Geography.

Rafina lies on the Aegean Sea coast, east of the Penteli mountains and northeast of the Mesogaia plain. It is north of Artemida, south of Nea Makri and east of Athens city centre. The municipal unit of Rafina contains, besides the city itself, a large portion of the surrounding area, which is mostly woodland and farmland. The only other town is Kallitechnoupoli with a population of 923.  The town can be accessed through Greek National Road 54 (Athens – Rafina), Greek National Road 83 (Athens – Marathon – Rafina) and Greek National Road 85 (Lavrio – Rafina).  Rafina is a port town serving ferries to the southern part of Euboea as well as most of the Cyclades. Its port is the second largest of Attica, after that of Piraeus, but it will probably be superseded by the one in Lavrio, which is currently being expanded.

History.

Prehistory.

Rafina was inhabited in prehistoric times. The oldest finds are from the Neolithic Period, and a large number date from the Bronze Age (3,000 years B.C.), discovered by the excavations of Dimitrios Theocharis in '50s: a settlement on the hill above the port, bronze processing facilities near the delta of the Great Stream, and a Protohelladic Akropolis in the cape of Askitario which you can visit today.

Antiquity and later.

In ancient times, Rafina was one of the 100 demes of Athens as defined by Kleisthenes. The municipality was called "Araphen", after its first ruler, Arafinas, who was one of the 100 heroes of Attica. In the municipality of Arafin, lived one of the ten breeds of Attica. Also, the area near the sea till Artemida, called "Halae Araphenides" is where Orestis and Ifigenia arrived from Tavrida according to the myth.  From later centuries, excavations discovered Roman baths and the remains of a Byzantine Church.

Modern period and settlement of Triglian refugees.

After the defeat of the Greek army in the Minor Asia (1922), many refugees arrived in Greece. Some of them arrived in the area by Triglia, with ships owned by Filippos Kabounides, a Triglian shipowner, who arrived at the time of the destruction to save people and heirlooms.  A year later (August 29, 1923), Kabounides' ships brought to Rafina refugees who have lived in Tenedos for one year. After a few months, the first houses of the new refugee settlement were built and were located at the Skouze's estate that was given to the refugees. Also, around the area of the square, small shops were built and given to shop owners.  Six years later (1929), Rafina became a community.

Expansion.

During the 1950s, Pantovasilissa's church was built in remembrance of the Byzantine church in Triglia which held the same name. At its forecourt was erected a statue of the metropolite of Smyrni, Chrysostomos, who was killed by the Turks during the destruction. Many years later, people in Rafina built a little church to his memory.  When Triglians arrived from Asia Minor, they brought many things from their old country, the most important being "Panagia Episkepsis", a hagiography created during the 14th century A.D., which one can now see in the Byzantine Museum in Athens. A copy can be found in the city hall of Rafina.  Many heirlooms can be found in the Refugee Museum "Triglia's House", where visitors can see many originals or their copies.

World War II.

During the Second World War, and during the German Occupation, German and Italian armies were installed in Rafina. Important projects for the guarding and the vallation of the area were built at the port, along the seaside and on the hill that was since named "Fort".

Rafina Today.

In 1994, Rafina became a municipality and its first mayor was Andreas Kechagioglou, who kept his office until November 2011 when Rafina integrated with Pikermi as part of the Kallikratis plan. Following the planned municipal elections, Giorgios Christopoulos was elected Mayor for the new municipality of Rafina and Pikermi. During the past few years, the town has advanced significantly. Its population reaches about 12,000 people, and climbs to 30,000–50,000 during the summer. During the summer, many events take part in the town such as the "August's Moon", which takes place in August when the last full moon of August occurs. During this day, many musicians gather outside the church of St. Nikolaos and sing songs about the moon.  Rafina suffered damage from a forest fire in July 2005 and again in 2018.

Culture.

Sports.

Rafina is the seat of two football clubs with presence in third national division (Gamma Ethniki), Triglia Rafina, club founded in 1932 by refugees, and Thyella Rafina, club founded in 1957.

International relations.

Rafina is twinned with:

Rafina () is a suburban port town located on the eastern coast of Attica in Greece. It has a population of 13,091 inhabitants (2011 census). Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Rafina-Pikermi, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 18.979 km. It is part of Athens metropolitan area.


Biography.

Catherine was the second daughter of François de Clèves, Duke of Nevers, and Marguerite de Bourbon, elder sister of Antoine de Bourbon. She was the first cousin of Henry of Navarre, sister-in-law of Henri de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, and great aunt of Ludwika Maria Gonzaga, Queen of Poland.  At the age of twelve, Catherine married Antoine de Croÿ, Prince de Porcien (or Porcean), who died seven years later. After the conventional three years of mourning, on 4 October 1570, she married Henri de Lorraine, Duke of Guise, who was two years her junior. They had fourteen children, including Charles, Duke of Guise and Louis III, Cardinal of Guise. She had a widely publicised affair with a young nobleman, Saint-Mégrin, who was killed by her husband. The event is dramatised in the Alexandre Dumas play "Henri III et sa cour" (1829).  Henry of Guise was the leader of the fervently Catholic faction in the French Wars of Religion. From 1584, the conflict among factions led by Henry of Guise, Henry of Navarre, and Henry III of France was known as the War of the Three Henrys. In 1588, Henry of Guise was assassinated on the orders of King Henry III.  Catherine never forgave Henry III of France (who kept taunting her as "la maîtresse de Saint Megrin") for his part in the assassination of her husband. She took a keen interest in the intrigues of the Catholic League and encouraged Henry's assassination in 1589. At the conclusion of the War of the Three Henrys she was mindful of the interests of her large family and supported her son Charles as a candidate for the French throne.  Catherine's reconciliation with her cousin, Henry IV, was not effected until his conversion to Catholicism. She immediately moved to Paris and obtained a very honorable position in the retinue of his wife, Marie de' Medici. In 1613, Catherine interceded for her son, François Alexandre, who had killed the Baron of Luz in a duel, asking for his banishment instead of execution for murder.  The Guises continued to support the Queen throughout the regency, and Catherine followed Marie into exile in Blois after Louis XIII assumed the reins of government in 1619. After returning to the Louvre, the Dowager Duchess - anxious to promote the interests of the House of Guise - resumed plotting against Cardinal Richelieu.  The death of her youngest daughter, the princesse de Conti (who had been implicated in the Day of the Dupes conspiracy), proved a blow to her spirits. She retired to her château d'Eu, where she died aged 85. She was buried at the château next to her husband's ornate tomb.

Issue.

She married on October 4, 1570 in Paris to Henri de Lorraine, Duke of Guise, by whom she had fourteen children:

Catherine de Clèves (or de Nevers), Countess of Eu (1548 – 11 May 1633) was the wife of Henry, Duke of Guise, and matriarch of the numerous and influential House of Guise. By marriage she was Duchess of Guise from 1570 to 1588, and Dowager Duchess of Guise thereafter. She was Countess of Eu in her own right from 1564.


Auschwitz.

Müller was born in Sereď in the Czechoslovak Republic. In April 1942, he was sent on one of the earliest Holocaust transports to Auschwitz II where he was given prisoner number 29236. Müller was assigned to the "Sonderkommando" that worked on the construction of crematoria and the installation of the gas chambers.  Once the crematoria were completed, Müller was assigned to a "Sonderkommando" unit tasked with operating the death facility; his performing this role, he believed, was the only reason the Germans kept him alive. Müller's unit would meet new arrivals of men, women, and children at the undressing area just outside the gas chambers, in the basement of the crematoria. He testified he would tell the terrified new arrivals that they were somewhere safe. Once the SS had given the command, the naked victims would be herded into the gas chambers, where they were gassed with the cyanic crystalline poison Zyklon B.  After the victims had been killed, Müller's unit was tasked with the removal of the bodies and grouping them by size and fatty tissue to facilitate their disposal in the crematoria. The victims' clothes were collected and disinfected, and all valuables to be surrendered to the SS – some of which the "Sonderkommando" would pocket for bartering purposes.

Survival.

Sonderkommando units were periodically murdered to eradicate witnesses but Müller managed to survive in Auschwitz for over two years. Eventually, Müller decided to end his life by joining a group of Czech arrivals destined for the gas chambers. While awaiting his fate, a girl came up to him, stating,  Müller came to believe that he had a duty to stay alive so that he could join other survivors and become a living witness to the horrors of the Holocaust. He remained at Auschwitz until January 1945, when the camp was evacuated before the arrival of the Red Army. After a death march into Germany, he was liberated from the Mauthausen subcamp of Gunskirchen in May 1945.

Testimony.

Müller first testified during his hospital recovery. His statement was originally published in an obscure Czech collection, but it was reprinted in the 1966 book "The Death Factory", written by two other Holocaust survivors, Erich Kulka, and Ota Kraus. Müller testified at the second Frankfurt Auschwitz trials in 1964.  He stated that, in the summer of 1942, he was transferred from the "Sonderkommando" of crematorium one, where he spent six weeks, to Monowitz. The Monowitz subcamp, from the main Auschwitz site, was a labor camp run by the German firm IG Farben, and there were no crematoria there. For the remainder of his imprisonment at Auschwitz, Müller worked mainly at Birkenau, where the main crematoria were located.  After 1969, Müller lived in the West. He died on 9 November 2013, at the age of 91.

Filip Müller (3 January 1922 – 9 November 2013) was a Jewish Slovak Holocaust survivor and "Sonderkommando" at Auschwitz, the largest Nazi German concentration camp during World War II, where he witnessed the deaths of tens of thousands of people.


Life.

William Henry was born in Usingen, the fifth son of William Henry of Nassau-Usingen Born and Princess Charlotte Amalia of Nassau-Dillenburg. His father died just weeks before his birth. His mother then acted as guardian and regent until her death in 1738. She provided a comprehensive education and raised her sons in the Calvinist faith. In 1730 and 1731, he and his brother were enrolled at the University of Strasbourg and was taught by various tutors. He probably also studied for a while at the University of Geneva, which was popular among reformed students. His Grand Tour took William Henry to the court of Louis XV in France, among other places.  After his mother's death, his brother Charles acted as regent until William Henry came of age in 1741. In 1741, the brothers decided to divide their inheritance. Charles received Nassau-Usingen on the right bank of the Rhine; William Henry received Nassau-Saarbrücken on the left bank. At the time, Nassau-Saarbrücken measured about 12 square miles and it had. This made it one of the smallest principalities in the Holy Roman Empire.

