History.

Twinkies were invented in Schiller Park, Illinois, on April 6, 1930, by James Alexander Dewar, a Canadian-born baker for the Continental Baking Company. Realizing that several machines used to make cream-filled strawberry shortcake sat idle when strawberries were out of season, Dewar conceived a snack cake filled with banana cream, which he dubbed the Twinkie. Ritchy Koph said he came up with the name when he saw a billboard in St. Louis for "Twinkle Toe Shoes." During World War II, bananas were rationed and the company was forced to switch to vanilla cream. This change proved popular, and banana-cream Twinkies were not widely re-introduced. The original flavor was occasionally found in limited time only promotions, but the company used vanilla cream for most Twinkies. In 1988, Fruit and Cream Twinkies were introduced with a strawberry filling swirled into the cream. The product was soon dropped. Vanilla's dominance over banana flavoring was challenged in 2005, following a month-long promotion of the movie "King Kong". Hostess saw its Twinkie sales rise 20 percent during the promotion, and in 2007 restored the banana-cream Twinkie to its snack lineup.

Hostess bankruptcy.

On January 11, 2012, parent company Hostess filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. Twinkie sales for the year,, were 36 million packages, down almost 20% from a year earlier. Hostess said customers had migrated to healthier foods. On November 16, 2012, Hostess officially announced that it "will be winding down operations and has filed a motion with the U.S. Bankruptcy Court seeking permission to close its business and sell its assets, including its iconic brands and facilities." Bakery operations were suspended at all plants. On November 19, 2012, Hostess and the Bakers Union agreed to mediation, delaying the shutdown for two days. On November 21, 2012, U.S. bankruptcy judge Robert Drain approved Hostess' request to shut down, ending Twinkie production in the United States.

Return of Twinkies to U.S. market.

On March 18, 2013, it was reported that Twinkies would return to store shelves in May of that year. Twinkies, along with other Hostess Brands, were purchased out of bankruptcy by Apollo Global Management and Metropoulos & Co for $410 million. Twinkies returned to U.S. shelves on July 15, 2013. Apollo subsequently sold Hostess for $2.3 billion.  Before Hostess Brands filed for bankruptcy, Twinkies were reduced in size. They now contain and have a mass of 38.5 grams, while the original Twinkies contained and had a mass of 42.5 grams. The new Twinkies also have a longer shelf life of 45 days, which was also a change made before bankruptcy, compared to the 26 days of the original Twinkies.

Cultural references.

Twinkie defense.

"Twinkie defense" is a derisive label for an improbable legal defense. It is not a recognized legal defense in jurisprudence, but a catch-all term coined by reporters during their coverage of the trial of defendant Dan White for the murders of San Francisco city Supervisor Harvey Milk and Mayor George Moscone. White's defense was that he suffered diminished capacity as a result of his depression. His change in diet from healthful food to Twinkies and other sugary foods was said to be a symptom of depression. Contrary to common belief, White's attorneys did not argue that the Twinkies were the cause of White's actions, but that their consumption was symptomatic of his underlying depression.

Theological Twinkie.

Jeffrey R. Holland, a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), used the expression "theological Twinkie" at the Church's General Conference in April 1998, in reference to teaching methods that may be pleasing or entertaining, but lack sufficient spiritual and doctrinal substance. In his words: "Are we really nurturing our youth and our new members in a way that will sustain them when the stresses of life appear? Or are we giving them a kind of theological Twinkie—spiritually empty calories?"

Shelf life.

A common urban legend claims that Twinkies have an infinite shelf life, and can last unspoiled for a relatively long time of ten, fifty, or one hundred years due to the chemicals used in their production.  The third episode of "Family Guy"s second season entitled "Da Boom" follows the Griffin family after a nuclear holocaust occurs, due to Y2K on New Year's Eve. The family then travels in search of food, and eventually decide to establish a town around a Twinkie factory.  Another homage to the Twinkie's shelf life myth was shown in the 2016 animated film "Sausage Party", where a Twinkie is amongst the "Non-Perishable" foods.  The 2012 Super Bowl Chevy Silverado Apocalypse commercial also gives a nod to the Twinkie's reputed durability.  In reality, Twinkies are on the shelf for a short time; a company executive told "The New York Times" in 2000 that the "Twinkie is on the shelf no more than 7 to 10 days."The maximum shelf life was reported to have been 26 days, until the addition of stronger preservatives made beginning in 2012 increased it to 45 days.The 2009 apocalypse horror-comedy "Zombieland", which features a search for the last remaining Twinkies in a running gag, acknowledges this by having the character Tallahassee (played by Woody Harrelson) explain that Twinkies do, in fact, have an expiration date. In the second episode of "The Umbrella Academy", the character called number 5 (played by Aidan Gallagher) states that the infinite shelf life is a lie.

Twinkie diet.

In 2010, Kansas State University professor Mark Haub went on a "convenience store" diet consisting mainly of Twinkies, Oreos, and Doritos in an attempt to demonstrate to his students "...that in weight loss, pure calorie counting is what matters most, not the nutritional value of the food." He lost over a two-month period, returning his body mass index (BMI) to within normal range.In addition to Twinkies, Haub ate Little Debbie snack cakes, cereals, cookies, brownies, Doritos, Oreos and other kinds of high calorie, low-nutrition foods that are usually found at convenience stores. However, despite calling it the "Twinkie diet", Haub also consumed a multivitamin, a protein shake and fresh vegetables along with the Twinkies, Oreos, and Doritos. Some protein shakes contain 80 grams protein per serving, almost equivalent to eating three 6-oz steaks per day.Besides the protein shake and multivitamin, Haub also ate nutritionally dense whole milk, carrots, and vitamin fortified cereal.This contradicts representations by other media outlets stating that Haub "only" ate junk food.

Djoser (also read as Djeser and Zoser) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty during the Old Kingdom and the founder of this epoch. He is also known by his Hellenized names Tosorthros (from Manetho) and Sesorthos (from Eusebius). He was the son of king Khasekhemwy and queen Nimaathap, but whether he also was the direct throne successor is still unclear. Most Ramesside Kinglists name a king "Nebka" before him, but since there are still difficulties in connecting that name with contemporary Horus names, some Egyptologists question the received throne sequence.


Design.

For the mid-1970s, F1 stipulated that the maximum width of the front wing was 1.5 m. Considering the needed room for the driver's feet, the steering mechanism, suspension and the normal front tyre size, this meant the front tyres projected above and out to the sides of the wing. P34's basic concept was to use a tyre that would be small enough to fit entirely behind the wing. This would have two effects; one would be to lower overall drag and thus improve speed on straights and the other was to clean up overall aerodynamics so the rear wing would receive cleaner airflow.  However, given the space limitations such a tyre would have to be quite small, eventually settling on a diameter. This had too small a contact patch to offer reasonable cornering performance, which led to the use of four wheels instead of two. Adding more wheels also had the advantage of offering more total brake area. The downside was increased complexity of the steering system and a physically larger suspension system. The steering complexity was solved by connecting only the front pair of wheels to the steering wheel and connecting the rear set to the front with a bell crank. Initially considered to be a problem area, Joel Rosinsky later declared that "The steering is so gentle and absolutely free of reaction that you might have thought it was power-assisted!"  The new design was unveiled at the Heathrow Hotel in late September 1975. The car was initially kept under a tarpaulin with hoops over the wheels that make it look conventional, leading to astonishment when the tarp was pulled off. Some in the audience were convinced the design was a publicity stunt. The car first took to the track at Silverstone on 8 October 1975, and after more tests, Tyrrell decided to build two more examples with a slightly longer wheelbase to race in the 1976 season.

Race history.

The stretched versions first ran in the Spanish GP in, and proved to be very competitive. Both Jody Scheckter and Patrick Depailler produced good results with the car, but while Depailler praised the car continually, Scheckter was unimpressed. The P34's golden moment came in the Swedish Grand Prix. Scheckter and Depailler finished first and second, and to date Scheckter is the only driver ever to win a race in a six-wheeled car. The car seemed to be particularly good down the straights and through long corners, like at Anderstorp, Watkins Glen, Mosport Park, Fuji and the Österreichring, but it struggled on bumpy circuits like Brands Hatch, Jarama and the Nürburgring where the grip was actually variable because depending on the contours or bumps on the track one of the front small tires would touch the road, but the one in front or behind it on the same side would not. Scheckter left the team at the end of the season, insisting that the six-wheeler was "a piece of junk!"  For 1977, Scheckter was replaced by Ronnie Peterson, and the P34 was redesigned for cleaner aerodynamics, and some redesign was done on Peterson's car to accommodate his height. The P34B was wider and heavier than before, and, although Peterson was able to string some promising results from the P34B, as was Depailler, it was clear the car was not as good as before. Tyrrell blamed the problems on the increased weight, now over the F1 minimum. This placed more strain on the brakes and made it struggle through the corners. Others have blamed Goodyear's failure to properly develop the small front tyres. Late in the season an attempt to address the handling was made by increasing the track of the front suspension, but this moved the tyres out from their original hidden position, essentially eliminating the whole advantage to the concept.  In November 1977, Tyrrell introduced his car for the 1978 season, and it had a conventional layout. He commented "In the meantime, we have closed the book on our six-wheeled project, and I am sure the cars will become something of a collector's piece". Tyrrell kept the frame that Scheckter won on, and sold the rest.

