Name.

In Old Irish his name is "Óengus" or "Oíngus". The name is attested in Adomnán's "Life of St Columba" as "Oinogus(s)ius". This is believed to come from a Proto-Celtic name meaning "true vigour". The Dindsenchas state that Boand named her son by the Dagda Oengus because union with the Dagda was her "one desire." In Middle Irish this became "Áengus", and in Modern Irish "Aonghus",.  He is also known as "Óengus Óc"/"Aengus Óg" ("Aengus the young"), "Mac ind Óc" ("son of the young"), "Maccan"/"Macán", or "Mac Óc/Mac Óg" ("young son").

Description.

Aengus is variously described in the following terms:

Tales.

Aengus' parents were The Dagda and Boann, and his foster-father was variously Elcmar or Midir. He was said to have lived at Newgrange by the River Boyne, where he raised Manannán's blonde-haired daughter Curcog as his foster.  The Dagda had an affair with the river goddess Boann, wife of Nechtan. To hide her pregnancy, the Dagda made the sun stand still for nine months so that Aengus was conceived, gestated and born in one day. When he came of age Aengus dispossessed the Dagda of his home, Brú na Bóinne (an area of the Boyne Valley that contains the passage tombs Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth). He arrived after the Dagda had shared out his land among his children, and none was left for Aengus, so Aengus asked his father if he could live in Brú na Bóinne for "a day and a night", and the Dagda agreed. Irish has no indefinite article, so "a day and a night" is the same as "day and night", which covers all time, and so Aengus took possession of Brú na Bóinne forever. In another—and probably the original—version of this story, appearing in "The Wooing of Etain", it is the Dagda who helps his son Aengus take Brú na Bóinne from Elcmar, with the same trick. In this version, Midir is Aengus's foster-father, while Elcmar is the husband of Boann cuckolded by the Dagda. This tale probably dramatizes the idea "that the blooming of youth denies the process of aging - at the youthful stage of life time passes slowly and vitality seems to be permanent". In "The Fosterage of the House of the Two Pails," a similar story is related in which Manannán mac Lir, called the High King over all the Tuatha Dé, convinces Aengus to cast a spell by reciting a poem before his foster-father Elcmar, to force him out of the Brú until ogham and pillar, heaven and earth, and the sun and the moon have been blended together. After the poem, called "Luck and Prosperity" is recited, Elcmar tells Aengus that he would have given him the Brú if he had but asked, but due to Manannán's incantation, he and his people would face woe and madness in their banishment from the Brú. In this version of the story, Aengus is genuinely remorseful for having banished Elcmar.  According to "Death Tales of the Tuatha de Danaan", Aengus killed his stepfather Elcmar for killing Midir.  Aengus also killed Lugh Lámhfhada's poet for lying about his brother Ogma an Cermait. The poet claimed that Ogma an Cermait was having an affair with one of Lugh's wives.  In "The Wooing of Etain", Aengus was able to partially lift a spell against Étaín, the horse goddess he had won for his brother Midir. Midir's wife Fuamnach in a jealous rage had turned Etain into a beautiful fly. Turning her into a woman at night, Aengus made her his lover until Fuamnach found out about it and drove her away. Aengus killed his foster mother for her treachery.  Aengus fell in love with a girl he had seen in his dreams. His mother, Boann, goddess of the River Boyne, and a cow goddess whose milk formed the Milky Way (Bealach na Bó Finne, or the White Cow's Way in Irish), searched Ireland for a year, then his father, the Dagda, did the same. Finally, King Bodb Derg of Munster found her after a further year.  Aengus went to the lake of the Dragon's Mouth and found 150 girls chained in pairs, his girl, Caer Ibormeith, among them. On November 1, Caer and the other girls would turn into swans for a year, every second Samhain. Aengus was told he could marry Caer if he could identify her in her swan form. Aengus turned himself into a swan and they flew away, singing beautiful music that put all listeners asleep for three days and nights.  Aengus was the foster-father and protector of Diarmuid Ua Duibhne of the Fianna. He rescued Diarmuid and Gráinne during their pursuit by the Fianna.  Aengus owned a sword named Moralltach, the Great Fury, given to him by Manannan mac Lir. This he gave to his foster-son Diarmuid Ua Duibhne, along with a sword named Beagalltach, the Little Fury, and two spears of great power, Gáe Buide and Gáe Derg. When the young man died, Aengus took his body back to Brú na Bóinne where he breathed life into it when he wished to speak with Diarmuid.  In other legends Aengus was able to repair broken bodies and return life to them.  In the Dindsenchas, Aengus shaped his kisses into four birds that followed Cairbre wherever he went to mock him each day before sunrise. This mockery continued until Cairbre's druid enchanted a tree from Fid Frosmuine with song, which caused the tree to grow above all others and detain Aengus' birds.  Also in the Dindsenchas, a tale called "Tuag Inber" is relayed in which Aengus provides Eochu and Ablend a swift horse while they are encamped with their cattle. He tells them to unbridle the horse in a meadow before it sheds its water and causes their deaths; Eochu and Ablend forget to unharness the horse when it exhausts itself in a meadow, and it forms a well, around which Eochu builds confinement. The poem of Loch Ri is nearly identical to "Tuag Inber," except the character names differ and Aengus is replaced by Midir.  Similarities have been found between Aengus and the greek god Hermes.

In Irish mythology, Aengus or Óengus, also called Mac ind Óic, is one of the Tuatha Dé Danann and probably originally a god associated with youth, love and poetic inspiration. The son of The Dagda and Boann, he is also known as Maccan Óc ("the young boy" or "young son"), and corresponds to the Welsh mythical figure Mabon and the Celtic god Maponos. He plays a central role in five myths reported by medieval Irish texts.


Setting.

"Warzone" takes place in a fictional dieselpunk future in which a space faring humanity has explored beyond Pluto and has uncovered ancient artifacts which unleashed an evil entity known as the Dark Soul and an obscure magical force known as the Dark Symmetry. This force soon started corrupting both man and thinking machines, instilling hatred and fear in their minds, then sent its own minions, consisting of legions of undead mutants and alien monsters called Nefarites, in an attempt to conquer humanity. In light of these events, technological and social progress has largely come to an halt. Most people are citizens of one of the major megacorporations, who have colonized the inner planets of the solar system, and who fight against each other when not fighting the evil forces of the Dark Soul. The Earth has become known as Dark Eden following a global apocalypse, and it is home only to tribal survivors and renegades. This background is intricately tied to that of the "Mutant Chronicles" role-playing game.

Gameplay.

"Warzone" is a tabletop miniature wargame in which players take turns issuing orders, moving model troops on a model battlefield, and resolving combats that occur by rolling dice. It is played at the skirmish scale, where one model represents one soldier. The game became gradually more complex with later editions and expansions adding more details and special abilities.  "Warzone" is mostly compared and contrasted to "Warhammer 40,000", which targets the same market audience, and has similar gameplay, although "Warzone" never reached the latter's volume of market penetration. "Warzone" aims for a more realistic feel, being set in a more plausible future, with recognizable weaponry, megacorporations that represent modern-day nations and cultures, and a focus upon the power of units of soldiers, whereas "Warhammer" aims for more of a fantasy feel, with a greater variety of weapons, aliens, and a predominant focus upon the power of individual heroes.

Editions.

Three different editions of "Warzone" have been produced through the years: the original "Warzone", "Warzone 2nd Edition", and "Ultimate Warzone" in 1998. All have since gone out of print.  During the production of the third supplement for "Warzone 2nd Edition", Target Games underwent a significant restructuring which resulted in the establishment of Paradox Entertainment as an independent company and the license for the "Warzone" brand being sold to them. Development and production of the "Warzone" line was not resumed after the disruption and a license to use the brand in the context of miniature wargaming was awarded to Excelsior Entertainment Owned by Thom Talamini and Christopher Schroeder (as well as licenses for the related "Chronopia" brand).  The remaining stocks of original "Warzone" and "Chronopia" miniatures were sold to Irish company Prince August, who still have copies of the boxed game and supplements of the second edition in stock. The original moulds were destroyed.  In 2008 Fantasy Flight Games released a 54mm collectible miniature game set in the "Mutant Chronicles" universe, but the game was cancelled shortly after release due to poor sales.  A new edition of "Warzone" was unveiled in February 2013 by Prodos Games (under licence to Paradox Entertainment). It is called "Warzone Resurrection".

Video Game.

An Online Real-Time Strategy game was in development after Paradox Entertainment had acquired the license but the production was quietly shut down. The game would have been called "Warzone Online" and would have featured a then brand new Game Engine called the Valpurgius Engine. It would have been released on both the Xbox and Windows platforms.

Reception.

Mark Donald reviewed "Warzone" for "Arcane" magazine, rating it a 6 out of 10 overall. Donald comments that ""Warzone" is worth investigating, especially if you already swear by the RPG. However, I wouldn't recommend it to serious megalomaniacs who live for wargaming."  "Warzone" won the Origins Award for "Best Miniatures Rules of 1995".

Warzone is a tabletop miniature wargame based on the Mutant Chronicles universe and role-playing game. It features squad-based combat at a skirmish level, although vehicles and large models were introduced in later supplements to the main rule book.


Background.