Politics and economy.

Shortly after his accession to power, he participated with his "Royal-Allemand" regiment in the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1742 he sold his regiment to the Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, during his stay in Frankfurt on the occasion of the coronation of Charles VII. During this visit, he also met Princess Sophie of Erbach, his future wife.  He later took part in the Seven Years' War, again with his own troops. He had a close relationship with France, his large neighbour. He often traveled to Paris, where he received military honors—as was usual at the time for ruling nobility—including a promotion to field marshal.  William Henry reformed the administration and justice. He separated these two branches of government and issued some orders typical of the enlightened absolutists of his time. These included a cameralistic economic policy. He took measures to standardize taxes and introduced a modern cadastre on the Austrian model. He also promoted modern agricultural methods, such as the potato cultivation and pest control. He was also involved in coal mining and iron smelting. He nationalized the mines and leased the ironworks to entrepreneurs such as Cerf Beer. He laid the basis for a proto-industrialized economy, which would later evolve into the highly industrialized Saarland region. Despite the increase in revenues, his financial situation did not improve, because of his high spending on construction activities. He died in Saarbrücken.

Extension of the residence.

When William Henry's reign began, he and his family and some noble families moved from Usingen to Saarbrücken and he began to develop his capital. The city had been severely affected by the confusion of the Thirty Years' War and the War of the Reunions. It was redesigned and expanded into a baroque capital, especially by the architect Friedrich Joachim Stengel. Noteworthy buildings from this periods are the Saarbrücken Castle, the Louis Church and Basilica of St. John. He also built a number of palaces and town houses. The downside of his magnificent city was an immense debt, which his son and successor Louis had to deal with. Nevertheless, the city of Saarbrücken is still dominated by William Henry's buildings and the keep his memory alive.

William Henry as enlightened absolutist.

William Henry and his princely contemporaries show the possibilities and limits of an enlightened absolutist policy. As much as he insisted on enlightened principles of legal reforms, continued economic stimulus and the exercise of religious tolerance, he also remained a patriarchal ruler who forbade his subjects to actively participate in government and who tried to regulate all areas of life with an immense flood of regulations, and who suppressed social protests harshly.

Marriage and issue.

William Henry married on 28 February 1742 in Erbach with Sophie (1725–1795), the daughter of Count George William of Erbach and granddaughter of George Albert II, Count of Erbach-Fürstenau. With her, he had the following children:

William Henry, Prince of Nassau-Saarbrücken (6 March 1718 – 24 July 1768), was Prince of Nassau-Saarbrücken from 1741 until his death.


Early life and playing career.

Emery was born in Hondarribia, Gipuzkoa, Basque Country. His father and grandfather, named Juan and Antonio respectively, were also footballers, both goalkeepers. The former appeared for several clubs in the second tier, whilst the latter competed with Real Unión in the top division. Emery's uncle, Román, played as a midfielder.  Emery, a left-sided midfielder, was a youth graduate of Real Sociedad, but never really broke into the first team (aged 24 he appeared in five La Liga games, scoring against Albacete Balompié in an 8–1 home win). After that, he resumed his career mostly in the Segunda División, amassing totals of 215 matches and nine goals over seven seasons.  He retired with Lorca Deportiva CF at the age of 32, after one season in Segunda División B.

Managerial career.

Lorca and Almería.

Emery suffered a serious knee injury while at Lorca in the 2004–05 season; he was offered the vacant manager position by the club president, and immediately helped the club achieve promotion to the second division for the first time in its history, while beating top level side Málaga in the Copa del Rey. In his second season, the Murcians' first ever in the second division, the team finished fifth with 69 points, only five points off promotion to the top flight; they suffered relegation in 2007, after the manager's departure.  Emery then moved to Almería in division two, and again helped his squad overachieve: after guiding them to a first ever promotion in 2007, the Andalusian side finished eighth in La Liga in 2007–08. This prompted a move to Valencia, where he succeeded Ronald Koeman as manager.

Valencia.

In 2008–09, his first season with "Los Che", Emery led them to a sixth-place finish, with subsequent qualification to the UEFA Europa League, in spite of the club's serious financial problems. The team reached the Round of 32 in the UEFA Cup, a 3–3 aggregate loss against Dynamo Kyiv, and the quarter-finals of the Copa del Rey, exiting against Sevilla.  In 2009–10, Emery led Valencia to third place, so the club returned to the UEFA Champions League after two years. In the Europa League they lost in the quarter-finals to eventual winners Atlético Madrid on the away goals rule, and exited in the round of 16 in the Copa del Rey against Deportivo de La Coruña, losing 3–4 on aggregate. In May 2010 Emery renewed his contract for another year.  2010–11 started without David Villa and David Silva, sold to Barcelona and Manchester City respectively. Despite this, Valencia won five out of the first six league games (with one draw), starting the Champions League campaign with a 4–0 win in Turkey against Bursaspor, before being eliminated in the round of 16 by Schalke, and being knocked out in the same stage in the Copa del Rey by Villareal. In the domestic league the side finished third, thus again qualifying for the Champions League.  Emery left the club in June 2012, after again finishing third in 2011–12.

Spartak Moscow.

On 13 May 2012, Leonid Fedun, owner of Spartak Moscow, announced Emery as the Russian club's coach for the following two seasons. On 25 November he was sacked after a run of poor results, the last one being a 1–5 derby home loss against Dynamo Moscow.

Sevilla.

Emery returned to Spanish football on 14 January 2013, replacing the sacked Míchel at the helm of Sevilla. He led the club to fifth position in 2013–14, his first full season, and, on 14 May 2014, won the Europa League final, defeating Benfica on penalties.  After finishing the 2014–15 season in fifth place, one point behind former club Valencia, Emery again won the Europa League after defeating Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk, thus qualifying for the following Champions League. The victory meant that Sevilla became the most successful club in the history of the UEFA Cup/Europa League, with four wins, and Emery signed a one-year contract extension on 5 June 2015 which would have kept him at the club until 2017, after reported interest from West Ham United and Napoli.  In 2015–16 Emery led Sevilla to seventh position, having played the final games of the domestic league with several reserves and youth team players after the team confirmed their place in the Europa League final. On 18 May 2016, despite trailing 0–1 at half-time, a goal from Kevin Gameiro and two from Coke resulted in a 3–1 victory over Liverpool at St. Jakob-Park in Basel.  On 12 June 2016, after Emery expressed his desire to leave Sevilla, the club announced that they would be parting ways.

Paris Saint-Germain.

On 28 June 2016, Emery signed a two-year deal, with the option of a third, to succeed Laurent Blanc at French quadruple-holders Paris Saint-Germain. In his first competitive match in charge, on 6 August, his side beat Lyon 4–1 in Austria to lift the Trophée des Champions.  Emery led PSG to second place in their group of the Champions League, behind Arsenal. In the first knockout round they defeated Barcelona 4–0 at the Parc des Princes, only to historically lose 1–6 in Spain and subsequently be eliminated.  On 1 April, he picked up his second honour with "les Rouge-et-Bleu" with a 4–1 win over title rivals Monaco in the final of the Coupe de la Ligue. On 28 April 2018, Emery announced his decision to leave the Parisian club at the end of the season with a year left on his contract. He was replaced by German coach Thomas Tuchel at PSG following the conclusion of the 2017–18 season.

Arsenal.

On 23 May 2018, Emery was appointed head coach of Arsenal. He agreed to a two-year deal, with the club having the option to extend his deal for a further year. In his first competitive game in charge, on 13 August, his side lost to Manchester City 0–2 in the Premier League. After a second consecutive loss to Chelsea on 18 August, Emery recorded his first win as Arsenal manager on 25 August, in a 3–1 home win over West Ham United. After this game, Arsenal won 11 games in a row, their best run of form since 2007. Arsenal then extended their unbeaten run to 22 games. Their 3–2 loss to Southampton in December was the first time they had been defeated in all competitions since August. Emery yet again reached a Europa League final, but was unsuccessful as Arsenal were beaten 4–1 by fellow English side Chelsea. Arsenal finished the season in fifth position, one place higher than the previous season, narrowly missing out on a Champions League spot.  In the 2019 summer transfer window, Emery broke Arsenal's previous club record by signing Ivory Coast winger Nicolas Pépé. He also brought in David Luiz from rivals Chelsea and Scotsman Kieran Tierney from Celtic. Pépé recorded his first assist against arch rivals Tottenham Hotspur in the North London derby, which finished in a 2–2 draw.  On 29 November 2019, following a series of poor results and a winless run of seven games, Emery was sacked by Arsenal. His final game in charge was a 2–1 home defeat to Eintracht Frankfurt in the Europa League. He was replaced on an interim basis by Freddie Ljungberg and later on a permanent basis by Mikel Arteta.

Honours.

Manager.

Sevilla  Paris Saint-Germain  Arsenal  Individual

Unai Emery Etxegoien (; born 3 November 1971) is a Spanish football manager and former player. He was most recently the head coach of Premier League club Arsenal.


Early life.

Von D was born in Montemorelos, Nuevo León, Mexico. Her Seventh-day Adventist Church missionary parents, father René and mother Sylvia Galeano, were born in Argentina, and are of German, Italian and Spanish descent, respectively. Von D has a sister, Karoline and a brother, Michael. She moved with her family to the Los Angeles area at age 4 and grew up in Colton, California. Von D was classically trained in piano beginning at age 6.  Kat Von D credits her grandmother, Clara von Drachenberg, as an inspiration for her in music and art, and the Latino culture of Los Angeles as a major influence on her tattoo art and style. She began listening to the Ramones, Misfits, and other punk rock bands at the age of 12. She got her first tattoo at 14 and quit school at 16 to become a tattoo artist.

Career.