Today.

More recently the P34 has been a popular sight at historic racing events, proving competitive once more. This was made possible when the Avon tyre company agreed to manufacture bespoke 10-inch tyres for Simon Bull, the owner of chassis No. 6. In 1999 and 2000 the resurrected P34 competed at a number of British and European circuits as an entrant in the FIA Thoroughbred Grand Prix series. Driven by Martin Stretton, the car won the TGP series outright in 2000, the sister car repeating that success in 2008 in the hands of Mauro Pane; this example is today part of a private collection in Italy. Stretton also achieved numerous pole positions and class wins at the Grand Prix Historique de Monaco. The P34 has also been seen a number of times at the Goodwood Festival of Speed.

Other six-wheeled Formula One cars.

While the Tyrrell P34 is the most widely known six-wheeled F1 car, it was not the only one. The March Engineering, Williams and Scuderia Ferrari teams also built experimental six-wheeled F1 chassis, however all of these had four wheels at the back rather than at the front like the P34. The Williams FW07D and FW08B, and the March 2-4-0, had tandem rear wheels, which reduced drag by using the smaller front wheels and tyres in place of the typical larger rear wheels. The Ferrari 312T6 featured the four rear wheels on a single axle. This was similar to how Auto Union increased traction with its Type-D Grand Prix cars in the 1930s. Despite extensive testing, neither the March, Williams, nor the Ferrari, were ever raced. In 1983 the FIA prohibited cars with four driven wheels from competing. Later, the Formula 1 regulations required four as the maximum number of wheels allowed.

Complete Formula One World Championship results.

<nowiki>*</nowiki> 13 points in scored using the Tyrrell 007

In media.

The Tyrrell P34 was featured in the cartoon "The Transformers" as the vehicle converted into the Decepticon Stunticon known as Drag Strip. The car was depicted as still being active in automotive races despite the episode where it was stolen being produced and set in the mid-eighties, and sported a yellow livery with red accents.  The race car also made an appearance in the first episode of the 1993 anime series "Moldiver" and the 2013 film, "Rush".  Lupin is seen racing a version of the car in season 1 episode 11 of "Lupin the Third Part II" - "Bet on the Monaco Grand Prix (Who's Vroomin Who?)".

References.

3. Aversa, P. 2013. Case Study: Innovation needs supplier support. Financial Times: 12.

External links.

The Tyrrell P34 (Project 34), commonly known as the "six-wheeler", was a Formula One (F1) race car designed by Derek Gardner, Tyrrell's chief designer. The car used four specially manufactured 10-inch diameter (254 mm) wheels and tyres at the front, with two ordinary-sized wheels at the back. Along with the Brabham BT46B "fancar" developed in, the six-wheeled Tyrrell was one of the most radical entries ever to succeed in F1 competition and has been called the most recognizable design in the history of world motorsports.


History.

The writer Rudyard Kipling visited Bovington in 1923 and, after viewing the damaged tanks that had been salvaged at the end of the First World War, recommended a museum should be set up. Accordingly a shed was established to house the collection but was not opened to the general public until 1947.  George Forty, who was appointed Director of the Museum in 1982, expanded and modernized the collection. He retired in 1993 after which he received an OBE. The museum established its own YouTube channel to teach about the tanks in January 2010. David Fletcher, who had been an historian at the museum since 1982, retired in 2012 and was also appointed an MBE "for his services to the history of armoured warfare".  As well as containing the majority of the museum's World War I tanks this hall tells the story of men who crewed the first tanks between 1916 and 1918.  This hall now explores the rise of the tank and the role of the cavalry on the Western Front.

Exhibition halls.

This hall displays the biggest section, with tanks from most nations involved in the conflict.  This hall contains the Battlegroup Afghanistan exhibition. The men of the Royal Armoured Corps who have been involved in some of the fiercest fighting since World War Two.  This hall explores the design & technology that goes into making tanks and AFVs. There is a mock production line of Centurions, as well as prototype and experimental vehicles.  This hall holds some of the most important tanks and AFVs in history, with a supporting collection housed in a multimedia exhibition. It follows the story of the tank, from its invention in 1915 through the 20th century and into the future.  The Vehicle Conservation Centre provides cover for more of the collection and puts on view vehicles that had previously not been seen by the public.

The Tank Museum (previously The Bovington Tank Museum) is a collection of armoured fighting vehicles at Bovington Camp in Dorset, South West England. It is about north of the village of Wool and west of the major port of Poole. The collection traces the history of the tank. With almost 300 vehicles on exhibition from 26 countries it is the largest collection of tanks and the third largest collection of armoured vehicles in the world. It includes Tiger 131, the only working example of a German Tiger I tank, and a British First World War Mark I, the world's oldest surviving combat tank. It is the museum of the Royal Tank Regiment and the Royal Armoured Corps and is a registered charity.


Boilerplate Apollo.

The first five launches of the Saturn I had carried Jupiter-C nosecones, a proven design which allowed engineers to focus on development of the rocket. To verify the launch aerodynamics of the CSM, AS-101 carried BP-13, a boilerplate spacecraft that weighed and duplicated the size and shape of the CSM, and a dummy LES tower. A flight-weight command module (CM) weighed around. The boilerplate spacecraft was instrumented with 116 sensors reading strain, pressure, and acceleration.

Flight.

It took three attempts to launch the rocket from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 37B. The first attempt was scrubbed after the liquid oxygen damaged a wire mesh screen during a test, causing fuel contamination. The second attempt was scrubbed after the rocket's guidance system overheated due to failure of an air conditioning compressor.  The vehicle finally lifted off on May 28, 1964. There had been several delays during the count as liquid oxygen vapors obscured an optical window in the SA-6's instrument unit, so that a ground-based theodolite could not see it. This theodolite was required by the countdown computer in order for launch to proceed. Engineers deemed it non-critical and reprogrammed the computer, allowing the launch to proceed.  The ascent was normal up to 116.9 seconds after liftoff, at which point engine number eight shut off early. This was not planned, as it had been on SA-4 as a test, but the rocket compensated perfectly by burning the remaining fuel in the other seven engines for 2.7 seconds longer than planned. The first stage separated and the second stage ignited. Ten seconds later, the launch escape system was jettisoned as planned. Also jettisoned from the first stage were eight film cameras that observed separation of the stages.  The second stage cut off at 624.5 seconds after launch (1.26 seconds earlier than predicted), with the stage and boilerplate spacecraft in a by orbit. It continued to transmit data for four orbits, after which the batteries failed. The vehicle made a total of 54 orbits, re-entering the atmosphere east of Kanton Island in the Pacific Ocean on June 1.

Engine failure cause.

Engineers were quick to find the cause of the failure of engine number eight. The teeth on one of the gears in the turbopump were stripped off. This did not cause any delays in the next launches as engineers had already decided that the gear design was inferior and were planning to change it for the next launch. This was the only problem encountered with an H-1 engine during a flight.

AS-101 (also designated SA-6) was the sixth flight of the Saturn I launch vehicle, which carried the first boilerplate Apollo spacecraft into low Earth orbit. The test took place on May 28, 1964, lasting for four orbits (about six hours). The spacecraft and its upper stage completed a total of 54 orbits before reentering the atmosphere and crashing in the Pacific Ocean on June 1, 1964.


Objectives.

AS-102 was designed to repeat the flight of AS-101. It would once again carry a boilerplate Apollo command and service module. The only difference from Boilerplate 13 carried on AS-101 was that on Boilerplate 15, one of the simulated reaction control system thruster quads (attitude control thrusters) was instrumented to record launch temperatures and vibrations. Another major difference on AS-102 was that the launch escape system (LES) tower would be jettisoned using the launch escape and pitch control motors. The mission used Apollo boilerplate BP-15.  AS-102 was the first time a Saturn rocket carried a programmable guidance computer. Previous launches had used an onboard "black box" that was preprogrammed. On AS-102 it would be possible to reprogram the computer during flight so that any anomalous behavior could potentially be corrected.

Flight.

In early July, a small crack in engine number six was found. This meant removing the engine, the first time that the ground crew had to do this with a Saturn rocket. It was then decided to return all eight engines to the manufacturer, which meant a job that would take about ten hours because of the large number of tubes, hoses and wires that connected each engine to the rocket. The replacement delayed the launch by about two weeks, followed by another delay of several days because of Hurricanes Cleo and Dora.  Launch was on 18 September from Cape Kennedy, Florida just before noon local time. The first stage burned for 147.7 seconds, with separation 0.8 seconds later. The second stage ignited 1.7 seconds later, and the LES jettisoned at 160.2 seconds after launch. It burned until +621.1 seconds with the stage and boilerplate in a 212.66 by 226.50 km orbit.  The flight met all its objectives. The spacecraft continued to transmit telemetry for five orbits and was tracked until re-entry on its 59th orbit over the Indian Ocean.  The only anomalous event on the flight was the failure to recover the eight film-camera pods. They had landed downrange of the expected area, where Hurricane Gladys ruled out a continued search. However, two of the pods did wash ashore two months later. The pods were covered with barnacles, but the film inside was undamaged.

