". When the Kingdom of Jerusalem was established, Tancred became Prince of Galilee.

Regent of Antioch.

In 1100, Tancred became regent of Antioch when Bohemond was taken prisoner by the Danishmends at the Battle of Melitene. He expanded the territory of the Latin principality by capturing land from the Byzantines, although, over the next decade, Alexius attempted, unsuccessfully, to bring him under Byzantine control. In 1104, he also took control of the County of Edessa when Baldwin II was taken captive after the Battle of Harran. After Baldwin's release in late 1108, he had to fight Tancred (probably early 1109) to regain control of the county; Tancred was eventually defeated and returned to Antioch. After Harran, Bohemond returned to Europe to recruit more Crusaders, again leaving his nephew as regent in Antioch. Tancred's victory over Radwan of Aleppo at the Battle of Artah in 1105 allowed the Latin principality to recover some its territories east of the Orontes River.  In 1108, Tancred refused to honour the Treaty of Devol, in which Bohemond swore an oath of fealty to Alexius, and for decades afterwards Antioch remained independent of the Byzantine Empire. In 1110, he brought Krak des Chevaliers under his control, which would later become an important castle in the County of Tripoli. Tancred remained regent in Antioch in the name of Bohemond II until his death in 1112 during a typhoid epidemic. He had married Cecile of France, but died childless.  The "Gesta Tancredi" is a biography of Tancred written in Latin by Ralph of Caen, a Norman who joined the First Crusade and served under Tancred and Bohemond. An English translation was co-published in 2005 by Bernard S. Bachrach and David S. Bachrach.

In fiction.

Tancred appears as a character in Torquato Tasso's 16th-century poem "Jerusalem Delivered", in which he is portrayed as an epic hero and given a fictional love interest, the pagan warrior-maiden Clorinda. He is also loved by the Princess Erminia of Antioch. Portions of Tasso's verses were set by Claudio Monteverdi in his 1624 dramatic work "Il Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda". He also appears in one of the scenes in Imre Madách's "The Tragedy of Man". In Tom Harper's "Siege of Heaven" he is depicted as a violent psychopath. His portrayal is similar although slightly more humorous in Alfred Duggan's novel "Count Bohemond".  Tancred also appears as one of the Crusade leaders in Sir Walter Scott's novel "Count Robert of Paris" who returned to Constantinople from Scutari to ensure a fair contest between Count Robert and his challenger. The novel "Tancred, or the New Crusade" by Benjamin Disraeli centres around the adventures of an imagined modern descendant and namesake of the Prince of Galilee. Rossini's opera "Tancredi" is based on Tasso, via Voltaire's play "Tancrède" of 1759.

Tancred (1075 – December 5 or December 12, 1112) was an Italo-Norman leader of the First Crusade who later became Prince of Galilee and regent of the Principality of Antioch. Tancred came from the house of Hauteville and had a great-grandfather with the same name.


Varieties.

Mansi is subdivided into four main dialect groups which are to a large degree mutually unintelligible, and therefore best considered four languages. A primary split can be set up between the Southern variety and the remainder. A number of features are also shared between the Western and Eastern varieties, while certain later sound changes have diffused between Eastern and Northern (and are also found in some neighboring dialects of Northern Khanty to the east).  Individual dialects are known according to the rivers their speakers live(d) on: The sub-dialects given above are those which were still spoken in the late 19th and early 20th century and have been documented in linguistic sources on Mansi. Pre-scientific records from the 18th and early 19th centuries exist also of other varieties of Western and Southern Mansi, spoken further west: the Tagil, Tura and Chusovaya dialects of Southern and the Vishera dialect of Western.  The two dialects last mentioned were hence spoken on the western slopes of the Urals, where also several early Russian sources document Mansi settlements. Placename evidence has been used to suggest Mansi presence reaching still much further west in earlier times, though this has been criticized as poorly substantiated.  Northern Mansi has strong Russian, Komi, Nenets, and Northern Khanty influence, and it forms the base of the literary Mansi language. There is no accusative case; that is, both the nominative and accusative roles are unmarked on the noun. and have been backed to and.  Western Mansi went extinct ca. 2000. It had strong Russian and Komi influences; dialect differences were also considerable. Long vowels were diphthongized.  Eastern Mansi is spoken by 100–200 people. It has Khanty and Tatar influence. There is vowel harmony, and for it has, frequently diphthongized.  Southern Mansi was recorded from area isolated from the other Mansi varieties. Around 1900 a couple hundred speakers existed; in the 1960s it was spoken only by a few elderly speakers, and it has since then gone extinct. It had strong Tatar influence and displayed several archaisms such as vowel harmony, retention of (elsewhere merged with ), (elsewhere deaffricated to ), (elsewhere fronted to or diphthongized) and (elsewhere raised to ).

Phonology.

The inventory presented here is a maximal collection of segments found across the Mansi varieties. Some remarks:  The vowel systems across Mansi show great variety. As typical across the Uralic languages, many more vowel distinctions were possible in the initial, stressed syllable than in unstressed ones. Up to 18–19 stressed vowel contrasts may be found in the Western and Eastern dialects, while Northern Mansi has a much reduced, largely symmetric system of 8 vowels, though lacking short ** and long **:

Alphabet.

The first publication of the written Mansi language was a translation of the Gospel of Matthew published in London in 1868. In 1932 a version of Latin alphabet was introduced with little success. The former Latin alphabet:  A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, Ꜧ, I, J, K, L, Ļ, M, N, Ņ, Ŋ, O, P, R, S, S, T, Ţ, U, V, Z, Ь  In 1937, Cyrillic replaced the Latin.

Grammar.

Mansi is an agglutinating, subject–object–verb (SOV) language.

Article.

There are two articles in Mansi: definite ань (aɲ), which also means "now" when placed before verbs, and indefinite акв (akw), literally "one".

Nouns.

There is no grammatical gender. Mansi distinguishes between singular, dual and plural number. Six grammatical cases exist. Possession is expressed using possessive suffixes, for example -зм, which means "my".

Grammatical cases, declining.

Example with: пут /put/ (cauldron)  Missing cases can be expressed using postpositions, such as халнэл (χalnəl, 'of, out of'), саит (sait, 'after, behind'), etc.

Verbs.

Mansi conjugation has three persons, three numbers, two tenses, and four moods. Active and passive voices exist.  Intransitive and transitive conjugations are distinguished. This means that there are two possible ways of conjugating a verb. When the speaker conjugates in intransitive, the sentence has no concrete object (in this case, the object is "nothing" or something like "something, anything"). In the transitive conjugation, there is a concrete object. This feature also exists in the other Ugric languages.

Tenses.

Mansi uses suffixes to express the tense. The tense suffix precedes the personal suffix. The language has no future tense; the future is expressed in other ways.

Moods.

There are four moods: indicative, conditional, imperative and precative.  Indicative mood has no suffix. Imperative mood exists only in the second person.

Personal suffixes.