Von D appeared in two seasons of "Miami Ink", the reality TV show taped at 305 Ink in Miami for the cable network TLC. She was offered the position after Darren Brass broke his elbow, preventing him from tattooing. She had a falling out with Ami James, which led to her decision to leave the shop and the show.  She subsequently acquired her own TLC series, "LA Ink", which chronicled her work at her tattoo shop, High Voltage Tattoo, in Hollywood, California. On the show, she broke the Guinness World Record of most tattoos given by a single person in 24 hours, with a total of 400. Accomplished in December 2007, it involved a Von D-designed logo for the city of Los Angeles, with proceeds going to the children's-blindness charity Vitamin Angels. "LA Ink" ran four seasons, ending September 15, 2011; TLC announced the cancellation on August 18, 2011. Von D has publicly said that the cancellation was because she chose not to continue doing the show.  Her first book, "High Voltage Tattoo", compiling her artworks and tattoos, with a foreword by Mötley Crüe's Nikki Sixx, was released in January 2009 and reached #6 on "The New York Times" Best Seller list. Von D described the book as "not an autobiography, you know, 'cause I'm too young to do that. But this is just kind of like a picture-driven outline of my career as an artist. So, you see everything from my drawings when I was six to tattoos that have never before been seen." Her second book, "The Tattoo Chronicles", an illustrated diary following a year in her life, was released October 26, 2010, and reached #3 on "The New York Times" "Hardcover Advice & Misc." best-seller list.  In 2008, Von D created and launched a make-up line for Sephora. She has released new collections every year and has expanded her line to include fragrances. In 2012, through Sephora, her New American Beauty Art Tour benefitted the Art of Elysium charitable organization. In June 2016, she announced that all products in the line would be reformulated to be vegan. In August 2016, the line released a limited-edition lipstick named Project Chimps, with 20% of sales being donated to Project Chimps, an organization dedicated to providing care for retired research chimpanzees. Her makeup line later became mired in controversy after releasing a lipstick called "Selektion". The word "Selektion" is considered widely controversial and inappropriate in its native Germany where it was the term used by the Nazis to decide who would be chosen to either be put to work or death upon arrival to the concentration camps. The fallout led to the lipstick being renamed "Beloved". This choice is even more controversial with her being implicated in other anti-semitic acts. Von D fell under criticism again when she named a lipstick "Celebutard", Sephora quickly pulled the lipstick from their stores and issued an apology.  Von D is the creator of the MusInk Tattoo Convention and Music Festival, which began in 2008. Musink is an all ages Tattoo, Music, and Art festival located in Southern California.  On September 2, 2010, Von D opened the art gallery and boutique Wonderland Gallery in the space next door to High Voltage Tattoo. She launched the clothing lines KVD Los Angeles and Kat Von D Los Angeles in the US and Canada in fall 2011, with the latter expanding internationally the following year.  Kat Von D provided the female vocals to the song "Rosary Blue" on "X", a 2012 studio album by the Finnish Gothic Rock band The 69 Eyes. In August 2013, she tweeted that Dave Grohl and producer Danny Lohner had finished two tracks of an album she had talked about recording as early as 2011.  In 2016 she recorded vocals for the electronic music duo, Prayers, on the song "Black Leather", and appeared in the band's video for the song.  In 2018, she collaborated with Rooney Mara, Sia, Sadie Sink and Joaquin Phoenix to narrate Chris Delforce's animal rights documentary "Dominion". For her contribution to the documentary, she was granted the 2018 Award of Excellence for Narration by Hollywood International Independent Documentary Awards.<ref

Katherine Von Drachenberg, known as Kat Von D (born March 8, 1982), is a Mexican-American tattoo artist, model, musician, author, entrepreneur, and television personality. She is best known for her work as a tattoo artist on the TLC reality television show "LA Ink", which premiered in the United States on August 7, 2007, and ran for four seasons. She is also known for being the former head of Kat Von D Beauty (now KVD Vegan Beauty).


History.

In the 17th century, the city and the dzong was called Samdrubtsé (one of the transliterations of the current name). It was the capital of the Tsang.  In the 19th century, the "Tashi" or Panchen Lama had temporal power over Tashilhunpo Monastery and three small districts, though not over the town of Shigatse itself, which was administered by two Dzongpön (Prefects) appointed from Lhasa. Before military conflict between the PRC's People's Liberation Army and the then Tibetan Govt., the Tibetan territory was divided into 53 prefecture districts called "Dzongs".  There were two "Dzongpöns" for every "Dzong"—a lama (Tse-dung) and a layman. They were entrusted with both civil and military powers and are equal in all respects, though subordinate to the generals and the Chinese Amban in military matters. However, there were only one or two Ambans representing the Qing (Manchu) Chinese emperor residing in Lhasa, directing a little garrison, and their power installed since 1728, progressively declined to end-up as observer at the eve of their expulsion in 1912 by the 13th Dalai Lama. In 1952, shortly after the PRC sent forces to the region, Shigatse had a population of perhaps 12,000 people, making it the second largest town in Tibet.  In 1959, Shigatse was made the administrative center of an eponymous special district () of Tibet. In 1970 the special district was upgraded to a prefecture and the town designated a county. In 1986 the county became a county-level city, and when the prefecture was again upgraded to a prefecture-level city in 2014, the county-level city was redesignated a district and given the new name of Samzhubzê.

Geography and climate.

Samzhubzê lies on flat terrain surrounded by high mountains, and the urban area is located just south of the Yarlung Zangbo River. The city lies at an elevation of around, and within its administrative area there are five peaks higher than. The city's administrative area ranges in latitude from 29° 07' to 29° 09' N and in longitude from 88° 03' to 89° 08' E.  Samzhubzê has a monsoon-influenced, alpine version of a humid continental climate (Köppen "Dwb"), with frosty, very dry winters and warm, wet summers. Temperatures are relatively moderate for the Tibetan Plateau, as the annual mean temperature is. Barely any precipitation falls from November to March, when the diurnal temperature variation can frequently exceed. Nearly two-thirds of the annual rainfall occurs in July and August alone. Sunshine is abundant year-round, totaling 3248 hours annually.

Administrative divisions.

Shigatse administers two subdistricts and ten townships.

Tashilhunpo.

Samzhubzê contains the huge Tashilhunpo Monastery, founded in 1447 by Gendun Drup, the First Dalai Lama. It is the traditional seat of the Panchen Lamas. Until the Chinese arrived in the 1950s, the "Tashi" or Panchen Lama had temporal power over three small districts, though not over Samzhubzê itself, which was administered by a dzongpön (general) appointed from Lhasa. In the 2nd week of the 5th lunar month (around June/July), Tashilhunpo Monastery is the scene of a 3-day festival and a huge thangka is displayed. The imposing castle, Samdrubtse Dzong or "Shigatse Dzong", was probably built in the 15th century. It looked something like a smaller version of the Potala Palace in Lhasa, and had turret-like fortifications at the ends and a central Red Palace. It used to be the seat of the kings of Ü-Tsang and the capital of the province of Ü-Tsang or Tsang.  The castle was totally dismantled, rock by rock, by hundreds of Tibetans at the instigation of the Chinese in 1961. Between 2005 and 2007, the building was reconstructed, financed by donations from Shanghai. Old photographs served as a basis for the reconstruction, which was executed in concrete. Afterwards, the exterior was to be wainscotted with natural stones. The "dzong", which in the 17th century served as a model for the construction of the Potala Palace, is set to become a museum for Tibetan culture.  Nearby attractions include:

Samzhubzê District (also spelled Sangzhuzi District, Samdruptse District) is a district in the Tibet Autonomous Region of the China, and the administrative center of the prefecture-level city of Shigatse (Tibetan Pinyin: Xigazê). Prior to 2014 it was known as the county-level city of Shigatse. It was the ancient capital of Ü-Tsang province and is the second largest city in Tibet with an estimated population of 117,000 in 2013. Samzhubzê is located at the confluence of the Yarlung Tsangpo River and the Nyang River (Nyang Chu or Nyanchue), about southwest of Lhasa and northwest of Gyantse, at an altitude of.


History.

The beginning of Locking can be traced to one man, Don Campbell. In the late 1960s he put together several fad dances adding moves of his own (known as the "Lock") when performing. The original lock was created by accident: Campbell couldn't do a move called the 'Robot Shuffle' and stopped at a particular point whilst moving his arms, creating a 'locking' effect. He wasn't able to perform it fluently, for he couldn't remember which step to take next. (Even the acting towards the audience was spontaneous: when people started laughing at Don because of his unfamiliar moves, he responded by pointing at them.) These halts soon became popular as Don added them into his performances. The resulting dance was called Campbellocking, which was later shortened to Locking. In the early 1970s this set off a movement of Locking dance groups, notably Campbell's group The Lockers. Other lockers Jimmy "Scoo B Doo" Foster, Greggory "Campbellock Jr." Pope, Tony "GoGo" Lewis, Fred "Mr Penguin" Berry (a.k.a. Rerun), Leo "Fluky Luke" Williamson, Damita Jo Freeman and others also helped set the foundation for the locking dance and clothes style.  Clothes style can consist of loud striped socks, pegged pants that stopped at the knees, bright colorful satin shirts with big collars, big colorful bow ties, gigantic Apple Boy hats, and white gloves.

Moves.

Locking may be done in solo or in unison with two or more dancers doing steps or handshakes together. A locker may smile while performing to emphasize the comical nature of the dance; other times, a serious demeanor will be maintained to place emphasis on technique. Other important stylistic features are waving of arms, pointing, walking stationary and grabbing and rotating the cap or hat. Don Campbell created the original freezes, incorporating his unique rhythm and adding gestures such as points and handclaps. Other dancers also adapted this style while creating other steps and moves.  Locking is by nature an improvisational dance but also consists of a set of signature moves of locking pioneers, However, many lockers alter or blend these with other moves or create their own variations. In general, Lockers will often put a small pause and move up on the second and fourth beats to emphasize the locking.  Up Lock (Muscle man)

Locking is a style of funk dance, which is today also associated with hip hop. The name is based on the concept of "locking" movements, which basically means freezing from a fast movement and "locking" in a certain position, holding that position for a short while and then continuing at the same speed as before. It relies on fast and distinct arm and hand movements combined with more relaxed hips and legs. The movements are generally large and exaggerated, and often very rhythmic and tightly synced with the music. Locking is performance oriented, often interacting with the audience by smiling or giving them a high five, and some moves are quite comical.


Early career.