AS-102 (also designated SA-7) was the seventh flight of the Saturn I launch vehicle, which carried the boilerplate Apollo spacecraft BP-15 into low Earth orbit. The test took place on September 18, 1964, lasting for five orbits (about seven and a half hours). The spacecraft and its upper stage completed 59 orbits before reentering the atmosphere and crashing in the Indian Ocean on September 22, 1964.


Objectives.

The primary mission objective was to demonstrate the launch vehicle iterative guidance mode and evaluation of system accuracy. The launch trajectory was similar to that of mission AS-103.  The Saturn launch vehicle (SA-8) and payload were similar to those of mission AS-103 except that a single reaction control engine assembly was mounted on the boilerplate service module (BP-26) and the assembly was instrumented to acquire additional data on launch environment temperatures. This assembly also differed from the one on the AS-101 mission in that two of the four engines were of a prototype configuration instead of all engines being simulated.

Launch.

This was the first nighttime launch in the Saturn I series. A built-in 35 minute hold was used to ensure that launch time coincided with the opening of the launch window.  AS-104 was launched from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 37B at 02:35:01 a.m. EST (07:35:01 GMT) on May 25. 1965, The launch was normal and the payload was inserted into orbit approximately 10.6 minutes after lift-off. The total mass placed in orbit, including the spacecraft, Pegasus B, adapter, instrument unit, and S-IV stage, was 34,113 pounds (15,473 kg). The perigee and apogee were 314.0 and 464.1 miles (505 and 747 km), respectively; the orbital inclination was 31.78'. The 1397 kilogram (3080-pound) Pegasus 2 satellite was also carried to orbit by SA-8, being stowed inside the boilerplate's service module, and remaining attached to the S-IV stage.  The actual trajectory was close to the one predicted, and the spacecraft was separated 806 seconds after lift-off. Several minor malfunctions occurred in the S-I stage propulsion system; however, all mission objectives were achieved.

AS-104 was the fourth orbital test of a boilerplate Apollo spacecraft, and the second flight of the Pegasus micrometeroid detection satellite. It was launched by SA-8, the ninth Saturn I carrier rocket.


Studies.

Petr Kellner graduated from the University of Economics, Prague Faculty of Industrial Economics, in 1986.

Career.

After the Velvet Revolution he worked for the Czech company Impromat, an importer and seller of Ricoh photocopiers. While working for that company, he met Milan Maděryč and Milan Vinkler.

Investment fund PPF.

In 1991, after the announcement of Czechoslovak voucher privatization, he founded the investment fund PPF (První privatizační fond) with Milan Vinkler and state-owned glassworks Sklo Union. In 1992, PPF investiční společnost a.s. was established and the funds’ names were changed from privatisation to investment. The funds were very successful and purchased stock of more than 200 corporations with nominal value 5 billion CZK.

Česká pojišťovna.

In 1995 and 1996, PPF bought a 20% stake in the largest Czech insurance company, Česká pojišťovna and started to manage it. In 2000, PPF bought 31.5% stake of Česká pojišťovna from IPB for 2.85 billion CZK. The transaction with IPB ended up with IPB paying to PPF 1.6 billion CZK penalty, making the real purchasing cost of the stake 1.25 billion CZK. Later PPF acquired more shares and became the dominant (93%) owner in 2001, when PPF bought large stakes of shares from Komerční banka and the Czech state. With help of these profitable transactions, the last investors from voucher privatization were bought out and Petr Kellner became the dominant owner of PPF Group.

Assicurazioni Generali.

In 2007, PPF Group signed a contract with Assicurazioni Generali to create a joint venture between PPF Group’s insurance arm and Assicurazioni Generali's corporations in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan. According to sources PPF Group will own 49% of that company from the start, and Generali will pay €1.1 billion to the PPF Group for its stake. Petr Kellner became member of the Board of Directors of Generali. Kellner himself later bought 2.02% stake in Assicurazioni Generali.  In 2013 Kellner's PPF sold their remaining shares in the Generali PPF Holding (GPH) to Generali for €2.5 billion, who became sole owner effective at year end of 2014. As of 2015 Kellner is no longer a member of the Generali Board.

Wealth.

As of 2013, Kellner owned 98.93% of the PPF investment and financial group. In 2006, "Forbes" estimated PPF's net worth at US $3 billion and listed Kellner as 224th wealthiest man in the world. In 2007, he moved up to 119th with US$6 billion and then in 2008 to 91st with US$9.3 billion. In 2009 he was 76th with US$6 billion and in 2010 89th with US$7.6 billion. Kellner's 2015 position on the "Forbes" list was 137th with an estimated wealth of US$9.2 billion (2015). He was estimated to have a net worth of $11.4 billion according to "Forbes" list of billionaires, making him the wealthiest person in the Czech Republic and the 102nd richest person in the world as of 10 August 2016. In March 2016, his net worth was $10.9 billion.  However, the above figures were criticized as overestimated by some Czech economic media. Their estimates were considerably lower, CZK 60–75 billion (approx. US$4 billion) according to the weekly "Týden", or even less than CZK 50 billion (app. US$3 billion) according to journalist Miroslav Motejlek.  In 2018, Petr Kellner ranked #88 on the Forbes World's Billionaires list, with wealth listed at US $15.5 billion.  In 2010 he bought a Boeing 737-700BBJ as his business airplane. He lives in an extensive residence in the village of Podkozí near Prague, but he owns a number of other real estates in various countries. He also owns one of the largest collections of photographs taken by Josef Sudek.

Petr Kellner (born 20 May 1964) is a Czech billionaire businessman. In 2018, Kellner ranked #88 on the "Forbes" World's billionaires list, with an estimated net worth of US$15.5 billion.


Life.

Fleischmann worked for a number of Jewish organizations. She founded the Slovakia chapter of the Women's International Zionist Organization and served on the executive committee of Histadrut in Slovakia. She was also a representative of the Joint Distribution Committee.  On 4 September 1939, her brother, the lawyer Gustav Fischer, was beaten to death in Bratislava. His wife, Lili, committed suicide shortly thereafter.

The Holocaust.

At Rabbi Weissmandl's initiative, the Working Group was also responsible for the ambitious but ill-fated Europa Plan which would have seen large numbers of European Jews rescued from the Nazi and Fascist murderers. An agreement was negotiated with the Nazis in late 1942 and one to two million dollars ransom was required to stop most transports. The Germans asked for a 10% down payment. As part of Gisi Fleischmann's duties, she met several times in Hungary with Jewish leaders, and also attempted to enlist support from, the Swiss representative of the JOINT (Joint Distribution Committee), and Hechalutz representatives in order to raise money to pay the ransom. Nothing came of it, reportedly because Sally Mayer was unwilling to provide the down-payment since currency transfer to Nazis was illegal. Another opinion is that Heinrich Himmler intervened in August 1943. Unfortunately, the down payment was never made.  The Working Group also played a central role in the distribution of the Auschwitz Report in spring of 1944 written by Slovakian Jews Rudolf Vrba and Alfred Wetzler. Rabbi Weissmandl's version ultimately reached George Mantello in Switzerland via Budapest. He immediately published the report's summary. That triggered a major Swiss grass-roots protest in the Swiss press, churches and streets. It was a major factor leading to President Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and others threatening Hungary's regent Horthy with post-war retribution if he did not immediately stop the transports. This significantly influenced Horthy to stop the transports. At the time, about 12,000 Jews per day were transported from Hungary to Auschwitz. Consequently, Raoul Wallenberg was able to go to Budapest, where he and diplomats like Carl Lutz, Angelo Rotta, and others rescued large numbers of Jews.

Death and legacy.

Following the Slovak National Uprising of August - October 1944, the Germans invaded Slovakia and deported the remaining Jews. The Working Group was unable to bribe or negotiate with the German military authorities, and a massive roundup on the night of 28 September caught 1,800 Jews in Bratislava, including most of the Working Group's leadership. Fleischmann was not arrested, and continued to help Jews until she was deported on the last transport to Auschwitz on 17 October. Designated "return unwanted," she was probably murdered upon arrival.  Gideon Hausner, prosecutor at the Eichmann trial, said that "Fleischmann's name deserves to be immortalized in the annals of our people, and her memory should be bequeathed to further generations as a radiant example of heroism and of boundless devotion."

Gisi Fleischmann (; 21 January 1892 – 18 October 1944) was a Zionist activist and the leader of the Bratislava Working Group, one of the best known Jewish rescue groups during the Holocaust. Fleischmann was arrested on 15 October 1944 and was murdered in the Auschwitz concentration camp three days later.


History.