The suffixes are the following:  Thus, the conjugation of the verb мина (lat. "mina" [go]), in past tense (remember the suffix -с):

Active/Passive voice.

Verbs have active and passive voice. Active voice has no suffix; the suffix to express the passive is -ве-.

Verbal prefixes.

Verbal prefixes are used to modify the meaning of the verb in both concrete and abstract ways. For example, with the prefix эл- (el-) (away, off) the verb мина (mina) (go) becomes элмина (elmina), which means "to go away". This is surprisingly close to the Hungarian equivalents: "el-" (away) and "menni" (to go), where "elmenni" is "to go away"  ēl(a) – 'forwards, onwards, away' χot – 'direction away from something and other nuances of action intensity'

Numbers.

Numbers 1 and 2 also have attributive forms: акв (1) and кит (2); compare with Hungarian "két", Old Hungarian "kit").

Example.

ам хул алысьлаӈкве минасум. – I went fishing (literally ""I fish catch went"").

The Mansi languages (previously, "Vogul" and also "Maansi") are or were spoken by the Mansi people in Russia along the Ob River and its tributaries, in the Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug, and Sverdlovsk Oblast. Traditionally considered a single language, they constitute a branch of the Uralic languages, often considered most closely related to the neighbouring Khanty languages and then to Hungarian. According to the 2010 census, there were 940 Mansi-speaking people in Russia, out of an ethnic population of 12 thousand.


Classification.

General structure.

The general structure of a cardiac glycoside consists of a steroid molecule attached to a sugar (glycoside) and an R group. The steroid nucleus consists of four fused rings to which other functional groups such as methyl, hydroxyl, and aldehyde groups can be attached to influence the overall molecule's biological activity. Cardiac glycosides also vary in the groups attached at either end of the steroid. Specifically, different sugar groups attached at the sugar end of the steroid can alter the molecule's solubility and kinetics; however, the lactone moiety at the R group end only serves a structural function.  In particular, the structure of the ring attached at the R end of the molecule allows it to be classified as either a cardenolide or bufadienolide. Cardenolides differ from bufadienolides due to the presence of an “enolide,” a five-membered ring with a single double bond, at the lactone end. Bufadienolides, on the other hand, contain a “dienolide,” a six-membered ring with two double bonds, at the lactone end. While compounds of both groups can be used to influence the cardiac output of the heart, cardenolides are more commonly used medicinally, primarily due to the widespread availability of the plants from which they are derived.

Classification.

Cardiac glycosides can be more specifically categorized based on the plant they are derived from, as in the following list. For example, cardenolides have been primarily derived from the foxglove plants "Digitalis purpurea" and "Digitalis lanata", while bufadienolides have been derived from the venom of the cane toad "Bufo marinus", from which they receive the “bufo” portion of their name. Below is a list of organisms from which cardiac glycosides can be derived.

Mechanism of action.

Cardiac glycosides affect the sodium-potassium ATPase pump in cardiac muscle cells to alter their function. Normally, these sodium-potassium pumps move potassium ions in and sodium ions out. Cardiac glycosides, however, inhibit this pump by stabilizing it in the E2-P transition state, so that sodium cannot be extruded: intracellular sodium concentration therefore increases. With regard to potassium ion movement, because both cardiac glycosides and potassium compete for binding to the ATPase pump, changes in extracellular potassium concentration can potentially lead to altered drug efficacy. Nevertheless, by carefully controlling the dosage, such adverse effects can be avoided. Continuing on with the mechanism, raised intracellular sodium levels inhibit the function of a second membrane ion exchanger, NCX, which is responsible for pumping calcium ions out of the cell and sodium ions in at a ratio of /. Thus, calcium ions are also not extruded and will begin to build up inside the cell as well.  The disrupted calcium homeostasis and increased cytoplasmic calcium concentrations cause increased calcium uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) via the SERCA2 transporter. Raised calcium stores in the SR allow for greater calcium release on stimulation, so the myocyte can achieve faster and more powerful contraction by cross-bridge cycling. The refractory period of the AV node is increased, so cardiac glycosides also function to decrease heart rate. For example, the ingestion of digoxin leads to increased cardiac output and decreased heart rate without significant changes in blood pressure; this quality allows it to be widely used medicinally in the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias.

Clinical significance.

Cardiac glycosides have long served as the main medical treatment to congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia, due to their effects of increasing the force of muscle contraction while reducing heart rate. Heart failure is characterized by an inability to pump enough blood to support the body, possibly due to a decrease in the volume of the blood or its contractile force. Treatments for the condition thus focus on lowering blood pressure, so that the heart does not have to exert as much force to pump the blood, or directly increasing the heart's contractile force, so that the heart can overcome the higher blood pressure. Cardiac glycosides, such as the commonly used digoxin and digitoxin, deal with the latter, due to their positive inotropic activity. On the other hand, cardiac arrhythmia are changes in heart rate, whether faster (tachycardia) or slower (bradycardia). Medicinal treatments for this condition work primarily to counteract tachycardia or atrial fibrillation by slowing down heart rate, as done by cardiac glycosides.  Nevertheless, due to questions of toxicity and dosage, cardiac glycosides have been replaced with synthetic drugs such as ACE inhibitors and beta blockers and are no longer used as the primary medical treatment for such conditions. Depending on the severity of the condition, though, they may still be used in conjunction with other treatments.

Toxicity.

From ancient times, humans have used cardiac-glycoside-containing plants and their crude extracts as arrow coatings, homicidal or suicidal aids, rat poisons, heart tonics, diuretics and emetics, primarily due to the toxic nature of these compounds. Thus, though cardiac glycosides have been used for their medicinal function, their toxicity must also be recognized. For example, in 2008 US poison centers reported 2,632 cases of digoxin toxicity, and 17 cases of digoxin-related deaths. Because cardiac glycosides affect the cardiovascular, neurologic, and gastrointestinal systems, these three systems can be used to determine the effects of toxicity. The effect of these compounds on the cardiovascular system presents a reason for concern, as they can directly affect the function of the heart through their inotropic and chronotropic effects. In terms of inotropic activity, excessive cardiac glycoside dosage results in cardiac contractions with greater force, as further calcium is released from the SR of cardiac muscle cells. Toxicity also results in changes to heart chronotropic activity, resulting in multiple kinds of dysrhythmia and potentially fatal ventricular tachycardia. These dysrhythmias are an effect of an influx of sodium and decrease of resting membrane potential threshold in cardiac muscle cells. When taken beyond a narrow dosage range specific to each particular cardiac glycoside, these compounds can rapidly become dangerous. In sum, they interfere with fundamental processes that regulate membrane potential. They are toxic to the heart, the brain, and the gut at doses that are not difficult to reach. In the heart, the most common negative effect is Premature ventricular contraction.

Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and increase its rate of contractions by acting on the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses are as treatments for congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias; however, their relative toxicity prevents them from being widely used. Most commonly found as secondary metabolites in several plants such as foxglove plants, these compounds nevertheless have a diverse range of biochemical effects regarding cardiac cell function and have also been suggested for use in cancer treatment.