A student of Emmy Destinn, Novotná made her operatic debut at the Prague Opera House, on June 28, 1925, as Marenka in Smetana's "The Bartered Bride". Six days later, she sang there as Violetta in Verdi's "La traviata". In 1928 she starred in Verona as Gilda opposite Giacomo Lauri-Volpi in Verdi's "Rigoletto" and at the Teatro San Carlo in Naples as Adina opposite Tito Schipa in Donizetti's "L'elisir d'amore". In 1929 she joined the Kroll Opera in Berlin, where she sang Violetta as well as the title roles of Puccini's "Manon Lescaut" and "Madama Butterfly".  In January 1933 she created the female lead in Jaromir Weinberger's new operetta "Frühlingsstürme", opposite Richard Tauber at the Theater im Admiralspalast, Berlin. This was the last new operetta produced in the Weimar Republic, and she and Tauber were both soon forced to leave Germany by the new Nazi regime.

Vienna and New York.

In 1934 she left Berlin for Vienna, where she created the title role in Lehár's "Giuditta" opposite Richard Tauber. Her immense success in that role led to a contract with the Vienna State Opera, where she was named "Kammersängerin". Prior to the "Anschluss", she also appeared with Tauber there in "The Bartered Bride" and "Madama Butterfly".  She appeared as Pamina in the 1937 Salzburg Festival production of Mozart's "The Magic Flute", conducted by Arturo Toscanini. In the orchestra pit was the young Georg Solti, who played the glockenspiel in the opera.  On January 5, 1940 she made her debut with the Metropolitan Opera, as Mimì in Puccini's "La bohème". She also appeared in twelve other roles at the Met: Euridice, Violetta, Cherubino, Massenet's Manon, Marenka, Donna Elvira, Pamina, Octavian, Antonia, Freia, Mélisande and Prince Orlofsky, the role in which she made her farewell performance on January 15, 1956. Of her 208 appearances at the Met, 103 were in the breeches roles of Prince Orlofsky, Cherubino and Octavian.

Films.

She appeared in several films, including Max Ophüls's 1932 version of "The Bartered Bride". In 1948 she won acclaim for her leading role as an Auschwitz survivor who searches for her young son, played by Ivan Jandl, in "The Search" which co-starred Montgomery Clift. In 1951, she appeared in "The Great Caruso", starring Mario Lanza.

Jarmila Novotná (September 23, 1907, in Prague – February 9, 1994, in New York City) was a celebrated Czech soprano and actress and, from 1940 to 1956, a star of the Metropolitan Opera.


Applied harmonic analysis.

Many applications of harmonic analysis in science and engineering begin with the idea or hypothesis that a phenomenon or signal is composed of a sum of individual oscillatory components. Ocean tides and vibrating strings are common and simple examples. The theoretical approach is often to try to describe the system by a differential equation or system of equations to predict the essential features, including the amplitude, frequency, and phases of the oscillatory components. The specific equations depend on the field, but theories generally try to select equations that represent major principles that are applicable.  The experimental approach is usually to acquire data that accurately quantifies the phenomenon. For example, in a study of tides, the experimentalist would acquire samples of water depth as a function of time at closely enough spaced intervals to see each oscillation and over a long enough duration that multiple oscillatory periods are likely included. In a study on vibrating strings, it is common for the experimentalist to acquire a sound waveform sampled at a rate at least twice that of the highest frequency expected and for a duration many times the period of the lowest frequency expected.  For example, the top signal at the right is a sound waveform of a bass guitar playing an open string corresponding to an A note with a fundamental frequency of 55 Hz. The waveform appears oscillatory, but it is more complex than a simple sine wave, indicating the presence of additional waves. The different wave components contributing to the sound can be revealed by applying a mathematical analysis technique known as the Fourier transform, the result of which is shown in the lower figure. Note that there is a prominent peak at 55 Hz, but that there are other peaks at 110 Hz, 165 Hz, and at other frequencies corresponding to integer multiples of 55 Hz. In this case, 55 Hz is identified as the fundamental frequency of the string vibration, and the integer multiples are known as harmonics.

Abstract harmonic analysis.

One of the most modern branches of harmonic analysis, having its roots in the mid-20th century, is analysis on topological groups. The core motivating ideas are the various Fourier transforms, which can be generalized to a transform of functions defined on Hausdorff locally compact topological groups.  The theory for abelian locally compact groups is called Pontryagin duality.  Harmonic analysis studies the properties of that duality and Fourier transform and attempts to extend those features to different settings, for instance, to the case of non-abelian Lie groups.  For general non-abelian locally compact groups, harmonic analysis is closely related to the theory of unitary group representations. For compact groups, the Peter–Weyl theorem explains how one may get harmonics by choosing one irreducible representation out of each equivalence class of representations. This choice of harmonics enjoys some of the useful properties of the classical Fourier transform in terms of carrying convolutions to pointwise products, or otherwise showing a certain understanding of the underlying group structure. See also: Non-commutative harmonic analysis.  If the group is neither abelian nor compact, no general satisfactory theory is currently known ("satisfactory" means at least as strong as the Plancherel theorem). However, many specific cases have been analyzed, for example SL. In this case, representations in infinite dimensions play a crucial role.

Harmonic analysis is a branch of mathematics concerned with the representation of functions or signals as the superposition of basic waves, and the study of and generalization of the notions of Fourier series and Fourier transforms (i.e. an extended form of Fourier analysis). In the past two centuries, it has become a vast subject with applications in areas as diverse as number theory, representation theory, signal processing, quantum mechanics, tidal analysis and neuroscience.


Biography.

In this position, Haugwitz presided over the hereditary lands of the Habsburg Monarchy. After 1760, the chancery also dealt in the affairs of Bohemia. The "Directorium in publicis et cameralibus" became a centralized agency established with the advisement of Haugwitz to deal with matters such as “international administration and taxation, public safety, social welfare, education, church matters, mining and commerce”. It is clear from Maria Theresa's testament that Haugwitz was one of her most valued advisors. “He was truly sent to me by Providence, for to break the deadlock I needed such a man, honorable, disinterested, without predispositions, and with neither ambition nor hangers-on, who supported what was good because he saw it to be good...”  Haugwitz’ father was a general in the service of Saxony. As a young man’ Haugwitz went to Rome and then entered the civil service in Silesia. This job came to an end when Frederick II invaded Silesia and Haugwitz escaped to Vienna. Maria Theresa sent him to the remaining part of Silesia under her rule to get the finances in order. Haugwitz, as a student of the Austrian cameralist, Wilhelm von Schröder, learned hostility towards the wealthy estates. Haugwitz was also an admirer of the reforms and new administration in the Prussian province of Silesia. He intended to change economic and administrative institutions through compartmentalization of government functions, education, centralization of the economy and provision of economic information to the monarchy.  In terms of compartmentalization, Haugwitz instituted a separation of judicial matters from political and fiscal matters by instituting a new High Court ("Oberste Justizstelle"). Regional courts functioned directly beneath the Empress with each departmental chief supervising his own affairs.  Haugwitz also focused on another important initiative to bring modern economic thought to students. Maria Theresa had established the "Theresianum" to train noble children for civil service. Through this institution, Haugwitz planned to bring about economic modernization. To catalyze this modernization and establish Vienna as a place of economic discourse, Haugwitz brought Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi to Vienna, first to teach German as the language of administration and later to train students according to both German Kameralism and modern economic theories and practices. As both a former soldier in Prussia and a Protestant, Justi was not well liked in Vienna. Because of this mistrust, Justi lacked the access to pertinent economic data required to execute his theories. Society was also not prepared for modern economic thought because of the traditionally Jesuit nature of scholarship and the division of the Habsburg economy into various regional and local economies.  In 1746, under the direction of Haugwitz, in an attempt to bring about economic centralization, the "Directorium" was established as a central agency to supervise the lands in the monarchy and make recommendations about economic improvements. In 1749, the government established "Representationen und Cammern" as local offices of the "Directorium" chiefly as mechanisms for supervising tax policy.  Because of this economic centralization, Haugwitz provided Emperor Joseph II with an unprecedented amount of information about the economies of the states over which he would reign. As part of Joseph II's education, he received an extensive overview of the economic makeup of each state. Such a report was unprecedented because it would traditionally have been viewed as an intrusion in the affairs normally reserved to the estates. All of these reforms helped to bring about the eventual peak of mercantilism in the 1760s.  Military reforms complimented Haugwitz's economic initiatives. Due to his belief in the need for “immediate supremacy of the sovereign over the army, and the maintenance of an adequate body of troops even in time of peace,” Haugwitz contributed to military reform in both funding and the development of a standing army.  To protect the monarchy, Haugwitz recommended a standing army of 108,000 supported by contributions by the estates of 14 million gulden. To avoid the previous issues in estates' withholding of contributions, or the tedious process of frequent appeals to the estates, Haugwitz instituted the Ten Years’ Recess. Under this program, despite the resistance of the estates, the estates would guarantee payment for ten years. This period abolished the previous fluctuations in finances. Previously, when taxes were levied from the estates, the estates disagreed amongst themselves over the amount levied, divided the sum among the various estates, collected taxes from the peasantry, deducted from these taxes and then distributed the remainder to the monarchy. In this reform, "Representationen und Cammern" collected the taxes in order that the greatest portion of the levy would be distributed to the monarchy.  In addition to these military finance reforms, Haugwitz instituted reforms within the military. A policy quite close to conscription was established. Uniform dress was required of soldiers in order to foster national spirit. Haugwitz advocated the usage of Prussian fighting tactics. A training school was founded to train officers in these tactics.  Despite the large-scale nature and depth of Haugwitz's reforms, their efficacy was not as great as he had intended. Haugwitz's attempt to transform the monarchy from a “feudal aristocracy” to a “well-organised-despotism” was incomplete. (Franck p. 190) The superior court system that established local judges, while initially an attempt at both centralization and organization brought about the opposite due to the tremendous autonomy of each departmental chief. Furthermore, the reforms had limited scope, because they were not aimed at nor did they have any effect on Hungary, Transylvania, Austria, the Netherlands, or Lombardy.  The beginning of the Seven Years’ War in 1757 thwarted the development of many of the reforms. In false defense of his failing policies, Haugwitz argued that the reforms “were only for peacetime”. Eventually, Haugwitz's "Directorium" was stripped of its military and financial functions and renamed the Bohemian and Austrian Court Chancellery. Most power now became centered in the Council of State headed by Wenzel Anton Graf Kaunitz. Kaunitz, a historic foe of Haugwitz, replaced him in instituting policies. However, Haugwitz's policies would have an effect throughout the reign of Maria Theresa and later in the reign of Joseph II.  Early in his career the composer Joseph Haydn was briefly in Count Haugwitz's employ, playing the organ in the Bohemian Chancellery chapel at the Judenplatz.