In the 1980s, NATO countries signed a Memorandum of Agreement that the United States would develop a medium-range air-to-air missile to replace the AIM-7 Sparrow, while the UK and Germany would develop a short-range air-to-air missile to replace the AIM-9 Sidewinder. The US design developed as the AIM-120 AMRAAM, while the UK-German design developed as the AIM-132 ASRAAM.  The roots of the ASRAAM dated back to 1968 when development began on the Hawker Siddeley SRAAM ('Taildog'), but this project ended in 1974 with no production orders. This work was dusted off for the UK/German effort, with the Germans providing a new seeker, and the UK providing most of the remaining components. In the intervening time, the need for high maneuverability was downgraded in favor of greater range.  After German reunification in 1990, Germany found itself with large stockpiles of the Soviet Vympel R-73 missiles (NATO reporting name: "AA-11 Archer") carried by the MiG-29 Fulcrum and concluded that the AA-11's capabilities had been noticeably underestimated. In particular, it was found to be both far more maneuverable, and far more capable in terms of seeker acquisition and tracking than the latest AIM-9 Sidewinder. In 1990 Germany withdrew from the ASRAAM project, while the UK resolved to find another seeker and develop ASRAAM according to the original requirements.  In late 1990, the US partnership expressed similar concerns and embarked on an upgrade to the existing Sidewinder design to provide increased maneuverability and IRCCM (infrared "counter" counter measures) performance, i.e. measures to counter infrared countermeasures (IRCM). This program was designated AIM-9X.

Missile characteristics.

In comparison to the AIM-9L Sidewinder, the IRIS-T has higher ECM-resistance and flare suppression. Improvements in target discrimination not only allows for 5 to 8 times longer head-on firing range than the AIM-9L. It can also engage targets behind the launching aircraft, the latter made possible by the extreme close-in agility allowing turns of 60 "g" at a rate of 60°/s via thrust vectoring.  The Royal Norwegian Air Force (RNoAF) has tested a new air-to-surface capability developed by Diehl BGT Defence for the IRIS-T. A proof of concept test firing to acquire, track, and engage a target representing a small fast attack boat was conducted in Norway in September 2016, where the IRIS-T missile was launched from an RNoAF F-16AM multirole aircraft. For the air-to-surface role, the missile retains the same standard IRIS-T AAM hardware configuration, including the HE warhead and IIR guidance package, with only an updated software insertion required to deliver the additional ground attack capability. This basic air-to-ground capability provides the ability to acquire, track and engage individual ground targets like boats/ships, small buildings and vehicles.  In addition, the IRIS-T has the unique ability, in comparison to other similar missiles such as the AIM-9X, to target and shoot down other air-to-air and surface-to-air missiles. In fact, a surface launched variant of the IRIS-T the IRIS-T SL actually has even further enhanced capabilities capable of destroying aircraft, helicopters, cruise missiles, air-to-surface missiles, anti-ship missiles, anti-radar rockets and large-calibre rockets. It also has high probability of a killing shot against UAVs and other small maneuvering threats at very-short and medium-range distances.

Development partners.

In 1995, Germany announced the IRIS-T development program, in collaboration with Greece, Italy, Norway, Sweden and Canada. Canada later dropped out, while in 2003 Spain joined as a partner for procurement. The German Air Force took first delivery of the missile on 5 December 2005.  Workshare arrangements for IRIS-T development are:

Variants.

IDAS.

The IDAS variant is a navalized version of the missile, is also being developed for the new Type 212A submarine of the German Navy. IDAS is supposed to engage air threats, small or medium surface vessels or near land targets.

IRIS-T SL.

Within the MEADS program, the German Air Force plans to integrate a surface-launched (SL) radar-guided version of the missile, called IRIS-T SL. It has a pointed nose, unlike the regular IRIS-T. The IRIS-T SL qualification tests were completed during January 2015 at the Denel Overberg Test Range in South Africa. It is built in two variants IRIS-T SLS (short-range) and IRIS-T SLM (medium-range).

SAM Version.

The Swedish Army is fielding a ground launched version of the IRIS-T, designated RBS 98, to replace the RBS 70 missile system. Four missiles are carried on a special version of a Bv 410 tracked, armored vehicle.  The Norwegian Army has decided to acquire a "Mobile Ground Based Air Defence System" in a direct acquisition with Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace. The deliveries are planned for 2018 to 2021 and the system will reuse NASAMS command and control and its network solutions, to create a "highly mobile, short-range air defence system". The project includes six modified M113 vehicles carrying IRIS-T-missiles.  A version with a Lockheed Martin command and control station and SAAB Giraffe 4A AESA radar was shown at IDEX 2019 under the name Falcon.

Air-to-ground.

For the air-to-surface role, the only difference from air-to-air version is an updated software insertion required to deliver the additional ground attack capability. Tested by Royal Norwegian Air Force.

Operators.

The following operators are listed and defined as of July 2008.

The IRIS-T (Infra Red Imaging System Tail/Thrust Vector-Controlled) is a German-led program to develop a short-range infrared homing air-to-air missile to replace the AIM-9 Sidewinder found in some NATO member countries. Any aircraft capable of firing the Sidewinder is also capable of launching the IRIS-T.


Life and career.

Bulgarin was born into a noble Polish family near Minsk, Belarus (then Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth). His father, one of Kosciuszko's associates, was exiled to Siberia for having assassinated a Russian general. Bulgarin was educated in a St. Petersburg military school, took part in the Battle of Friedland but was arrested for theft soon afterwards. While his regiment was stationed in Finland, Bulgarin deserted to Warsaw, but on the way was drafted to the Grande Armée. He fought under Napoleon's banners in the Peninsular War and the 1812 Lithuanian campaign. In 1812 Bulgarin was taken prisoner in Battle of Berezina and transported to Prussia. There is a 6-year lapse in his biography after that.  In 1820, Bulgarin travelled from Warsaw to St. Petersburg, where he published a critical review of Polish literature and started editing "The Northern Archive". He also made friends with the playwright Alexander Griboyedov and the philologist Nicholas Gretsch. The latter helped him to edit the newspaper "Northern Bee" (1825–39), the literary journal "Fatherland's Son" (1825–59), and other reactionary periodicals.  Bulgarin's unscrupulous manners made him the most odious journalist in Russia. Alexander Pushkin, in particular, ridiculed him in a number of epigrams, changing his name to Figlyarin (from a Russian word for "clown"). Bulgarin retorted with epigrams, in which Pushkin's name was rendered as Chushkin (from the Russian word for "nonsense").  Inspired by Sir Walter Scott, Bulgarin wrote the Vejeeghen (Vyzhigin) series of historical novels, which used to be popular in Russia and abroad. He followed these with two sententious novels "Dmitry the Pretender" (1830), about the False Dmitry, and "Mazepa" (1834) about Ivan Mazepa. In 1837 he published under his own name a lengthy description of Imperial Russia, although much of the work was actually by, then a Ph.D. student at Dorpat University.  Some of Bulgarin's stories are science fiction: "Probable Tall-Tales" is a far future story about the 29th century; "Improbable Tall-Tales" is a fantastic voyage into hollow Earth; "The Adventures of Mitrofanushka on the Moon" is a satire.  After Nicholas I's death, Bulgarin retired from the department of stud farms, in which he had been serving for many years, and withdrew to his manor in Karlova ("Karlowa" in German) a suburb of Tartu at the time, but now incorporated within the city.

Thaddeus Venediktovich Bulgarin (; Polish Jan Tadeusz Krzysztof Bułharyn, – ), was a Russian writer, journalist and publisher of Polish, Bulgarian and Albanian ancestry. In addition to his newspaper work, he rejuvenated the Russian novel, and published the first theatrical almanac in Russian. During his life, his novels were translated and published in English, French, German, Swedish, Polish, and Czech. He served as a soldier under Napoleon, and in later life as an agent of the Czar's secret police. As a writer his self-imposed mission was to popularize the authoritarian policies of Alexander I and Nicholas I.


Playing career.

Chimera played his junior career in the WHL, for Medicine Hat and Brandon. He was selected 121st overall in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft by his hometown team, the Edmonton Oilers, mostly because of his outstanding skating. Chimera played three seasons on the Hamilton Bulldogs, which at that point was the Oilers' farm team in the American Hockey League. In his final season, he was named to the AHL First All-Star team.  Chimera played two seasons for Edmonton before being traded to the Phoenix Coyotes for draft choices. Because of the NHL lockout, he did not play the following season and went to play in Italy for Mastini Varese. Chimera was subsequently dealt to the Columbus Blue Jackets, without playing a game in Phoenix, as part of a trade for Geoff Sanderson.  With the Blue Jackets, Chimera predominantly played left wing on the team's third line. He was usually centered by Manny Malhotra and spent significant time playing alongside right wingers such as Dan Fritsche and Trevor Letowski. However, Chimera began the 2008–09 season as the veteran presence on a line with rookies Derick Brassard and Jakub Voracek.  He was a member of the 2007 Canadian IIHF World Championship team that won gold in a 4–2 win against Finland in Moscow.  Chimera was traded to the Washington Capitals on December 28, 2009 for Chris Clark and Milan Jurčina. Chimera was re-signed a two-year contract extension with the Capitals on September 29, 2011.  Chimera was re-signed a two-year contract extension with the Capitals on November 8, 2013.  On July 1, 2016, Chimera signed a two-year deal as a free agent with the New York Islanders. During the subsequent season, Chimera played in his 1,000th game.  In the 2017–18 season, his final season under contract with the Islanders, Chimera was dealt at the trade deadline to the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for Chris Wagner on February 26, 2018.  While with the Capitals, Chimera was nicknamed “the Ice Cheetah” for his speed on the ice.

Career statistics.

International.

