Taxonomy.

The Ethiopian "Australopithecus garhi" was first described in 1999 by palaeoanthropologists Berhane Asfaw, Tim D. White, Owen Lovejoy, Bruce Latimer, Scott Simpson, and Gen Suwa based on fossils discovered in the Hatayae Beds of the Bouri Formation in Middle Awash, Afar Region, Ethiopia. The first hominin remains were discovered here in 1990—a partial parietal bone (GAM-VP-1/2), left jawbone (GAM-VP-1/1), and left humerus (MAT-VP-1/1)—which are unassignable to a specific genus. The first identifiable "Australopithecus" fossils–an adult ulna (BOU-VP-11/1)–were found on 17 November 1996 by T. Assebework. A partial skeleton (BOU-VP-12/1) was discovered 13 days later by White, comprising a mostly complete left femur, right humerus, radius, and ulna, and a partial fibula, foot, and jawbone. The holotype specimen, a partial skull (BOU-VP-12/130), was discovered on 20 November 1997 by Ethiopian palaeoanthropologist Yohannes Haile-Selassie. More skull fragments (BOU-VP-12/87) were recovered south of BOU-VP-12/1. On 17 November 1997, French palaeoanthropologist Alban Defleur discovered a complete mandible (BOU-VP-17/1) about north in the Esa Dibo locality of the formation, and American palaeoanthropologist David DeGusta discovered a humerus (BOU-VP-35/1) north of BOU-VP-17/1. However, BOU-VP-11, -12, and -35 cannot conclusively be attributed to "A. garhi".  The remains are dated to about 2.5 million years ago (mya) based on argon–argon dating. When they were discovered, human evolution was obscured due to a paucity of remains from 3 to 2 mya, with the only hominins from this timespan being identified from South Africa ("A. africanus") and Lake Turkana, Kenya ("Paranthropus aethiopicus"). Likewise, the classification of australopithecines and pre-"Homo erectus" hominins has been the subject of much debate. The original describers considered "A. garhi" to be a descendent of the earlier "A. afarensis" which inhabited the same region, based mainly on dental similarities. Though they assigned the species to "Australopithecus", the original describers believed it could represent an ancestor to "Homo", which, if the case, would possibly lead to reclassification as "H. garhi". Because the characteristics of "A. garhi" are unexpected for a human ancestor at this stage, the species name, "garhi", means "surprise" in the local Afar language. In 1999, American palaeoanthropologists David Strait and Frederick E. Grine concluded that "A. garhi" was instead an offshoot of the human line instead of an ancestor because "A. garhi" and "Homo" share no synapomorphies (traits unique to only them). In 2015, "Homo" was recorded from 2.8 mya, much earlier than "A. garhi".

Anatomy.

Like other australopithecines, "A. garhi" had a brain volume of about, a sagittal crest running along the midline of the skull, and a prognathic jaw (the jaw jutted out). Relatively, the postcanine teeth, the molars and premolars, are massive (post-canine megadontia), similar to or greater than those of other australopithecines and of the large-toothed "Paranthropus robustus". The large teeth of "Australopithecus" species have historically been interpreted as having been adaptations for a diet of hard foods, but the durable teeth may instead have only served an important function during leaner times for harder fallback foods. That is, dental anatomy may not accurately portray normal "Australopithecus" diet, rather abnormal diet during times of famine.  Like the earlier "A. afarensis" from the same region, "A. garhi" had a humanlike humerus to femur ratio, and an apelike brachial index (lower to upper arm ratio) as well as curved phalanges of the hand. This is generally interpreted as adaptations for both walking on two legs (habitual bipedalism) as well as for grasping while climbing in trees (arboreality).  The BOU-VP-35/1 humerus specimen is notably larger than the humerus of the BOU-VP-12/1 specimen, which could potentially indicate size-specific sexual dimorphism with males larger than females to a similar degree to what is postulated in "A. afarensis", but it is unclear if this does not represent normal size variation of the same sex as this is based on only two specimens. Nonetheless, on the basis of size, BOU-VP-12/130 is considered male and BOU-VP-17/1 female. Contemporary hominins from Kenya are about the same size as "A. garhi". BOU-VP-17/1 may have been about tall.  "Australopithecus" are thought to have had fast, apelike growth rates, lacking an extended childhood typical of modern humans. However, the legs of "A. garhi" are elongated, unlike those of other "Australopithecus", and, in humans, elongated limbs develop during the delayed adolescent growth spurt. This could mean that "A. garhi", compared to other "Australopithecus", either had a slower overall growth rate, or a more rapid leg growth rate.

Culture.

It was previously believed that only "Homo" could manufacture tools, but mammalian bones associated with the "A. garhi" remains exhibit cut and percussion marks made from stone tools: the left mandible of an alcelaphine bovid with three successive, unambiguous cut marks presumably made while removing the tongue; a bovid tibia with cut marks, chop marks, and impact scars from a hammerstone, possibly inflicted to harvest the bone marrow; and a "Hipparion" (a horse) femur with cut marks consistent with dismemberment and filleting. However, it is unclear why no stone tools were recovered from this site. Because the Hatayae locality was likely a featureless, grassy lake margin with so few raw materials for making stone tools, it is possible these hominins were creating and carrying tools some ways with them to butchering sites, intending to use them many times before discarding.  At the nearby Gona site, where there is an abundance of raw materials, several Oldowan tools (an industry previously believed to have been invented by "H. habilis") were recovered from 1992–1994. The tools date to around 2.6–2.5 mya, the oldest evidence of manufacturing at the time, and since "A. garhi" was the only species identified in the vicinity at the time, this species was the best candidate for authorship. However, in 2015, the earliest remains of "Homo", LD 350-1, were discovered in Ledi-Geraru, also in the Afar Region, dating to 2.8–2.75 mya. More stone tools were found in 2019 dating to about 2.6 mya in Ledi-Geraru, predating the Gona artifacts, and these may be attributed to "Homo"; the invention of sharp-edged Oldowan tools could actually be due to specific adaptations characteristic of "Homo". Nonetheless, other australopithecines have been associated with stone tool manufacturing, such as the 2010 discovery of cut marks dating to 3.4 mya attributed to "A. afarensis", and the 2015 discovery of the Lomekwi culture from Lake Turkana dating to 3.3 mya possibly attributed to "Kenyanthropus".

Australopithecus garhi is a species of australopithecine from the Bouri Formation in the Afar Region of Ethiopia 2.6–2.5 million years ago (mya) during the Early Pleistocene. The first remains were described in 1999 based on several skeletal elements uncovered in the three years preceding. "A. garhi" was originally considered to have been a direct ancestor to "Homo" and the human line, but is now thought to have been an offshoot. Like other australopithecines, "A. garhi" had a brain volume of ; a jaw which jutted out (prognathism); relatively large molars and premolars; adaptations for both walking on two legs (bipedalism) and grasping while climbing (arboreality); and it is possible that, though unclear if, males were larger than females (exhibited sexual dimorphism). One individual, presumed female based on size, may have been tall.


Early life.

He was born on 14 February 1945 in Zürich, Switzerland, as the eldest son of Prince Franz Joseph II and Princess Gina of Liechtenstein. His father had succeeded as Prince of Liechtenstein in 1938 upon the death of his childless grand-uncle, Prince Franz I, and Hans-Adam was thus hereditary prince from birth.  In 1969, Hans-Adam graduated from the University of St. Gallen with a Licentiate (equivalent to a master's degree) in Business and Economic Studies.  In 1984, Prince Franz Joseph II, while legally remaining head of state and retaining the title of sovereign prince, formally handed the power of making day-to-day governmental decisions to his eldest son as a way of beginning a dynastic transition to a new generation. Hans-Adam formally succeeded as Prince of Liechtenstein upon the death of his father on 13 November 1989.

Powers.

A referendum to adopt Hans-Adam's revision of the constitution to expand his powers passed in 2003. The prince had threatened to leave the country if the referendum did not result in his favour.  On 15 August 2004 Hans-Adam formally handed the power of making day-to-day governmental decisions to his eldest son, the Hereditary Prince Alois, as a way of beginning a dynastic transition to a new generation. Legally, Hans-Adam remains the head of state.  In July 2012 the people of Liechtenstein overwhelmingly rejected a proposal to curtail the political power of the princely family. Despite an almost year-long campaign by those who proposed the changes, 76% of those voting in a referendum supported the Prince's power to veto the outcome of future referendums. Legislators, who serve on a part-time basis, rose in the prince's defence on 23 May, voting 18 to 7 against the citizens' initiative. Hans-Adam responded to the result: "It is with joy and gratitude that the Princely House of Liechtenstein has taken note that a large majority of the population would like to continue the hitherto so successful 300-year partnership between the people and the Princely House."

Personal wealth.

Hans-Adam owns LGT banking group and has a family fortune of $US7.6 billion and a personal fortune of about $US4 billion, making him one of the world's richest heads of state, and Europe's wealthiest monarch. He owns an extensive art collection, much of which is displayed for the public at the Liechtenstein Museum in Vienna.

Personal life.

Hans-Adam descends in the direct male line from three of the previous fourteen Princes of Liechtenstein, and from another three in the female line.  On 30 July 1967, at St. Florin's in Vaduz, he married his second cousin once-removed, Countess Marie Aglaë Kinsky von Wchinitz und Tettau (born 1940) who, upon her husband's accession to the throne, became "Her Serene Highness The Princess of Liechtenstein".  They have four children and 15 grandchildren:  The Prince is an honorary member of K.D.St.V. Nordgau Prag Stuttgart, a Catholic students' fraternity that is a member of the Cartellverband der katholischen deutschen Studentenverbindungen. The Prince donated $12 million in 2000 to found the Liechtenstein Institute on Self-determination (LISD) at Princeton University's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs. In his childhood he joined the Pfadfinder und Pfadfinderinnen Liechtensteins in Vaduz. He is also a former member of the Viennese Scout Group ""Wien 16-Schotten"". He is a member of the World Scout Foundation.