History.

Nazi prisoner identification.

In Nazi concentration camps, each prisoner was required to wear a downward-pointing, equilateral triangular cloth badge on their chest, the color of which identified the reason for their imprisonment. Early on, homosexual male prisoners were variously identified with a green triangle (indicating criminals) or red triangle (political prisoners), the number "175" (referring to Paragraph 175, the section of the German penal code criminalizing homosexual activity), or the letter "A" (which stood for "Arschficker", literally "ass fucker").  Later, the use of a pink triangle was established for prisoners identified as homosexual men, which also included bisexual men and transgender women. (Lesbian and bisexual women and trans men were not systematically imprisoned; some were, and classified as "asocial", wearing a black triangle.) The pink triangle was also assigned to sexual offenders, such as rapists and pedophiles. If a prisoner was also identified as Jewish, the triangle was superimposed over a yellow second triangle pointing the opposite way, to resemble the Star of David like the yellow badge identifying other Jews. Prisoners wearing a pink triangle were harshly treated, even by other prisoners.  While the number assigned a pink triangle in German concentration camps is hard to estimate, Richard Plant – author of "The Pink Triangle: The Nazi War Against Homosexuals –" gives a rough estimate of the number convicted for homosexuality "between 1933 to 1944 at between 50,000 and 63,000".  After the camps were liberated at the end of the Second World War, many of the prisoners imprisoned for homosexuality were re-incarcerated by the Allied-established Federal Republic of Germany. An openly homosexual man named Heinz Dörmer, for instance, served in a Nazi concentration camp and then in the jails of the new Republic (three condemnations for sexual relationships with minors). The Nazi amendments to Paragraph 175, which turned homosexuality from a minor offense into a felony, remained intact in East Germany until 1968 and in West Germany until 1969. West Germany continued to imprison those identified as homosexual until 1994 under a revised version of the Paragraph, which still made sexual relations between men up to the age of 21 – as well as male homosexual prostitution – illegal. While lawsuits seeking monetary compensation have failed, in 2002 the German government issued an official apology to the LGBTQ community.  Rudolf Brazda, one of the last known homosexual concentration camp survivors, died on August 3, 2011 at the age of 98.

Gay rights symbol.

In the 1970s, newly active European and North American gay liberation advocates began to use the pink triangle to raise awareness of its use in Nazi Germany. In 1972, gay concentration camp survivor Heinz Heger's memoir "Die Männer mit dem rosa Winkel" ("The Men with the Pink Triangle") brought it to greater public attention. In response, the German gay liberation group Homosexuelle Aktion Westberlin issued a call in 1973 for gay men to wear it as a memorial to past victims and to protest continuing discrimination. In the 1975 movie "The Rocky Horror Picture Show", the bisexual, transvestite character Dr. Frank N. Furter wears a pink triangle badge on one of his outfits. In 1976, Peter Recht, Detlef Stoffel, and Christiane Schmerl made the German documentary "Rosa Winkel? Das ist doch schon lange vorbei..." ("Pink Triangle? That was such a long time ago..."). Publications such as San Francisco's "Gay Sunshine" and Toronto's "The Body Politic" promoted the pink triangle as a memorial to those who had been persecuted.  In the 1980s, the pink triangle was increasingly used not just as a memorial but as a positive symbol of both self and community identity. It commonly represented both gay and lesbian identity, and was incorporated into the logos of such organizations and businesses. It was also used by individuals, sometimes discreetly or ambiguously as an "insider" code unfamiliar to the general public. The logo for the 1987 March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights was a silhouette of the US Capitol Dome superimposed over a pink triangle.  Taking a more militant tone, the AIDS Coalition To Unleash Power (ACT UP) was formed by six gay activists in New York City in 1987, and to draw attention to the disease's disproportionate impact on gay and bisexual men, and the apparent role of "genocidal" homophobia in slowing progress on medical research, adopted an upward-pointing pink triangle on a black field along with the slogan "SILENCE = DEATH" as its logo. Some use the triangle in this orientation as a specific "reversal" of its usage by the Nazis. The Pink Panthers Movement in Denver, Colorado adopted a pink triangle with clawed panther print logo, adapted from the original Pink Panthers Patrol in New York City.  In the 1990s, a pink triangle enclosed in a green circle came to be commonly used as a symbol identifying "safe spaces" for LGBTQ people at work or in school.  The pink triangle served as the basis for the "biangles", a symbol of bisexual identity which consists of pink and blue triangles overlapping in a lavender or purple area. The pink and blue symbolize either homosexuality and heterosexuality, or female and male gender, reflecting bisexuals' attraction to both.

Monuments and memorials.

The symbol of the pink triangle has been included in numerous public monuments and memorials. In 1980 a jury chose the pink triangle design for the Homomonument in Amsterdam, to memorialize gay men killed in the Holocaust (and also victims of anti-gay violence generally. In 1995, after a decade of campaigning for it, a pink triangle plaque was installed at the Dachau Memorial Museum to commemorate the suffering of gay men and lesbians. In 2015 a pink triangle was incorporated into Chicago's Legacy Walk. It is the basis of the design of the Gay and Lesbian Holocaust Memorial in Sydney. In 2001 it inspired both San Francisco's Pink Triangle Park in the Castro and the Pink Triangle on Twin Peaks that is displayed every year during Pride weekend. It is also the basis for LGBTQ memorials in Barcelona, Sitges, and Montevideo, and the burial component of the LGBTQ Pink Dolphin Monument in Galveston.  Until 1985 there was an unofficial ban on placing pink triangle wreaths at the United Kingdom war memorial the Cenotaph, and such wreaths were removed as soon as they were found by officials.

A pink triangle has been a symbol for various LGBTQ identities, initially intended as a badge of shame, but later reclaimed as a positive symbol of self-identity. In Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, it began as one of the Nazi concentration camp badges, distinguishing those imprisoned because they had been identified by authorities as homosexual men, a category that also included bisexual men and transgender women. In the 1970s, it was revived as a symbol of protest against homophobia, and has since been adopted by the larger LGBTQ community as a popular symbol of LGBTQ pride and the LGBTQ rights movement.


Origin of the name.

The local name for the water opossum, "yapok", probably comes from the name of the Oyapok River in French Guiana.

Physical appearance.

The water opossum is a small opossum, 27-32.5 cm long, with a 36–40 cm long tail. The fur is in a marbled grey and black pattern, while the muzzle, eyestripe, and crown are all black. A light band runs across the forehead anterior to the ears, which are rounded and naked. There are sensory facial bristles in tufts above each eye, as well as whiskers. The water opossum's tail, furred and black at the base, is yellow or white at its end. The hindfeet of the water opossum are webbed, while the forefeet ("hands") are not. The forefeet can be used to feel for and grab prey as the animal swims, propelled by its tail and webbed back feet. Unlike other didelphids, the water opossum does not have a cloaca.

Aquatic adaptations.