Jason Chimera (; born May 2, 1979) is a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger who is currently an unrestricted free agent. He most recently played for the Anaheim Ducks of the National Hockey League (NHL).


Club career.

Early career.

Born in Bacău, Pantilimon started his career at Aerostar Bacău and got his share of limelight at the Romania national under-19 team before transferring to Politehnica Timișoara on 1 February 2006, his 19th birthday.

Politehnica Timișoara.

Initially, Pantilimon was Timișoara's second-choice goalkeeper, behind Marius Popa. In May 2008, however, the owner of the club, Marian Iancu, transferred Popa to the second team, and Pantilimon took the pole position. He made his debut in the Romanian Liga 1 against Dinamo București, in March 2007.  In a match against Ceahlăul on 17 October 2009, Pantilimon captained the team for the first time, since Dan Alexa, Gigel Bucur and Arman Karamyan and his brother Artavazd were all on the bench.  Pantilimon was part of the Timișoara team that defeated UEFA Cup winners Shakhtar Donetsk in the qualifying rounds of the 2009–10 Champions League campaign. He played all 90 minutes of each leg.

Manchester City.

On 11 August 2011, Pantilimon joined Manchester City on a one-year loan deal from Politehnica Timișoara to act as cover for Joe Hart following the departure of Shay Given.  Pantilimon's first start was a League Cup win against holders Birmingham City on 21 September 2011. His next match was on 26 October, against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the same competition, where City fielded a second-string team, although still comprehensively won 5–2. Pantilimon got his next Manchester City start during the 1–0 League Cup quarter-final win against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium. In the Arsenal match, he was named Man of the Match, making two saves in the first half. He started the third round of the FA Cup against Manchester United at the City of Manchester Stadium on 8 January 2012, saving Wayne Rooney's penalty but was unable to save the follow up; Manchester City lost the game 3–2.  Pantilimon's loan deal was made permanent for a fee in the region of £3 million. He was contracted to City until 2016. During the 2012–13 FA Cup, he kept four clean sheets in a row and managed an outstanding performance against Chelsea in the semi-final, conceding just one goal in five matches. In response to this performance, then City manager Roberto Mancini immediately promised that the Romanian would keep his place when the team return to Wembley Stadium to face Wigan Athletic on 11 May. However, he was a substitute in the final, with Joe Hart starting; Manchester City lost to Wigan 1–0. It was later revealed that Mancini had promised on the eve of the FA Cup Final that the Romanian would play, but then deputed the goalkeeping coach on match day morning to say there had been a change of plan.  Pantilimon was given his first start of the 2013–14 season for City in the Football League Cup third-round match at home to Wigan on 24 September 2013, which City won 5–0; manager Manuel Pellegrini praised him for keeping a clean sheet. Five weeks later, Pantilimon was also selected to start in the next League Cup match away to Newcastle United on 30 October; once again, he conceded no goals, as City won 2–0 and progressed to the last eight of the competition. Three days later, he made his Premier League debut at home to Norwich City, keeping his third clean sheet in a row in an emphatic 7–0 victory. On 7 November 2013, he started in Champions League game against CSKA Moscow that ended in City winning 5–2. He started his second Premier League game on 10 November 2013 away against Sunderland that ended in a 0–1 defeat.  On 2 March 2014, Pantilimon started for Manchester City in the 2014 League Cup Final at Wembley Stadium. The team won 3–1 against Sunderland with goals from Yaya Touré, Samir Nasri and Jesús Navas.  Overall, Pantilimon made seven appearances during the 2013–14 Premier League season, keeping three clean sheets as Manchester City won a second league title in three years. He was also the team's first-choice goalkeeper for their League Cup and FA Cup matches.

Sunderland.

On 16 June 2014, Pantilimon joined Sunderland on a free transfer from Manchester City. On 27 August, he made his first appearance for the club in the second round of the League Cup second round against Birmingham City, keeping a clean sheet in a 3–0 win at St Andrew's. Pantilimon started the season as back-up for Vito Mannone, but after poor performances in an 8–0 loss to Southampton and a 2–0 loss to Arsenal, the Italian was subsequently dropped and Pantilimon made his Premier League debut for Sunderland in a 3–1 win at Crystal Palace on 3 November 2014, thus becoming the club's first choice keeper for the rest of the season. He started the next season as first choice before losing his place to Mannone, eventually dropping to third choice behind Jordan Pickford.

Watford.

On 19 January 2016, Pantilimon joined Premier League rivals Watford on a three-and-a-half-year deal, for an undisclosed fee. He made his first appearance for the Hornets on 30 January in their FA Cup Fourth Round victory at Nottingham Forest. He also started the game in the Fifth Round against Leeds United. He kept clean sheets in both games. He made his Premier League debut for the Hornets in a forgettable 6–1 defeat at Liverpool on 6 November 2016, after Heurelho Gomes was injured during the first half.  On 1 September 2017, Pantilimon joined La Liga club Deportivo La Coruña on a one-year loan from Watford, lasting until 20 May 2018. The long-term absence of first-choice keeper Rubén, who suffered a hand injury in training, prompted the signing. Pantilimon made his debut for the Galicians against Real Betis on 16 September. The following week, Pantilimon picked up his first clean sheet, coming in a 1–0 win over Alavés.

Nottingham Forest.

On 31 January 2018, Pantilimon left Spain to return to England and sign on loan for EFL Championship side Nottingham Forest until the end of the 2017–18 season. He made his full début away at Fulham on 3 February. He made his home début against Hull City the following week, saving a penalty from Jon Toral. He made the English Football League's Team of the Week after producing a clean sheet at Burton Albion when Forest were reduced to ten men for much of the match on 17 February.  On 3 July 2018, Pantilimon signed a three-year deal with Forest.  On 30 January 2020, Pantilimon was loaned to Cypriot First Division side Omonia for the remainder of the season.

International career.

Pantilimon is a former Romania under-21 international. He made his debut for the senior Romania national team on 19 November 2008, in a friendly against Georgia. On 31 May 2016, Pantilimon was included in the final 23-man squad for UEFA Euro 2016, but did not appear in all matches in this tournament; Romanian coach Anghel Iordănescu used Ciprian Tătărușanu as the nation's first-choice.

Personal life.

Pantilimon is a hearing child of two deaf parents. He married Andreea Berbece in 2013.

Honours.

Club.

Manchester City

Costel Fane Pantilimon (; born 1 February 1987) is a Romanian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Omonia on loan from English club Nottingham Forest and the Romania national team.


Jurisdiction.

The jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police was initially the Seine "département". Its jurisdiction also included the communes (municipalities) of Saint-Cloud, Sèvres, Meudon, and Enghien-les-Bains, which were located in the Seine-et-Oise "département". These four communes were added in the 19th century to the jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police in order to ensure special protection of the imperial/royal residences located there.  The Seine "département" was disbanded in 1968 and the jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police is now the city of Paris (which is both a commune and a "département") and the three surrounding "départements" of Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, Val-de-Marne. This territory made up of four "départements" is larger than the pre-1968 Seine "département".  The Prefecture of Police also has limited jurisdiction over the whole Île-de-France "région" for the coordination of law enforcement, including combatting cybercrime. The Prefect of Police, acting as Prefect of the Defense Zone of Paris ("Préfet de la Zone de Défense de Paris"), is in charge of planning non-military defense measures to keep public order, guarantee the security of public services, and organize rescue operations (in case of natural disaster) for the whole Île-de-France "région" (which is made up of eight "départements", the four inner ones being the regular jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police, and the four outer ones being outside of its regular jurisdiction). As such, he coordinates the work of the departmental "préfets" of Île-de-France.

Nomination and missions.

Headed by a prefect titled The "Prefect of Police", who (as are all prefects) is named by the President in the Council of Ministers, and operates under the Minister of the Interior, commands the Prefecture which is responsible for the following:  The Prefect of Police can issue "arrêtés" (local writs) defining rules pertaining to his field of competency. For instance, the rules of operation and security of Paris public parks are issued as joint arrêtés from the Mayor of Paris and the Prefect of Police.  Until 1977, Paris had indeed no elected mayor and the police was essentially in the hands of the "préfet de police". However, the powers of the mayor of Paris were increased at the expense of those of the "Préfet de Police" in 2002, notably for traffic and parking decisions (the "préfet" retains the responsibility on main thoroughfares such as the Avenue des Champs-Élysées, and on any street during the organization of demonstrations).  There is also a prefect of Paris, prefect for the Île-de-France region, whose services handle some tasks not devoted to the Police Prefect, such as certain classes of building permits.

Organization.

The PP is headed by a politically appointed prefect who is assisted by the "prevote", who is the senior police officer of the force. The Prefecture of Police is divided into three sub-prefectures headed by prefects due to their importance.  Because the Police Prefecture provides some services that are normally provided by city governments, its funding partially comes from the City of Paris and other city governments within its jurisdiction.  In addition to forces from the National Police, the Police Prefecture has traffic wardens or crossing guards who enforce parking rules; it has recently added some wardens that direct traffic at crossroads and other similar duties, known as "circulation", with specific uniforms.

Prefect and Director of the Cabinet.