Viewpoints and book.

Hans-Adam has written the political treatise "The State in the Third Millennium" (), which was published in late 2009. In it, he argues for the continued importance of the nation-state as a political actor. He controversially tried to patent millennia-old native foods like Basmati rice through an American patent and succeeded but withdrew after concerns raised by India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. He makes the case for democracy as the best form of government, which he sees China and Russia as in transition towards although the path will be difficult for these nations. He also declared his role in a princely family as something that has legitimacy only from the assent of the people. He stated that government should be limited to a small set of tasks and abilities, writing that people "have to free the state from all the unnecessary tasks and burdens with which it has been loaded during the last hundred years, which have distracted it from its two main tasks: maintenance of the rule of law and foreign policy". In an interview, recorded in November 2010, Hans-Adam said that he saw certain problems with aspects of the US Constitution, such as the lack of direct democracy. He also said, "I am sitting here and that's because Americans saved us during World War II and during the Cold War. So I am very grateful to them."  Hans-Adam offered a major contribution to the study of self-determination in the foreword to a "Sourcebook, on Self-Determination and Self-Administration", edited by Wolfgang F. Danspeckgruber and Sir Arthur Watts,, 1997; and in the Encyclopedia Princetoniensis.

Titles, styles and honours.

Titles and styles.

The official title of the monarch is "Prince of Liechtenstein, Duke of Troppau and Jägerndorf, Count of Rietberg, Sovereign of the House of Liechtenstein" (German: "Fürst von und zu Liechtenstein, Herzog von Troppau und Jägerndorf, Graf zu Rietberg, Regierer des Hauses von und zu Liechtenstein"). Modern German uses different words for two types of aristocrat, both of whom are referred to as "prince" in English: The German word for a ruler, head of family or nobleman who ranks below a "Herzog" and above a "Graf" is "Fürst", while a cadet descendant of an emperor, king, reigning "Fürst" and some other "Fürsten", is "Prinz".

Hans-Adam II (Johannes Adam Ferdinand Alois Josef Maria Marco d'Aviano Pius; born 14 February 1945) is the reigning Prince of Liechtenstein. He is the son of Franz Joseph II, Prince of Liechtenstein (1906–1989) and his wife, Countess Georgina von Wilczek (1921–1989). He also bears the titles Duke of Troppau and Jägerndorf, and Count of Rietberg. Hans-Adam is the richest monarch in Europe.


Origin of behavioral modernity.

The earliest evidence of behavioral modernity first appears during the Middle Paleolithic; undisputed evidence of behavioral modernity, however, only becomes common during the following Upper Paleolithic period.  Middle Paleolithic burials at sites such as Krapina in Croatia (dated to 130,000 BP) and the Qafzeh and Es Skhul caves in Israel ( 100,000 BP) have led some anthropologists and archeologists (such as Philip Lieberman) to believe that Middle Paleolithic cultures may have possessed a developing religious ideology which included concepts such as an afterlife; other scholars suggest the bodies were buried for secular reasons.  According to recent archeological findings from "Homo heidelbergensis" sites in the Atapuerca Mountains, the practice of intentional burial may have begun much earlier during the late Lower Paleolithic, but this theory is widely questioned in the scientific community. Cut-marks on Neandertal bones from various sites - such as Combe Grenal and the Moula rock shelter in France - may imply that Neanderthals, like some contemporary human cultures, may have practiced excarnation for presumably religious reasons (see Neanderthal behavior § Cannibalism or ritual defleshing?).  The earliest undisputed evidence of artistic expression during the Paleolithic period comes from Middle Paleolithic/Middle Stone Age sites such as Blombos Cave in the form of bracelets, beads, art rock, ochre used as body paint and perhaps in ritual, though earlier examples of artistic expression such as the Venus of Tan-Tan and the patterns found on elephant bones from Bilzingsleben in Thuringia may have been produced by Acheulean tool-users such as "Homo erectus" prior to the start of the Middle Paleolithic period. Activities such as catching large fish and hunting large game animals with specialized tools indicate increased group-wide cooperation and more elaborate social organization.  In addition to developing advanced cultural traits, humans also first began to take part in long-distance trade between groups for rare commodities (such as ochre (which was often used for religious purposes such as ritual)) and raw materials during the Middle Paleolithic as early as 120,000 years ago. Inter-group trade may have appeared during the Middle Paleolithic because trade between bands would have helped ensure their survival by allowing them to exchange resources and commodities such as raw materials during times of relative scarcity (i.e., famine or drought).

Social stratification.

Evidence from archeology and comparative ethnography indicates that Middle Paleolithic people lived in small, egalitarian band societies similar to those of Upper Paleolithic societies and some modern hunter-gatherers such as the ǃKung and Mbuti peoples. Both Neandertal and modern human societies took care of the elderly members of their societies during the Middle Paleolithic. Christopher Boehm (1999) has hypothesized that egalitarianism may have arisen in Middle Paleolithic societies because of a need to distribute resources such as food and meat equally to avoid famine and ensure a stable food supply.  Typically, it has been assumed that women gathered plants and firewood and men hunted and scavenged dead animals through the Paleolithic. However, recent archaeological research done by the anthropologist and archaeologist Steven Kuhn from the University of Arizona suggests that this sex-based division of labor (presumably) did not exist prior to the Upper Paleolithic in Middle Paleolithic societies (modern humans before 40,000 or 50,000 BCE and Neandertals) and evolved relatively recently in human prehistory. The sexual division of labor may have evolved to allow humans to acquire food and other resources more efficiently and thus may have allowed Upper Paleolithic "Homo sapiens" to out-compete the Neandertals in Europe.

Nutrition.

Although gathering and hunting comprised most of the food supply during the Middle Paleolithic, people began to supplement their diet with seafood and began smoking and drying meat to preserve and store it. For instance the Middle Stone Age inhabitants of the region now occupied by the Democratic Republic of the Congo hunted large long catfish with specialized barbed fishing points as early as 90,000 years ago, and Neandertals and Middle Paleolithic "Homo sapiens" in Africa began to catch shellfish for food as revealed by shellfish cooking in Neandertal sites in Italy about 110,000 years ago and Middle Paleolithic "Homo sapiens" sites at Pinnacle Point, in Africa.<ref name="NYTIMES/10/08/07"></ref>  Anthropologists such as Tim D. White suggest that cannibalism was common in human societies prior to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, based on the large amount of “butchered human" bones found in Neandertal and other Middle Paleolithic sites. Cannibalism in the Middle Paleolithic may have occurred because of food shortages.  However it is also possible that Middle Paleolithic cannibalism occurred for religious reasons which would coincide with the development of religious practices thought to have occurred during the Upper Paleolithic. Nonetheless it remains possible that Middle Paleolithic societies never practiced cannibalism and that the damage to recovered human bones was either the result of excarnation or predation by carnivores such as saber-toothed cats, lions and hyenas.

Technology.

Around 200,000 BP Middle Paleolithic Stone tool manufacturing spawned a tool-making technique known as the prepared-core technique, that was more elaborate than previous Acheulean techniques. Wallace and Shea split the core artifacts into two different types: formal cores and expedient cores. Formal cores are designed to extract the maximum amount from the raw material while expedient cores are more based on function need. This method increased efficiency by permitting the creation of more controlled and consistent flakes. This method allowed Middle Paleolithic humans correspondingly to create stone-tipped spears, which were the earliest composite tools, by hafting sharp, pointy stone flakes onto wooden shafts. Paleolithic groups such as the Neanderthals who possessed a Middle Paleolithic level of technology appear to have hunted large game just as well as Upper Paleolithic modern humans and the Neanderthals in particular may have likewise hunted with projectile weapons.  Nonetheless Neanderthal usage of projectile weapons in hunting occurred very rarely (or perhaps never) and the Neanderthals hunted large game animals mostly by ambushing them and attacking them with mêlée weapons such as thrusting spears rather than attacking them from a distance with projectile weapons. An ongoing controversy about the nature of Middle Paleolithic tools is whether there were a series of functionally specific and preconceived tool forms or whether there was a simple continuum of tool morphology that reflect the extent of edge maintenance, as Harold L. Dibble has suggested.  The use of fire became widespread for the first time in human prehistory during the Middle Paleolithic and humans began to cook their food c. 250,000 years ago. Some scientists have hypothesized that hominids began cooking food to defrost frozen meat which would help ensure their survival in cold regions. Robert K. Wayne, a molecular biologist, has controversially claimed, based on a comparison of canine DNA, that dogs may have been first domesticated during the Middle Paleolithic around or even before 100,000 BCE.

The Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. The term Middle Stone Age is used as an equivalent or a synonym for the Middle Paleolithic in African archeology. The Middle Paleolithic broadly spanned from 300,000 to 30,000 years ago. There are considerable dating differences between regions. The Middle Paleolithic was succeeded by the Upper Paleolithic subdivision which first began between 50,000 and 40,000 years ago. Pettit and White date the Early Middle Paleolithic in Great Britain to about 325,000 to 180,000 years ago (late Marine Isotope Stage 9 to late Marine Isotope Stage 7), and the Late Middle Paleolithic as about 60,000 to 35,000 years ago.


Family.

Władysław was the fifth and youngest son of the Silesian duke Henry II the Pious, by his wife Anna, daughter of the Přemyslid king Ottokar I of Bohemia. The Silesian Piasts, elder line of the Polish ruling Piast dynasty, had been restored into their Silesian heritage by the aid of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1163. Władysław's grandfather, Duke Henry the Bearded, also regained the Seniorate Province and the Polish Crown as High Duke in 1232.  Duke Henry II became co-ruler of his father in 1226 and was able to succeed him as Silesian duke and High Duke of Poland in 1238. When he was killed during the Mongol invasion in the Battle of Legnica on 9 April 1241, Władysław's eldest brother Bolesław II the Bald assumed the rule over the Lower Silesian lands and the guardianship of his minor siblings. Stuck in internal conflicts with his brothers Henry III the White and Mieszko, he was not able to secure the Polish throne, which he had to cede to his Piast cousin Konrad of Masovia.