The water opossum has several adaptations for its watery lifestyle. It has short, dense fur, which is water-repellent. The broad hindfeet are webbed and are used for propulsion through water, moving with alternate strokes. They are symmetrical as well, which distributes force equally along both borders of the webbing; this increases the efficiency of the water opossum's movement through the water. The water opossum's long tail also aids in swimming.  Being a marsupial and at the same time an aquatic animal, the water opossum has evolved a way to protect its young while swimming. A strong ring of muscle makes the pouch (which opens to the rear) watertight, so the young remain dry, even when the mother is totally immersed in water. The male also has a pouch (although not as watertight as the female's), where he places his genitalia before swimming. This is thought to prevent them from becoming tangled in aquatic vegetation and is probably helpful in streamlining the animal as well.

Reproduction.

Water opossums mate in December and a litter of 1-5 young is born 12 to 14 days later in the nest. By 22 days the offspring are beginning to show some fur, and by 40 days or so their eyes are open, their bodies protruding from the mother's pouch. At 48 days of age, the young opossums detach from the nipples, but they still nurse and sleep with the mother.

Fossil record.

The water opossum seems to have a history dating as far back as to the Pliocene Epoch.  Holocene subfossil fragments of "Chironectes" have been discovered in São Paulo, Brazil. Also, there are fossil specimens from the late Pleistocene-Recent cave deposits in Minas Gerais, Brazil, as well as from the late Pliocene in Entre Ríos Province, Argentina.

The water opossum ("Chironectes minimus"), also locally known as the yapok (), is a marsupial of the family Didelphidae. It is the only living member of its genus, Chironectes. This semiaquatic creature is found in and near freshwater streams and lakes from Mexico through Central and South America to Argentina and is the most aquatic living marsupial (the lutrine opossum also has aquatic habits). It is also the only living marsupial in which both sexes have a pouch. The thylacine, commonly referred to as the Tasmanian tiger, also exhibited this trait, but it is now believed to be extinct.


Description.

The common wall lizard is a small, thin lizard whose small scales are highly variable in colour and pattern. Its coloration is generally brownish or greyish, and may occasionally be tinged with green. In some individuals, the row of spots along their backs may form a line, while others may have a reticulated pattern with dark spots on the side and scattered white spots that can be blue in the shoulder region. The tail is brown, grey or rust in colour, and may also have light bars on the sides. The belly region has six rows of larger rectangular scales that are generally reddish, pink, or orangish. Common wall lizards may also have dark markings on the throat. This lizard has six distinct morphological forms which are identified by the colouration of its throat and underbelly. Three of these are pure morphs consisting only of solid colours on their scales: white, red (orange) or yellow, and three other morphs are distinguished by a combination of colours: white-yellow, white-red and yellow-red.

Ecology.

The common wall lizard prefers rocky environments, including urban settings, where it can scurry between rock, rubble, debris and buildings. In the southern part of its range it tends to occur in humid or semi-humid habitats, compared to drier habitats in the north.

Chemical communication.

Common wall lizards rely both on visual and chemical signals to communicate with conspecifics. Male wall lizards are equipped with femoral glands, which produce a waxy secretion used for chemical signalling. Both the proteinic and lipophilic compounds in the secretions are known to carry socially relevant information.

Polymorphism.

The six morphs of this lizard are primarily identifiable by colour and can be distinguished with the naked eye. However, they are commonly confirmed by digital photo and colour analysis. Source of colouration comes from different pigments within the lizard, with yellow colouration originating from carotenoids, and the expression of red/orange colour from pteridines. This is indicative that a phenomenon such as multiple alleles or epistasis may have a role in determining morphology. Morphs also differ in aspects other than colouration: differences between morphs are seen with femoral gland secretion, immune competence and body size. For males, colouration is visible on the underbelly, but in females of all the morphs there is less colouration seen in this region, indicating that sexual dimorphism occurs within this species.

Variations between morphs.

Aside from differences in colour, the morphs vary by length, survival rate, and immune resistance/response to infection.  Susceptibility to infection also varies between morphs, red and yellow-red morphs are the most susceptible to infection by the haemogregarine parasite, a common parasite for these lizards. White morphs are the most resistant to this parasite and the yellow morphs are at an intermediate value of immune resistance and intensity. Certain traits can also lead to a variation in snout-vent length in each of these morphs. For example, in orange morphs, sexual selection favours larger morphs which makes them, on average, larger than the other morphs.  The femoral gland secretions of males differ in chemical composition according to each respective morph. Secretions are used by males for intra-species communication, such as marking of territories and attracting potential mates. Individuals share the same organics within the secretions, but the concentrations of certain key compounds differ. For example, α-tocopherol is present in higher concentrations in the secretions of red morphs. This molecule allows for scents to remain in the environment longer by reducing the rate of oxidation in humid environments. This indicates that red morphs tend to be more territorial and maintain territories for longer periods of time compared to other morphs. This phenomenon is also seen when it comes to the age of lizards. Similarly, older, more territorial lizards have higher levels of α-tocopherol compared to younger individuals who are more prone to roaming regardless of morph. Again, indicating that the composition of the secretions relate to the function. Furanones are found in higher concentrations in white morphs, followed by yellow, then red morphs.  Among females, reproductive strategies differ by morph; yellow females are "r" strategists, producing many smaller eggs in their clutch which would allow for numerous offspring to be produced and proliferate in smaller populations with less competition. White females are "K" strategists, producing fewer, larger eggs which makes offspring more likely to survive in harsher, more competitive environments. Red females can be "r" or "K" strategists based on the environment they are in. The existence of alternate strategies points to how morphs have adapted to different environments and hints to the maintenance of colour polymorphism as with fluctuations in environments each morph will eventually be the fittest and as such will not be selected out of the population.  The differences observed between morphs are unique evolutionary trade offs employed by each morph to promote survival within the different environments they face in light of limited ability to adapt perfectly to each pressure. Such a trade off is seen when comparing orange morphs to white morphs: morphs, on average, have larger body sizes compared to the white morphs but, in exchange, they are more prone to parasitic infection. In orange morphs, more emphasis is placed on being larger and having the ability to physically compete and ward of potential threats, but in white morphs, metabolic emphasis is placed on having a more hardy immune system to resist infection. Again, these trade offs can arise as there are selective differences in the environment each morph prefers. The differences in the relative proportions of the morphs with respect to location show that environmental pressures differ and some morphs' trade offs are more successful in specific environments than another's.

Distribution and status.

The natural range spans much of the mainland Europe except from the north and very south and extends to Turkey. It occurs as introduced populations in southern Britain, where one such population in the seaside town of Ventnor on the Isle of Wight has become somewhat famous, and also in North America. There has been some scientific debate as to whether the populations in Southern England represent the northern edge of their native range.

North America.