Consists of the Cabinet (staff) itself, the Gendarmerie Nationale Liaison Office, and 6 Local Directorates: and other agencies:

Prefect and Secretary-General for the Administration of the Police.

with four Administrative Directorates:

Prefect and Secretary-General for the Zone of Defence.

with two agencies:

List of lieutenant generals and prefects of police.

Before the French Revolution, the head of the Paris Police was the "lieutenant général de police", whose office was created in March 1667 when the first modern police force in the world was set up by the government of King Louis XIV to police the city of Paris. The office vanished at the start of the French Revolution and police was vested in the hands of the Paris Commune. Reorganized by Napoléon Bonaparte in 1800, the Paris Police has been headed by the "préfet de police" since that time.

Lieutenant generals of police.

Source: Centre historique des Archives nationales, Série Y, Châtelet de Paris, on page 38 of the PDF.

Prefects of police.

Sources: "La Grande Encyclopédie", volume 27, page 95, published in 1900. See scan of the full text at Gallica:. / List of Prefects of Paris on rulers.org:. / Archives of "Le Monde":.

The Paris Police Prefecture () is the unit of the French Ministry of the Interior that provides police, emergency services, and various administrative services to the population of the city of Paris and the surrounding three suburban "départements" of Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, and Val-de-Marne. It is headed by the Prefect of Police ("Préfet de police").


Personal life.

Radičová was born in Bratislava on 7 December 1956. She has one daughter and is the widow of Stano Radič, a famous Slovak comedian and actor who died in 2005. In addition to her native Slovak, Radičová speaks Russian fluently and has good knowledge of English, German and Polish.

Academic career.

Radičová began her academic career studying sociology at the Comenius University in Bratislava, earning a PhD at the Slovak Academy of Sciences in 1981. Radičová worked as a sociologist at the Academy from 1979–1989, coordinating a research team for family policies. In 1990, she pursued postdoctoral studies for a year at the University of Oxford. Upon her return to Slovakia in 1991, Radičová founded the Center for Analysis of Social Policy, one of Slovakia's first NGOs, and served as its executive director until 2005. During this period, Radičová also lectured in the departments of sociology, political science, and social work at Comenius University. In 2005, she was named a Professor of Sociology by the Faculty of Philosophy at Comenius University, making her Slovakia's first female professor of sociology. In Spring 2013, she returned to Oxford, as a Visiting Fellow.

Political career.

Radičová began her political career in 1990 as a member of the Public Against Violence movement, serving as a spokesperson of the party until 1992. She later participated in Slovak part of Civic Democratic Party. She served as its Spokesperson. She had never become its member and never held any position in the party.  From 2005 to 2006, she served as Minister of Labour, Social Affairs and Family in the center-right government of Prime Minister Mikuláš Dzurinda. Radičová was then elected as a member of the Parliament of Slovakia on the party list of Dzurinda's liberal-conservative Slovak Democratic and Christian Union-Democratic Party (SDKU-DS) in the 2006 parliamentary election.  Following the 2006 election, the SDKU-DS went into opposition. Radičová officially became a member of SDKU-DS following the election and was subsequently elected as deputy chairman of the party. Radičová also served as deputy chairman of the parliamentary committee on social affairs and housing.  In 2009, Radičová was selected as the SDKU-DS's candidate in the 2009 presidential election and was also endorsed by the conservative Christian Democratic Movement (KDH) and the Party of the Hungarian Coalition (SMK-MKP). In the first round of the election held on 21 March, Radičová received a surprisingly strong 38.05% of the vote and came in second place to incumbent President Ivan Gašparovič, who failed to receive a majority of the vote. Radičová was defeated by Gašparovič in the second round of the election held on 4 April, receiving 44.47% of the vote. She is the second woman to advance to the second round of a presidential election in Slovak history.  Shortly after her loss in the presidential election, Radičová encountered controversy after casting a parliamentary vote for an absent party colleague in violation of parliamentary rules. As a result of the controversy, Radičová resigned her seat in parliament on 23 April 2009.

Prime Minister.

In early 2010, Radičová was selected as head of the SDKU-DS list for the next parliamentary election via a primary election, defeating former Finance Minister Ivan Mikloš. During the election campaign her party ran on a platform of fiscal discipline and pledged to reinvigorate the economy after it suffered a 4.7% decline in 2009.  In the election on 12 June 2010, the SDKU-DS came in a distant second place with 15.42% of the vote, far behind the center-left Smer party of Prime Minister Robert Fico, which received 34.79% of the votes. However, Fico's coalition partners, the ultra-nationalist Slovak National Party and the national-conservative HZDS, performed poorly, with HZDS failing to win any seats in parliament. After Fico proved unable to form a new government, Radičová, as leader of the largest opposition party, was asked to form a government by President Gašparovič on 23 June 2010. Radičová was installed as Slovakia's first female prime minister on 8 July 2010, heading a coalition government of the liberal Freedom and Solidarity (SaS), the Christian Democratic Movement (KDH), the ethnic Hungarian Most–Híd party, and Radičová's SDKU-DS. Between them, this center-right coalition had 79 out of 150 seats.  Radičová pledged that her new government would cut state spending to reduce the budget deficit, while steering clear of tax rises. She stated, "We are ready to take responsibility over the country at a time when it is coping with the impact of a deep economic crisis and the irresponsible decisions of our political predecessors." She also said that Slovakia's guarantee of 4.5 billion euros to the EU stabilization fund was exorbitant, but she also stated that she will not block approval of the scheme within the EU, though she sought to renegotiate her country's contribution to it. Her new government sought, through coalition partner Most-Hid, to rebuild links with Hungary that were badly damaged by the adoption of contentious language and citizenship laws.  Radičová lost a vote of confidence in the parliament on 11 October 2011 after dispute on eurozone bailout leading to the fall of her government. An early election was held on 10 March 2012. Radičová did not submit herself as a candidate again. In 2013, she published "Krajina hrubých čiar" [Country of Full Stops], a book on her experience as Prime Minister.

Iveta Radičová (; born 7 December 1956) served as the first woman Prime Minister of Slovakia from 2010 to 2012. She led a coalition government, in which she also briefly held the post of Minister of Defence in the last five months of the coalition. Previously she had served as Minister of Labour from 2005 to 2006 in the second Dzurinda government.


Signs and symptoms.

The main symptom of AVNRT is the sudden development of rapid regular palpitations. These palpitations may be associated with a fluttering sensation in the neck, caused by near-simultaneous contraction of the atria and ventricles against a closed tricuspid valve leading to the pressure or atrial contraction being transmitted backwards into the venous system. The rapid heart rate may lead to feelings of anxiety, and may therefore be mistaken for panic attacks. In some cases, the onset of the fast heart is associated with a brief drop in blood pressure. When this happens, someone may experience dizziness or rarely lose consciousness (faint). Someone with underlying coronary artery disease (narrowing of the arteries of the heart by atherosclerosis) who has a very rapid heart rate may experience chest pain similar to angina; this pain is band- or pressure-like around the chest and often radiates to the left arm and angle of the left jaw.  Symptoms often occur without any specific trigger, although some find that their palpitations often occur after lifting heavy items or bending forwards. The onset of palpitations is sudden, with the acceleration of the heart rate occurring within a single beat, and may be preceded by a feeling of the heart skipping a beat. The heart may continue to race for minutes or hours, but the eventual termination of the arrhythmia is as rapid as its onset.  During AVNRT the heart rate is typically between 140 and 280 beats per minute. Close inspection of the neck may reveal pulsation of the jugular vein in the form of "cannon A-waves" as the right atrium contracts against a closed tricuspid valve.

Mechanisms.

The fundamental mechanism of AVNRT is a re-entrant circuit within the atrioventricular node. This can take several forms. "Typical", "common", or "slow-fast" AVNRT uses the slow AV nodal pathway to conduct towards the ventricle (the anterograde limb of the circuit) and the fast AV nodal pathway to conduct to the atria (the retrograde limb). The re-entrant circuit can be reversed such that the fast AV nodal pathway is the anterograde limb and the slow AV nodal pathway is the retrograde limb, referred to as "atypical", "uncommon", or "fast-slow" AVNRT. Atypical AVNRT may also use the slow AV nodal pathway as the anterograde limb and left atrial fibres that approach the AV node from the left side of the inter-atrial septum as the retrograde limb, and is sometimes referred to as "slow-slow" AVNRT.

Typical AVNRT.

In typical AVNRT, the anterograde conduction is via the slow pathway and the retrograde conduction is via the fast pathway ("slow-fast" AVNRT).  Because the retrograde conduction is via the fast pathway, stimulation of the atria (which produces the inverted P wave) occurs very soon after stimulation of the ventricles (which causes the QRS complex). As a result, the time from the QRS complex to the P wave (the RP interval) is short, less than 50% of the time between consecutive QRS complexes. The RP interval is often so short that the inverted P waves may not be seen on the surface electrocardiogram (ECG) as they are buried within or immediately after the QRS complexes, appearing as a "pseudo R prime" wave in lead V or a "pseudo S" wave in the inferior leads.

Atypical AVNRT.

In atypical AVNRT, the anterograde conduction is via the fast pathway and the retrograde conduction is via the slow pathway ("fast-slow" AVNRT).  Multiple slow pathways can exist so that both anterograde and retrograde conduction are over slow pathways. ("slow-slow" AVNRT).  Because the retrograde conduction is via the slow pathway, stimulation of the atria will be delayed by the slow conduction tissue and will typically produce an inverted P wave that falls after the QRS complex on the surface ECG.