Life.

With the approval of their mother Anna of Bohemia and with the purpose to not further divide the paternal lands, the younger sons of late Henry II, Władysław and Konrad I, were sent to study at the Italian university of Padua, with the idea that both prepare for an ecclesiastical career. In 1248, their rivalling elder brothers Henry III and Bolesław II finally came to terms: Henry assumed the government over the Lower Silesian lands around Wrocław, after he made a land division with Bolesław II. He chose Władysław as co-ruler, while Konrad I supposedly became co-ruler in the newly established Duchy of Legnica under Bolesław. However, the Duke of Legnica refused to share the power with anybody. Konrad fled to Greater Poland and, backed by his brother-in-law Duke Przemysł I, eventually obtained the Duchy of Głogów as his own share in 1251.  In the case of Henry III and Władysław, the cooperation between the brothers was a mutual agreement with few opportunities to frictions, as Władysław mainly stayed in the Bohemian capital Prague at the court of his maternal cousin King Ottokar II. His role in the undivided Duchy of Wrocław was limited to receive his rents; Henry III took under his hands all the government. Nevertheless, Władysław too issued numerous deeds and in 1261 he and his brother jointly vested the Wrocław citizens with Magdeburg rights. With the support of the Bohemian king, Władysław continued his spiritual career: about 1255 he became a provost at the cathedral chapter of the St Peter and Paul collegiate church in Vyšehrad (today a part of Prague) and thus was appointed Bohemian Royal Chancellor, a post exclusively reserved for the Vyšehrad provosts. The close alliance between the Silesian Piasts and the Přemyslid dynasty strengthened the ties between the lands of Silesia and Bohemia.  Władysław joined the cathedral chapter in Bamberg in 1256 and was elected bishop in the following year, however, he had to resign, as he received no dispensation by Pope Alexander IV due to his young age. Backed by King Ottokar II, he became a member of the Wrocław chapter and in April 1265 he was elected Bishop of Passau. In October he was elected Archbishop of Salzburg; this time he received the consent of Pope Clement IV. Władysław arrived in Salzburg in Spring 1266. He had to return to Silesia upon the death of his brother Duke Henry III the White on 3 December 1266. In his will, he left Władysław the guardianship of his infant son Henry IV Probus and with this, the regency of the whole Silesian duchy of Wrocław.  Henry III's government had not been too beneficial to the church; Władysław, now as a bishop and also regent, was not inclined to preserve the prerogatives of the nobility, but at the end he was forced to accept this. The bishop-regent was an advocate, with his late brother Henry III, for the canonization of their paternal grandmother, Duchess Hedwig of Silesia ("née" of Andechs). The process was finally completed, when Saint Hedwig was canonized by Pope Clement on 26 March 1267. This was certainly Władysław's great personal success and gave much prestige to the whole family.  The final chord of his great church's career was his nomination in 1268 to the Bishopric of Wrocław. Władysław had no intention to sacrifice the Archbishopric of Salzburg, but thanks to his influence in Prague and Rome he was appointed an "apostolic administrator" with all the rights of a bishop. Władysław fulfilled all his duties honestly, a quite uncommon attitude among the medieval princes. When he was Archbishop of Salzburg and shortly afterwards received the title of an administrator in the Diocese of Wroclaw, he was able to combine the two positions so that no one can say that these features overwhelm them. The last four years of life he was in constant travels between Salzburg and Wrocław.  Władysław died on 27 April 1270 and was buried in Salzburg Cathedral. In his will, he left his rights over the half of the Duchy of Wroclaw to his nephew Henry IV Probus. There were some rumours that the cause of death of the young bishop, with not more than thirty-three years, was poisoning. Guilty of this crime have to be among the nobility, who four years earlier apparently killed Duke Henry III the White, and almost twenty years later his nephew Henry IV shared the same fate. The mere fact of mentioning the same source (the "Chronicle of the Silesian Piast Dukes" and his likes) stated that the subsequent death of the Dukes of Wroclaw in a short term appears to be somewhat suspect. Likely source of sensational suit has gone, but few credible rumors. The sudden death of a young prince caused by natural factors in the time, when the medical service was not the best, could easily be interpreted as a poisoning. Władysław's death was likely, however, natural, which indicates the presumable place of his death, Salzburg. If the Polish nobles actually wanted to kill him, they presumably would have made this when he stayed in Wroclaw and may not have chosen a long journey to Germany to eliminate the bishop-regent.

Władysław of Salzburg, also known as Władysław of Wrocław () or Władysław of Silesia (, ; – 27 April 1270), a member of the Silesian Piasts, was co-ruler in the Duchy of Wroclaw since 1248. He served as chancellor of King Ottokar II of Bohemia from 1255 and was elected Bishop of Bamberg in 1257 and Bishop of Passau in 1265. Władysław became Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg in the same year, and from 1268 also served as administrator of the Wrocław diocese.


Party history.

The Justicialist Party was founded in 1947 by Juan and Evita Perón, and superseded the Labour Party on which Perón had been elected a year earlier. Following the enactment of women's right to vote in 1948, the Peronist Women's Party, led by the First Lady, was also established. All Peronist entities were banned from elections after 1955, when the "Revolución Libertadora" overthrew Perón, and civilian governments' attempt to lift Peronism's ban from legislative and local elections in 1962 and 1965 resulted in military coups. Basing itself on the policies espoused by Juan Perón as president of Argentina, the party's platform has from its inception centered around populism, and its most consistent base of support has historically been the CGT, Argentina's largest trade union. Perón ordered the mass nationalization of public services, strategic industries, and the critical farm export sector, while enacting progressive labor laws and social reforms, and accelerating public works investment.  His tenure also favored technical schools while harassing university staff, and promoted urbanization as it raised taxes on the agrarian sector. These trends earned Peronism the loyalty of much of the working and lower classes, but helped alienate the upper and middle class sectors of society. Censorship and repression intensified, and following his loss of support from the influential Catholic Church, Perón was ultimately deposed in a violent 1955 coup.  The alignment of these groups as pro or anti-Peronist largely endured, though the policies of Peronism itself varied greatly over the subsequent decades, as did, increasingly, those put forth by its many competing figures. During Perón's exile, it became a big tent party united almost solely by their support for the aging leader's return. A series of violent incidents, as well as Perón's negotiations with both the military regime and diverse political factions, helped lead to his return to Argentina in 1973, and to his election.  An impasse followed in which the PJ had a place both for leftist armed organizations such as "Montoneros", and far-right factions such as José López Rega's Argentine Anti-Communist Alliance. Following Perón's death in 1974, however, this tenuous understanding disintegrated, and a wave of political violence ensued, ultimately resulting in the March 1976 coup. The Dirty War of the late 1970s, which cost hundreds of Peronists (among thousands more) their lives, solidified the party's populist outlook, particularly following the failure of conservative Economy Minister José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz's free trade and deregulatory policies after 1980.  In the first democratic elections after the end of the dictatorship of the National Reorganization Process, in 1983, the Justicialist Party lost to the Radical Civic Union (UCR). Six years later, it returned to power with Carlos Menem, during whose term the Constitution was reformed to allow for presidential reelection. Menem (1989–1999) adopted neoliberal right-wing policies which changed the overall image of the party.  The Justicialist Party was defeated by a coalition formed by the UCR and the centre-left FrePaSo (itself a left-wing offshoot of the PJ) in 1999, but regained political weight in the 2001 legislative elections, and was ultimately left in charge of managing the selection of an interim president after the economic collapse of December 2001. Justicialist Eduardo Duhalde, chosen by Congress, ruled during 2002 and part of 2003.  The 2003 elections saw the constituency of the party split in three, as Carlos Menem, Néstor Kirchner (backed by Duhalde) and Adolfo Rodríguez Saá ran for the presidency leading different party coalitions. After Kirchner's victory, the party started to align behind his leadership, moving slightly to the left.  The Justicialist Party effectively broke apart in the 2005 legislative elections when two factions ran for a Senate seat in Buenos Aires Province: Cristina Fernández de Kirchner (then the first lady) and Hilda González de Duhalde (wife of former president Duhalde). The campaign was particularly vicious. Kirchner's side allied with other minor forces and presented itself as a heterodox, left-leaning Front for Victory (FpV), while Duhalde's side stuck to older Peronist tradition. González de Duhalde's defeat to her opponent marked, according to many political analysts, the end to Duhalde's dominance over the province, and was followed by a steady defection of his supporters to the winner's side.  Néstor Kirchner proposed the entry of the party into the Socialist International in February 2008. His dominance of the party was undermined, however, by the 2008 Argentine government conflict with the agricultural sector, when a bill raising export taxes was introduced with presidential support. Subsequent growers' lockouts helped result in the defection of numerous Peronists from the FpV caucus, and further losses during the 2009 mid-term elections resulted in the loss of the FpV absolute majorities in both houses of Congress.  In 2015, the PJ, with its presidential candidate Daniel Scioli, was defeated by the Cambiemos coalition. Mauricio Macri was inaugurated as President of Argentina, ending 12 years of Kirchnerism.  However, in the elections of 2019, the PJ joined the Frente de Todos, which won the presidential elections. The PJ returned to power, with Alberto Fernández as President of the nation.

Ideology.

From its foundation the Justicialist Party has been a Peronist catch-all party, which focuses on the figure of Juan Perón and his wife Eva.  From 1974 to 1976, under the leadership of Isabel Peron, the Justicialist Party is no longer characterized by anti-imperialist and revolutionary tones, but by a strong focus on anti-communism (of which it became the main bulwark in South America) and the support of neoliberalism. This line continued even after the military dictatorship of the National Reorganization Process, with the Government of Carlos Menem until that of Eduardo Duhalde. From the return of Peron in 1973 the party moved from being a Third Position left-wing party to a centre-right party, while rival Radical Civic Union acted as a centre-left party.  Since 2003 the party has undergone an abrupt turnaround, with the rise of a faction known as the "Front for Victory", led by Néstor Kirchner. The policies and ideology of this faction was dubbed "Kirchnerismo", a mix of socialism, left-wing nationalism and radicalism. Néstor Kirchner was elected President of Argentina, becoming popular in a short time. After his death, his wife Cristina Fernández took over the leadership of the Front for Victory, which continues to be a major faction of the Justicialist Party, with the head of the party being Eduardo Fellner.