The Nazis seizure of power commenced on 30 January, when President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor, who immediately urged the dissolution of the Reichstag and the calling of new elections. In early February, the Nazis "unleashed a campaign of violence and terror that dwarfed anything seen so far". Stormtroopers began attacking trade union and Communist Party (KPD) offices and the homes of left-wingers.  In the second half of February, the violence was extended to the Social Democrats, with gangs of brownshirts breaking up Social Democrat meetings and beating up their speakers and audiences. Issues of Social Democratic newspapers were banned. Twenty newspapers of the Centre Party, a party of Catholic Germans, were banned in mid-February for criticising the new government. Government officials known to be Centre Party supporters were dismissed from their offices, and stormtroopers violently attacked party meetings in Westphalia. Only the Nazis and DNVP were allowed to campaign unmolested.  Six days before the scheduled election date, the German parliament building was set alight in the Reichstag fire, allegedly by the Dutch Communist Marinus van der Lubbe. That event reduced the popularity of the KPD and enabled Hitler to persuade Hindenburg to pass the Reichstag Fire Decree as an emergency decree according to Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. The emergency law removed many civil liberties and allowed the arrest of Ernst Thälmann and 4,000 other leaders and members of the KPD shortly before the election, suppressing the Communist vote and consolidating the position of the Nazis.  Although Hitler could have banned the KPD outright, he opted not to do so. He feared a violent Communist uprising in the event of a ban, and he also believed the KPD's presence on the ballot could siphon off votes away the Social Democrats. Instead, he opted to simply have Communists functionaries jailed by the thousands. The courts and prosecutors, both already hostile to the KPD long before 1933, obligingly agreed with the line that since the Reichstag fire was a Communist plot, KPD membership was an act of treason. As a result, for all intents and purposes, the KPD was "outlawed" on the day the Reichstag Fire Decree took effect and "completely banned" as of the day of the election. While the Social Democrats (SPD) were then not as heavily oppressed as the Communists, the Social Democrats were also restricted in their actions, as the party's leadership had already fled to Prague, and many members were acting only from the underground. Hence, the Reichstag fire is widely believed to have had a major effect on the outcome of the election. As a replacement parliament building and for 10 years to come, the new parliament used the Kroll Opera House for its meetings.  The resources of big business and the state were thrown behind the Nazis' campaign to achieve saturation coverage all over Germany. Brownshirts and SS patrolled and marched menacingly through the streets of cities and towns. A "combination of terror, repression and propaganda was mobilized in every... community, large and small, across the land". Irene von Goetz wrote, "In a decree issued on 17 February 1933, Göring ordered the Prussian police force to make unrestrained use of firearms in operations against political opponents (the so-called "Schießerlass," or shooting decree)".  To ensure a Nazi majority in the vote, Nazi organisations also "monitored" the vote process. In Prussia, 50,000 members of the SS, SA and "Der Stahlhelm" were ordered to monitor the votes as so-called deputy sheriffs or auxiliary police ("Hilfspolizei") in another decree by acting Interior Minister Hermann Göring.

Results.

The Black-White-Red Struggle Front (KSWR) was an alliance of the German National People's Party with "Der Stahlhelm" and the Agricultural League

Aftermath.

Despite achieving a much better result than in the November 1932 election, the Nazis did not do as well as Hitler had hoped. In spite of massive violence and voter intimidation, the Nazis won only 43.9% of the vote, rather than the majority that he had expected.  Therefore, Hitler was forced to maintain his coalition with the DNVP to control the majority of seats. The Communists (KPD) lost about a quarter of their votes, and the Social Democrats suffered only moderate losses. Although the KPD had not been formally banned, it was a foregone conclusion that the KPD deputies would never be allowed to take their seats. Within a few days, all KPD representatives had been under arrest or gone into hiding.  Although the Nazi-DNVP coalition had enough seats to conduct the basic business of government, Hitler needed a two-thirds majority to pass the Enabling Act, which allowed the Cabinet, effectively the Chancellor to enact laws without the approval of the Reichstag for four years. With certain exceptions, such laws could deviate from the Weimar Constitution. Leaving nothing to chance, the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to arrest all 81 Communist deputies and to keep several Social Democrats out of the chamber.  Hitler then obtained the necessary supermajority by persuading the Centre Party to vote with him with regard to the "Reichskonkordat". The bill was passed on 23 March with 444 votes for and 94 against. Only the Social Democrats, led by Otto Wels, opposed the measure, which came into effect on 27 March. As it turned out, the atmosphere of that session was so intimidating that the measure would have still passed even if all Communist and Social Democratic deputies had been present and voted against it. The bill's provisions turned the government into a "de facto" legal dictatorship.  Within four months, the other parties had been shuttered by outright banning or Nazi terror, and Germany had become formally a one-party state. Although three more elections were held during the Nazi era, voters were presented with a single list of Nazis and guest candidates, and voting was not secret.

Federal elections were held in Germany on 5 March 1933, after the Nazi seizure of power on 30 January and just six days after the Reichstag fire. Nazi stormtroopers had unleashed a widespread campaign of violence against the Communist Party (KPD), left-wingers, trade unionists, the Social Democratic Party of Germany, and the Centre Party. They were the last multi-party elections in a unified Germany until 1990.


Symptoms.

Sinoatrial blocks are typically well tolerated. They are not as serious as an AV block and most often do not require treatment. In some people, they can cause fainting, altered mental status, chest pain, hypoperfusion, and signs of shock. They can also lead to cessation of the SA node and more serious dysrhythmias.

Types.

In a first degree sinoatrial block, there is a lag between the time that the SA node fires and actual depolarization of the atria. This rhythm is not easily detectable using state of the art (the highest level of scientific development at the current state in time) diagnostic equipment, thus is currently not recognizable on an ECG strip because an ECG strip does not denote when the SA node fires. It can be detected only during an electrophysiology study when a small wire is placed against the SA node from within the heart and the electrical impulses can be recorded as they leave the p-cells in the centre of the node [ see pacemaker potential ], followed by observing a delay in the onset of the p wave on the ECG.  Second degree SA blocks are broken down into two subcategories just like AV blocks are:  The first is a second degree type I, or Wenckebach block. This rhythm is irregular, and the R-R interval gets progressively smaller, while the P-R interval remains constant, until a QRS segment is dropped. Note that this is quite different from the Wenckebach AV block, in which the PR interval gets progressively longer, before the dropped QRS segment. The pause of a second degree type I is less than twice the shortest R-R interval and is not a multiple of the P-R interval. The cause is a gradual lengthening of conduction time from the SA node to the atria. The p-cells in the centre of the node produce the rhythm at a regular rate, but their conduction across the node to where it meets atrial tissue is where the slowing occurs.  A second degree type II, or sinus exit block, is a regular rhythm that may be normal or slow. It is followed by a pause that is a multiple of the P-P interval usually (2-4). Conduction across the SA node is normal until the time of the pause when it is blocked.  A third degree sinoatrial block looks very similar to a sinus arrest. However, a sinus arrest is caused by a failure to form impulses. A third degree block is caused by failure to conduct them. The rhythm is irregular and either normal or slow. It is followed by a long pause that is not a multiple of the P-R interval. The pause ends with a P wave, instead of a junctional escape beat the way a sinus arrest would.

Treatment.

Emergency treatment consists of administration of atropine sulfate or transcutaneous pacing.

A sinoatrial block is a disorder in the normal rhythm of the heart, known as a heart block, that is initiated in the sinoatrial node. The initial action impulse in a heart is usually formed in the sinoatrial node (SA node) and carried through the atria, down the internodal atrial pathways to the atrioventricular node (AV) node. In normal conduction, the impulse would travel across the bundle of His (AV bundle), down the bundle branches, and into the Purkinje fibers. This would depolarize the ventricles and cause them to contract.


Consonants.

The Wylie scheme transliterates the Tibetan characters as follows:  In Tibetan script, consonant clusters within a syllable may be represented through the use of prefixed or suffixed letters or by letters superscripted or subscripted to the root letter (forming a "stack"). The Wylie system does not normally distinguish these as in practice no ambiguity is possible under the rules of Tibetan spelling. The exception is the sequence "gy-", which may be written either with a prefix "g" or a subfix "y". In the Wylie system, these are distinguished by inserting a period between a prefix "g" and initial "y". E.g. གྱང "wall" is "gyang", while གཡང་ "chasm" is "g.yang".

Vowels.

The four vowel marks (here applied to the base letter ཨ) are transliterated: When a syllable has no explicit vowel marking, the letter "a" is used to represent the default vowel "a" (e.g. ཨ་ = a).

Capitalization.

Many previous systems of Tibetan transliteration included internal capitalisation schemes—essentially, capitalising the root letter rather than the first letter of a word, when the first letter is a prefix consonant. Tibetan dictionaries are organized by root letter, and prefixes are often silent, so knowing the root letter gives a better idea of pronunciation. However, these schemes were often applied inconsistently, and usually only when the word would normally be capitalised according to the norms of Latin text (i.e. at the beginning of a sentence). On the grounds that internal capitalisation was overly cumbersome, of limited usefulness in determining pronunciation, and probably superfluous to a reader able to use a Tibetan dictionary, Wylie specified that if a word was to be capitalised, the first letter should be capital, in conformity with Western capitalisation practices. Thus a particular Tibetan Buddhist sect (Kagyu) is capitalised "Bka' brgyud" and not "bKa' brgyud".

Extensions.

Wylie's original scheme is not capable of transliterating all Tibetan-script texts. In particular, it has no correspondences for most Tibetan punctuation symbols, and lacks the ability to represent non-Tibetan words written in Tibetan script (Sanskrit and phonetic Chinese are the most common cases). Accordingly, various scholars have adopted "ad hoc" and incomplete conventions as needed.  The Tibetan and Himalayan Library at the University of Virginia developed a standard, Extended Wylie Tibetan System or EWTS, that addresses these deficiencies systematically. It uses capital letters and Latin punctuation to represent the missing characters. Several software systems, including Tise, now use this standard to allow one to type unrestricted Tibetan script (including the full Unicode Tibetan character set) on a Latin keyboard.  Since the Wylie system is not intuitive for use by linguists unfamiliar with Tibetan, a new transliteration system based on the International Phonetic Alphabet has been proposed to replace Wylie in articles on Tibetan historical phonology.

Wylie transliteration is a method for transliterating Tibetan script using only the letters available on a typical English language typewriter. The system is named for the American scholar Turrell V. Wylie, who created the system and described it in a 1959 paper published in the "Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies". It has subsequently become a standard transliteration scheme in Tibetan studies, especially in the United States.


Athletics career.

At the 1986 European Championships in Athletics, Krieger won the gold medal in the shot put event after putting the shot at 21.10 m (69 ft 3 in). Krieger retired in 1991.

Doping.