Diagnosis.

If the symptoms are present while the person is receiving medical care (e.g., in an emergency department), an ECG may show typical changes that confirm the diagnosis. If the palpitations are recurrent, a doctor may request a Holter monitor (portable, wearable ECG recorder). Again, this will show the diagnosis if the recorder is attached at the time of the symptoms. In rare cases, disabling but infrequent episodes of palpitations may require the insertion of a small device under the skin that continuously record heart activity (an implantable loop recorder). All these ECG-based technologies also enable the distinction between AVNRT and other abnormal fast heart rhythms such as atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, sinus tachycardia, ventricular tachycardia and tachyarrhythmias related to Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, all of which may have symptoms that are similar to AVNRT.  Blood tests commonly performed in people with palpitations are:

Treatment.

Treatments for AVNRT aim to terminate episodes of tachycardia, and to prevent further episodes from occurring in the future. These treatments include physical manoeuvres, medication, and invasive procedures such as ablation.

Arrhythmia termination.

An episode of supraventricular tachycardia due to AVNRT can be terminated by any action that transiently blocks the AV node. Some of those with AVNRT may be able to stop their attack by using physical manoeuvres that increase the activity of the vagus nerve on the heart, specifically on the atrioventricular node. These manoeuvres include carotid sinus massage (pressure on the carotid sinus in the neck) and the Valsalva manoeuvre (increasing the pressure in the chest by attempting to exhale against a closed airway by bearing down or holding one's breath). Medications that slow or briefly halt electrical conduction through the AV node can terminate AVNRT, including adenosine, beta blockers, or non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers (such as verapamil or diltiazem). Both adenosine and beta blockers may cause tightening of the airways, and are therefore used with caution in people who are known to have asthma. Less commonly used drugs for this purpose include antiarrhythmic drugs such as flecainide or amiodarone.  If the fast heart rate is poorly tolerated (e.g. the development of heart failure symptoms, low blood pressure or coma) then AVNRT can be terminated electrically using a cardioversion. In this procedure, after administering a strong sedative or general anaesthetic, an electric shock is applied to the heart to restore a normal rhythm.

Arrhythmia prevention.

While preventative treatment may be very helpful at stopping the unpleasant symptoms associated with AVNRT, as this arrhythmia is a benign condition, preventative treatment is not essential. Some of those who choose not to have further treatment will eventually become asymptomatic. Those who wish to have further treatment can choose to take long term antiarrhythmic medication. The first line drugs are calcium channel antagonists and beta blockers, with second line agents including flecainide, amiodarone, and occasionally digoxin. These drugs are moderately effective at preventing further episodes but need to be taken long term.  Alternatively, an invasive procedure called an electrophysiology (EP) study and catheter ablation can be used to confirm the diagnosis and potentially offer a cure. This procedure involves introducing wires or catheters into the heart through a vein in the leg. The tip of one of these catheters can be used to heat or freeze the slow pathway of the AV node, destroying its ability to conduct electrical impulses, and preventing AVNRT. The risks and benefits are weighed up before this is performed. Catheter ablation of the slow pathway, if successfully carried out, can potentially cure AVNRT with success rates of >95%, balanced against a small risk of complications including damaging the AV node and subsequently requiring a pacemaker.

AV-nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is a type of abnormal fast heart rhythm. It is a type of supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), meaning that it originates from a location within the heart above the bundle of His. AV nodal reentrant tachycardia is the most common regular supraventricular tachycardia. It is more common in women than men (approximately 75% of cases occur in females). The main symptom is palpitations. Treatment may be with specific physical maneuvers, medications, or, rarely, synchronized cardioversion. Frequent attacks may require radiofrequency ablation, in which the abnormally conducting tissue in the heart is destroyed.


History.

The earliest extant description of what is now often called a cupcake was in 1796, when a recipe for "a light cake to bake in small cups" was written in "American Cookery" by Amelia Simmons. The earliest extant documentation of the term "cupcake" itself was in "Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats" in 1828 in Eliza Leslie's "Receipts" cookbook.  In the early 19th century, there were two different uses for the term "cup cake" or "cupcake". In previous centuries, before muffin tins were widely available, the cakes were often baked in individual pottery cups, ramekins, or molds and took their name from the cups they were baked in. This is the use of the name that has remained, and the name of "cupcake" is now given to any small, round cake that is about the size of a teacup. While English fairy cakes vary in size more than American cupcake, they are traditionally smaller and are rarely topped with elaborate icing.  The other kind of "cup cake" referred to a cake whose ingredients were measured by volume, using a standard-sized cup, instead of being weighed. Recipes whose ingredients were measured using a standard-sized cup could also be baked in cups; however, they were more commonly baked in tins as layers or loaves. In later years, when the use of volume measurements was firmly established in home kitchens, these recipes became known as "1234 cakes" or "quarter cakes", so called because they are made up of four ingredients: one cup of butter, two cups of sugar, three cups of flour, and four eggs. They are plain yellow cakes, somewhat less rich and less expensive than pound cake, due to using about half as much butter and eggs compared to pound cake.  The names of these two major classes of cakes were intended to signal the method to the baker; "cup cake" uses a volume measurement, and "pound cake" uses a weight measurement.

Recipes.

A standard cupcake uses the same basic ingredients as standard-sized cakes: butter, sugar, eggs, and flour. Nearly any recipe that is suitable for a layer cake can be used to bake cupcakes. The cake batter used for cupcakes may be flavored or have other ingredients stirred in, such as raisins, berries, nuts, or chocolate chips.  Because their small size is more efficient for heat conduction, cupcakes bake much faster than a normal layered cake. During baking, the volume of the batter initially increases due to the production of carbon dioxide, then decreases upon cooling due to the release of leavening gases.  Cupcakes may be topped with frosting or other cake decorations. They may be filled with frosting, fruit, or pastry cream. For bakers making a small number of filled cupcakes, this is usually accomplished by using a spoon or knife to scoop a small hole in the top of the cupcake. Another method is to just insert the pastry bag in the middle of the cupcake. In commercial bakeries, the filling may be injected using a syringe. Elaborately decorated cupcakes may be made for special occasions.

Pans and liners.

Originally, cupcakes were baked in heavy pottery cups. Some bakers still use individual ramekins, small coffee mugs, large tea cups, or other small ovenproof pottery-type dishes for baking cupcakes.  Cupcakes are usually baked in muffin tins. These pans are most often made from metal, with or without a non-stick surface, and generally have six or twelve depressions or "cups". They may also be made from stoneware, silicone rubber, or other materials. A standard size cup is in diameter and holds about, although pans for both miniature and jumbo size cupcakes exist. Specialty pans may offer many different sizes and shapes. Individual patty cases, or cupcake liners, may be used in baking. These are typically round sheets of thin paper pressed into a round, fluted cup shape. Liners can facilitate the easy removal of the cupcake from the tin after baking, keep the cupcake more moist, and reduce the effort needed to clean the pan. The use of liners is also considered a more sanitary option when cupcakes are being passed from hand to hand. Like cupcake pans, several sizes of paper liners are available, from miniature to jumbo.  In addition to paper, cupcake liners may be made from very thin aluminum foil or, in a non-disposable version, silicone rubber. Because they can stand up on their own, foil and silicone liners can also be used on a flat baking sheet, which makes them popular among people who do not have a specialized muffin tin. Some of the largest paper liners are not fluted and are made out of thicker paper, often rolled at the top edge for additional strength, so that they can also stand independently for baking without a cupcake tin. Some bakers use two or three thin paper liners, nested together, to simulate the strength of a single foil cup.  Liners, which are also called "paper cases", come in a variety of sizes. Slightly different sizes are considered "standard" in different countries. Miniature cases are commonly in diameter at the base and tall. Standard-size cases range from in diameter at the base and are tall. Australian and Swedish bakers are accustomed to taller paper cases with a larger diameter at the top than American and British bakers.

Shops.

In the early 21st century, a trend for cupcake shops, which are specialized bakeries that sell little or nothing except cupcakes, developed in the United States, playing off of the sense of nostalgia evoked by the cakes. In New York City, cupcake shops like Magnolia Bakery gained publicity in their appearances on popular television shows like HBO's "Sex and the City".  Crumbs Bake Shop, a publicly traded business running the largest cupcake shop chain in the U.S., reached its peak stock price in 2011. Declining sales, due to competition from locally owned mom-and-pop specialty stores as well as increased competition from grocery stores, caused a sharp decline in the company's prospects and stock price in 2013.  Georgetown Cupcake was the first cupcakery to open in Washington, D.C. The cupcake shop gained widespread publicity after the 2010 premier of TLC's "DC Cupcakes", a six-part reality show about the shop and its owners, sisters Sophie LaMontagne and Katherine Kallinis.  Based in Beverly Hills, California, Sprinkles Cupcakes is owned by Candace Nelson, who is also a star judge on the Food Network's "Cupcake Wars", and her husband, Charles Nelson. Sprinkles is the first cupcake shop to debut a cupcake ATM, which could hold up to 350 cupcakes at one time.