The Justicialist Party (, ), or PJ, is a Peronist political party in Argentina, and the largest component of the Peronist movement.


Lifestyle and technology.

Both "Homo erectus" and Neanderthals used the same crude stone tools. Archaeologist Richard G. Klein, who has worked extensively on ancient stone tools, describes the stone tool kit of archaic hominids as impossible to categorize. He argues that almost everywhere, whether Asia, Africa or Europe, before 50,000 years ago all the stone tools are much alike and unsophisticated. Firstly among the artefacts of Africa, archeologists found they could differentiate and classify those of less than 50,000 years into many different categories, such as projectile points, engraving tools, knife blades, and drilling and piercing tools. These new stone-tool types have been described as being distinctly differentiated from each other; each tool had a specific purpose. The invaders, commonly referred to as the Cro-Magnons, left many sophisticated stone tools, carved and engraved pieces on bone, ivory and antler, cave paintings and Venus figurines.  The Neanderthals continued to use Mousterian stone tool technology and possibly Chatelperronian technology. These tools disappeared from the archeological record at around the same time the Neanderthals themselves disappeared from the fossil record, about 40,000 cal BP. Settlements were often located in narrow valley bottoms, possibly associated with hunting of passing herds of animals. Some of them may have been occupied year round, though more commonly they appear to have been used seasonally; people moved between the sites to exploit different food sources at different times of the year. Hunting was important, and caribou/wild reindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting."  Technological advances included significant developments in flint tool manufacturing, with industries based on fine blades rather than simpler and shorter flakes. Burins and racloirs were used to work bone, antler and hides. Advanced darts and harpoons also appear in this period, along with the fish hook, the oil lamp, rope, and the eyed needle.  The changes in human behavior have been attributed to changes in climate, encompassing a number of global temperature drops. These led to a worsening of the already bitter cold of the last glacial period (popularly but incorrectly called the last ice age). Such changes may have reduced the supply of usable timber and forced people to look at other materials. In addition, flint becomes brittle at low temperatures and may not have functioned as a tool.  Some scholars argue that the appearance of complex or abstract language made these behavior changes possible. The complexity of the new human capabilities hints that humans were less capable of planning or foresight before 40,000 years, while the emergence of cooperative and coherent communication marked a new era of cultural development.

Changes in climate and geography.

The climate of the period in Europe saw dramatic changes, and included the Last Glacial Maximum, the coldest phase of the last glacial period, which lasted from about 26.5 to 19 kya, being coldest at the end, before a relatively rapid warming (all dates vary somewhat for different areas, and in different studies). During the Maximum, most of Northern Europe was covered by an ice-sheet, forcing human populations into the areas known as Last Glacial Maximum refugia, including modern Italy and the Balkans, parts of the Iberian Peninsula and areas around the Black Sea.  This period saw cultures such as the Solutrean in France and Spain. Human life may have continued on top of the ice sheet, but we know next to nothing about it, and very little about the human life that preceded the European glaciers. In the early part of the period, up to about 30 kya, the Mousterian Pluvial made northern Africa, including the Sahara, well-watered and with lower temperatures than today; after the end of the Pluvial the Sahara became arid. The Last Glacial Maximum was followed by the Allerød oscillation, a warm and moist global interstadial that occurred around 13.5 to 13.8 kya. Then there was a very rapid onset, perhaps within as little as a decade, of the cold and dry Younger Dryas climate period, giving sub-arctic conditions to much of northern Europe. The Preboreal rise in temperatures also began sharply around 10.3 kya, and by its end around 9.0 kya had brought temperatures nearly to present day levels, although the climate was wetter. This period saw the Upper Paleolithic give way to the start of the following Mesolithic cultural period.  As the glaciers receded sea levels rose; the English Channel, Irish Sea and North Sea were land at this time, and the Black Sea a fresh-water lake. In particular the Atlantic coastline was initially far out to sea in modern terms in most areas, though the Mediterranean coastline has retreated far less, except in the north of the Adriatic and the Aegean. The rise in sea levels continued until at least 7.5 kya (5500 BC), so evidence of human activity along Europe's coasts in the Upper Paleolithic is mostly lost, though some traces have been recovered by fishing boats and marine archaeology, especially from Doggerland, the lost area beneath the North Sea.

Timeline.

50,000–40,000 BP.

50,000 BP 45,000–43,000 BP 43,000–41,000 BP

40,000–30,000 BP.

40,000–35,000 BP  35,000 BP 30,000 BP

30,000–20,000 BP.

29,000–25,000 BP 24,000 BP 23,000 BP 22,000 BP 21,000 BP

20,000–10,000 BP.

18,000 BP  17,000 BP  15,000 BP 14,000 BP  12,000 BP  11,000 BP  10,000 BP

Cultures.

The Upper Paleolithic in the Franco-Cantabrian region:

The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic, Late Stone Age) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. Very broadly, it dates to between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago (the beginning of the Holocene), according to some theories coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity in early modern humans, until the advent of the Neolithic Revolution and agriculture.


History.

Greek settlement.

The first recorded settlement in the area, called Kerkinitis (), was built by Greek colonists around 500 BC. Along with the rest of Crimea, Kerkinitis formed part of the dominions of Mithridates VI, King of Pontus ( BC), from whose nickname, "Eupator" ("of noble father"), the city's modern name derives.

Khanate period.

From roughly the 7th through the 10th centuries AD, Yevpatoria was a Khazar settlement; its name in Khazar language was probably "Güzliev" (literally "beautiful house"). It was later subject to the Cumans (Kipchaks), the Mongols and the Crimean Khanate. During this period the city was called "Kezlev" by Crimean Tatars and "Gözleve" by Ottomans. The Russian medieval name "Kozlov" is a Russification of the Crimean Tatar name. For a short period between 1478 and 1485, the city was administrated by the Ottoman Empire. Afterwards, it became an important urban center of the Crimean Khanate.  The 400-year-old Juma Jami mosque is one of the many designed by the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan. It was built from 1552 until 1564. 35-metre minarets rose on the flanks of the building. The mosque was of great state significance. It was here that a ceremony of the declaration of rights of the Crimean Khans was held at their enthronement. Only after that they went to their capital, the city of Bakhchisarai.  Yevpatoria became a residence of the spiritual ruler of the Karaites, the Gakham. In this connection here, a complex of two praying houses was built under the supervision of the Rabovich brothers, in which forms of the Renaissance and Muslim architecture entwined in a most unusual manner. The ensemble organically incorporates three courtyards. The entrance to it is marked by the gates, built in 1900, which look like a refined triumphal arch.

Russian rule.

In 1783, along with the rest of the Crimea, Kezlev was captured by the Russian Empire. Its name was officially changed to "Yevpatoriya" in 1784. The name comes from the Greek "Eupatoria" (transliteration from Greek to Russian is "Евпатория") in honor of Eupator Dionysius, king of Pontus. This spelling of the city name came to the French, German, Spanish and English languages at the end of the 18th сentury. The spelling "Yevpatoriya" came to English from the Ukrainian name "Євпаторія", in the second half of the 20th century.  Adam Mickiewicz visited the town in 1825 and wrote one of his "Crimean Sonnets" here; it was later translated into Russian by Mikhail Lermontov.  The city was occupied in September 1854 by British, French and Turkish troops during the Crimean War prior to the Allied landing in Kalamita Bay, after which the Battle of the Alma south of the bay followed. It became a garrison of Ottoman troops later during the war and was the site of the Battle of Eupatoria in February 1855, which was the largest military clash in the Crimean theatre outside the Sevastopol area.

Modern Yevpatoria.

USSR.

In 1930s it was a question about the medical profile resort of Yevpatoria. Natural factors create excellent conditions for the treatment of osteo-articular tuberculosis and other children's diseases. In 1933, at a scientific conference in Yalta, it was agreed that among the Soviet resort towns Yevpatoria, Odessa, Anapa, or one of the South Coast of Crimea - the most suitable for the organization of children's resort is Yevpatoria. In Yevpatoria there is a perfect combination of climatic and balneological factors contributing to the healing of the most serious diseases of this time like tuberculosis. An additional positive factor is the lack of mosquitoes in Yevpatoria, as on the southern coast of Crimea, or mosquitoes as in Anapa.  In 1936, the government decided to determine the place of construction of the All-Union children's resort in Yevpatoria. In 1938, the approved plan of general reconstruction of the city. During World War II, sanatoriums were used as military hospitals. By July 1, 1945 in Yevpatoria operated 14 sanatoriums, have taken 2,885 people. By 1980s, in city operated 78 sanatoriums for 33 thousand people. About one million vacationers visited Yevpatoria in summer time without the purpose of treatment.

Ukraine.

Today Yevpatoria is a major Black Sea port, a rail hub, and resort town. The population swells greatly during the summer months, with many residents of northern cities visiting for beach recreation. As such, local residents are heavily employed during summer months but are often underemployed during the winter. The main industries include fishing, food processing, wine making, limestone quarrying, weaving, and the manufacture of building materials, machinery, furniture manufacturing and tourism.  Yevpatoria has spas of mineral water, salt and mud lakes. These resorts belong to a vast area with curative facilities where the main health-improving factors are the sunshine and sea, air and sand, brine and mud of the salt lakes, as well as the mineral water of the hot springs. The population of the town is sure to have known about the curative qualities of the local mud that can be found here from time immemorial, which is witnessed by the manuscripts of Pliny the Elder, a Roman scholar (ca 80 BC).  On December 24, 2008 a blast destroyed a five-story building in the town. 27 people were killed. President Viktor Yushchenko declared December 26 to be a day of national mourning.  Two beaches in Yevpatoria have been Blue Flag beaches since May 2010, these were the first beaches (with two beaches in Yalta) to be awarded a Blue Flag in a CIS memberstate.