Krieger was systematically doped with steroids from the age of 16 onward. According to Werner Franke and Brigitte Berendonk's 1991 book, "Doping: From Research to Deceit", Krieger took almost 2,600 milligrams of steroids in 1986 alone— nearly 1,000 milligrams more than Ben Johnson took during the 1988 Summer Olympics.  As early as the age of 18, Krieger began developing visibly male characteristics. Eventually, years of doping left him with many masculine traits. By 1997, at the age of 31, Krieger underwent sex reassignment surgery and changed his name to Andreas. Krieger had "felt out of place and longed in some vague way to be a boy", and said in a 2004 interview in "The New York Times" that he was "glad that he became a man". However, he felt that receiving hormones without his consent deprived him of the right to "find out for myself which sex I wanted to be." Krieger's sex change operation dominated Germany's news headlines and focused widespread attention on the legacy of doping in East Germany, leading other former athletes to speak out in public for the first time.  Krieger gave evidence at the trial of Manfred Ewald, leader of the East German sports programme and president of the East German Olympic committee and Manfred Hoeppner, East German medical director in Berlin in 2000. Both Ewald and Hoepner were convicted of accessory to the "intentional bodily harm of athletes, including minors".  Krieger was forced to retire in part due to experiencing severe pain from lifting massive amounts of weight while on steroids. Even today, he has severe pain in his hips and thighs, and can only withstand mild exertion.  The Heidi Krieger Medal (), named after Krieger, is now awarded annually to Germans who combat doping. Krieger's gold medal from 1986 forms part of the trophy.

Personal life.

Krieger is married to former East German swimmer Ute Krause, who was also a victim of massive doping by East German sports officials.

Broadcasting.

The PBS series "Secrets of the Dead" featured Krieger in an episode covering the doping of East German athletes by the East German government covered-up by the Stasi.  In 2008 Ukrainian filmmakers released the documentary "Doping. Factory of Champions" based on Krieger's story.  Krieger’s story was mentioned in the first episode of the BBC documentary "The Lost World of Communism".  Krieger's half-sister through his father's second marriage, Susann Krieger, won the Deutsche Radiopreis 2017 (German Radio Prize) for her feature "Gedoptes Gold – Wie aus Heidi Andreas wurde" (""Doped Gold – how Heidi became Andreas""), about her brother's life and her reunion with him.

Andreas Krieger (born 20 July 1966 in East Berlin) is a German former shot putter who competed on the women's East German athletics team at SC Dynamo Berlin as Heidi Krieger.


Biography.

Shchusev studied under Leon Benois and Ilya Repin at the Imperial Academy of Arts in 1891–1897. From 1894 to 1899, he travelled in North Africa and Central Asia. Shchusev was a diligent student of old Russian art and won public acclaim with his restoration of the 12th-century St. Basil Church in Ovruch, Ukraine. He dwelt on 15th-century Muscovite architecture to design the Trinity Cathedral in Pochayiv Lavra and a memorial church on the Kulikovo Field. He was then commissioned by the Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna to design a cathedral for Marfo-Mariinsky Convent in Moscow. The result was a charming medieval structure of the purest Novgorodian style (1908–1912).  Shchusev embarked upon his most wide-scale project in 1913, when his design for the Kazan Railway Station won a contest for a Moscow terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway. This Art Nouveau design fused elements of the Kremlin towers and traditional Tatar architecture in one of the most imaginative Revivalist designs ever put to execution. The construction of the railway station, however, was not finished until 1940.  After briefly experimenting with Neoclassicism, Shchusev turned to Constructivism in the 1920s. He taught at Vkhutemas from 1920 through 1924. Upon Lenin's death in 1924, he was asked to design a mausoleum for him. It took him just several days to come up with an original architectural solution blending Constructivist elements with features taken from some ancient mausoleums, i.e., the Step Pyramid and the Tomb of Cyrus.  There are two notable Constructivist designs of Shchusev: the Ministry of Agriculture or Narkomzem in Moscow (1928–1933) and the Institute of Resorts in Sochi (1927–1931), considered to be a major source for Alvar Aalto's Paimio Sanatorium.  After the mausoleum commission, Shchusev was cherished by the Communist authorities. In 1926, he was nominated director of the Tretyakov Gallery. He was appointed head of the group that designed major bridges and apartment complexes in Moscow. His name was attached to the luxurious designs of the Hotel Moskva just a few steps from the Kremlin (1930–1938) and the NKVD headquarters on Lubyanka Square (1940–1947). Some say that he was the first to come up with the idea of Gothic skyscrapers in Moscow.  It is debated whether these Stalinist designs were really Shchusev's or if they were actually executed by his disciples. The discussion of their artistic merits was exacerbated when the Moscow authorities announced their intention to demolish the Hotel Moskva in 2004. Actually, all these designs, whether executed for Moscow, Tbilisi (such as a building of the Marx-Engels-Lenin Institute), or Tashkent, featured Shchusev's trademark blend of Neoclassical elements with national architectural traditions.  It is believed that the author of the Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow was one of the Shchusev's office architect Isidore Frantsuz. According to Russian architectural historian Alexei Klimenko: "It was proven by architectural critic Selim Khan-Magomedov. The Soviet government did not want the public to know about the Jewish origin of the true author, and the work was credited to Shchusev".  A. Klimenko, who was a graduate student at the institute, where Khan-Magomedov was working then, said that Khan-Magomedov "found the drawings, on which the name" Frantsuz " was scraped and on the top of it was written " A. Shchusev. " For that Khan-Magomedov was almost thrown out of the Communist party, and there was a scandal on the grounds of nationality: don’t trash their Jewish surnames into history of Soviet architecture in general, and the Red Square in particular".  There is another known case where Shchusev was accused of plagiarism. In 1937, the architects L. I. Saveliev and O. A. Stapran appealed to the Union of Architects with a complaint against Schusev alleging that he assumed the authorship of their "Moscow" hotel project. As a result of that complaint Shchusev was removed from the board of the Moscow branch of the Union of Architects.  In 1946, Shchusev established the Museum of Architecture, which helped to preserve remnants of demolished medieval churches and monasteries. His last works of importance were the Komsomolskaya station of the Moscow Metro, whose decoration was stylized after 17th-century Muscovite churches, and the plan for reconstruction of Novgorod after the ancient city had been destroyed by the Nazis (in recognition of that, one of Novgorod's modern streets was named after him). Shchusev died four years after the end of World War II and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery.

Awards and recognition.

Shchusev was awarded the Stalin Prizes in 1941, 1946, 1948, and posthumously in 1952; the Order of Lenin and other orders and medals.  The Shchusev State Museum of Architecture in Moscow has been named after him.

Alexey Viktorovich Shchusev (; – 24 May 1949) was an acclaimed Russian and Soviet architect whose works may be regarded as a bridge connecting Revivalist architecture of Imperial Russia with Stalin's Empire Style.


Biography.

Castiglione was born in Genoa. His early training is unclear. He may have studied with Sinibaldo Scorza. Wittkower describes him as a "passionate student" of Anthony van Dyck, who arrived in 1621, and Peter Paul Rubens, who stayed in the city in the first decade of the 17th century and whose paintings were readily accessible there. He may have trained under the Genoese Bernardo Strozzi. He lived in Rome from 1634 to about 1645, then returned to Genoa. He also traveled to Florence and Naples. He was back in Rome in 1647, before moving in 1651 to be a court artist in Mantua for Duke Carlo II and his wife Isabella Chiara de Austria. He died in Mantua.  He had various brushes with the law in his lifetime. The Queen's Gallery in London, where an exhibition of his work was held in 2013, made the following statement: "Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione was also a violent and impetuous man, who was repeatedly in court for assault, allegedly attempted to throw his sister off a roof and was forced to leave Rome, probably after committing murder. The turbulence that characterised his life overshadowed his artistic brilliance, and Castiglione struggled to achieve recognition in his lifetime. Much of what is known about the artist is derived not from fulfilled commissions, but from court documents."

Artistic achievements.

He painted portraits, historical pieces and landscapes, but chiefly excelled in fairs, markets and rural scenes with animals. Noah's ark and the animals entering the Ark was a favorite subject of his.  Castiglione was a brilliant draftsman and pioneered the development of the oil sketch (often using a mixture of mediums) as a finished work - previously they had been used only for working studies for another finished piece, for example by Rubens. He returned to the same subjects over and over again, but with significantly different compositions each time.  He also executed a number of etchings (see cover of edition of "The genius of Castiglione" published in 1648). "Diogenes searching for a Man" is one of the principal of these; others are about religious themes. Some are moralistic stories such as that of the "blind leading the blind". The etchings are remarkable for light and shade, and have even earned for Castiglione the name of a second Rembrandt. He was exposed to Rembrandt's etching by 1630. In about 1648 he invented the monotype, the only printmaking technique to be an Italian invention, making over twenty over the succeeding years. His most popular and influential prints were a series of exotic heads, mostly of vaguely Oriental males, but also of women. These were produced in great numbers. Among the topics of his etchings are "Diogenes with his lantern, Noah leading animals into Arc", St Joseph Asleep during Flight from Egypt", "Circe surrounded by animals", "Silenus at the fountain", "Nativity", "Resurrection of Lazarus", and "Genius of Castiglione".  Castiglione was renowned for his ability to paint animals, mostly barn animals, and this was often a dominant motif in his paintings. For example, in the painting of "Jesus clearing the temple of Moneylenders", the religious event is a minor, background part of the painting, the stampede of animals is far more prominent than the scattering of bankers. Castiglione's attention to detail in the depiction of nature is regarded as proof of the influence of Scorza and the Flemish still life and animal painter Jan Roos who was a long-term resident of Genoa. It has been suggested that it was Jan Roos who convinced Castiglione to enliven his religious and mythological compositions with animal and still life elements.  In Mantua, he received his name of Grechetto, from the classic air of his pastoral depictions. In his later years, he was severely afflicted by gout. His brother Salvatore and his son Francesco excelled in the same subjects; and it is thought that many paintings which are ascribed to Benedetto are only copies after him, or perhaps originals by his son or brother. He also influenced Anton Maria Vassallo (c1640-60). Among those who engraved after him were Giovanni Lorenzo Bertolotto in Genoa, the Venetian Anton Maria Zanetti, Michele l'Asne, Louis de Chatillon, and Coreneille Coemans.  His paintings are to be found in Rome, Venice, Naples, Florence, and more especially Genoa and Mantua. "The Presepio" (Nativity of Jesus) for the church of San Luca, Genoa, ranks among his most celebrated paintings, and the Louvre contains eight characteristic examples. He painted a "SS. Mary Magdalene and Catharine" for the church of the Madonna di Castello and "St. James defeats the Moors" for the Oratorio di San Giacomo della Marina, both in Genoa.

Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione (baptized 23 March 16095 May 1664) was an Italian Baroque painter, printmaker and draftsman, of the Genoese school. He is best known now for his etchings, and as the inventor of the printmaking technique of monotyping. He was known as "Il Grechetto" in Italy and in France as "Le Benédette".