"Podarcis muralis" has been introduced in the United States and is spreading throughout the Cincinnati metropolitan area. It is commonly observed living in limestone outcrops, rock walls, and rubble along the Ohio River basin.  It is referred to locally in the Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky area as the "Lazarus lizard", as it was introduced to the area around 1950 by George Rau, a boy who was a member of the family who owned the Lazarus department store chain (now absorbed into Macy's). After he returned from a family vacation to northern Italy, he released about 10 of the reptiles near his Cincinnati home. This prolific lizard has reproduced exponentially; it continues to expand its distribution range annually, and has established itself so well in southwest Ohio, it is now considered a naturalized species by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources and is protected under state law (it is illegal to harm, capture, or possess this animal without a proper licence).  The European wall lizard was also introduced to Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada in 1970, when a dozen individuals were released into the wild from a small private zoo.  This lizard is also present in Los Angeles and San Diego counties in California and may exist elsewhere in California.

Podarcis muralis (common wall lizard) is a species of lizard with a large distribution in Europe and well-established introduced populations in North America, where it is also called the European wall lizard. It can grow to about in total length.


History.

The town takes its name from the Litoměřici, one of more than a dozen West Slavic tribes who settled in the Czech lands from the sixth century.  The eastern Bohemian town of Litomyšl emerged in the 13th century on the site of an older fortified settlement on the Trstenice path - an important trading route linking Bohemia and Moravia.  From 30 April 1344 till its suppression in 1474 in the Hussite Wars the town was the seat of a Latin Catholic Diocese of Leitomischl / Litomyšl / Lutomislen(sis) (Latin adjective), until its territory was merged back into the (meanwhile Metropolitan Arch)Diocese of Prague. In 1970 it was nominally restored as Titular bishopric.  Until 1918 "Leitomischl–Litomyšl" (older German name "Leutomischl") was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austrian side after the compromise of 1867), head of the district with the same name, one of the 94 "Bezirkshauptmannschaften" or "okresní hejtmanství" in Bohemia.  Litomyšl had a Jewish community until 1942, when it was deported in The Holocaust. Litomyšl's synagogue survived until the 1960s, when it was demolished and an apartment block was built in its place.  Litomyšl had a German-speaking community until it was expelled in 1945 as a result of the Beneš decrees.

Main sights.

The dominant feature of Litomyšl is the monumental Renaissance castle built in the years 1568–81. The buildings of the castle precincts are exceptional not only for their architectural refinement, but have also as the birthplace of the Czech composer Bedřich Smetana. On the elongated square, which is one of the largest in the Czech Republic, is a town hall of Gothic origin and a series of Renaissance and baroque houses, many with arcades and vaulted ground floor rooms. One of the most important houses is "Dům U rytířů" ("the House of the Knights"), a 16th-century building with a notable stone façade.  In the past the town was also a significant religious centre. It was in Litomyšl in 1344 that the second bishopric to be established in Bohemia was founded, although it ceased to exist in the Hussite Wars.  In the 19th century the Litomyšl Grammar School was of great importance.  The cultural traditions of the town go far beyond regional and national frontiers. The exquisite interiors of the castle, especially the baroque castle theatre, the amphitheatre in the castle park and Smetana House, all offer varied programmes of concerts and theatrical performances and thus enrich the life of the town throughout the year. In 1994 the meeting of the seven Central European presidents was held at the castle. The chateau complex was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1999.  Litomyšl is also home to the "Portmoneum", a museum of the artist and writer Josef Váchal in the home of his admirer Josef Portman, who commissioned Váchal's murals and painted furniture in the house.

Broadcasting station.

Near Litomyšl is a large broadcasting station for short and medium wave. The short wave transmitter at is the most important short wave broadcasting facility of Czech using towers with heights up to. Slightly southeast at are two guyed masts, tall, used for medium wave broadcasting on 1287 kHz with 150 kW

Notable people.

There is an extensive permanent exhibition of Olbram Zoubek's (a famous Czech contemporary sculptor and designer) sculptures and art in Litomyšl Castle Vault Gallery.

Twin towns — sister cities.

Litomyšl is twinned with:

External links.

<br

Litomyšl (; ) is a town and municipality, former bishopric and Latin Catholic titular see in the Pardubice Region of Bohemia, in the Czech Republic. It is east of Prague and has about 10,500 inhabitants.


History.

Benešov began to be settled in the 11th century. The first settlers are believed to have arrived on Karlov Hill in 1050 during the Přemyslid dynasty. A message from the 17th century points to an existing church in 1070. The first written mention of Benešov, then spelt Benissaw in Latin, however, dates only from 1226, when it was owned by the Lord of Benis, as the surname was then spelt. A small monastery was founded here in 1246 by Tobias of Benissaw, the Prague provost and an uncle of the late Bishop of Prague, Tobias of Bechyne. By 1300 they left and the property was sold to the Lord of Sternberg, whose crest is still the city's coat of arms.  In 1420 the then mostly German populated city was conquered and burned by the Hussites.  In the late Middle Ages Benissaw was the centre of several political negotiations, such as the 1451 and 1473 meetings of the Bohemian Diet here. In the 15th and 16th centuries the town experienced an economic boom, especially thanks to its location on the trade route from Prague to Linz. A contemporary first edition map in Latin by A. Ortelius dated 1570 spells the city as Benissaw. After the end of the 16th Century there were several changes in ownership. During the Thirty Years' War, the population had suffered because of passing Polish and Swedish troops. To promote the reintroduction of Catholicism and improving the education a 1703 Priory college with a high school was founded in 1703. The Saint Anna Church of the Priory College was built over 1705 to 1715 according to plans submitted by the Italian architect Giovanni Battista Alliprandi. After 1803 the town developed as a center of national rebirth for Slavic Bohemians.  In 1871 the town was connected to Prague by rail and by 1895 it was an important regional hub. The town's station is Benešov u Prahy.  By World War I Benesov was an important garrison town of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. There were the Second Battalion of the "II. Bataillon des Böhmischen Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 102" (Bohemian Infantry Regiment No. 102) and the "II. Bataillon des k.k. Landwehr-Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 28" (Second Battalion of the Imperial Landwehr Infantry Regiment No. 28). Because of fears of possible political unrest in 1916 by Czech nationalists, the 2nd Regiment of the "Tiroler Kaiserjäger" with a reserve unit part from Bolzano was stationed here to 1918.  Early during World War II the town was evacuated temporarily as the "SS-Truppenübungsplatz Böhmen" of the Waffen SS was stationed here.  A significant measure of industrialization began after 1945 with the establishment of a machinery factory and the food industry.

Politics.

The town in led by 7-member city council, currently consisting of councillors representing the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) and the ANO 2011 (ANO). These parties control 11 out of 27 seats in a town parliament, and are supported by the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (KSČM) and the TOP 09 (controlling 15 out of 27 seats in summary).  The latest Benešov municipal election in 2014 was won by the coalition of the Vote for the City – Independents (VPM–NEZ) with 24.4% and gain of 7 seats in the town parliament. Followed by the ČSSD with 18.8% and 6 seats, and the ANO with 15.6% and 5 seats. The Civic Democratic Party (ODS), Mayors and Independents (STAN), TOP 09 and KSČM also entered the town parliament. A city council coalition between the VPM–NEZ, ODS, STAN and TOP 09 was formed after the election, however, in January 2016, it was dissolved by the parliament by 16 votes, succeed by the current coalition.