Demographics.

Ethnic composition of Yevpatoria in 2001 according to the Ukrainian census:

Climate.

Yevpatoria has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa") under the Köppen climate classification with cool winters and warm to hot summers.

Area attractions.

Famous attractions within or near Yevpatoria are:

Names of asteroid number 6489 and number 24648.

Asteroid number 6489 has a name Golevka, which has a complicated origin. In 1995, Golevka was studied simultaneously by three radar observatories across the world: Goldstone in California, Eupatoria RT-70 radio telescope (Yevpatoriya is sometimes romanized as Evpatoria or Eupatoria (Russian origin)) and Kashima in Japan. 'Gol-Ev-Ka' comes from the first few letters of each observatory's name; it was proposed by the discoverer following a suggestion by Alexander L. Zaitsev.  Asteroid 24648 Evpatoria was discovered 1985 Sept. 19 by Nikolai Chernykh and Lyudmila Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and named in honor of Evpatoria (transliteration from Russian to English, thus Yevpatoriya). The minor planet marked the occasion of the 2500th anniversary of the town in 2003.

Yevpatoria (; ; ) is a city of regional significance in Western Crimea, north of Kalamita Bay. Yevpatoria serves as the administrative center of Yevpatoria Municipality, one of the districts ("raions") into which Crimea is divided. Population:


Life.

According to the early 12th-century "Chronica Boëmorum", Bořivoj was a son of the legendary Bohemian prince Hostivít, thus a descendant of Queen Libuše and her husband Přemysl the Ploughman. His ancestry has not been conclusively established by historians, however. In view of his dependence on Great Moravia, he might have been related by blood to the Mojmir dynasty.  Bořivoj initially resided at Levý Hradec, a gord situated northwest of present-day Prague. As the head of the Přemyslids who dominated the Central Bohemian environs, Bořivoj declared himself "kníže" ("prince") - in Latin "dux", which means a sovereign prince - around the year 867 AD. His title was later translated by German scholars as "duke" ("Herzog") of the Bohemians (Czechs). Although the rulers of the German stem duchies emerging in the late 9th century held the same title, the meaning of his title was in fact completely different. In contrast to the German dukes who acted as the representatives of higher rulers (kings or emperors), the Czech "dux" denoted a sovereign ruler. Bořivoj was recognised as such around 872 by his overlord King Svatopluk I of Moravia, who dispatched Bishop Methodius of Thessalonica to begin the Christianization of Bohemia.  In 872, Bořivoj supported Svatopluk militarily in his dispute with the East Frankish king Louis the German, and in south Bohemia, they defeated the Frankish troops. About 874, Bořivoj married Ludmila (later canonized as St. Ludmila of Bohemia). The couple had two known sons, Spytihněv and Vratislaus, both of whom succeeded him as dukes. Ludmila and Bořivoj were baptised by Methodius (probably in 883), and the latter became an enthusiastic evangelist, although the religion failed to take root among Bořivoj's subjects.  In the years 883/884 Bořivoj was deposed by a revolt in support of his Přemyslid kinsman Strojmír. He was restored in 885 only with the support of his suzerain Svatopluk of Moravia. The duke or (more probably) his son Spytihněv moved his residence to the Hradčany mountain and laid the foundations for Prague Castle. When Bořivoj died about 889, his sons still minors, King Svatopluk concluded an agreement with the East Frankish ruler Arnulf of Carinthia and took over the rule of the Bohemian duchy himself.  As with most of the early Bohemian rulers, Bořivoj is a shadowy figure; exact dates for his reign and vital statistics cannot be established. Nonetheless, several major fortifications and religious foundations are said to have dated from this time.

Bořivoj I (,, c. 852 – c. 889) was the first historically documented Duke of Bohemia and progenitor of the Přemyslid dynasty. His reign over the Duchy of Bohemia is believed to have started about the year 870, but in this era Bohemia was subordinated to Great Moravia. One of the most important clues to the approximate time of his accession is the contemporary Frankish chronicle "Annales Fuldenses," which mentions several West Slavic princes in the year 872, among them one "Goriwei," who may be identical with Bořivoj.


Taxonomy.

The botanist Thomas Nuttall said he named the genus "Wisteria" in memory of the American physician and anatomist Caspar Wistar (1761–1818). Questioned about the spelling later, Nuttall said it was for "euphony," but his biographer speculated that it may have something to do with Nuttall's friend Charles Jones Wister, Sr., of Grumblethorpe, the grandson of the merchant John Wister.  Some Philadelphia sources state that the plant is named after Wister. As the spelling is apparently deliberate, there is no justification for changing the genus name under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. However, some spell the plant's common name "wistaria".  Genetic analysis shows "Callerya", "Afgekia" and "Wisteria" to be each other's closest relatives and quite distinct from other members of the tribe Millettieae. Both have eight chromosomes.

Species.

The following is a list of accepted "Wisteria" species:

Description.

Wisterias climb by twining their stems around any available support. "W. floribunda" (Japanese wisteria) twines clockwise when viewed from above, while "W. sinensis" twines counterclockwise. This is an aid in identifying the two most common species of wisteria. They can climb as high as above the ground and spread out laterally. The world's largest known wisteria is in Sierra Madre, California, measuring more than in size and weighing 250 tons. Planted in 1894, it is of the 'Chinese lavender' variety.  The leaves are alternate, 15 to 35 cm long, pinnate, with 9 to 19 leaflets. The flowers are produced in pendulous racemes 10 to 80 cm long, similar to those of the genus "Laburnum", but are purple, violet, pink or white. There is no yellow on the leaves. Flowering is in spring (just before or as the leaves open) in some Asian species, and in mid to late summer in the American species and "W. japonica". The flowers of some species are fragrant, most notably "W. sinensis". "Wisteria" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including brown-tail.  The seeds are produced in pods similar to those of "Laburnum", and, like the seeds of that genus, are poisonous. All parts of the plant contain a saponin called wisterin, which is toxic if ingested, and may cause dizziness, confusion, speech problems, nausea, vomiting, stomach pains, diarrhea and collapse. There is debate over whether the concentration outside of the seeds is sufficient to cause poisoning. Wisteria seeds have caused poisoning in children and pets of many countries, producing mild to severe gastroenteritis and other effects.

Cultivation.

Wisteria, especially "Wisteria sinensis", is very hardy and fast-growing. It can grow in fairly poor-quality soils, but prefers fertile, moist, well-drained soil. It thrives in full sun. It can be propagated via hardwood cutting, softwood cuttings, or seed. However, specimens grown from seed can take decades to bloom; for this reason, gardeners usually grow plants that have been started from rooted cuttings or grafted cultivars known to flower well.  Another reason for failure to bloom can be excessive fertilizer (particularly nitrogen). Wisteria has nitrogen fixing capability (provided by Rhizobia bacteria in root nodules), and thus mature plants may benefit from added potassium and phosphate, but not nitrogen. Finally, wisteria can be reluctant to bloom before it has reached maturity. Maturation may require only a few years, as in Kentucky wisteria, or nearly twenty, as in Chinese wisteria. Maturation can be forced by physically abusing the main trunk, root pruning, or drought stress.  Wisteria can grow into a mound when unsupported, but is at its best when allowed to clamber up a tree, pergola, wall, or other supporting structure. Whatever the case, the support must be very sturdy, because mature wisteria can become immensely strong with heavy wrist-thick trunks and stems. These can collapse latticework, crush thin wooden posts, and even strangle large trees. Wisteria allowed to grow on houses can cause damage to gutters, downspouts, and similar structures.  Wisteria flowers develop in buds near the base of the previous year's growth, so pruning back side shoots to the basal few buds in early spring can enhance the visibility of the flowers. If it is desired to control the size of the plant, the side shoots can be shortened to between 20 and 40 cm long in midsummer, and back to 10 to 20 cm in the fall. Once the plant is a few years old, a relatively compact, free-flowering form can be achieved by pruning off the new tendrils three times during the growing season in the summer months. The flowers of some varieties are edible, and can even be used to make wine. Others are said to be toxic. Careful identification by an expert is strongly recommended before consuming this or any wild plant.  Chinese wisteria was brought to the United States for horticultural purposes in 1816, while Japanese wisteria was introduced around 1830. Because of its hardiness and tendency to escape cultivation, these non-native wisterias are considered invasive species in many parts of the U.S., especially the Southeast, due to their ability to overtake and choke out other native plant species.

Art and symbolism.

Wisteria and their racemes have been widely used in Japan throughout the centuries and were a popular symbol in family crests and heraldry. One popular dance in kabuki, the "Fuji Musume" or ""The Wisteria Maiden"" is the sole extant dance of a series of five personifying dances, in which a maiden becomes the embodiment of the spirit of wisteria. In the West, both in building materials such as tile, as well as stained glass, wisterias have been used both in realism and stylistically in artistic works and industrial design.

Wisteria is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae (Leguminosae), that includes ten species of woody climbing bines (twining vines) that are native to China, Korea, Japan, and the Eastern United States. Some species are popular ornamental plants. An aquatic flowering plant with the common name wisteria or 'water wisteria' is in fact "Hygrophila difformis", in the family Acanthaceae.


Upbringing and early career.

Roca was born in the northwestern city of San Miguel de Tucumán in 1843 into a prominent local family. He graduated from the National College in Concepción del Uruguay, Entre Ríos. Before he was 15, Roca joined the army of the Argentine Confederation, on 19 March 1858. While still an adolescent, he went to fight as a junior artillery officer in the struggle between Buenos Aires and the interior provinces, first on the side of the provinces and later on behalf of the capital. He also fought in the War of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay between 1865 and 1870. Roca rose to the rank of colonel serving in the war to suppress the revolt of Ricardo López Jordán in Entre Ríos. President Nicolás Avellaneda later promoted him to General after his victory over rebel general José M. Arredondo in the battle of Santa Rosa, leading the loyalist forces. Roca saw the army "as an agent of national unification," and his experience in the army "broadened his understanding of Argentina and the provincial upper class."