Early life.

Maria Teresa was born in Kleinheubach, Kingdom of Bavaria the second daughter of Miguel I of Portugal and Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg. Her father became king of Portugal in 1828 after deposing his niece Queen Maria II. He reigned until 1834 when Maria II of Portugal was restored and Miguel was forced into exile.  Described as one of the most beautiful women in Europe, Maria Theresa became the third wife of Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria, a younger brother of the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, at Kleinheubach on 23 July 1873. Despite providing him with two daughters Archduchess Maria Annunziata of Austria (1876–1961) and Archduchess Elisabeth Amalie of Austria (1878–1960), the marriage was an unhappy one due to her husband's bullying and tormenting of her. In addition to their daughters she also became the step mother to his children by his first wife, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, Archduke Otto Franz of Austria, Archduke Ferdinand Karl of Austria and Archduchess Margarete Sophie of Austria.  Maria Theresa managed to obtain considerable influence at the Austrian court when Empress Elisabeth effectively withdrew from the social scene in Vienna after the suicide of her only son, Crown Prince Rudolf, in January 1889. Maria Theresa stood in for the Empress and carried out honours at the Hofburg Imperial Palace with the Emperor until the death of her husband in 1896 when court etiquette ruled she had to go into retirement.

Widowhood.

She remained such an influential figure behind the scenes at court after the death of her husband that when rumors spread that she was to marry the master of her household, Count Cavriani, no one dared to say a word against her. In the end the rumors turned out to be false. During her widowhood she spent the winter months living in Vienna and the summer months at Reichstadt castle in Bohemia.  She offered encouragement and support to her stepson Franz Ferdinand in his determination to marry Countess Sophie Chotek against his family's will. She traveled to a convent in Prague herself to fetch Sophie and took her into her own house, even pleading on Sophie's behalf with the Emperor Franz Joseph. After the union was finally permitted, Maria Theresa made all the arrangements for the wedding, insisting that it take place in her own private chapel.  She remained close to Franz Ferdinand and Sophie until their assassination in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. It was she who broke the news of the couple's death to their children Sophie, Maximilian and Ernst. She also managed to ensure the children's financial security after telling the Emperor that if he did not grant them a yearly income, she would resign the allowance which she drew as a widow in their favour. (Most of Franz Ferdinand's property went to his nephew the Archduke Charles).  On 21 November 1916, her brother-in-law Emperor Franz Joseph died, and Archduke Karl of Austria, son of Archduke Otto Franz of Austria and nephew of Franz Ferdinand, became the new Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. He reigned until November 1918 when the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed following its defeat in the First World War. After his departure from Austria (he never formally abdicated), Maria Theresa accompanied Karl and his wife Zita into exile in Madeira, but eventually returned to Vienna, where she spent the rest of her life.  In 1929, following a decline in her finances, Maria Theresa engaged two agents to sell the Napoleon Diamond Necklace, a piece inherited from her husband, in the United States. After a series of botched sales attempts, the pair finally sold the necklace for $60,000 with the aid of the great-nephew of Maria Theresa, the Archduke Leopold of Austria, Prince of Tuscany but he claimed nearly 90% of the sale price as "expenses". Maria Theresa appealed to the United States courts, ultimately resulting in the recovery of the necklace, the imprisonment of her great-nephew, and the absconding of the two agents.  Maria Theresa died in Vienna during World War II. She survived her husband by 48 years.

Infanta Maria Theresa of Portugal (; 24 August 1855 – 12 February 1944) was a Princess of the House of Braganza. She became by marriage an Archduchess of Austria and also sister-in-law of Emperors Franz Joseph I of Austria and Maximilian I of Mexico, as well as step-grandmother of Emperor Charles I of Austria.


History.

Medieval origins.

The 9th-century Frankish settlement of "Dicasmutha" was situated at the mouth of a stream near the River Yser (). The name is a compound of the Dutch words (dike) and (river mouth). By the 10th century, a chapel and marketplace were already established. The city's charter was granted two centuries later and defensive walls built in 1270. The economy was already then based mainly on agriculture, with dairy products and linen driving the economy.  From the 15th century to the French Revolution, Diksmuide was affected by the wars between the Netherlands, France, Spain, and Austria, with a corresponding decline in activity; it was captured by Allied forces in the Capitulation of Diksmuide in 1695. The 19th century was more peaceful and prosperous.

World War I.

At the outset of World War I, German troops crossed the Belgian border near Arlon, then proceeded hurriedly towards the North Sea to secure the French ports of and Dunkirk. The Battle of the Yser started in October 1914. Thanks to the water the Belgians were able to stop the Germans; at the end of October, they opened the floodgates holding back the River Yser and flooded the area. As a result, the river became a front line throughout the First World War. The city was first attacked on 16 October 1914 and defended by Belgian and French troops, which marked the beginning of the battle. Colonel Alphonse Jacques led the troops that prevented from being taken by the German Army. Despite the heavy Belgian losses, the press, politicians, literary figures and the military itself created propaganda which formed public opinion into making the action appear strategic and heroic.  By the time the fighting ended, the town had been reduced to rubble. It was, however, completely rebuilt in the 1920s.

Most of the area west of the city is a polder riddled with drainage trenches. The major economic activity of the region is dairy farming, producing the famous butter of.


History.

The first railway station in Copenhagen was built in 1847, approximately at the present station location. It served Roskildebanen, and it was made of wood because it was built outside the fortifications where buildings with foundations were not allowed. An expansion was soon necessary due to plans to extend the railway network in Denmark. A new larger station, designed by H. J. Herholdt, opened in 1864.  The second station also proved too small, especially because there was only one track leading out of the city. It was decided to build a new station, including a tunnel to Østerport station, and with tracks out of the city to the south. Designed by Heinrich Wenck, the present station was finished on 1 December 1911. The tunnel (the Boulevard Line) was opened in 1917.  The station was overhauled in 1980. Escalators and lifts were established to the platforms, and the station concourse, which was originally split into arrival, departure, and freight sections, was redone completely. The station was overhauled again from 2004 to 2008. This overhaul replaced the roof, lowered platforms 3 to 6 to international standards and lengthened them. The towers and the bridge over the platforms, upon which the main station building is placed, were reconditioned.

Services.

Copenhagen Central Station provides Copenhagen with Intercity and Express trains across Denmark, as well as services to several international destinations. Direct international trains connect to Stockholm and Hamburg several times a day. Intercity trains run half-hourly from Copenhagen during daytime and serve as a link between the major cities and towns in Denmark, including Odense, Aarhus, Aalborg, Esbjerg, Thisted and Sønderborg. Regional trains (stops at major stations within the Greater Copenhagen area) connect the main parts of Zealand to the capital. Veolia Transport trains on the Øresundståg regional rail network depart to southern and western Sweden every 20 minutes. A special ticket fare system exists between the Copenhagen local traffic area and the most southern part of Sweden, Skåne county.  All S-train services except the F-line stop at the station.  København H is served by the Copenhagen Metro network by the City Circle Line which opened on 29 September 2019, servicing lines M3 and M4.

Future.

The station needs more capacity followed the opened of the Copenhagen–Ringsted Line on 31 May 2019. The Danish Ministry of Transport has started planning of an extension: proposals include a four-track terminal station on a bridge over the present tracks, or in a tunnel under them.

Cultural references.

Copenhagen Central Station is used as a location at 1:12:36 in the 1975 "Olsen-banden" film "The Olsen Gang on the Track". Egon (Ove Sprogøe) hides a suitcase in the luggage storage at Copenhagen Central Station in "The Olsen Gang Outta Sight" (1977) and the lost luggage department is also used as a location later in the same film.

Copenhagen Central Station (,, abbreviated København H) is the main railway station in Copenhagen, Denmark, and the largest railway station in Denmark, although Nørreport Station has a larger passenger throughput if urban S-train and Metro services are included. It is situated between the districts of Indre By and Vesterbro with entrances from Bernstorffsgade (at Tivoli Gardens), Banegårdspladsen, Reventlowsgade and access to platforms from Tietgensgade.


Life.

Balassi was born at Zólyom in the Kingdom of Hungary (today Zvolen, Slovakia). He was educated by the reformer Péter Bornemisza and by his mother, the highly gifted Protestant zealot, Anna Sulyok.  His first work was a translation of Michael Bock's "Wurlzgertlein für die krancken Seelen", (published in Kraków), to comfort his father while in Polish exile. On his father's rehabilitation, Bálint accompanied him to court, and was also present at the coronation diet in Pressburg (today's Bratislava), capital of Royal Hungary in 1572. He then joined the army and fought the Turks as an officer in the fortress of Eger in North-Eastern Hungary. Here he fell violently in love with Anna Losonczi, the daughter of the captain of Temesvár, and evidently, from his verses, his love was not unrequited. But after the death of her first husband she gave her hand to Kristóf Ungnád.  Naturally Balassi only began to realize how much he loved Anna when he had lost her. He pursued her with gifts and verses, but she remained true to her pique and to her marriage vows, and he could only enshrine her memory in immortal verse.  In 1574 Bálint was sent to the camp of Gáspár Bekes to assist him against Stephen Báthory; but his troops were encountered and scattered on the way there, and he himself was wounded and taken prisoner. His not very rigorous captivity lasted for two years, during which he accompanied Báthory where the latter was crowned as King of Poland. He returned to Hungary soon after the death of his father, János Balassi.  In 1584 married his cousin, Krisztina Dobó, the daughter of the valiant commandant, István Dobó of Eger. This became the cause of many of his subsequent misfortunes. His wife's greedy relatives nearly ruined him by legal processes, and when in 1586 he turned Catholic to escape their persecutions they slandered him that he and his son had embraced Islam. His desertion of his wife and legal troubles were followed by some years of uncertainty, but in 1589 he was invited to Poland to serve there in the impending war with Turkey. This did not take place and after a spell in the Jesuit College of Braunsberg, Balassi, somewhat disappointed, returned to Hungary in 1591. In the 15 years war he joined the Army, and died at the siege of Esztergom-Víziváros the same year as the result of a severe leg wound caused by a cannonball. He is buried in Hybe in today's Slovakia. Balassi's poems fall into four divisions: hymns, patriotic and martial songs, original love poems, and adaptations from the Latin and German. They are all most original, exceedingly objective and so excellent in point of style that it is difficult even to imagine him a contemporary of Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos and Péter Ilosvay. But his erotics are his best productions. They circulated in manuscript for generations and were never printed until 1874, when Farkas Deák discovered a perfect copy of them in the Radványi library. For beauty, feeling and transporting passion. there is nothing like them in Magyar literature until we come to the age of Mihály Csokonai Vitéz and Sándor Petőfi. Balassi was also the inventor of the strophe which goes by his name. It consists of nine lines a b c c b d d b, or three rhyming pairs alternating with the rhyming third, sixth and ninth lines.