Twin towns — sister cities.

Benešov is twinned with:

Benešov (; ), also known as Benešov u Prahy (; lit. "Benešov near Prague") is a town in the Central Bohemian Region, Czech Republic, about southeast of Prague, the biggest town and former capital of the Benešov District. The Konopiště castle and the Czech national mountain Blaník are near the town. In 2019, the population was over 16,600.


History.

Founded in the second half of the 10th century by King Boleslav II as a royal castle. Because there already was a castle known as Boleslav near Prague, this new castle was named "Mladá" ("young") to distinguish it from the older Boleslav, which became known in the 15th century as Stará Boleslav ("Old Boleslav"). The town received partial city rights in 1334 and 1436, becoming an important site on the road from Prague to northern Bohemia, Lusatia, and Brandenburg. In the 16th century the city was a leading centre of the Unitas Fratrum / Unity of the Brethren / Moravian Church, hosting the Brethren's bishop, Renaissance church, and printing house. After being re-catholicized in the 17th century, the city's population declined.  In the 17th and 18th centuries, Mladá Boleslav (called "Bumsla" by Jews) was an important Jewish center. In the 19th century (in fact, the period of decline of the Jewish community), Mladá Boleslav was dubbed "Jerusalem on Jizera". In 1634, Jacob Bassevi von Treuenberg (born 1580 in Verona, Italy), the first ennobled Jew in the Habsburg monarchy, was buried in the Jewish cemetery in Mladá Boleslav.  In the 19th century new prosperity came: the city became an important regional centre as new schools, theatres, museums, and the Laurin & Klement (today Škoda) automobile factory were founded. Since the 1990s the factory has made it one of the richest and most prosperous Czech cities.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Mladá Boleslav is twinned with:

Sport.

The local football team FK Mladá Boleslav has played in the top national division since 2004. They were runners-up in 2005–06, have been Czech Cup winners twice (2011 and 2016) and have qualified for the UEFA Cup and Europa League nine times, beating such opponents as Olympique de Marseille 4–3 on aggregate in 2006 and US Citta di Palermo 2–1 on aggregate in 2007. The local ice hockey team BK Mladá Boleslav, was relegated in 2012 from the Extraliga, but quickly returned in 2014. The town also has one of the Czech Republic's top floorball teams, national champions 2017–18.

Mladá Boleslav (; ; both meaning "New (or literally Young) Boleslav") is a statutory city in the north of the Czech Republic, on the left bank of the Jizera river about northeast of Prague. It is the second biggest city in the Central Bohemian Region and a major centre of the Czech automotive industry (Škoda Auto). The city name abbreviation "MB" became eponymous for colloquial naming of Škoda cars (especially in the communist era) as "embé(čko)".


Life.

Arenas was born in the countryside of Newport Beach Aguas Claras, Holguín Province, Cuba, and later moved to the city of Holguín. In 1963, he moved to Havana to enroll in the School of Planification and, later, in the Faculty of Letters at the Universidad de La Habana, where he studied philosophy and literature without completing a degree. The following year, he began working at the Biblioteca Nacional José Martí. While there, his talent was noticed and he was awarded prizes at Cirilo Villaverde National Competition held by UNEAC (National Union of Cuban Writers and Artists). His "Hallucinations" was awarded "first Honorable Mention" in 1966 although, as the judges could find no better entry, no First Prize was awarded that year.  His writings and openly gay life were, by 1967, bringing him into conflict with the communist government. He left the Biblioteca Nacional and became an editor for the Cuban Book Institute until 1968. From 1968 to 1974 he was a journalist and editor for the literary magazine "La Gaceta de Cuba". In 1974, he was sent to prison after being charged and convicted of "ideological deviation" and for publishing abroad without official consent. He escaped from prison and tried to leave Cuba by launching himself from the shore on a tire inner tube. The attempt failed and he was rearrested near Lenin Park and imprisoned at the notorious El Morro Castle alongside murderers and rapists. He survived by helping the inmates to write letters to wives and lovers. He was able to collect enough paper this way to continue his writing. However, his attempts to smuggle his work out of prison were discovered and he was severely punished. Threatened with death, he was forced to renounce his work and was released in 1976. In 1980, as part of the Mariel Boatlift, he fled to the United States. He came on the boat "San Lázaro" captained by Cuban emigré Roberto Agüero.  In 1987, Arenas was diagnosed with AIDS; he continued to write and speak out against the Cuban government. He mentored many Cuban exile writers, including John O'Donnell-Rosales. After battling AIDS, Arenas died of an intentional overdose of drugs and alcohol on December 7, 1990, in New York City. In a suicide letter written for publication, Arenas wrote: Due to my delicate state of health and to the terrible depression that causes me not to be able to continue writing and struggling for the freedom of Cuba, I am ending my life... I want to encourage the Cuban people abroad as well as on the Island to continue fighting for freedom.... Cuba will be free. I already am. In 2012 Arenas was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people.

Writings.

Despite his short life and the hardships imposed during his imprisonment, Arenas produced a significant body of work. In addition to significant poetic efforts ("El Central", "Leprosorio"), his "Pentagonia" is a set of five novels that comprise a "secret history" of post-revolutionary Cuba. It includes "Singing from the Well" (in Spanish also titled "Celestino before Dawn"), "Farewell to the Sea" (whose literal translation is "The Sea Once More"), "Palace of the White Skunks", the Rabelaisian "Color of Summer", and "The Assault". In these novels Arenas’ style ranges from a stark realist narrative and high modernist experimental prose to absurd, satiric humor. His second novel, "Hallucinations" ("El Mundo Alucinante"), rewrites the story of the colonial dissident priest Fray Servando Teresa de Mier.  In interviews, his autobiography, and in some of his fiction work itself, Arenas draws explicit connections between his own life experience and the identities and fates of his protagonists. As is evident and as critics such as Francisco Soto have pointed out, the "child narrator" in "Celestino", Fortunato of "The Palace...", Hector of "Farewell..", and the triply named "Gabriel/Reinaldo/Gloomy Skunk" character in "Color" appear to live progressive stages of a continuous life story that is also linked to Arenas's own. In turn, Arenas consistently links his individual narrated life to the historical experience of a generation of Cubans. A constant theme in his novels and other writing is the condemnation of the Castro government, although Arenas also critiques the Catholic Church, US culture and politics. He also critique a series of literary personalities in Havana and internationally, particularly those who he believed had betrayed him and suppressed his work (Severo Sarduy and Ángel Rama are notable examples). His "Thirty truculent tongue-twisters", which he claims circulated in Havana and which are reprinted in "The Color of Summer", mock everyone from personal friends who he suggests may have spied on him to figures such as Nicolás Guillén, Alejo Carpentier, Miguel Barnet, Sarduy and of course Castro himself.  His autobiography, "Before Night Falls" was on the "New York Times" list of the ten best books of the year in 1993. In 2000 this work was made into a film, directed by Julian Schnabel, in which Arenas was played by Javier Bardem. An opera based on the autobiography with libretto and music by Cuban-American composer Jorge Martín premiered at the Fort Worth Opera on May 29, 2010, with baritone Wes Mason singing the role of Arenas.  The Reinaldo Arenas Papers are held at Princeton University Library. “The collection consists of personal and working papers of Reinaldo Arenas” and includes typescript and typescript drafts, essays, interviews, newspaper clippings, correspondence and other documents.