Political beginnings.

In 1878, during Avellaneda's presidency, he became Minister of War and it was his task to prepare a campaign that would bring an end to the "frontier problem" after the failure of the plan of Adolfo Alsina (his predecessor). A number of indigenous groups defended their traditional territories and frequently assaulted non-indigenous frontier settlements, taking horses and cattle, and capturing women and children, who were enslaved or offered as brides to the warriors. Roca's approach to dealing with the Indian communities of the Pampas, however, was completely different from Alsina's, who had ordered the construction of a ditch and a defensive line of small fortresses across the Province of Buenos Aires. Roca saw no way to end native attacks ("malones") but by putting under effective government control all land up to the Río Negro in a campaign (known as the Conquest of the Desert) that would "extinguish, subdue or expel" the Indians who lived there. "He began the campaign against the Ranqueles", which eventually resulted in the "transfer of 35% of national territory from the Indians to local caudillos. This land conquest would also strengthen Argentina's strategic position against Chile.  He devised a "tentacle" move, with waves of 6,000 men cavalry units stemming coordinately from Mendoza, Córdoba, Santa Fé and Buenos Aires in July 1878 and April 1879 respectively, with an official toll of nearly 1,313 Native Americans killed and 15,000 taken as prisoners, and is credited with the liberation of several hundred European hostages.

First presidency.

In mid-1879, after the death of Alsina, the most prestigious leader of the National Autonomous Party was General Roca, which was proposed as a candidate by Cordoba's governor Miguel Celman, and in Buenos Aires by the doctor Eduardo Wilde; quickly gained the support of most of the Argentine state governors. The April 11 elections for president, which came a sweeping victory for the voters of Roca, except in Buenos Aires and Corrientes. On June 13 the Electoral College met and elected President General Roca and Vice President Francisco Bernabé Madero. But in Buenos Aires it was brewing a revolution against the triumph of Roca. Four days later the fighting began, which ended on June 25 with an agreement between the province and the nation; the revolution of 1880 had cost 3,000 dead. Shortly before the presidential inauguration Roca was passed in Congress federalization of Buenos Aires.  Under his mandate the so-called "laicist laws" ("Leyes Laicas") were passed, which nationalized a series of functions that previously were under the control of the Church. He also created the so-called "Registro Civil", an index of all births, deaths and marriages. President Roca also made primary education free of charge by nationalizing education institutions run by the Church. This led to a break in relations with the Vatican. Roca presided over an era of rapid economic development fueled by large scale European immigration, railway construction, and booming agricultural exports. In May 1886 Roca was the subject of a failed assassination attempt.

Continuing political involvement.

Roca himself had put forward Juárez Celman as his successor, who was his brother-in-law. However, Celman distanced himself from Roca. Celman's government was ultimately tarnished by the Baring crisis and corruption allegations.  Roca did not participate in the 1890 revolution attempt against Celman, which was instigated by Leandro N. Alem and Bartolomé Mitre ("Unión Cívica", later "Unión Cívica Radical"). However, he was pleased in the resulting weakness of Miguel Juárez Celman.  After his first presidency Roca remained important politically, becoming a senator and Minister of the Interior under Carlos Pellegrini. After President Luis Sáenz Peña resigned in January 1895, José Evaristo Uriburu took over the presidency, when Roca was President of the Senate. Because of this, Roca again assumed the duties of President between 28 October 1895 and 8 February 1896, when Uriburu was ill.

Second presidency.

In the middle of 1897 the "Partido Autonomista Nacional" party put forward Roca as a presidential candidate once more. Unopposed, he was able to begin a second regular term in office on 12 October 1898. During his second presidency, the "Ley de Residencia" law was passed, which made it possible to expel some of Argentina's trade union leaders, who were noncitizen anarchists and socialists deemed dangerous to Argentina. During this presidency military service was introduced in 1901 and a border dispute with Chile was settled in 1902. Luis Drago, Roca’s foreign minister, articulated the Drago Doctrine of 1902 asserting that foreign powers could not collect public debts from sovereign American states by armed force or occupation of territory. Argentina's foreign debt increased in this period, although economic growth continued. Roca was unable to continue his political domination, and he was unable to essentially name his successor. Roca's second term ended in 1904, and is considered less successful than his first.

Later years.

In 1912 Roca was appointed as Special Ambassador of Argentina to Brazil by President Roque Sáenz Peña. Roca returned to Argentina in 1914 and died in Buenos Aires on October 19, 1914. He was buried in La Recoleta Cemetery in Buenos Aires.  His son, Julio Argentino Roca, Jr., became vice-president of Argentina in 1932 to 1938.

Legacy.

During the twentieth century, Roca was recognized as one of the statesmen who forged the foundations of the modern Argentine republic. As such, Roca has been honored by designating cities, departments, lakes, streets, avenues, squares, monuments, parks, schools and railway lines throughout the country. Examples include the in the province of Río Negro, the town of in the province of Chaco; the town of in the province of Santa Fe; the of the province of Entre Ríos; the of the province of Córdoba. In Buenos Aires, a major thoroughfare is named for him and an equestrian statue of him was erected in 1941. In recent years, there has been an increasing re-evaluation of Roca's place in Argentine history, particularly his involvement in the Conquest of the Desert. Some groups claim that he committed genocide against the Native Argentines.

Alejo Julio Argentino Roca Paz (July 17, 1843 – October 19, 1914) was an army general who served as President of Argentina from 12 October 1880 to 12 October 1886 and from 12 October 1898 to 12 October 1904. Roca is the most important representatives of the Generation of '80 and is known for directing the "Conquest of the Desert", a series of military campaigns against the indigenous peoples of Patagonia. During his two terms as president, many important changes occurred, particularly major infrastructure projects of railroads and port facilities; increased foreign investment, particularly from Great Britain; large-scale immigration from southern Europe; expansion of the agricultural and pastoral sectors of the economy; and laicizing legislation strengthening state power. Roca's main foreign policy concern was to set the limits with Chile, which had never been determined with precision. Roca took advantage of the fact that year of 1881, Chile was fighting the War of the Pacific against Bolivia and Peru, so for Chile it was strategically important not to have a second military front. Argentina gained territory by treaty with Chile.


Youth.

Bretislav was the son of Duke Oldřich and his low-born concubine Božena. As an illegitimate son could not obtain a desirable wife by conventional means, he chose to kidnap his future wife Judith of Schweinfurt (), a daughter of the Bavarian noble Henry of Schweinfurt, Margrave of Nordgau, in 1019 at Schweinfurt.  During his father’s reign, in 1019 or 1029, Bretislav took back Moravia from Poland. About 1031, he invaded Hungary in order to prevent its expansion under king Stephen. The partition of Bohemia between Oldřich and his brother Jaromír in 1034 was probably the reason why Bretislav fled beyond the Bohemian border, only to come back to take the throne after Jaromír’s abdication.

Raid into Poland.

In 1035, Bretislav helped Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II in his war against the Lusatians. In 1039, he invaded Lesser and Greater Poland, captured Poznań, sacked Gniezno, and brought the relics of St. Adalbert, Radim Gaudentius and the Five Brothers back with him. On the way back, he regained part of Silesia, (several dozen years before conquered by Poles), including Wrocław. His main goal was to set up an archbishopric in Prague and create a large state subject only to the Holy Roman Empire. His raid had an unintended enduring influence on Polish history, as the plundering and destruction of Gniezno pushed the next Polish rulers to move their capital to Kraków, which would retain this role for many centuries ahead.  In 1040, the German King Henry III invaded Bohemia, but was forced to retreat after he lost the Battle at Brůdek (a pass in the Bohemian Forest). The following year, Henry III invaded again, skirted the border defences and laid siege to Bretislav in Prague. Forced by a mutiny among his nobles and betrayed by Bishop Šebíř of Prague, Bretislav had to renounce all of his conquests save for Moravia and recognize Henry III as his sovereign. 1042 Emperor Henry III granted Bretislav Silesia as lien.  In 1047, Emperor Henry III negotiated a peace treaty between Bretislav and the Poles. This pact worked in Bretislav's favour, as the Polish ruler swore never again to attack Bohemia in return for an annual subsidy to Gniezno.

Domestic policy.

Bretislav was the author of decrees concerning the rules of Christianization, which included a ban on polygamy and trade on holidays.  It was in 1030 that Bretislav married the afore-mentioned Judith. In 1054, he established rules for the ducal succession and introduced agnatic seniority as the law of succession. Younger members of the dynasty were supposed to govern fiefs (technically, parts of Moravia), but only at the duke's discretion. The result of this succession policy was the relative indivisibility of the Czech lands, but also bitter conflicts over succession and territorial primacy between members of the dynasty. It was effectively ended by the elevation of Bohemia to the status of a kingdom under Ottokar I of Bohemia, which led to the establishment of primogeniture as the ruling principle for succession rights.  Bretislav's eldest son Spytihněv was to succeed him as Duke of Bohemia with control over it domains. Moravia was incorporated into the Bohemian duchy, but divided between three of his younger sons. The Olomouc Appanage went to Vratislaus; the Znojmo Appanage went to Konrád; and the Brno Appanage went to Otto. The youngest son, Jaromír, entered the church and became Bishop of Prague.  Bretislav died at Chrudim in 1055 during preparations for another invasion of Hungary and was succeeded by his son Spytihněv II as Duke of Bohemia. His sons Otto and Vratislav were shut out of the government by Spytihněv, but after his death both gained control of Moravia and Bohemia, respectively.

Family.