Family tree.

The family tree of the Balassi family:

Literary award.

Hungarian literary award that bears the name of Balassi: Balint Balassi Memorial Sword Award. Founded by: Pal Molnar.

Baron Bálint Balassi de Kékkő et Gyarmat (, barón z Ďarmôt a Kameňa; 20 October 155430 May 1594) was a Hungarian Renaissance lyric poet. He wrote mostly in Hungarian, but was also proficient in further eight languages: Latin, Italian, German, Polish, Turkish, Slovak, Croatian and Romanian. He is the founder of modern Hungarian lyric and erotic poetry.


History.

The museums belonging to the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden originated from the collections of the Saxon electors, several of whom were also Kings of Poland. Historical sources show that August I, Elector of Saxony, founded the electoral Kunstkammer (literally “art chamber”) in 1560, a collection of art located in the Dresden Castle. August the Strong and his son, August III, Kings of Poland, were important patrons and remarkable connoisseurs of the arts. They developed their art collections in a systematic fashion; in the process, they not only provided a foundation of extraordinary masterpieces for the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, but also made these works accessible to select circles in their own time.  The Staatliche Kunstsammlungen has been a state-owned enterprise since January 1, 2009. The association includes twelve museums which operate independently within the context of their own collection, but all share various institutions and facilities as well as a central administration.

Museums.

Twelve museums belong to the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden.

Ethnographic museums.

Further institutions, such as the Kunstbibliothek (Art Library), the Kunstfonds (Art Fund) and the Gerhard Richter Archiv (Gerhard Richter Archive) also belong to the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden.

Locations.

The museums of the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen are housed in six buildings. With the exception of Pillnitz Castle, they are all located in the historic center of Dresden.  Dresden Castle houses the Historic Green Vault ("Historisches Grüne Gewölbe") and the New Green Vault ("Neues Grüne Gewölbe"), the Numismatic Cabinet ("Münzkabinett"), the Collection of Prints, Drawings and Photographs ("Kupferstich-Kabinett"), and the Armory ("Rüstkammer") with the Turkish Chamber ("Türckische Cammer").  The Zwinger palace contains the Old Masters Picture Gallery ("Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister"), the Porcelain Collection ("Porzellansammlung"), and the Royal Cabinet of Mathematical and Physical Instruments ("Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon").  The Albertinum hosts the New Masters Gallery ("Galerie Neue Meister") and the Sculpture Collection ("Skulpturensammlung").  Pillnitz Castle houses the Arts and Crafts Museum ("Kunstgewerbemuseum") and the Japanisches Palais the Ethnographical Museum Dresden ("Museum für Völkerkunde"). The Saxon Folk Art Museum and Puppet Theatre Collection ("Museum für Sächsische Volkskunst and Puppentheatersammlung") can be found in the Jägerhof in Dresden-Neustadt.

Current status.

The Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden is owned by the State of Saxony. It is a member of the Konferenz Nationaler Kultureinrichtungen, a union of more than twenty cultural institutions in the former East Germany.

Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden (, "Dresden State Art Collections") is a cultural institution in Dresden, Germany, owned by the State of Saxony. It is one of the most renowned and oldest museum institutions in the world, originating from the collections of the Saxon electors in the 16th century.


Childhood.

Together with other Moscow businessmen he acted as the founder of the Moscow merchant bank (becoming one of its heads), the Moscow commercial and industrial company, some other large firms. He amassed a considerable fortune (4.4 million rubles), consisting of real estate (5 houses in Moscow), securities, money and bills.

Collecting art.

Tretyakov started to collect art in 1854 at the age of 22; his first purchase was 10 canvases by Old Dutch masters. He laid down for himself the aim of creating a Russian National Gallery. In his collection Tretyakov included the most valuable and remarkable products, first of all the contemporaries, from 1870 - mainly members of the society of circulating art exhibitions ("Tovarishchestvo peredvizhnyh hudozhestvennyh vystavok" or Peredvizhniki, Передвижники in Russian). He bought paintings at exhibitions and directly from artists' studios, sometimes he bought the whole series: in 1874 he acquired V.V. Vereschagin's "Turkestan series" (13 pictures, 133 figures and 81 studies), in 1880 - his "Indian series" (78 studies). In his collection there were over 80 studies by Alexander Ivanov. In 1885 Tretyakov bought 102 studies by V.D. Polenov painted by the artist during journeys across Turkey, Egypt, Syria and Palestine. He also acquired Vasnetsov’s collection of the sketches made during his work on St Volodymyr's Cathedral in Kiev. Tretyakov had the fullest collection of such artists as: V.G. Perov, I.N. Kramskoi, Ilya Repin, Vasily Surikov, I.I. Levitan, and Valentin Serov. Aspiring to show the beginnings and development of the domestic school of art, Tretyakov began to acquire pictures by masters of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries and landmarks of Old Russian painting. He also conceived the creation of a "Russian pantheon" - a portrait gallery of famous Russians. He commissioned especially for it portraits of figures of domestic culture from leading masters of this genre - N.N. Ge, Kramskoi, N.V. Nevrev, Perov, Repin.  In 1870-80 Tretyakov also began to collect illustrations (471 by 1893), and in 1890 he began to collect icons. During his lifetime they were kept in his study and were not put on public display. He also had a small collection of sculpture (9 sculptures by 1893).  At first the gallery was located in Tretyakov's house in Lavrushenski pereulok. But as his collection expanded he decided to reconstruct his house to accommodate it. In 1870-1880 the house was reconstructed a number of times by the architect Kaminski.  Tretyakov wanted to transfer the gallery to the city as discreetly as possible, without any fuss; he didn't want to be in the centre of general attention and an object of gratitude. But this was not possible and he was very dissatisfied.  From 1881 his gallery became popular (by 1885 it was visited by about 30 thousand people). In 1892 Tretyakov inherited a collection of Western European painting from his brother and placed it in two halls of the western school. The collection in Tretyakov's gallery was equal in importance with the largest museums in Russia at that time, and became one of sights of Moscow. In August 1892 Tretyakov donated his collection and a private residence to Moscow. By then in the collection there were 1287 pictures and 518 graphics of the Russian school, 75 pictures and 8 figures of the West-European school, 15 sculptures and a collections of icons.  On August 15, 1893 the official opening of a museum under the name "Pavel and Sergey Tretyakov City art gallery" (nowadays Tretyakov Gallery) took place. By 1890 it was visited by up to 150 thousand people annually. Tretyakov continued to build up his collection, for example, in 1894 he donated a gallery of 30 pictures, 12 figures and a marble statue “The Christian martyrs“ works by M.M. Antokolski. He was also involved in studying the collection, and from 1893 he produced its catalogue.

Other work.

Apart from engaging in collecting, Tretyakov was active in charity. Charity for him was as natural as the creation of a national gallery.  He was an honorary member of the Society of Collectors of the Applied Arts and of the Musical Society from the dates of their foundations. He granted large amounts of money to these organizations, supporting all their educational undertakings. He supported an initiative to help the families of soldiers who died during the Crimean and Russo-Turkish War. He established grants in commercial schools in Moscow and Alexandrovskoe. He never refused monetary help to artists and others, and carefully looked after the affairs of painters who without fear entrusted their savings to him. He repeatedly lent money to his counsellor and adviser I.N. Kramskoi, and to V.G. Khudyakov, K.A. Trutovski, M.K. Klodt.  With his brother Sergey he supported the Moscow School for the Deaf, founded in 1860 by the artist Ivan Karlovich Arnold, and became its patron. In 1900 the school was renamed the Arnoldo-Tretyakov School.

Death and legacy.

Pavel Tretyakov died in December 1898, and his funeral was held at the Church of St. Nicholas in Tolmachi where he was an active parishioner. He was buried in Danilov Cemetery, but in 1948 his remains were transferred to Novodevichy Cemetery.  Tretyakov bequeathed half of his estate to charitable purposes. He provided for the financing of the gallery, and also for a shelter for the widows, juvenile children and unmarried daughters of artists who had died.  In his will he also provided large sums for the school for the deaf. He bought a big stone house with a garden for the school. 150 boys and girls lived in this house. Here they were looked after till they reached the age of 16. Tretyakov selected the best teachers, and became acquainted with the methods of study.  A minor planet 3925 Tret'yakov, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Zhuravlyova in 1977 is named after Pavel Tretyakov and his brother Sergei Mikhailovich Tretyakov (1824–1892).  His daughter Vera married the pianist and composer Alexander Siloti.. His other daughter, Lyubov, married the maritime artist, Nikolay Gritsenko.

Pavel Mikhaylovich Tretyakov (; December 27, 1832 – December 16, 1898) was a Russian businessman, patron of art, collector, and philanthropist who gave his name to the Tretyakov Gallery and Tretyakov Drive in Moscow. His brother Sergei Tretyakov was also a famous patron of art and a philanthropist.


Name.

Beitar Illit, (lit. Upper Beitar) is named after the ancient Jewish city of Betar, whose ruins lie away.

History.

According to the ARIJ, Beitar Illit was established in 1985 on land which Israel had confiscated from two nearby Palestinian villages: 3,140 dunams from Husan and 1,166 dunams from Nahalin.  It was established by a small group of young families from the religious Zionist yeshiva of Machon Meir. The first residents settled in 1990. As Beitar Illit began to grow, an influx of Haredi Jewish Bobover families came to predominate, while the original group moved on. The city is now home to many Hasidic groups, including Bobov, Boston, Boyan, Breslov, Karlin-Stolin and Slonim. The city has expanded to three adjacent hills.

Geography.