Further reading.

"English"  Spanish

Reinaldo Arenas (July 16, 1943 – December 7, 1990) was a Cuban poet, novelist, and playwright known as an early sympathizer, and later critic of Fidel Castro and the Cuban Revolution, and a rebel of the Cuban government.


History.

Founding.

The École Nationale d'Administration was formally established in October 1945 at the decree of Michel Debré as part of his project to reform the recruitment and training of high-ranking officials.  The ENA was designed to democratize access to the higher ranks of the French civil service. Until then, each ministry had its own hiring process and selection standards. The examinations for particular ministries were often extremely specialized, meaning that few candidates possessed the knowledge to pass. In addition, the narrow expertise required meant few officials were capable of serving in a variety of roles.  The school was designed to broaden and standardize the training provided to senior public servants, and to ensure they possessed extensive knowledge of policy and governance. Debré's stated intention was to create “a body of officials proven to be highly competent, especially in financial, economic and social matters.” The new system, based on academic proficiency and competitive examination, was also intended to guard against nepotism and make recruitment to top positions more transparent.  Access to senior positions of the French civil service is threefold: first, through generalist civil service positions; second, through "technical" (engineering) positions; and third, through internal promotion.

Relocation to Strasbourg.

In November 1991 the government of Prime Minister Édith Cresson announced that the ENA would be relocated to Strasbourg. The "Commanderie Saint-Jean", a former barracks and prison dating back to the 14th century, was chosen as its new site. The move was designed to emphasize the school's symbolic proximity to the numerous European institutions based in the city. However, though the school was officially relocated, it maintained many of its facilities in Paris. It remained split between the two cities, requiring students to complete studies in both locations, until it was fully re-located to Strasbourg in January 2005.  In 2002, it was merged with the Institut international d’administration publique (IIAP) with the aim of increasing its international profile.

Closing.

In April 2019, it was claimed that a leaked speech to be delivered by French President Macron would announce that ENA would be closed as part of the solution to the Gilets Jaunes crisis. On the 25th of April 2019, President Emmanuel Macron confirmed that he will close ENA.

Recruitment and exit procedures.

Admission to the ENA is granted based on a competitive examination taking place from the end of August to November, which people generally take after completing studies at the "Institut d'études politiques de Paris" or any "Prép'Ena" (preparatory classes for the ENA examination for people coming from universities or "grandes écoles"). The "concours externe" exam is divided into two parts:  Results of this exam process are published by the end of December.  Other exam processes govern admission for career civil servants ("concours interne") and for all other people, already active in business, political or union activities ("troisième concours").  Following a two-year intensive programme combining high-responsibility internships and examinations, the ENA ranks students according to their results. Students are then asked, by order of merit, the position/body they want to join. Top-ranked students (between 12 and 15 students) usually join the so-called "grands corps" "Inspection générale des finances", "Conseil d'État" or Cour des comptes, usually followed by the French Treasury and the diplomatic service. Other students will join various ministries and administrative justice or préfectures. To quote the ENA's site:

Promotions.

Academic years at the ENA are known as "promotions", and are named by the students after outstanding French people (Vauban, Saint-Exupéry, Rousseau), Foreigners (Mandela), characters (Cyrano de Bergerac), battles (Valmy), concepts (Croix de Lorraine, Droits de l'homme) or values (liberté-égalité-fraternité).  This tradition comes from old French military academies such as the Ecole Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr.  The "Promotion Voltaire" of 1980 has attracted particular attention, since numerous graduates that year went on to become significant figures in French politics. François Hollande, Dominique de Villepin, Ségolène Royal, Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Michel Sapin were all members of this "promotion".

Ranking.

In 2011, the "" ranked the ENA third in France and ninth in the world according to the number of alumni holding the position of CEO at Fortune Global 500 companies.  In 2013, a Times Higher Education ranking that ordered universities according to the same metric placed the ENA sixth in the world.

Alumni.

Few "énarques" (around 1%) actually get involved in politics. Most ENA alumni hold apolitical, technical positions in the French civil service. Researchers at the Centre national de la recherche scientifique have shown that many ENA alumni become business executives in France.  French law makes it relatively easy for civil servants to enter politics: civil servants who are elected or appointed to a political position do not have to resign their position in the civil service; instead, they are put in a situation of "temporary leave" known as "disponibilité". If they are not re-elected or reappointed, they may ask for their reintegration into their service (well-known examples include Lionel Jospin and Philippe Séguin). In addition, ENA graduates are often recruited as aides by government ministers and other politicians; this makes it easier for some of them to enter a political career. As an example, Dominique de Villepin entered politics as an "appointed" official, after serving as an aide to Jacques Chirac, without ever having held an elected position. The ENA also participates in international Technical Assistance programmes, funded by the EU or other donors.  Since its creation 60 years ago, the ENA has trained 5600 French senior officials and 2600 foreigners. Some famous alumni include:

International cooperation.

Uzbekistan.

An agreement was signed in Paris on 16 October 2012 between the ENA and the Uzbek Academy of administration; it allows for cooperation in the modernization of state administration and improving skills of public servants in Uzbekistan. The first cooperation was due to begin in January 2013.

Criticism.

Critics have accused the ENA of educating a narrow ruling class who are prone to groupthink and averse to alternative perspectives. According to these critics, the ENA discourages its students from innovative thinking and pushes them to take conventional, middle-of-the-road positions. Peter Gumbel, a British academic, has claimed that France's "grande école" system, and especially the ENA, has the effect of perpetuating an intellectually brilliant yet out-of-touch ruling elite. Yannick Blanc, a former senior civil servant, has also suggested that "énarques" have often been too ‘intellectually conformist'.  Some French politicians such as Bruno Le Maire and François Bayrou have proposed abolishing the ENA.

See also.

Other main French Grandes Écoles :  Other prestigious universities in the world:

The École nationale d'administration (generally referred to as ENA; ; ) is a French "grande école", created in 1945 by French President, Charles de Gaulle, and principal author of the French Constitution, Michel Debré, to democratise access to the senior civil service. The ENA selects and undertakes initial training of senior French officials. It is considered to be one of the most academically exceptional French schools, both because of its low acceptance rates and because a large majority of its candidates have already graduated from other elite schools in the country. Thus, within French society, the ENA stands as one of the main pathways to high positions in the public and private sectors.