Bretislav married Judith, the daughter of Margrave Henry of Schweinfurt. The House of Přemysl wished to confirm its good relationship with the Babenbergs through a marriage to Judith in 1020. Judith was a desirable bride, but Oldřich of Bohemia had only one son, Bretislav, and he was of illegitimate birth, thus complicating the prospect of a marriage with the high-born Judith. Bretislav solved the problem by kidnapping Judith from a monastery in Schweinfurt. He was never punished for this crime, and he married Judith some time later. Their first son Spytihněv was born after almost ten years, which led to the hypothesis that the kidnapping happened in 1029, although Judith may have given birth to daughters before her first son. In all, there were five sons from the marriage that survived into adulthood:

Legacy.

Bretislav I was buried in the old St. Vitus Church in Prague, founded by Wenceslaus I in 930, and his tomb is now situated in the Chapel of St. Wenceslaus in the St. Vitus Cathedral built in the 1344–66 period. Bretislav I was depicted in the fresco composition of the Přemyslid dynasty at the Znojmo Rotunda, painted in the 1134–61 period.

Bretislav I (; 1002/1005 – 10 January 1055), known as the "Bohemian Achilles", of the Přemyslid dynasty, was Duke of Bohemia from 1035 until his death.


How it works.

The locomotives have three sending and receiving magnets and there are two trackside magnets near the signals.  Integra-Signum asks the train driver to confirm distant signals that show stop and distant or home signals that show caution. If he does not confirm or passes a home signal that shows stop, the train is stopped automatically. This is achieved by interrupting the power supply to the motors and applying the emergency brake.  The locomotive's sending magnet is a strong permanent magnet, which induces a current in the receiving magnet in the middle of the track, if the signal's short-circuit contact is closed. The receiving magnet on the locomotive consists of two magnet field detectors, which detect the signal's state according to polarity and timing of the magnetic field emitted by the second magnet outside the track: Stop (home signals): positive - negative, concurrent  Caution (distant signals): negative - positive, concurrent  Caution (home signal): positive - positive, not concurrent  Because Integra-Signum can only stop a train when it's "too late", i.e. after the red signal, it is not sufficient if there is an obstacle less than the braking distance away from the signal, which is especially a problem with fast trains. To address this issue, Zugbeeinflussung ZUB has been introduced.  Despite that Integra-Signum aims to prevent accidents, there was also an accident caused by it. In 1959, an Integra-Signum magnet mounted on a SBB-CFF-FFS RBe 540 EMU tore out a wooden sleeper on a level crossing near Gland, which led to the derailment of the entire train at 125 km/h.

Phasing out.

By 2017 Switzerland had almost completed the migration to ETCS Level 1. Integra-Signum will remain in service for a few years more on a small number of special lines; one of these is the Uetliberg railway line, which will first be converted from DC to AC electrification.  From beginning 2018, new vehicles running on the Swiss network do not need anymore the class B system SIGNUM and ZUB.

Integra-Signum is a Swiss train protection system introduced in 1933. Originally it was called Signum; the name Integra was added later. It transmits data inductively and is simple, robust and reliable also in snow.


History.

For his work, Newell needed a simple mathematical model of a familiar object. His wife, Sandra Newell, suggested modelling their tea service since they were sitting down for tea at the time. He sketched the teapot free-hand using graph paper and a pencil. Following that, he went back to the computer laboratory and edited bézier control points on a Tektronix storage tube, again by hand.  The teapot shape contained a number of elements that made it ideal for the graphics experiments of the time: it was round, contained saddle points, had a genus greater than zero because of the hole in the handle, could project a shadow on itself, and could be displayed accurately without a surface texture.  Newell made the mathematical data that described the teapot's geometry (a set of three-dimensional coordinates) publicly available, and soon other researchers began to use the same data for their computer graphics experiments. These researchers needed something with roughly the same characteristics that Newell had, and using the teapot data meant they did not have to laboriously enter geometric data for some other object. Although technical progress has meant that the act of rendering the teapot is no longer the challenge it was in 1975, the teapot continued to be used as a reference object for increasingly advanced graphics techniques.  Over the following decades, editions of computer graphics journals (such as the ACM SIGGRAPH's quarterly) regularly featured versions of the teapot: faceted or smooth-shaded, wireframe, bumpy, translucent, refractive, even leopard-skin and furry teapots were created.  Having no surface to represent its base, the original teapot model was not intended to be seen from below. Later versions of the data set fixed this.  The real teapot is ~33% taller (ratio 4:3) than the computer model. Jim Blinn stated that he scaled the model on the vertical axis during a demo in the lab to demonstrate that they could manipulate it. They preferred the appearance of this new version and decided to save the file out of that preference.  The original, physical teapot was purchased from ZCMI (a department store in Salt Lake City) in 1974. It was donated to the Boston Computer Museum in 1984, where it was on display until 1990. It now resides in the ephemera collection at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California where it is catalogued as "Teapot used for Computer Graphics rendering" and bears the catalogue number X00398.1984. Versions of the teapot are still sold today by Friesland Porzellan in Germany, who were the original makers of the teapot as they were once part of the Melitta Group.  Versions of the teapot model — or sample scenes containing it — are distributed with or freely available for nearly every current rendering and modelling program and even many graphic APIs, including AutoCAD, Houdini, Lightwave 3D, MODO, POV-Ray, 3ds Max, and the OpenGL and Direct3D helper libraries. Some RenderMan-compliant renderers support the teapot as a built-in geometry by calling codice_1. Along with the expected cubes and spheres, the GLUT library even provides the function codice_2 as a graphics primitive, as does its Direct3D counterpart D3DX (codice_3). However version 11 of DirectX does not provide this functionality anymore. Mac OS X Tiger and Leopard also include the teapot as part of Quartz Composer; Leopard's teapot supports bump mapping. BeOS included a small demo of a rotating 3D teapot, intended to show off the platform's multimedia facilities.  Teapot scenes are commonly used for renderer self-tests and benchmarks.

Appearances.

One famous ray-traced image, by James Arvo and David Kirk in 1987, shows six stone columns, five of which are surmounted by the Platonic solids (tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron). The sixth column supports a teapot. The image is titled "The Six Platonic Solids", with Arvo and Kirk calling the teapot "the newly discovered Teapotahedron". This image appeared on the covers of several books and computer graphic journals.  The Utah teapot sometimes appears in the "Pipes" screensaver shipped with Microsoft Windows, but only in versions prior to Windows XP, and has been included in the "polyhedra" XScreenSaver hack since 2008.  Jim Blinn (in one of his "Project MATHEMATICS!" videos) proves an amusing (but trivial) version of the Pythagorean theorem: construct a (2D) teapot on each side of a right triangle and the area of the teapot on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the teapots on the other two sides.  Loren Carpenter's 1980 CGI film "Vol Libre" features the teapot, appearing briefly at the beginning and end of the film in the foreground with a fractal-rendered mountainscape behind it.  Vulkan and OpenGL graphics APIs feature Utah teapot along with Stanford Dragon and Stanford Bunny on their badges.

In popular culture.

With the advent of the first computer generated short films and proceeding full-length feature films, it has become an in-joke to hide the Utah teapot in films' scenes. For example, in the movie "Toy Story", the Utah teapot appears in a short tea-party scene. The teapot also appears in "The Simpsons" episode "Treehouse of Horror VI" in which Homer discovers the "third dimension." It also appears in Pixar's "Monsters, Inc." on the table in Boo's bedroom. In "The Sims 2", a picture of the Utah teapot is one of the paintings available to buy in-game, titled "Handle and Spout". The teapot appears as a throwable item in "Superhot VR".

3D printing.

Through 3D printing, the Utah Teapot has come full circle from being a computer model based on an actual teapot to being an actual teapot based on the computer model. It is widely available in many renderings in different materials from small plastic knick-knacks to a fully functional ceramic teapot. It is sometimes intentionally rendered as a low poly object to celebrate its origin as a computer model.  In 2009, a Belgian design studio, Unfold, 3D printed the Utah Teapot in ceramic with the objective of returning the iconographic teapot to its roots as a piece of functional dishware while showing its status as an icon of the digital world.  In 2015, the California-based company and self-described "Make-Tank", Emerging Objects, followed suit, but this time printed the teapot, along with teacups and teaspoons, out of actual tea.

Original teapot model.

The original teapot the Utah teapot was based on is still available from Friesland Porzellan. Originally it was plainly called "Haushaltsteekanne" (Household Teapot); the company only found out about their product's 'fame' in 2017, whereupon they officially renamed it "Utah Teapot". It is available in three different sizes, the one Martin Newell had used is the "1,4L Utah Teapot".

OBJ Conversion.

Although the original tea set by Newell can be downloaded directly, this tea set is specified using a set of Bézier patches in a custom format, which can be difficult to import directly into many popular 3D modeling applications. As such, a tesselated conversion of the dataset in the popular OBJ file format can be useful. One such conversion of the complete Newell teaset is available on the University of Utah website.

The Utah teapot, or the Newell teapot, is a 3D test model that has become a standard reference object and an in-joke within the computer graphics community. It is a mathematical model of an ordinary teapot that appears solid, cylindrical, and partially convex. A teapot primitive is considered the equivalent of a "Hello, World!" program, as a way to create an easy 3D scene with a somewhat complex model acting as a basic geometry reference for scene and light setup. Some programming libraries, such as the OpenGL Utility Toolkit, even have functions dedicated to drawing teapots.


Uses.

Colza oil is extensively used as a lubricant for machinery. It was widely used in European domestic lighting before the advent of coal (city) gas or kerosene. It was the preferred oil for train pot lamps, and was used for lighting railway coaches in the United Kingdom before gas lighting, and later electric lighting, were adopted. Burned in a Carcel lamp, it was part of the definition of the French standard measure for illumination, the carcel, for most of the nineteenth century. In lighthouses, for example in early Canada, colza oil was used before the introduction of mineral oil. The colza oil was used with the Argand burner because it was cheaper than whale oil. Colza was burned to a limited extent in the Confederacy during the American Civil War.  Colza oil was used in Gombault's Caustic Balsam, a popular horse and human liniment at the turn of the 20th century.  Among the more unusual applications of colza oil is the calming of choppy seas, where the oil modifies the surface tension of the water and rapidly smooths the surface. For this purpose, colza oil was carried in ship's lifeboats. Rescue and recovery operations have been made far less risky in this way.  More recently, colza has been cultivated in Europe as an ingredient for biodiesel fuels, and is the primary source of biodiesel in Germany.  Colza oil is also used as a food oil. Bornholm, Denmark is the only place to produce rapeseed oil from the seed's germ.