Beitar Illit lies in the northern Judean Hills at about 700 m above sea level. It is located just west of the intersection of Route 60, the north–south artery which roughly follows the watershed from Nazareth through Jerusalem to Beersheba, and Route 375, which descends west into the Elah Valley to the coastal plain and Tel Aviv area. It takes about 10 minutes to get to Jerusalem; Tel Aviv is around 60 minutes away. Beitar Illit is connected to West Jerusalem by the Tunnels Highway, which passes directly underneath the Arab town of Beit Jala and allows access to Jerusalem without coming within view of Arabs.

Demographics.

At the end of 2003, the population was 23,000 and in 2006 it was 29,100. According to statistics from the Ministry of the Interior, the population in January 2007 was 35,000, an increase of 20% over one year. A Ministry of Interior report from July 2013 placed the population at 45,710.  With an annual birth rate of 1,800 births, Beitar Illit has the fastest population growth among the West Bank settlements. Approximately 63 percent of the population is under the age of 18, which is the highest percentage of children in any Israeli settlement or city. According to local authorities the population may reach 100,000 by 2020, based on population growth and the building of new apartments to attract more Haredim from Bnei Brak and Jerusalem.  The population of Beitar Illit is 100% Haredi. Approximately 50% of the population is Hasidic. An estimated 10 percent of the population is English-speaking. There are three English-speaking synagogues, two English-speaking kollels (one for retirees), and an English-speaking women's group. All incoming residents used to be screened by an acceptance committee.

Education.

As the population of Beitar Illit is Haredi, the schools are all Haredi schools. The city has close to 20,000 schoolchildren. Of these, approximately 6,000 are enrolled in the city's 225 preschools and daycare centers. Elementary school-age boys attend the city's 27 Talmud Torahs, and elementary school-age girls attend 18 elementary schools. Secondary education includes 21 yeshivas for boys and 11 high schools and post-high schools for girls. Married adult men study in 75 kollels.

Employment.

A significant number of men work, mostly at home or in Jerusalem. Women are employed by local business process outsourcing companies that accommodate the Haredi lifestyle, such as Greenpoint, Matrix, and CityBook. In 2010, it was reported that 64.3% of working-age men and 45.8% of working-age women in Beitar Illit were unemployed.

Culture.

One hundred and forty synagogues and 15 mikvehs serve the population.

Awards.

Beitar Illit has been awarded the Israel Ministry of Interior's gold prize, recognizing "responsible management and sustainable urban planning", for eight years running. In 2002, it received the Ministry of Interior's prize for water conservation in public gardens, urban public institutions, and urban water administration. The municipal welfare department was awarded a prize and recognized by the national government as an "outstanding department" for its work in preventing teen dropouts.  The city is well known for its landscaping and general cleanliness. There are 94 parks and hundreds of playgrounds in the city. From 2000 to 2013, Beitar Illit earned five out of five stars in the Council for a Beautiful Israel's annual "Beautiful Town in a Beautiful Israel" contest, which recognizes a city's investment in environment, aesthetics, and maintenance of appearance and cleanliness. In 2005 the city won the Council for a Beautiful Israel's "Beauty Flag", which is awarded every five years.

Status under international law.

Like all settlements in the Israeli-occupied territories, Beitar Illit is considered illegal under international law, though Israel disputes this while the Trump Administration in November 2019 shifted its position declaring "the establishment of Israeli civilian settlements in the West Bank is not "per se" inconsistent with international law." The international community considers Israeli settlements to violate the Fourth Geneva Convention's prohibition on the transfer of an occupying power's civilian population into occupied territory. The Israeli government disputes that the Fourth Geneva Convention applies to the Palestinian territories as they had not been legally held by a sovereign prior to Israel taking control of them. This view has been rejected by the International Court of Justice and the International Committee of the Red Cross.

Controversies.

At an international conference in Karlsruhe in November 2010, Jawad Hasan claimed that sewage and urban runoff from Beitar Illit have contaminated the local hydrological system. The Palestinian Authority claims that sewage flows into neighboring Palestinian fields and orchards. Farmers from Wadi Fukin have complained that since the establishment of Beitar Illit in 1985, 11 natural wells have gone dry and they have suffered from overflow from the settlement's backed up sewers. The Israeli government has ordered Beitar Illit to address these sewage problems.  In 2010, the Israeli interior ministry announced plans to build 112 new apartments during a visit by U.S. vice-president Joe Biden, leading to widespread news coverage that embarrassed the Israeli government.  Beitar Illit was one of four cities named in a petition to the Israeli High Court in December 2010 alleging a pattern of discrimination against Sephardi girls in the local Haredi schools. A Beitar Illit spokesman denied the charges, stating that the percentage of Sephardi girls in the school matched the percentage of Sephardim in the settlement.

Beitar Illit (; officially Betar Illit; "Illit" is pronounced "ee-leet"; ) is an Israeli settlement organized as a city council in the Gush Etzion settlement bloc, south of Jerusalem, in the Judaean Mountains of the West Bank. Beitar Illit is one of Israel's largest and most rapidly growing settlements, and in had a population of.


Biography.

Born in Trieste, Mathilde Bonaparte was raised in Florence and Rome. She was originally engaged to her first cousin, the future Napoleon III of France, but the engagement was broken following his imprisonment at Ham. She married a rich Russian nobleman, Anatole Demidov, on November 1, 1840 in Rome. Anatole was raised to the station of "Prince" by Grand Duke Leopold II of Tuscany shortly before the wedding to fulfill the wishes of Mathilde's father and to preserve Mathilde's station as "Princess". Anatole's princely title was never recognised in Russia. They had no children.  The marriage between these two strong and prominent personalities was stormy. Prince Demidoff insisted on keeping his lover, Valentine de St Aldegonde, which of course was fiercely resisted by Mathilde. In 1846, Mathilde fled the household for Paris with her new lover Émilien de Nieuwerkerke and with Anatole's jewelry. The jewelry constituted the dowry that Anatole was forced to bankroll for his father-in-law so it formed the property of Anatole.  Princess Mathilde's mother was Emperor Nicholas I of Russia's first cousin, and the emperor supported Mathilde in her clashes with her spouse, a Russian subject. As consequence, Anatole chose to live much of his remaining life outside Russia.  The terms of the separation announced by the Tribunal in Petersburg forced Anatole to pay annual alimony of 200,000 French francs. Anatole vigorously pursued the return of his property, which led Mathilde and her strong circle of literary friends to mount highly personal and unfair counter-attacks using the public media. In the end, Anatole's heirs never recovered his property since Mathilde's last will was altered towards the end of her life. Princess Mathilde lived in a mansion in Paris, where she was a prominent member of the new aristocracy during and after the Second French Empire as a hostess to men of arts and letters as a salon hostess. She disliked etiquette, but welcomed her visitors, according to Abel Hermant, with an extreme refinement of snobbery and politeness. Théophile Gautier was employed as her librarian in 1868. Referring to her uncle, Emperor Napoleon I, she once told Marcel Proust: "If it weren't for him, I'd be selling oranges in the streets of Ajaccio."  At the fall of the monarchy in 1870, she lived in Belgium for a while, but soon returned to Paris. Throughout her time in France, she maintained ties with the imperial court in Saint Petersburg, her maternal cousins. In 1873, following the death of Prince Demidoff in 1870, she married the artist and poet Claudius Marcel Popelin (1825–1892). She was the only member of the Bonaparte family to stay in France after May 1886, when the French Republic expelled the princes of the former ruling dynasties. In 1896, she was invited to a ceremony at Invalides by Félix Faure at a visit of Emperor Nicholas II Russia and his wife Empress Alexandra.  She died in Paris in 1904, aged 83.

In culture.

An aged Princess Mathilde makes a brief appearance in Proust's "À l'ombre des jeunes filles en fleurs" ("In the Shadow of Young Girls In Flower"), the second volume of "In Search of Lost Time". She mentions that if she wants to visit les Invalides, she does not need an invitation: she has her own set of keys.  Princess Mathilde is referred to several times in Gore Vidal's novel "1876" as being a friend of the fictional narrator, Charles Schermerhorn Schuyler.

Mathilde Laetitia Wilhelmine Bonaparte, Princesse Française, Princess of San Donato (27 May 1820 – 2 January 1904), was a French princess and salonnière. She was a daughter of Napoleon's brother Jérôme Bonaparte and his second wife, Catharina of Württemberg, daughter of King Frederick I of Württemberg.


Club career.

Peruzzi began his Serie A career with Roma in 1987. He was loaned to Hellas Verona in 1989, but was one of the two Roma players (the other being Andrea Carnevale) to be suspended for a year in October 1990 after failing a doping test because of an appetite suppressant he was taking at the time, which contained the banned substance Phentermine. His signing with Juventus in 1991 successfully revived his career and he soon surpassed Stefano Tacconi as the club's starting goalkeeper, remaining with the team until 1999, and winning the Serie A Goalkeeper of the Year Award in 1997 and 1998, as well as the Guerin d'oro in 1997. Peruzzi won three Serie A titles, a Coppa Italia, two Supercoppa Italiana titles, a UEFA Cup, a UEFA Super Cup, an Intercontinental Cup and was part of Juventus' 1996 UEFA Champions League title squad that defeated Ajax in the final on penalties, saving two in the final shoot-out. He also reached two more consecutive Champions League finals with the Turin-based club, as well as a semi-final finish during his final season with the club. Peruzzi also won a runners-up medal in the 1995 UEFA Cup final and in the 1992 Coppa Italia final, and was voted to the ESM Team of the Year during the 1996–97 and the 1997–98 seasons. Over this period, several pundits began to consider him one of the most reliable goalkeepers in the world, if not the best one, due to his consistency, with Maurizio Crosetti describing him as "the best goalkeeper in the world" in 1997.  Following the departure Gianluca Pagliuca, Peruzzi's perceived career rival in his position, from Internazionale to Bologna in 1999, Peruzzi left Juventus for Inter in 1999 on a 28 billion lire (€14.461 million) transfer fee, and a reported 8 billion lire pre-tax wage. Peruzzi spent one unsuccessful season with the club – despite his excellent performances –, under his former Juventus manager Marcello Lippi, finishing the league season in fourth place, and reaching the Coppa Italia final.  The following season, he transferred to Lazio for 40 billion lire (€20.658 million; in cash plus Marco Ballotta deal), and made over 200 appearances in Serie A and European competitions with the club, winning the Supercoppa Italiana in 2000 and the Coppa Italia in 2004. He kept playing at a very high level, being generally considered the best Italian goalkeeper behind Gianluigi Buffon.  Although his contract with the "Biancocelesti" ran until 2008, Peruzzi retired at the end of the 2006–07 season: after the 0–0 draw with Roma 29 April 2007, Peruzzi stated that he had played his last match due to the frustration of nagging injuries. However, he was put on in the final few minutes in Lazio's final home match of the season, a goalless draw against Parma on 20 May, as a goodbye to the fans. He was named the Serie A Goalkeeper of the Year for the third time in his career on 28 January 2008.