Death.

In the summer of 1765, he moved to one of his castles in Miroslavské Knínice, where, due to dysentery, his health worsened. He died on 30 August 1765. His body was taken to Náměšť nad Oslavou, where he was buried on 1 September 1765 in the crypt of the Church of St. John the Baptist. Later, his remains, along with those of his wife, were moved, on 19 February 1768, to a crypt in the Capuchin church near the castle in Náměšť.

Friedrich Wilhelm Graf von Haugwitz (), ; 11 December 1702, Saxony – 30 August 1765, Deutsch Knönitz (), Habsburg Moravia) was Supreme Chancellor of the United Court Chancery and the head of "Directorium in publicis et cameralibus" under Maria Theresa of Austria. He also served as one of the key advisors in instituting Maria Theresa's reforms. Haugwitz attempted to bring both centralization and economic reform to the Habsburg lands.


Uses.

Tea tree oil has been used as a traditional herbal medicine in the belief it treats acne, nail fungus, or athlete's foot, with little evidence to support these uses. In a 2015 Cochrane systematic review, the only trial comparing it to placebo for acne found low-quality evidence of benefit.  According to the Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency, traditional usage suggests that tea tree oil is a plausible treatment for "small superficial wounds, insect bites and small boils", that it may help reduce itching in minor cases of athlete's foot, and help with mild inflammation of the mouth lining. The CHMP say tea tree oil products should not be used on people under 12 years of age.  Tea tree oil is not recommended for treating nail fungus, as it is not effective. It is not recommended for treating head lice in children because its effectiveness and safety has not been established and it could cause skin irritation or allergic reactions.

Safety.

Tea tree oil is poisonous when taken internally. It may cause drowsiness, confusion, hallucinations, coma, unsteadiness, weakness, vomiting, diarrhea, nausea, blood cell abnormalities, and severe rashes. It should be kept away from pets and children. Tea tree oil should not be used in or around the mouth.  Application of tea tree oil to the skin can cause an allergic reaction. Tea tree oil has caused more documented allergic reactions than any other form of essential oil. The potential for causing an allergic reaction increases as the oil ages and its chemical composition changes. Adverse effects include skin irritation, allergic contact dermatitis, systemic contact dermatitis, linear immunoglobulin A disease, erythema multiforme-like reactions, and systemic hypersensitivity reactions. Allergic reactions may be due to the various oxidation products that are formed by exposure of the oil to light and/or air. Consequently, oxidized tea tree oil should not be used.  In Australia tea tree oil is one of the many essential oils that have been increasingly causing cases of poisoning, mostly of children. In the period 2014-2018 there were 749 reported cases in New South Wales, accounting for 17% of essential oil poisoning incidents.

Hormonal effects.

Tea tree oil potentially poses a risk for causing abnormal breast enlargement in men. A 2018 study by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences found four of the constituent chemicals (eucalyptol, 4-terpineol, dipentene and alpha-terpineol) are endocrine disruptors, raising concerns of potential environmental health impact from the oil.

Toxicity in animals.

In dogs and cats, death or transient signs of toxicity (lasting 2 to 3 days), such as lethargy, weakness, in coordination and muscle tremors, have been reported after external application at high doses.  As a test of toxicity by oral intake, the median lethal dose (LD50) in rats is 1.9–2.4 ml/kg.

Composition and characteristics.

Tea tree oil is defined by the International Standard ISO 4730 ("Oil of "Melaleuca", terpinen-4-ol type"), containing terpinen-4-ol, γ-terpinene, and α-terpinene as about 70% to 90% of whole oil, while p-cymene, terpinolene, α-terpineol, and α-pinene collectively account for some 15% of the oil (table, right). The oil has been described as colorless to pale yellow having a fresh, camphor-like smell.  Tea tree oil products contain various phytochemicals among which terpinen-4-ol is the major component. Adverse reactions diminish with lower eucalyptol content.

History and extraction.

The name tea tree is used for several plants, mostly from Australia and New Zealand, from the family "Myrtaceae", related to the myrtle. The use of the name probably originated from Captain James Cook's description of one of these shrubs that he used to make an infusion to drink in place of tea.  The commercial tea tree oil industry originated in the 1920s when Arthur Penfold, an Australian, investigated the business potential of a number of native extracted oils; he reported that tea tree oil had promise, as it exhibited antiseptic properties.  Tea tree oil was first extracted from "Melaleuca alternifolia" in Australia, and this species remains the most important commercially. In the 1970s and 1980s, commercial plantations began to produce large quantities of tea tree oil from "Melaleuca alternifolia". Many of these plantations are located in New South Wales. Since the 1970s and 80s, the industry has expanded to include several other species for their extracted oil: "Melaleuca armillaris" and "Melaleuca styphelioides" in Tunisia and Egypt; "Melaleuca leucadendra" in Egypt, Malaysia and Vietnam; "Melaleuca acuminata" in Tunisia; "Melaleuca ericifolia" in Egypt; and "Melaleuca quinquenervia" in the United States. Similar oils can also be produced by water distillation from "Melaleuca linariifolia" and "Melaleuca dissitiflora". Whereas the availability and nonproprietary nature of tea tree oil would make it – if proved effective – particularly well-suited to a disease like scabies that affects poor people disproportionately, those same characteristics diminish corporate interest in its development and validation.  According to Allied Market Research, "the global tea tree oil market size was valued at $38.8 million in 2017 and is projected to reach $59.5 million by 2025".

Research directions.

Tea tree oil is under investigation to see whether it might help in controlling "Demodex" mites and associated rosacea. no clinical trials had been conducted.

Tea tree oil, also known as melaleuca oil, is an essential oil with a fresh camphoraceous odor and a colour that ranges from pale yellow to nearly colourless and clear. It is derived from the leaves of the tea tree, "Melaleuca alternifolia", native to southeast Queensland and the northeast coast of New South Wales, Australia. The oil comprises many constituent chemicals and its composition changes if it is exposed to air and oxidizes.


Introduction with an abstract problem.

A problem in weak formulation.

Let us introduce Galerkin's method with an abstract problem posed as a weak formulation on a Hilbert space formula_1, namely,  Here, formula_4 is a bilinear form (the exact requirements on formula_4 will be specified later) and formula_6 is a bounded linear functional on formula_1.

Galerkin dimension reduction.

Choose a subspace formula_8 of dimension "n" and solve the projected problem:  We call this the Galerkin equation. Notice that the equation has remained unchanged and only the spaces have changed. Reducing the problem to a finite-dimensional vector subspace allows us to numerically compute formula_11 as a finite linear combination of the basis vectors in formula_12.

Galerkin orthogonality.

The key property of the Galerkin approach is that the error is orthogonal to the chosen subspaces. Since formula_8, we can use formula_14 as a test vector in the original equation. Subtracting the two, we get the Galerkin orthogonality relation for the error, formula_15 which is the error between the solution of the original problem, formula_16, and the solution of the Galerkin equation, formula_17

Matrix form.

Since the aim of Galerkin's method is the production of a linear system of equations, we build its matrix form, which can be used to compute the solution algorithmically.  Let formula_19 be a basis for formula_20. Then, it is sufficient to use these in turn for testing the Galerkin equation, i.e.: find formula_21 such that  We expand formula_17 with respect to this basis, formula_24 and insert it into the equation above, to obtain  This previous equation is actually a linear system of equations formula_26, where

Symmetry of the matrix.

Due to the definition of the matrix entries, the matrix of the Galerkin equation is symmetric if and only if the bilinear form formula_4 is symmetric.

Analysis of Galerkin methods.

Here, we will restrict ourselves to symmetric bilinear forms, that is  While this is not really a restriction of Galerkin methods, the application of the standard theory becomes much simpler. Furthermore, a Petrov–Galerkin method may be required in the nonsymmetric case.  The analysis of these methods proceeds in two steps. First, we will show that the Galerkin equation is a well-posed problem in the sense of Hadamard and therefore admits a unique solution. In the second step, we study the quality of approximation of the Galerkin solution formula_17.  The analysis will mostly rest on two properties of the bilinear form, namely By the Lax-Milgram theorem (see weak formulation), these two conditions imply well-posedness of the original problem in weak formulation. All norms in the following sections will be norms for which the above inequalities hold (these norms are often called an energy norm).

Well-posedness of the Galerkin equation.

Since formula_8, boundedness and ellipticity of the bilinear form apply to formula_20. Therefore, the well-posedness of the Galerkin problem is actually inherited from the well-posedness of the original problem.

Quasi-best approximation (Céa's lemma).

The error formula_39 between the original and the Galerkin solution admits the estimate  This means, that up to the constant formula_41, the Galerkin solution formula_17 is as close to the original solution formula_16 as any other vector in formula_20. In particular, it will be sufficient to study approximation by spaces formula_20, completely forgetting about the equation being solved.

Proof.

Since the proof is very simple and the basic principle behind all Galerkin methods, we include it here: by ellipticity and boundedness of the bilinear form (inequalities) and Galerkin orthogonality (equals sign in the middle), we have for arbitrary formula_46:  Dividing by formula_48 and taking the infimum over all possible formula_14 yields the lemma.

In mathematics, in the area of numerical analysis, Galerkin methods are a class of methods for converting a continuous operator problem (such as a differential equation) to a discrete problem. In principle, it is the equivalent of applying the method of variation of parameters to a function space, by converting the equation to a weak formulation. Typically one then applies some constraints on the function space to characterize the space with a finite set of basis functions.


Life.