Colza oil or colza is a non-drying oil obtained from the seeds of rapeseed ("Brassica napus" subsp. "napus". syn. "Brassica napus" var. "oleifera" Delile, "Brassica campestris" subsp. "napus" (L.) Hook.f. & T. Anderson). Colza is extensively cultivated in France, Belgium, the United States, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark (especially on the island of Bornholm), and Poland. In France and Denmark, especially, the extraction of the oil is an important industry. In commerce, colza is a traditional rapeseed oil (with turnip rape oil, sarson oil, toria oil ("Brassica rapa" ssp.), and ravison oil), to which they are very closely allied in both source and properties. It is a comparatively nonodoriferous oil of a yellow colour, having a specific gravity varying between 0.912 and 0.920. The cake left after extraction of the oil is a valuable feed ingredient for pigs.


Biography.

Einstein was born in Munich. Though he originally studied law, he quickly realized his principal love was music, and he acquired a doctorate at Munich University, focusing on instrumental music of the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras, in particular music for the viola da gamba. In 1918 he became the first editor of the "Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft"; slightly later he became music critic for the "Münchner Post"; and in 1927 became music critic for the "Berliner Tageblatt". In this period he was also a friend of the composer Heinrich Kaspar Schmid in Munich and Augsburg. In 1933, after Hitler's rise to power, he left Nazi Germany, moving first to London, then to Italy, and finally to the United States in 1939, where he held a succession of teaching posts at universities including Smith College, Columbia University, Princeton University, the University of Michigan, and the Hartt School of Music in Hartford, Connecticut.  Einstein not only researched and wrote detailed works on specific topics, but wrote popular histories of music, including the "Short History of Music" (1917), and "Greatness in Music" (1941). In particular, due to his depth of familiarity with Mozart, he published an important and extensive revision of the Köchel catalogue of Mozart's music (1936). It is this work for which Einstein is most well known. Einstein also published a comprehensive, three-volume set "The Italian Madrigal" (1949) on the secular Italian form, the first detailed study of the subject. His 1945 volume "Mozart: His Character, His Work" was an influential study of Mozart and is perhaps his best known book.

Relationship to Albert Einstein.

While one source (1980) lists Alfred as a cousin of the scientist Albert Einstein, another claims (1993) that no relationship has been verified. Some websites claim they were both descended from a Moyses Einstein seven generations back, hence they were sixth cousins. In 1991, Alfred's daughter Eva stated that they were not related. On the other hand, she wrote in 2003 that they were fifth cousins on one side, and fifth cousins once removed on the other, according to research by George Arnstein. They were photographed together in 1947 when Albert Einstein received an honorary doctorate from Princeton, but they did not know that they were distantly related.

Alfred Einstein (December 30, 1880February 13, 1952) was a German-American musicologist and music editor. He was born in Munich and fled Nazi Germany after Hitler's "Machtergreifung", arriving in the United States by 1939. He is best known for being the editor of the first major revision of the Köchel catalogue, which was published in the year 1936. The Köchel catalogue is the extensive catalogue of the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.


Description.

Water mint is a herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant growing to tall. The stems are square in cross section, green or purple, and variably hairy to almost hairless. The rhizomes are wide-spreading, fleshy, and bear fibrous roots. The leaves are ovate to ovate-lanceolate, long and broad, green (sometimes purplish), opposite, toothed, and vary from hairy to nearly hairless. The flowers of the watermint are tiny, densely crowded, purple, tubular, pinkish to lilac in colour and form a terminal hemispherical inflorescence; flowering is from mid to late summer. Water mint is visited by many types of insects, and can be characterized by a generalized pollination syndrome, but can also spread by underground rhizomes. All parts of the plant have a distinctly minty smell. Unbranched, hairless plants, with narrower leaves and paler flowers, native to areas of Sweden and Finland near the Baltic Sea, have been called "Mentha aquatica" var. "litoralis".  "Mentha aquatica" is a polyploid, with 2"n" = 8"x" = 96 chromosomes.

Taxonomy.

"Mentha aquatica" was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. As with other "Mentha" species, it was subsequently re-described under a variety of different names;, Plants of the World Online listed 87 synonyms, including four forms or varieties that it does not recognize. The cultivated eau de Cologne mint (also known as bergamot mint) is considered to be a variety of this species.  It hybridises with "Mentha spicata" (spearmint) to produce "Mentha" × "piperita" (peppermint), a sterile hybrid; with "Mentha suaveolens" (apple mint) to produce "Mentha" × "suavis"; with "Mentha arvensis" (corn mint) to produce "Mentha" × "verticillata"; and with both "M. arvensis" and "M. spicata" to give the tri-species hybrid "Mentha" × "smithiana".

Distribution and habitat.

Water mint is native to much of Europe, northern Africa and western Asia. It has been introduced to North and South America, Australia and some Atlantic islands.  As the name suggests, water mint occurs in the shallow margins and channels of streams, rivers, pools, dikes, ditches, canals, wet meadows, marshes and fens. If the plant grows in the water itself, it rises above the surface of the water. It generally occurs on mildly acidic to calcareous (it is common on soft limestone) mineral or peaty soils. "M. aquatica" can occur in certain fen-meadow habitats such as the Juncus subnodulosus-Cirsium palustre plant association. It is a component of Purple moor grass and rush pastures - a type of Biodiversity ActPlan habitat in the UK.

Uses.

It can be used to make a herbal tea. The cultivated variety known as eau de Cologne mint or bergamot mint, is used to produce mentha citrata oil, also known as bergamot oil, used in perfumery.

Mentha aquatica (water mint; syn. "Mentha hirsuta" Huds.) is a perennial flowering plant in the mint family Lamiaceae. It grows in moist places and is native to much of Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia.


Species.

Species include:

Cultivation.

The Russian comfrey 'Bocking 14' cultivar was developed during the 1950s by Lawrence D Hills, the founder of the Henry Doubleday Research Association (the organic gardening organisation itself named after the Quaker pioneer who first introduced Russian comfrey into Britain in the nineteenth century) following trials at Bocking, near Braintree.

Propagation.

Bocking 14 is sterile, and therefore will not set seed (one of its advantages over other cultivars as it will not spread out of control), thus is propagated from root cuttings. The gardener can produce "offsets" from mature, strongly growing plants by driving a spade horizontally through the leaf clumps about below the soil surface. This removes the crown, which can then be split into pieces. The original plant will quickly recover, and each piece can be replanted with the growing points just below the soil surface, and will quickly grow into new plants. Offsets can also be purchased by mail order from specialist nurseries in order to initially build up a stock of plants.

Phytochemistry, folk medicine, and toxicity.

Folk medicine names for comfrey include knitbone, boneset and the derivation of its Latin name "Symphytum" (from the Greek "symphis", meaning growing together of bones, and "phyton", a plant), referring to its ancient uses. Similarly the common French name is "consoude", meaning to weld together. The tradition in different cultures and languages suggest a common belief in its usefulness for mending bones.  Comfrey contains mixed phytochemicals in varying amounts, including allantoin, mucilage, saponins, tannins, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, inulin, and proteins, among others. Liver toxicity is associated with consuming this plant or its extracts. In modern herbalism, comfrey is most commonly used topically.  In 2001, the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a ban of comfrey products marketed for internal use, and a warning label for those intended for external use. Comfrey should not be used during pregnancy and lactation, in infants, and in people with liver, kidney, or vascular diseases.

Symphytum is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae. There are up to 35 species, known by the common name comfrey (pronounced ). Some species and hybrids, particularly "S. officinale" and "S." × "uplandicum", are used in gardening and herbal medicine. They are not to be confused with "Cynoglossum virginianum", known as wild comfrey, another member of the borage family.


Structure and properties.

BaCl crystallizes in two forms (polymorphs). One form has the cubic fluorite (CaF) structure and the other the orthorhombic cotunnite (PbCl) structure. Both polymorphs accommodate the preference of the large Ba ion for coordination numbers greater than six. The coordination of Ba is 8 in the fluorite structure and 9 in the cotunnite structure. When cotunnite-structure BaCl is subjected to pressures of 7–10 GPa, it transforms to a third structure, a monoclinic post-cotunnite phase. The coordination number of Ba increases from 9 to 10.  In aqueous solution BaCl behaves as a simple salt; in water it is a 1:2 electrolyte and the solution exhibits a neutral pH. Its solutions react with sulfate ion to produce a thick white precipitate of barium sulfate. Oxalate effects a similar reaction: When it is mixed with sodium hydroxide, it gives the dihydroxide, which is moderately soluble in water.

Preparation.

On an industrial scale, it is prepared via a two step process from barite (barium sulfate): This first step requires high temperatures. In place of HCl, chlorine can be used.  Barium chloride can in principle be prepared from barium hydroxide or barium carbonate. These basic salts react with hydrochloric acid to give hydrated barium chloride.

Uses.

Although inexpensive, barium chloride finds limited applications in the laboratory and industry. In industry, barium chloride is mainly used in the purification of brine solution in caustic chlorine plants and also in the manufacture of heat treatment salts, case hardening of steel. Its toxicity limits its applicability.

Safety.

Barium chloride, along with other water-soluble barium salts, is highly toxic. Sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate are potential antidotes because they form barium sulfate BaSO, which is relatively non-toxic because of its insolubility.

Barium chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula BaCl. It is one of the most common water-soluble salts of barium. Like most other barium salts, it is white, toxic, and imparts a yellow-green coloration to a flame. It is also hygroscopic, converting first to the dihydrate BaCl(HO). It has limited use in the laboratory and industry.