History.

The Estates Theatre was built during the late 18th century in response to Enlightenment thought regarding general access to the theatre, and theatres themselves demonstrating the cultural standards of a nation. The Estates Theatre was designed by Anton Haffenecker and built in a little less than two years for the aristocrat František Antonín Count Nostitz Rieneck. Prague's first standing public theatre, the Sporck Theatre, operated from 1724 to 1735. The owner of this theatre, Count Franz Anton von Sporck, permitted the free use of it to subsidize the commercial venture of the Venetian impresario Antonio Denzio. The next commercial theatre, the "Kotzentheater" or Divadlo v Kotcích, operated sporadically from 1739–1783 under a series of Italian impresarios. The final closure of the "Kotzentheater" coincided with the opening of Count Nostitz’s "Nostitzsches Nationaltheater." The theatre opened in 1783 with a performance of the tragedy "Emilia Galotti" by the German playwright Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. The building itself was constructed in a Neoclassical style and remains one of the few European theatres to be preserved in its almost original state to the present day. Its motto, "Patriae et Musis" "To the Native Land and the Muses"), which is inscribed above the portal, should also be noted as reflecting the original intentions of its creator.  The Estates Theatre has undergone several changes in its history. It first acquired the name Royal Theatre of the Estates in 1798 when it was purchased by the Bohemian Estates. With the opening of the Provisional Theatre in 1862, the Czech ensemble left and the Theatre of the Estates was dedicated to a solely German ensemble and was renamed to "Deutsches Landestheater" (Provincial German Theatre). During the period between 1920 and 1948 the theatre regained the name Theatre of the Estates and became affiliated with the National Theatre. In 1948 the theatre was renamed the Tyl Theatre (after dramatist J.K. Tyl) and would be known as such until 1990 when, at the end of an eight-year reconstruction project, it became known again as the Estates Theatre.

Productions and artists.

While the theatre was initially built with the intention of producing German dramas and Italian operas, works in other languages were also staged. Czech productions were first staged in 1785 in order to reach a broader Czech audience but by 1812 they became a regular feature of Sunday and holiday matinées. The somewhat political nature of these performances later led to idea of founding a National Theatre after 1848 with the defeat of the revolution and the departure of J.K. Tyl. Many of the founding Czech dramatists were involved in the Estates Theatre, such as the brothers Thám (Karel and Václav), J.K. Tyl, Ján Kollár, and so on. The first Czech modern opera, František Škroup’s "The Tinker", was staged here in 1826 and in 1834 the premiere of the song “Where is my Home?” (Kde domov můj) was performed by bass Karel Strakatý (words by Tyl, music by Škroup), which would later become the Czech national anthem.  The Estates Theatre was not limited to native participants; many famous European artists were also active. Individuals such as Carl Maria von Weber, Anton Rubinstein, Karl Goldmark, and Gustav Mahler conducted at the Estates Theatre. Other famous names include the actors A.W. Iffland, F. Raimund, J.N. Nestroy, along with opera singer Angelica Catalani and violin virtuoso Niccolò Paganini.  One of the Estates Theatre’s many claims to glory is its strong link with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who conducted the world premiere of his opera "Don Giovanni" here in October 1787. Also, in 1791, Mozart’s "La Clemenza di Tito" was staged in public here for the first time in celebration of the coronation of Emperor Leopold II. It is the only theatre left standing where Mozart performed.  Anton Jaich, the set designer, worked here from 1846 to 1861.

Recent history.

The Estates Theatre currently offers performances of dramas, ballets and operas with the focus of the opera company on the work of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. A more contemporary claim to fame originates from the Oscar-winning film "Amadeus", directed by Czech director Miloš Forman. The scenes of Mozart in Prague were shot at the Estates Theatre for authenticity.  Because Mozart conducted the 1787 premiere of "Don Giovanni" in the Estates Theatre, the ghost statue outside the theatre represents the opera’s character Il Commendatore.

References.

Notes

The Estates Theatre or Stavovské divadlo is a historic theatre in Prague, Czech Republic. The Estates Theatre was annexed to the National Theatre in 1948 and currently draws on three artistic ensembles, opera, ballet, and drama, which perform at the Estates Theatre, the National Theatre, and the (separate building, Kolowrat Palace).


Taxonomy.

The Fiordland crested penguin was described in 1845 by English zoologist George Robert Gray, its specific epithet derived from the Ancient Greek "pachy-"/παχυ- "thick" and "rhynchos"/ρύγχος "beak". It is one of six species in the genus "Eudyptes", the generic name derived from the Ancient Greek "eu"/ευ "good" and "dyptes"/δύπτης "diver".

Description.

This species is a medium-sized, yellow-crested, black-and-white penguin, growing to approximately long and weighing on average, with a weight range of. It has dark, bluish-grey upperparts with a darker head, and white underparts. Its broad, yellow eyebrow-stripe extends over the eye and drops down the neck. It can be distinguished from the similar erect-crested penguin ("Eudyptes sclateri") and Snares penguin ("Eudyptes robustus") in having no bare skin around the base of its bill. Female Fiordland penguins lay a clutch of two eggs where the first-laid egg is much smaller than the second egg, generally hatches later, and shows higher mortality, demonstrating a brood reduction system that is unique from other avian groups.

Distribution and habitat.

This penguin nests in colonies among tree roots and rocks in dense temperate coastal forest. It breeds along the shores the West Coast of the South Island south of about Bruce Bay and the Open Bay Islands, around Fiordland and Foveaux Strait, and on Stewart Island/Rakiura and its outlying islands. Fossils of this species have been found as far north as the northern end of the South Island, and they probably once nested in the North Island as well. Their range has been drastically reduced by hunting in Polynesian times, and they are now only found in the least-populated part of New Zealand.

Diet.

The main prey species reported are cephalopods (85%, mainly arrow squid, "Nototodarus sloanii"), followed by crustaceans (13%, primarily krill, "Nyctiphanes australis") and fish (2%, mainly red cod and hoki). However, the importance of cephalopods might be exaggerated. Prey taken seems to vary between Codfish Island and northern Fiordland.

Conservation.

Fiordland crested penguins are classed as vulnerable to extinction by the IUCN, and their status was changed from vulnerable to endangered by the Department of Conservation in 2013. Surveys in the 1990s counted 2,500 pairs, though this was likely an underestimate; based on historic trends, the population is probably continuing to decline. The main threats are introduced predators such dogs, cats, rats, and especially stoats. They are also vulnerable to human disturbance, fleeing nests and leaving chicks exposed to predators.

The Fiordland penguin ("Eudyptes pachyrhynchus"), also known as the Fiordland crested penguin (in Māori, tawaki or pokotiwha), is a crested penguin species endemic to New Zealand. It currently breeds along the south-western coasts of New Zealand's South Island as well as on Stewart Island/Rakiura and its outlying islands. Because it originally ranged beyond Fiordland, it is sometimes referred to as the New Zealand crested penguin.