Casimir I received Kujawy (however without Dobrzyń and Sieradz-Łęczyca) from his father in 1233. In 1239, he would enlarge his domains with the castellany of Ląd, which he received as the dowry of his second wife. In subsequent years, Casimir I actively supported his father's turbulent politics, which brought him in 1242 to conquer the district of Wyszogród from the rulers of Gdańsk.  Konrad I died on 31 August 1247. According to his will, most of Masovia passed to his oldest son, Bolesław I, and the youngest of his sons, Siemowit I, received Sieradz-Łęczyca. Dissatisfied with his part of the paternal inheritance, Casimir I attacked his brothers' lands while they were in Płock at the funeral of their father, and was able to conquer Siemowit I's inheritance.  The next geopolitical change in Masovia came in early 1248, when Bolesław I died unexpectedly and without issue. In his will, he left all his domains to his brother Siemowit I. With this opportunity, Casimir I was able to take advantage of the confusion after his older brother's death and capture Dobrzyń.  During the 1250s Casimir I was busy with his effort to Christianize the Yotvingian tribes and establish peaceful relations with them. His plans were not supported by the Teutonic Order, however, which had the Pope on its side. After this failure, Casimir I appealed to the Knights Templar, who settled in Łuków, in order to secure the northern border of his territory. It was not until 1263 that his relations with the Teutonic Order where normalized.  Meanwhile, Casimir I faced additional internal problems. In 1258, Bolesław the Pious, Duke of Greater Poland, allied with Wartislaw III, Duke of Pomerania, and attacked Kujawy, demanding the return of the castellany of Ląd. It was his opinion that the land was unlawfully transferred by Henry II the Pious to his son-in-law. The expedition was only partially successful, and so the following year Bolesław the Pious organized a more powerful coalition with Bolesław V the Chaste, Siemowit I, and Daniel of Halych against Casimir I. This expedition was a complete victory, and on 29 November 1259, Casimir I was forced to surrender and promised to cede Ląd to Bolesław the Pious.  Ultimately, however, Casimir I refused to return Ląd, and this caused the coalition to attack again in 1261. Leszek II the Black, Casimir I's eldest son, took advantage of his father's difficult position and demanded his own district, using as an excuse the intrigues of his stepmother, who wanted to obtain more land for her own children. In the end, Casimir I was forced to not only surrender the castellany of Ląd, but to also give Sieradz to his son as a separate district.  Casimir died on 14 December 1267 and was buried in the Cathedral of Włocławek.

Marriages and Issue.

Around 1230/31 Casimir I married firstly with Hedwig (1218/20 – 8 January aft. 1234), probably the daughter of Władysław Odonic. They had no children.  In 1239 Casimir I married secondly with Constance (c. 1221/27 – c. 21 February 1257), a daughter of Henry II the Pious. As her dowry, she received the castellany of Ląd, which was the cause of the Casimir I's long conflict with the Duchy of Greater Poland. They had two sons:  In 1257, Casimir I married thirdly with Euphrosyne (c. 1228/30 – 4 November 1292), daughter of Casimir I of Opole. As her dowry, she received the district of Ruda, but the quick action of Przemysł I, Duke of Greater Poland, prevented this land from passing to the Masovian branch. They had four children:

Casimir I of Kuyavia () (c. 1211 – 14 December 1267) was a Polish prince and a member of the House of Piast. He was Duke of Kujawy since 1233, ruler over Ląd from 1239-1261, ruler over Wyszogród since 1242, Duke of Sieradz from 1247-1261, Duke of Łęczyca since 1247, and Duke of Dobrzyń since 1248.


History.

The Serbian revolutionary leaders — first Karađorđe and then Miloš Obrenović — succeeded in their goal of liberating Serbia from centuries-long Turkish rule. Turkish authorities acknowledged the state by the 1830 Hatt-i Sharif, and Miloš Obrenović became a hereditary prince (knjaz) of the Serbian Principality.  At first, the principality included only the territory of the former Pashaluk of Belgrade, but in 1831–33 it expanded to the east, south, and west. In 1866 Serbia began the campaign of forging The First Balkan Alliance by signing the series of agreements with other Balkan entities in the period 1866–68. On 18 April 1867 the Ottoman government ordered the Ottoman garrison, which since 1826 had been the last representation of Ottoman suzerainty in Serbia, withdrawn from the Belgrade fortress. The only stipulation was that the Ottoman flag continue to fly over the fortress alongside the Serbian one. Serbia's "de facto" independence dates from this event. A new constitution in 1869 defined Serbia as an independent state. Serbia was further expanded to the southeast in 1878, when its independence from the Ottoman Empire won full international recognition at the Treaty of Berlin. The Principality would last until 1882 when it was raised to the level of the Kingdom of Serbia.

Demographics.

This is ethnic and religious composition of Principality of Serbia in 1866 and after that population by year (with bolded text being dominant).  In the first decades of the principality, the population was about 85% Serb and 15% non-Serb. Of those, most were Vlachs, and there were some Muslim Albanians, which were the overwhelming majority of the Muslims that lived in Smederevo, Kladovo and Küprili. The new state aimed to homogenize of its population. As a result, from 1830 to the wars of the 1870s in which Albanians were expelled from the environs of Nis, it has been estimated that up to 150,000 Albanians that lived in the territories of the Principality of Serbia had been expelled.

Rulers.

The Principality was ruled by the Obrenović dynasty, except for a period under Prince Aleksandar of the Karađorđević dynasty. Princes Miloš and Mihailo Obrenović each reigned twice.

The Principality of Serbia ( / "Kneževina Srbija") was a semi-independent state in the Balkans that came into existence as a result of the Serbian Revolution, which lasted between 1804 and 1817. Its creation was negotiated first through an unwritten agreement between Miloš Obrenović, leader of the Second Serbian Uprising, and Ottoman official Marashli Pasha. It was followed by the series of legal documents published by the Porte in 1828, 1829 and finally, 1830 — the Hatt-i Sharif. Its "de facto" independence ensued in 1867, following the expulsion of all Ottoman troops from the country; its independence was recognized internationally in 1878 by the Treaty of Berlin. In 1882 the country was elevated to the status of kingdom.


Biography.

Yael Naim was born in Paris, France to Sephardic Jewish immigrants from Tunisia. At the age of four, she moved with her family to Ramat HaSharon, Israel, where she spent the rest of her childhood. She served in the Israel Defense Forces as a soloist in the Israeli Air Force Orchestra.  She began her singing career with a part in the musical "" and her first solo album, "In a Man's Womb" (recorded in Los Angeles with Kamil Rustam), was released in 2001. She also sang the song "You Disappear" by Bruno Coulais for the film "Harrison's Flowers". In her early work, she was credited simply as Yael. She also performed a duet with Din Din Aviv titled "Mashmauyot". Her version of the Britney Spears song, "Toxic" also garnered significant attention.  Naim joined with percussionist and, over a period of two years, they arranged and recorded thirteen of Naim's songs in a studio in her apartment in Paris. These were released as her second album, "Yael Naim", on 22 October 2007, on the label. The songs are in French, English and Hebrew and received critical acclaim. The album entered the French album chart at No. 11 the week after its release. Her style has been described as having a touch of folk and a touch of jazz, with mysterious and evocative words sung with a delicate and intentionally husky voice.  In January 2008, Apple featured her song "New Soul" in its debut commercial for the MacBook Air laptop. Steve Jobs himself picked the song for the launch of the laptop line. Owing to high U.S. digital sales, the song debuted on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for the chart week of 16 February 2008, at No. 9, becoming Naim's first U.S. top ten single, and making her the first Israeli solo artist to ever have a top ten hit in the United States. "New Soul" moved up to No. 7 the following week. The song was also featured on the soundtrack of the movies "The House Bunny" and "Wild Target". Her third album was released in November 2010. The first single from this new record was "Go to the River".  In 2016, she won her second Female Artist of the Year award at, the French equivalent of the Grammys. She previously won the award in 2011.

Personal life.

She is married to, a Martiniquais musician, with whom she has two children.

Television.

Naim's voice was used in a Season 21 episode of "The Simpsons", entitled "The Greatest Story Ever D'ohed". She voiced Dorit, the niece of an Israeli tour guide named Jakob (voiced by Sacha Baron Cohen).  Her single "Come Home" was in an episode of Season 7 of "Grey's Anatomy" and in episode 6 of the ABC Family series "Switched at Birth". Also, her cover of Irene Cara's "Flashdance (What a Feeling)" was used in the promotion video of "The Voice UK" in 2014.

Philanthropy.

On 27 November 2015, she participated together with Nolwenn Leroy and Camélia Jordana at the national memorial day for the victims of the November 2015 Paris attacks singing the song "" from Jacques Brel.

Yael Naim (, born 6 February 1978 in Paris, France), is an Israeli-French singer-songwriter. She rose to fame in 2008 in the US after her hit single "New Soul" was used by Apple in an advertising campaign for its MacBook Air. The song peaked at No. 7 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. In 2013, the French government made her a knight of the.


Background and education.

Lyttelton was born in Kensington, London, the son of John Lyttelton, 9th Viscount Cobham, and Violet Yolande Leonard. He was a cousin of the musician Humphrey Lyttelton. He was educated at Eton College and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating with a law degree in 1932. He had a family connection with New Zealand, where he became governor-general, through his great-grandfather George Lyttelton, 4th Baron Lyttelton, who was chairman of the Canterbury Association and contributed financially to the early development of Christchurch. Hagley Park is named after their family estate (Hagley Park, Worcestershire), and the port town of Lyttelton bears his great-grandfather's name. He visited New Zealand in 1950 in relation to property holdings in Christchurch.

Military service.

Lyttelton joined the Territorial Army in 1933. He served in the Second World War with the British Expeditionary Force in France from 1940. He was commander of the 5th Regiment from 1943.  Lyttelton was made Honorary Colonel of Queen's Own Warwickshire and Worcestershire Yeomanry on 1 April 1969.

Political career.