International career.

Peruzzi was capped 31 times in 11 years with Italy, between 1995 and 2006. He was also a member of the national squad that competed at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, making two appearances during the tournament. Peruzzi made his senior debut under manager Arrigo Sacchi, in a 4–1 home win over Estonia, in an UEFA Euro 1996 qualifying match, on 25 March 1995, and he was named Italy's starting goalkeeper at Euro 1996, although Italy suffered a group-stage elimination. He was scheduled to be the starter at the 1998 FIFA World Cup under Cesare Maldini, but suffered a late injury and was replaced in the starting line-up by Gianluca Pagliuca.  After the 1998 World Cup, Maldini was replaced by Italy's former goalkeeper and record-setter Dino Zoff, who confirmed Peruzzi as first-choice goalkeeper during his first year as Italy's coach. Nonetheless, after a match against Norway in 1999, Zoff decided to give Gianluigi Buffon the starting spot, and Peruzzi, who was overtaken even by Francesco Toldo, decided not to participate in the Euro 2000 as the third goalkeeper.  Peruzzi did not play for Italy again until making a substitute appearance in a friendly against Spain on 28 April 2004, and was subsequently called up by Giovanni Trapattoni as the team's third keeper behind Buffon and Toldo at Euro 2004. In August 2005, he was the starter in two World Cup qualifiers against Scotland and Belarus, while Buffon was shelved with a shoulder injury; Peruzzi then served as second goalkeeper (behind Buffon) in the 2006 World Cup under Marcello Lippi, as Italy won the tournament for the fourth time. Even though he did not take the field, teammate Daniele De Rossi highlighted Peruzzi's important role in the squad as a key dressing room personality, due to his leadership and experience. Peruzzi retired from international football after the tournament.

Style of play.

A powerful, athletic, complete, and consistent goalkeeper – although injury-prone –, Peruzzi was renowned for his physical strength, positioning, explosive reactions, speed, and agility, in spite of his sturdy physique; he particularly excelled at quickly rushing off his line to parry or collect the ball on the ground, as well as at anticipating his opponents outside the penalty area, which made him particularly effective in teams which relied on a zonal marking defensive system with high defensive lines. Due to his modest height for a goalkeeper, he was less effective at coming out to collect crosses, and preferred to punch the ball out rather than trying to catch it, although his handling was generally reliable. While he was extremely gifted both technically and acrobatics-wise, he was an efficient goalkeeper, who performed spectacular dives only in case of strict necessity: he indeed believed that "a great keeper must walk across the line: this way he disheartens the opposing strikers, because he seems to save shots effortlessly". Throughout his career, he also stood out for his concentration, and for his ability to produce decisive saves even after not having been called into action for long periods of time during a match; he was also effective at stopping penalties, while he was not particularly skilled with the ball at his feet, and usually preferred to clear the ball away whenever it was passed back to him.  A precocious talent in his youth, he was regarded as one of the best goalkeepers in the world in his prime during the 1990s, but also stood out for his longevity in his later career, which enabled him to maintain a consistently high level of performances. Although he was known for his personality, leadership from the back, strong mentality, and the confidence he inspired in his teammates throughout his career, he had quite a kind, calm and reserved character off the pitch, which, although made him very popular with his teammates, led some pundits to accuse him of not being as effective at directing his back-line.  Because of his stocky physique, Peruzzi was given the nicknames "Tyson" in reference to the boxer Mike Tyson's similarly powerful build, and "The Boar" ("Cinghialone," in Italian).

Coaching career.

After his retirement, Peruzzi worked in the Italy national team staff as one of Marcello Lippi's collaborators. He was then appointed Ciro Ferrara's assistant on the Italy under-21 team and in 2012 followed him in joining Sampdoria in Serie A.

Honours.

Club.

Juventus  Lazio

International.

Italy

Angelo Peruzzi (; born 16 February 1970) is an Italian football coach and former goalkeeper, and a three-time winner of the Serie A Goalkeeper of the Year award. He is currently team manager for Lazio.


Military career.

Cambronne was born in Nantes (Loire-Atlantique). He joined the Grenadiers as a volunteer in 1792, serving under Charles François Dumouriez in Belgium, in the Vendée, took part in the battle of Quiberon, then in the expedition to Ireland under Hoche in 1796. He then joined the Army of the Alps under André Masséna, where he was promoted to command of a grenadier company at the Battle of Zurich (1799).  In 1800, he commanded a company under Latour d'Auvergne, and later succeeded him as First Grenadier of France. He was made a Colonel at the Battle of Jena in 1806, given command of the 3rd Regiment of the Voltigeurs of the Guard in 1810, and was made a Baron the same year. ("Voltigeur", a French word meaning "vaulter" or "leaper", was a designation given to elite light infantry units in the French Army, who acted as advance units of the main column.)  Cambronne then fought in Spain, then joined La Grande Armée. In Russia he commanded the 3rd Regiment of Voltigeurs of the Guard, and took part in the battles of Bautzen, Dresden, and Leipzig, before being promoted to General.

The hundred days and Waterloo.

He became major of the Imperial Guard in 1814, and accompanied Napoléon into exile to the island of Elba, where he was a military commander. He then returned with Napoléon to France on 1 March 1815 for the Hundred Days, capturing the fortress of Sisteron (5 March), and was made a Count by Napoléon when they arrived at Paris. Cambronne was seriously wounded at the Battle of Waterloo and was taken prisoner by the British. He subsequently married the nurse who cared for him.  The exact circumstances of his surrender to the British are disputed. At the battle's conclusion, Cambronne was commanding the last of the Old Guard when General Colville called on him to surrender. According to a journalist named Rougement, Cambronne replied: ""La garde meurt mais ne se rend pas!"" ("The Guard dies but does not surrender!"). These words were often repeated and put on the base of a statue of Cambronne in Nantes after his death.  Other sources reported that Colville insisted and ultimately Cambronne replied with one word: ""Merde!"" (literally, "Shit!", figuratively, "Go to hell!") This version of the reply became famous in its own right, becoming known as "le mot de Cambronne" ("the word of Cambronne") and repeated in Victor Hugo's account of Waterloo in his novel "Les Misérables" and in Edmond Rostand's play "L'Aiglon". The name Cambronne was later used as a polite euphemism ("What a load of old Cambronne!") and sometimes even as a verb, ""cambronniser"".  Cambronne always denied both Rougement's account and the one-word response, stating that he could not have said such a thing and remained alive. A series of letters to "The Times" claimed that British Colonel Hugh Halkett, commanding the 3rd Hanoverian Brigade, captured Cambronne before he made any reply.  "The Guard dies..." statement has also been ascribed to General Claude-Etienne Michel. In July 1845 the sons of General Michel requested a royal decree stating that the words attributed to General Cambronne had in fact been said by their father, producing a number of witnesses and published historical works as evidence. The attribution was left undecided.

Further career.

He was tried for treason in France, but well defended by the royalist Antoine Pierre Berryer, he was acquitted on 26 April 1816. He later married Mary Osburn, the Scottish nurse who had cared for him after Waterloo.  In 1820, Louis XVIII made him Commandant at Lille with the rank of brigadier, and made him a viscount. He retired to his birthplace in 1823, dying there in 1842. A statue of Cambronne was erected in Nantes in 1848, and a square in Paris, the "Place Cambronne", also commemorates him.  He was buried in Cemetery Miséricorde, Nantes.  He makes a fictional appearance in C. S. Forester's Hornblower short story "St. Elizabeth of Hungary". Hornblower discovers Cambronne in the West Indies on a rather surprising errand. Cambronne's exact words at Waterloo are discussed.

Pierre Jacques Étienne Cambronne, later Pierre, 1st Viscount Cambronne (26 December 1770 – 29 January 1842), was a general of the First French Empire. A main strategist of the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars, he was wounded at the Battle of Waterloo.


The first Fort George.

The first Fort George was built in 1727 in Inverness; it was a large fortress capable of housing 400 troops on a hill beside the River Ness, on the site of (and incorporating portions of) the medieval castle which had been rebuilt as a citadel by Oliver Cromwell but later abandoned. The first commanding officer of the original Fort George was Sir Robert Munro, 6th Baronet, Colonel of the 42nd Royal Highlanders (Black Watch) and chief of the Highland Clan Munro.  During the 1745 rising the fort was seized by the Jacobites, who had it blown up in 1746 to prevent the Hanoverians from using it as a base. In 1747 Colonel William Skinner, the King's Military Engineer for North Britain, let a contract to rebuild the fortress at a new location.

Siting and construction.

The site chosen was a level spit of land at Ardersier, about 11 miles (18 km) northeast of Inverness, which forms a promontory jutting into the Moray Firth and controls the sea approach to Inverness. With its own harbour below the walls, the fort could be supplied by sea in the event of a siege.  Work began in 1748, with Colonel Skinner in charge, and the Adam brothers, John, Robert and later James, acting as contractors, overseeing around 1,000 soldiers who provided labour and defended the site against attack. By 1757 the main defences were in place, and Fort George was finally completed in 1769. The original budget was £92,673 19s 1d, but the final cost was more than £200,000, a vast figure at the time.

Fortifications.

The fortifications form an example of defence in depth. The main walls are stone-faced, in plan faceted and angled with projecting bastions and redoubts so that every wall face is covered by fire from guns sited on top of other walls. The walls are many yards wide and grassed over, on top of barrel-vaulted casemates which form underground bunkers designed to protect the entire garrison from artillery fire. The approach to the fortress from the landward side is across a wide area of loose shingle which creates a protective barrier.  Sloping grassy banks designed to absorb artillery shells all but hide the fort from view. The entrance is reached via a ravelin, a free-standing defensive structure incorporating a guardhouse and completely exposed to fire from the main fort, then by a raised wooden walkway, complete with drawbridge, bridging across a wide ditch set between heavily defended bastions. The ditch forms a wide killing ground openly exposed to gunfire from these walls.

Operational use.

Following the Childers Reforms, the 72nd (Highland) Regiment of Foot and the 78th (Highlanders) Regiment of Foot amalgamated to form the Seaforth Highlanders with its depot in the barracks in 1881. In 1961 the regiment amalgamated with the Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders to form the Queen's Own Highlanders (Seaforth and Camerons): the new regiment formed its depot at Fort George at that time. The barracks became the home of the Black Watch, 3rd Battalion, Royal Regiment of Scotland in 2007.  In November 2016 the Ministry of Defence announced that the site would close in 2032, with Defence Minister Sir Michael Fallon commenting that it was no longer needed because the Highland rebellions are over.

Visitor access.

The barracks are still in use as a military establishment, but much of the site is open to the public (entrance charge). Historic Environment Scotland use part of one of the barracks to display reconstructions of life in the early days of the fort, and the Grand Magazine displays the Seafield Collection of Arms as well as forming a stage for actors recreating the lives and stories of soldiers in the 18th century. The site received 71,906 visitors during 2018.

Highlanders' Museum (Queen's Own Highlanders Collection).

The former Lieutenant Governors’ House is home to the Highlanders' Museum, the official regimental museum of the Queen's Own Highlanders and Lovat Scouts. The exhibits include uniforms, weapons, medals, First World War memorial plaques known as "death pennies", photographs, paintings, memorabilia and regimental regalia. Displays include the history of the regiments, their links to the clans, the Highland charge, Sergeant Alexander Edwards and other notable regimental members, and the regiments' activities in different conflicts. The regimental Chapel is also open to visitors, and features many regimental colours and memorials.

Fort George (Gaelic: or, the latter meaning literally "the garrison"), is a large 18th-century fortress near Ardersier, to the north-east of Inverness in the Highland council area of Scotland. It was built to control the Scottish Highlands in the aftermath of the Jacobite rising of 1745, replacing a "Fort George" in Inverness constructed after the 1715 Jacobite rising to control the area. The current fortress has never been attacked and has remained in continuous use as a garrison.


Structure.

The KML file specifies a set of features (place marks, images, polygons, 3D models, textual descriptions, etc.) that can be displayed on maps in geospatial software implementing the KML encoding. Each place always has a longitude and a latitude. Other data can make the view more specific, such as tilt, heading, altitude, which together define a "camera view" along with a timestamp or timespan. KML shares some of the same structural grammar as Geography Markup Language (GML). Some KML information cannot be viewed in Google Maps or Mobile.  KML files are very often distributed in KMZ files, which are zipped KML files with a.kmz extension. The contents of a KMZ file are a single root KML document (notionally "doc.kml") and optionally any overlays, images, icons, and COLLADA 3D models referenced in the KML including network-linked KML files. The root KML document by convention is a file named "doc.kml" at the root directory level, which is the file loaded upon opening. By convention the root KML document is at root level and referenced files are in subdirectories (e.g. images for overlay images).  An example KML document is: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <kml xmlns="http://www.opengis.net/kml/2.2"> <Document> <Placemark> </Placemark> </Document> </kml> The MIME type associated with KML is "application/vnd.google-earth.kml+xml"; the MIME type associated with KMZ is "application/vnd.google-earth.kmz".

Geodetic reference systems in KML.

For its reference system, KML uses 3D geographic coordinates: longitude, latitude and altitude, in that order, with negative values for west, south and below mean sea level if the altitude data is available. The longitude, latitude components (decimal degrees) are as defined by the World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84). The vertical component (altitude) is measured in meters from the WGS84 EGM96 Geoid vertical datum. If altitude is omitted from a coordinate string, e.g. (-77.03647, 38.89763) then the default value of 0 (approximately sea level) is assumed for the altitude component, i.e. (-77.03647, 38.89763, 0).  A formal definition of the coordinate reference system (encoded as GML) used by KML is contained in the OGC KML 2.2 Specification. This definition references well-known EPSG CRS components.

OGC standard process.

The KML 2.2 specification was submitted to the Open Geospatial Consortium to assure its status as an open standard for all geobrowsers. In November 2007 a new KML 2.2 Standards Working Group was established within OGC to formalize KML 2.2 as an OGC standard. Comments were sought on the proposed standard until January 4, 2008, and it became an official OGC standard on April 14, 2008.  The OGC KML Standards Working Group finished working on change requests to KML 2.2 and incorporated accepted changes into the KML 2.3 standard. The official OGC KML 2.3 standard was published in August 4, 2015.

Keyhole Markup Language (KML) is an XML notation for expressing geographic annotation and visualization within two-dimensional maps and three-dimensional Earth browsers. KML was developed for use with Google Earth, which was originally named Keyhole Earth Viewer. It was created by Keyhole, Inc, which was acquired by Google in 2004. KML became an international standard of the Open Geospatial Consortium in 2008. Google Earth was the first program able to view and graphically edit KML files, but other projects such as Marble have added KML support.


Early life.

Kaczyński was born on 18 June 1949, the identical twin brother of Lech Kaczyński. They were born in Warsaw. His father was Raymund Kaczyński, an engineer who served as a soldier in the Armia Krajowa in World War II, and his mother was Jadwiga Kaczyńska, a philologist at the Polish Academy of Sciences. As children, Kaczyński starred with his brother in the 1962 Polish film "The Two Who Stole the Moon" (), based on a popular children's story by Kornel Makuszyński.  He studied law and administration of Warsaw University before completing a doctorate in law in 1976. Kaczyński was the executive editor of the "Tygodnik Solidarność" weekly magazine from 1989 to 1991.

Political career.

1990s.

In 1991, he created the centrist, Christian democratic Centre Agreement party and later became its chairman, remaining in the role until 1998. In the years 1991 to 1993 and since 1997, Kaczyński was a member of the Sejm. In the same year, he worked under direction of the president of Poland, Lech Wałęsa, as the head of his presidential chancellery. Wałęsa fired Kaczyński, who then led the movement against him. During this time an effigy of Wałęsa was burned at a protest organized by Kaczyński.

2005 elections.

Kaczyński was the Law and Justice prime ministerial candidate in the September 2005 Polish parliamentary election. However, when the party emerged as winner of the election, he pledged that he would not take the position, expecting that his nomination would reduce the chances of his brother Lech Kaczyński, who was a candidate for the October presidential election. Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz was appointed prime minister.  In the following months, he was a frontbench MP and the leader of his party. He was said to have enormous influence on the prime minister's decision-making process. Kaczyński was described as the architect of the coalition with the populist Self-Defense of the Republic of Poland () and the far-right League of Polish Families party.  Critics have accused the first PiS government of splitting the country over religious and cultural issues and picking "needless fights with Germany and the European Union".

Prime minister.

Following reports of a rift between Kaczyński and Marcinkiewicz, the latter resigned on 7 July 2006. Kaczyński was appointed prime minister by his brother, the president, Lech Kaczyński, on 10 July, and sworn in on 14 July, following the formation of a cabinet and a confidence vote in the Sejm. They were the first pair of brothers in the world to serve as president and prime minister of a country and the only twin brothers to have done so.  At the request of his government, taxes were reduced. Kaczyński controversially initiated a nationwide program ("lustracja") which required thousands of public employees, teachers, and journalists to formally declare whether or not they had collaborated with the security services of the former communist regime. Kaczyński's government was criticised both domestically and abroad for poor foreign relationships with Germany and Russia.

2007 parliamentary election.

Despite gaining votes, Law and Justice lost the parliamentary election on 21 October 2007, finishing a distant second behind the pro-European Christian-democratic and conservative liberal party Civic Platform. Kaczyński was succeeded as prime minister by Donald Tusk, but remained chairman of Law and Justice and became leader of the opposition.

2010 presidential election.

Following the death of his brother, Jarosław announced that he would run for president against Bronisław Komorowski in the election held on 20 June 2010. Joanna Kluzik-Rostkowska ran his electoral campaign staff and the spokesperson was Paweł Poncyljusz. Kaczyński appeared to soften his image during the campaign in order to win centrist voters. The campaign's motto was "Poland Comes First". He polled 36.5% of the vote in the first round, against the acting president Bronisław Komorowski's 41.5%. In the second round he lost with 47.0% of the votee to Komorowski's 53.0%.

Return to power.

In order to win over moderate voters, rather than running as PiS's candidate for president or prime minister, Kaczyński put forward more moderate PiS members in the 2015 presidential and parliamentary elections. Andrzej Duda ran as PiS's presidential candidate, while Beata Szydło was its candidate for prime minister. PiS won both elections. In the parliamentary election, PiS became the first party to win an outright majority since the end of communism. But despite being a popular leader among PiS's base, he himself remains unpopular among the wider public, with some polls showing that more Poles think Kaczyński is not trustworthy compared to Duda or Szydło.  In 2017, "Politico" described him as the de facto ruler of Poland and as one of the most influential politicians in Poland. On 19 November 2017, Donald Tusk attacked Kaczyński's leadership by claiming it played into the Kremlin's hands and endangered the independence of Poland.

Political views.

Kaczyński's project is said to consist of a conservative "moral revolution" culminating in the creation of a "fourth republic" drawing a radical break from the compromises surrounding the fall of communism in Poland. Kaczyński has been labelled as "polarizing". He opposes LGBT rights and has described them as a threat to Poland.

Personal life.

Kaczyński resides in Warsaw. He lived with his ailing mother until her hospitalization. Kaczyński owns no computer and is said to have opened his first bank account only in 2009.  In 2006, the Polish newspaper "Rzeczpospolita" reported on communist-era secret service files which documented a discussion on his sexuality. In the files, a former SB (Służba Bezpieczeństwa) officer speculated on Kaczyński's sexual orientation.

In popular culture.

The main character of the political satire web series "The Chairman's Ear", chairman Jarosław (depicted by series creator Robert Górski), is modeled on Kaczyński.

Jarosław Aleksander Kaczyński (; born 18 June 1949) is a Polish politician and lawyer who is currently serving as leader of the Law and Justice party (known by its Polish acronym PiS), which he co-founded in 2001 with his twin brother, Lech Kaczyński, who served as president of Poland.