After the war Lyttelton wanted to follow in his father's footsteps and enter the House of Commons. However, his father died in 1949 and he succeeded as Viscount Cobham, precluding a career in the Commons.  Cobham became the ninth Governor-General of New Zealand on 5 September 1957. Although from an aristocratic background, he proved popular. He was seen as an outdoors man with a sporting prowess in cricket, and golf, and a competent rugby judge. He was good with a gun and an enthusiastic fly fisherman, all attributes that resonated well with New Zealanders. Significant events during his tenure included the independence of Western Samoa and the opening of the Auckland Harbour Bridge.  Cobham was served by three Prime Ministers: Sidney Holland (1949–1957), Keith Holyoake (1957 and 1960–1972) and Walter Nash (1957–1960). He was most careful to not comment on controversial matters, and had a good working relationship with all three. He was instrumental in setting up the Outward Bound outdoor education organisation in New Zealand, opening the Outward Bound school in Anakiwa near Picton in September 1962, which bears his name. He visited the school in 1966 and was pleased with the progress that had been made.  Cobham served until 13 September 1962. He was a skilled orator and a book of his speeches sold 50,000 copies – he donated the £10,000 profit to Outward Bound. Cobham Oval in Whangarei and Cobham Court in Porirua are named after him.

Cricket.

Lyttelton enjoyed a career in first-class cricket, playing more than 90 times for Worcestershire in the 1930s and captaining the club between 1936 and 1939.  He made his first-class debut, against Gloucestershire, in June 1932, but made a duck in his only innings and did not reappear for two years. He played five times in 1934, but it was only the following season that he became established in the side, playing about 20 matches a year from then until the Second World War, with the exception of 1937 when he appeared only twice.  His highest score (and only first-class century) was the 162 he made against Leicestershire in 1938, but he made many other useful contributions, reaching 50 on 14 further occasions. His most productive year was 1938, when he scored 741 runs at an average of 21.17.  With the ball, his first victim (in July 1934) was Charlie Barnett, while in 1935 he produced his best innings' bowling, claiming 4–83 against the South Africans. After 1935 his bowling became largely occasional, and with the exception of nine wickets in 1938 he never again took more than three in a season.  He played ten games for Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) pre war: one against Oxford University in 1935, and nine on MCC's tour of Australia and New Zealand during the following winter.  His cricketing career proper ended with the outbreak of war, but (now listed on the scorecard as Lord Cobham, having succeeded to the title in 1949) he played for an "MCC New Zealand Touring Team" against a strong "London New Zealand Club" side in 1954, taking two wickets including that of Bill Merritt. Remarkably, he made a one-off return to first-class action aged 51 in February 1961, more than two decades after his previous appearance at that level, when as Governor-General he captained a New Zealand side against MCC at Auckland: he showed he still had ability, with a handy first-innings 44 from number ten in the order.  A number of his relatives played first-class cricket. His great-grandfather George played for Cambridge University in the 1830s, his grandfather (also Charles) turned out for teams including Cambridge and MCC in the 1860s, his father John made a handful of appearances for Worcestershire in the 1920s, and his uncle – another Charles – played for Worcestershire, Cambridge and MCC before the First World War.

Family.

Lord Cobham married Elizabeth Alison Makeig-Jones on 30 April 1942 in Chelsea, London. They had four sons and four daughters. He died in Marylebone, London, on 20 March 1977, and was survived by his wife and children. He was cremated in London; his ashes were returned to Hagley for burial in the Lyttelton plot at Hagley parish church.  Children of Charles Lyttelton, 10th Viscount Cobham:  His Garter banner, which hung in St. George's Chapel in Windsor during his lifetime, is now on display in the church of St John the Baptist, Hagley.

Charles John Lyttelton, 10th Viscount Cobham, (8 August 1909 – 20 March 1977) was the ninth Governor-General of New Zealand and an English cricketer from the Lyttelton family.


Early life.

Hartley was born in Knoxville, Illinois, and was raised in the Chicago suburb of Orland Park, with his brother Nathan, and sisters Megan and Gabriela. After graduating from Carl Sandburg High School, he attended Southern Illinois University Carbondale and University of Illinois at Chicago where he majored in history and theater.

Career.

Justin Hartley portrayed Fox Crane on the NBC daytime soap opera "Passions" from 2002 to 2006. In 2006, he played the starring role as Aquaman in a television pilot for The CW titled "Aquaman" (or "Mercy Reef"), but it was not picked up as a series. Hartley did a seven-episode run as billionaire Oliver Queen on the CW series "Smallville" later that year. In 2008, he returned to "Smallville" as a regular cast member, following the departures of Kristin Kreuk, Michael Rosenbaum, Laura Vandervoort, and John Glover. Hartley also co-wrote the 2010 episode "Sacrifice" and directed the 2011 episode "Dominion". In 2008, he starred as Tom in the film "Red Canyon", filmed in the badlands of Utah.  After "Smallville", Hartley starred opposite Mamie Gummer in The CW comedy-drama "Emily Owens, M.D.", but the show was cancelled after one season. He also guest-starred on "Chuck", "Castle", and "Hart of Dixie", and from 2013–14, he had a recurring role as Victoria Grayson's (Madeleine Stowe) illegitimate son, Patrick Osbourne, on the ABC primetime soap opera "Revenge". In February 2014, Hartley landed the lead role of Tim opposite Anna Camp in the ABC comedy pilot "Damaged Goods", but the show was never picked up to series. In March 2014, he was cast in a recurring role in the second season of the ABC drama series "Mistresses" as plastic surgeon Scott Trosman, a love interest for Josslyn Carver (Jes Macallan). In November 2014, Hartley took over the role of Adam Newman on the CBS daytime soap opera "The Young and the Restless", and played the role until September 2016.  In 2015, it was announced that Hartley had been cast in a series regular role on the NBC drama series "This Is Us", which debuted in September 2016. He and the cast won Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 24th Screen Actors Guild Awards. In 2017 he had a co-starring role in the comedy film "A Bad Moms Christmas".

Personal life.

In 2003, Hartley began dating his "Passions" co-star Lindsay Korman (who played Theresa Lopez-Fitzgerald). After six months, the two became engaged on November 13, 2003, and on May 1, 2004, they married in a small ceremony. On July 3, 2004, Korman gave birth to their daughter. On May 6, 2012, it was announced that Lindsay filed for divorce after eight years of marriage in the Los Angeles County Superior Court, citing "irreconcilable differences". They remain on amicable terms and share joint custody of their daughter.  In January 2014, actress Chrishell Stause's representation confirmed that Hartley and Stause were dating and in July 2016, they announced their engagement. They were married on October 28, 2017. Hartley and Stause reside in Valley Glen, Los Angeles. In November 2019, Hartley filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences. Stause filed for dissolution of the marriage in December 2019.

Justin Scott Hartley (born January 29, 1977) is an American actor. He is known for his television roles that include Fox Crane on the NBC daytime soap opera "Passions" (2002–2006), Oliver Queen/Green Arrow on The CW television series "Smallville" (2006–2011), and Adam Newman on the CBS daytime soap opera "The Young and the Restless" (2014–2016) which earned him an Emmy nomination. Hartley appeared in the recurring role of Patrick Osbourne in the third season of the television series "Revenge". Since 2016, he has starred in the NBC drama series "This Is Us", for which he was nominated for the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series.


Name.

In English, it is typically spelled "Karadjordjevic" while pronunciation is roughly anglicized as "Karageorgevitch", and was in previous times rendered also as "Kara-Georgevitch".

Ancestry.

According to some researchers, Karađorđe's paternal ancestors most likely migrated from the Highlands (in what is today Montenegro) to Šumadija during the Second Great Serb Migration in 1737–39 under the leadership of Patriarch Šakabenta, as a result of the Austro-Turkish War (in which Serbs took part). Serbian historiography accepted the theory that Karađorđe's ancestors came from Vasojevići.  Some conjecture has arisen about where the family ended up after arriving in Šumadija. According to Radoš Ljušić, Karađorđe's ancestors most likely hailed from Vasojevići, but he has said there is no certain historical information on Karađorđe's ancestors or where they came from, folklore being the only real source. Most likely, Karađorđe's ancestors hailed from Vasojevići. Grigorije Božović (1880–1945) claimed that the family were "Srbljaci" (natives) in Vasojevići territory. Contributing to "Srbljak" theory is the fact that the family celebrated St Clement as their Slava until 1890, while the patron saint of Vasojevići, i.e. Vaso's descendants is Archangel Michael. King Peter I was allowed to change his Slava to St Andrew the First-called by Belgrade Metropolitan Mihailo in 1890, following the death of his wife, Princess Zorka, thus honoring the date by Julian calendar when Serbian rebels liberated Belgrade during the First Serbian Uprising. Furthermore, King Peter chose Duke of Vasojevići Miljan Vukov Vešović to be his bridesman during his wedding to princess Zorka in 1883. Upon being asked by his future father-in-law prince Nicholas why he chose Miljan amongst various Dukes of Montenegro, he replied that he chose him because of "heroism and relation" describing him as "Vojvode of my own blood and kin". His son, Alexander, who was born in Cetinje was nicknamed "Montenegrin" The Vasojevići tribe claim descent from Stefan Konstantin of the Nemanjić dynasty. The Vasojevići were proud of Karađorđe, and saw him as their kinsman. Montenegrin politician and Vasojević Gavro Vuković, supported this theory. Accordingly, Alexander Karađorđević (1806-1885) was given the title "Voivode of Vasojevići" by Petar II in 1840. Other theories include: Montenegrin historian Miomir Dašić claimed that Karađorđe's family originated from the Gurešići from Podgorica in Montenegro. Folklorist Dragutin Vuković believed that Tripko Knežević–Guriš was Karađorđe's great-grandfather; Vukićević, writing in 1907, said that in the surroundings of Podgorica, there is a local claim that Karađorđe's ancestors initially came from Vranj.  The family claimed descent from the Vasojevići tribe (in Montenegro) and had emigrated in the late 1730s or early 1740s. The family lived in Mačitevo (in Suva Reka), from where grandfather Jovan moved to Viševac, while Jovan's brother Radak moved to Mramorac. According to Serbian socialist Dimitrije Tucović and publicist Miroslav Ćosovic, the ancestors of Karađorđević are part of the Vasojevići tribe, which according to them is of Albanian origin.

Current claims to the throne.

The Karađorđevićs are active in Serbian society in various ways. There is a view that constitutional parliamentary monarchy would be the ultimate solution for stability, unity and continuity. In addition, they support Serbia as a democratic country with a future in the European Union.  The last crown prince of Yugoslavia, Alexander, has lived in Belgrade in the Dedinje Royal Palace since 2001. As the only son of the last king, Peter II, who never abdicated, and the last official heir of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia he claims to be the rightful heir to the Serbian throne in the event of restoration. Prior to the fall of Slobodan Milošević, he personally united the parliamentary opposition in several major congresses. In the palace, he regularly receives religious leaders and strives, as opportunity permits, to demonstrate his commitment to human rights and to democracy.  The Karađorđevićs are much engaged in humanitarian work. Crown Princess Katherine has a humanitarian foundation while Crown Prince Alexander heads the Foundation for Culture and Education, whose activities include student scholarships, summer camps for children, etc. The Karađorđevićs are also prominent in national sports activities.

Serbia and Yugoslavia.

The Karadjordjević family initially was a Serbian Royal House, then the Royal House of "the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes" and then the Royal House of Yugoslavia. When they last reigned they were called the Royal House of Yugoslavia.  Crown Prince Alexander was born in London but on property temporarily recognised by the United Kingdom's government as subject to the sovereignty of the Yugoslav crown, on which occasion it was publicly declared that the Crown Prince had been born on the native soil of the land he was expected to eventually rule.

The Karađorđević (, Karađorđevići / Карађорђевићи, ) is a Serb dynasty, founded by Karađorđe Petrović, the "veliki vožd" ("grand leader") of Serbia in the early 1800s during the First Serbian Uprising. The relatively short-lived dynasty was supported by the Russian Empire and was opposed to the Austria-Hungary-supported Obrenović dynasty. After Karađorđe's assassination in 1817, Miloš Obrenović founded the House of Obrenović. The two houses subsequently vied for the throne for several generations. Following the assassination of Alexander in 1903, the Serbian Parliament chose Karađorđe's grandson, Peter I Karađorđević, then living in exile, for the throne of the Kingdom of Serbia. He was duly crowned as King Peter I, and shortly before the end of World War I, representatives of the three peoples proclaimed a Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes with Peter I as sovereign. In 1929, the kingdom was renamed Yugoslavia, under Alexander I, the son of Peter I. In November 1945, the throne was lost when the League of Communists of Yugoslavia seized power, during the reign of Peter II.


Biography.

Origin.

Ibrahim was born to Orthodox Christian parents in Parga, Epirus, then part of the Republic of Venice. His ethnicity is unknown, but he probably originally spoke a Slavic dialect and also knew Greek and Albanian. His father was either a sailor or a fisherman. Some time between 1499 and 1502 he was captured in a raid by Iskender Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Bosnia, becoming a slave. He first met Prince Suleiman while residing at Iskender Pasha's estate near Edirne, most likely in 1514. It was then that he was taken into Suleiman's service.

Political career.

After his rival Hain Ahmed Pasha, the governor of Egypt, declared himself independent of the Ottoman Empire and was executed in 1524, Ibrahim Pasha traveled south to Egypt in 1525 and reformed the Egyptian provincial civil and military administration system. He promulgated an edict, the "Kanunname", outlining his system.  In a lavish ceremony in 1523, Ibrahim Pasha was married to Muhsine Hatun, the granddaughter of the same Iskender Pasha who had captured him more than two decades previously. This marriage appears to have been politically motivated as a method of integrating Ibrahim, an outsider, into the Ottoman elite. While Muhsine was initially skeptical about her new husband, they eventually formed a loving relationship. Although historians once believed that the woman Ibrahim married was Hatice Sultan, the sister of Sultan Suleiman, this had been based on scanty evidence and conjecture. As a result of research carried out by the historian Ebru Turan, including the discovery of multiple references to Muhsine in Venetian and Ottoman texts as well as a signed letter from her to Ibrahim, it is now generally accepted that Ibrahim's wife was Muhsine and not Hatice.  On the diplomatic front, Ibrahim's work with Western Christendom was a complete success. Portraying himself as "the real power behind the Ottoman Empire", Ibrahim used a variety of tactics to negotiate favorable deals with the leaders of the Catholic powers. The Venetian diplomats even referred to him as "Ibrahim the Magnificent", a play on Suleiman's usual sobriquet. In 1533, he convinced Charles V to turn Hungary into an Ottoman vassal state. In 1535, he completed a monumental agreement with Francis I that gave France favorable trade rights within the Ottoman Empire in exchange for joint action against the Habsburgs. This agreement would set the stage for joint Franco-Ottoman naval maneuvers, including the basing of the Ottoman fleet in southern France (in Toulon) during the winter of 1543–1544.  Although Ibrahim Pasha had long since converted to Islam, he maintained some ties to his roots, even bringing his parents to live with him in the Ottoman capital, where they also converted to Islam. His father took the name Yusuf and joined the Ottoman elite, becoming a governor in Epirus.  On 15 March 1536, Ibrahim Pasha, at age 43, was strangled to death without explanation by mute executioners at a dinner party on Suleiman's orders.

Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha ("Ibrahim Pasha of Parga"; c. 1495 – 15 March 1536), also known as Frenk Ibrahim Pasha ("the Westerner"), Makbul Ibrahim Pasha ("the Favorite"), which later changed to Maktul Ibrahim Pasha ("the Executed") after his execution in the Topkapı Palace, was the first Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire appointed by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.


Origins and evolution.

On 2 October 1792, the National Convention created the Committee of General Security from its predecessors: the Search Committee (Comité des recherches) and the Committee of Surveillance (Comité de Surveillance). The Committee was not large and never exceeded 16 members. The Committee's main responsibility was the internal security of France and to protect the Republic from both external and internal enemies. One way of ensuring the security of France was through the passport system. Through this system the members of the Committee had the knowledge of who was entering France and where they were going. The Committee had the authority to decide who was sent to the Revolutionary Tribunal for judgment during the Reign of Terror. Once the evidence was fully considered in an individual case the members of the Committee made the decision on the innocence or guilt of the suspect, which determined if that person would be released or sent to the Tribunal.  Throughout, the existence of the committee it contributed to a large number of people being sent to the guillotine. On March 29, 1794, the committee ordered twenty-four former members of the parlements of Paris and Toulouse to be sent to the Tribunal, where they were subsequently executed. Shortly after, another twenty-eight people that were a part of the Farmers-General, were investigated by the Committee and sent to the Tribunal for trial. After the trial the men were found guilty and executed.  A proposal of Danton on 13 September 1793 marked a turning point in the composition of the committee: from then on its members were appointed directly by the Committee of Public Safety and were no more than twelve in number. The regulation of 19 October 1793 stated that the committee should sit every day from eight o'clock till eleven o'clock in the evening, later if circumstances required that. The Law of 14 Frimaire (4 December 1793), voted on the report of Billaud-Varenne, restored a degree of equality between the two committees. On 16 April 1794 the Committee of Public Safety received the power to search and to bring the accused before the Revolutionary Tribunal, in the same way as the Committee of General Security. The Committee of General Security and the Committee of Public Safety worked alongside one another. Their responsibilities became overlapping which caused tensions between the two groups. The Law of 22 Prairial year II (10 June 1794) deepened this rivalry as it enabled the two committees to send the accused directly before the Revolutionary Tribunal. The law was introduced to the public without consultation from the Committee of General Security, which, in turn, doubled the number of executions permitted by the Committee of Public Safety. On 22 and 23 July the two committees met in a plenary session. Saint-Just declared in negotiations with Barère to be prepared to make concessions on the subordinate position of the Committee of General Security. Couthon agreed with more cooperation between the two committees. For Robespierre, the Committee of General Security had to remain subordinate to the Committee of Public Safety. Both committees were responsible for suppressing counterrevolution, but ended targeting each other.  The tensions grew and contributed to the downfall of Robespierre. One example of the rising tension was when two members of the Committee of General Security, Jean-Pierre-André Amar and Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier, participated in the 9 Thermidor coup against Robespierre. During the same time at the National Convention, Vadier also used false accusations implementing Catherine Théot in a plot to overthrow the Republic, which was also connected to Robespierre and the Cult of the Supreme Being.  The Committee of General Security had more than 160 employees on the eve of the 9 Thermidor. The Committee of General Security dissolved with the end of the National Convention in November 1795.

Prominent members.

The Committee of General Security had a significant number of members : there were 144 member of the Convention elected in the Committee between 2 October 1792-November 4, 1795.

The Committee of General Security () was a French parliamentary committee which acted as police agency during the French Revolution that, along with the Committee of Public Safety, oversaw the Reign of Terror.


Life and career.

He was the adopted son of Zygmunt Modzelewski. A professor at the University of Wrocław and the University of Warsaw, he was a member of the Polish United Workers Party but was expelled from it in 1964 for opposition to some policies of the party. With Jacek Kuroń he co-wrote the Open Letter to the Party, for which he was imprisoned for three years. He took part in the Polish 1968 political crisis, and for his activities he was again imprisoned for three and a half years.  During the 1980 strikes he came up with the name of 'Solidarity'. He was one of the Solidarity press contacts, and a member of the Solidarity region in Silesia. He was interned with many others during the martial law in Poland. From 1989 to 1991 he was a member of the Polish Senat (Solidarity Citizens' Committee), supporting the left-wing, particularly the Labour Union party and later Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz.  He died on 28 April 2019 in Warsaw.

Awards and distinctions.

In 1998, he was awarded Poland's highest distinction Order of White Eagle. In 2007, he won the Prize of the Foundation for Polish Science for his research on the emergence of the European identity revealing the importance of pre-Christian and multicultural tradition for the contemporary concept of Europe, presented in his work "Barbarzyńska Europa" ("Barbarian Europe").  In 2009, he received an honorary degree at the Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, and in 2014 he was the winner of the prestigious Nike Award for his autobiography entitled "Zajeździmy kobyłę historii: wyznania poobijanego jeźdźca" ("We'll Ride the Mare of History to the Ground: Confessions of a Bruised Rider") as well as the Kazimierz Moczarski History Award and the Józef Tischner Award. In 2016, he became an honorary citizen of the city of Wrocław and together with Róża Thun received the Order of Legion d'Honneur.

Karol Cyryl Modzelewski (23 November 1937 – 28 April 2019) was a Polish historian, writer, politician and academic of Russian origin, one of the leading figures of the democratic opposition in the Polish People's Republic from the 1960s to the 1980s.