Themes.

Cupcakes are sometimes used to celebrate and illustrate specific events or themes.

A cupcake (also British English: fairy cake; Hiberno-English: bun; Australian English: fairy cake or patty cake) is a small cake designed to serve one person, which may be baked in a small thin paper or aluminum cup. As with larger cakes, icing and other cake decorations such as fruit and candy may be applied.


History.

The Model M keyboard was designed to be more cost effective than the Model F keyboard it replaced. Production of model M keyboards began in 1985, and they were often bundled with new IBM computers. They were produced at IBM plants in Lexington, Kentucky, Greenock, Scotland, and Guadalajara, Mexico. The most common variant is the IBM Enhanced Keyboard identified by IBM assembly part number 1391401, the U.S. English layout keyboard bundled with the IBM Personal System/2. Until around 1993, most Model Ms included a sturdy, coiled, detachable cable, with either an AT (pre-1987) or PS/2 connector, in 5- and 10-foot lengths (1.5 and 3 metres). From about 1994 onwards, flat non-detachable cables were used to reduce manufacturing costs; however, IBM retained its 101-key layout, never implementing the Microsoft Windows keys common on other keyboards from that time. Unicomp later designed a 104-key Model M with Windows keys.  On March 27, 1991, IBM divested a number of its hardware manufacturing operations, including keyboard production, forming Lexmark International. Lexmark continued manufacturing model M keyboards in the United States, United Kingdom, and Mexico, with IBM being Lexmark's major customer. Many of these keyboards are identified by IBM assembly part numbers 52G9658, 52G9700, 71G4644, 82G2383, and 42H1292, which were bundled with IBM PS/ValuePoint and IBM PC Series. Because of pricing pressures, these keyboards were manufactured with a new, lower-cost design, including lighter plastic, an integrated cable, and a single color for key legends.  A five-year agreement obligating IBM to purchase nearly all of its keyboards from Lexmark expired on March 27, 1996. Lexmark exited the keyboard business, selling related assets to IBM and Maxi Switch. When Lexmark discontinued keyboard production in April 1996, IBM continued producing buckling-spring model M keyboards in Scotland until 1999. Maxi Switch purchased assets for rubber-dome keyboards and the Lexmark Select-Ease Keyboard (model M15), including a buckling-spring switch patent. Maxi Switch continued to manufacture the IBM Enhanced Keyboard with TrackPoint II (model M13) in Mexico until 1998. Some of Lexmark's keyboard manufacturing assets were also sold to a group of Lexmark employees, who formed Unicomp. Unicomp still manufactures its version of the Model M (similar to part number 42H1292 but first renamed 42H1292U and subsequently the "Customizer"), as well as other configurations including updated 104- and 105-key layouts; a Unix layout (where the Ctrl and Caps Lock keys and Esc and tilde keys are transposed); models with integrated pointing sticks or trackballs; and POS-specific models such as those with built-in magstripe readers. Although current Unicomp models may still be purchased, original production models retain their value well among collectors and computer enthusiasts.

Variations.

The Model M's numerous variations (referred to as "part numbers") incorporated alternative features and/or colors. One of the most popular variants is the Space Saving Keyboard, which integrates the number pad into the keyboard's main section, substantially reducing its width.  IBM released the standard and Space Saving Model M's in an alternative 'gray/pebble' colour for use with their Industrial computers; this darker color was designed to conceal discoloration from handling in production environments. Other variable features include a grounded spacebar and, on some later models, drainage holes to deter damage from spilled drinks.

Design.

The variant most commonly referred to as "Model M" is Part No. 1391401, on which many other variants were based. This model, known as the Enhanced Keyboard, included IBM's patented buckling spring design and swappable keycaps.  The Model M's design has been widely praised as durable and reliable, and has remained basically the same since the 1980s, while virtually all other computing hardware, from PCs to monitors to mice, has changed dramatically. The M's sturdy design, including its heavy steel backplate and strong plastic frame, has allowed even the most abused examples to survive for years.  The Model M's buckling spring key design gives it a unique feel and sound. Unlike more common and cheaper dome switch designs, buckling springs give users unmistakable tactile and auditory feedback. Because of its more defined touch, some users report they can type faster and more accurately on the Model M than on other keyboards.  The Model M is also less susceptible to dirt and wear. Dirt can interfere with the proper operation of most other keyboard technologies; however, the buckling spring switch's design is such that any dirt that falls between the keys is unlikely to enter the switch mechanism, which is covered by the key. Even if dirt were to enter a mechanism, a large amount would be necessary to prevent it from operating.  Until the late 4th-generation variants, most Model M's have a 1.25" slotted, circular speaker grille in their bottom surfaces. Relatively few contain an actual speaker, however, which was useful only for sounding beep codes on older terminal systems. The most common p/n's with speakers are 1394540 and 51G872, made for RS/6000 UNIX workstations.  There are some drawbacks to the Model M design:

Identification.

All Model M keyboards made by IBM and Lexmark have an ID label on the underside indicating the assembly part number, individual serial number, and manufacturing date. The general period in which a Model M was made can also often be distinguished by the type of logo "badge" above its keys. The first model Ms (part numbers 1390120 or 1390131) have a square aluminum logo badge in the top right corner. Part number 1391401, and most variants based on it, has a gray IBM logo in a recessed oval at the board's upper left. Later IBM-made Model Ms, and variants subsequently made by Lexmark in the early 1990s (part numbers 1370477, 52G9658, 52G9700, 59G7980, 92G7453, 82G2383, 42H1292, etc.), have a similar oval badge area with a blue logo.

Features by part number.

Logo position legend:  Click [show] to display the table's contents.  Note: Manufacture dates are approximate.

Model M designates a group of computer keyboards designed and manufactured by IBM starting in 1984, and later by Lexmark International, Maxi Switch, and Unicomp. The keyboard's many variations have their own distinct characteristics, with the vast majority having a buckling-spring key design and swappable keycaps. Model M keyboards have been praised by computer enthusiasts and frequent typists due to their durability and consistency, and the tactile and auditory feedback they provide.


Early life.

Isaac (also spelled as Yitzhak) Herzog, aka "Bougie", is the son of General Chaim Herzog, who served two terms as the Sixth President of Israel from 1983 to 1993, and Aura Ambache, founder of the Council for a Beautiful Israel. His paternal grandfather, Rabbi Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog, was the first Chief Rabbi of Ireland from 1922 to 1935 and Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel from 1936 to 1959.  Herzog's father was born in Ireland and his mother was born in Egypt; their families were of Eastern European Jewish descent (from Poland, Russia, and Lithuania). He has two brothers and a sister.  Herzog was born in Tel Aviv. When his father served as Permanent Representative of Israel to the United Nations for three years, Herzog lived in New York and attended the Ramaz School. In the following years, while also studying in high school, Herzog gained an advanced academic education at Cornell University and New York University.  When he returned to Israel at the end of 1978, he enlisted in the IDF and served as a major officer in Unit 8200 of the Intelligence Corps.  Herzog studied law at Tel Aviv University. He worked at a law firm founded by his father, Herzog, Fox & Ne'eman.

Political career.

Although he did not win a seat in the 1999 elections, Herzog served as the Government Secretary in Ehud Barak's cabinet until 2001 when Barak was defeated by Ariel Sharon in a special election for Prime Minister. In 1999, he was also investigated in the "Amutot Barak" scandal (a scandal involving allegations that the party funding law was violated), but maintained his silence. The Attorney General, therefore, decided to close the case against him due to lack of evidence. From 2000 until 2003, he served as chairman of the Israel Anti-Drug Authority.  Herzog won a seat in the 2003 election as a member of the Labor Party, and was appointed Minister of Housing and Building at his request when Labor joined Ariel Sharon's coalition government on 10 January 2005. However, on 23 November 2005, he resigned from his cabinet post along with the rest of the party.  Prior to the 2006 elections, Herzog won second place on Labor's list in the party's primaries. He was initially appointed Minister of Tourism in Ehud Olmert's Kadima-led coalition, but was reassigned to the Social Affairs ministry in March 2007 after Yisrael Beiteinu was awarded the Tourism Ministry following their late entry to the governing coalition, and was also appointed Minister of the Diaspora, Society and the Fight Against Antisemitism. He was again second on the party's list for the 2009 elections. Following the election, he was appointed Minister of Welfare & Social Services and Minister of the Diaspora, Society, and the Fight Against Antisemitism. In January 2009 he was appointed by PM Ehud Olmert as the Israel Government Coordinator for the provision of humanitarian aid to the population of Gaza. He later resigned from the cabinet after Ehud Barak left the Labor Party to establish Independence in January 2011.  In 2011 Herzog was an unsuccessful candidate for the Labor Party leadership. He finished third in the primaries that year, after Shelly Yachimovich and Amir Peretz.

Opposition leader.

On 22 November 2013 Herzog was elected leader of the Labor Party, defeating incumbent Shelly Yachimovich by 58.5% to 41.5%. In doing so, he became Leader of the Opposition. Whereas Yachimovich focused first on socioeconomic issues, Herzog prioritizes security and resolution of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.  Ten days after the election, Herzog met with Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas to pledge his support for the two-state solution.  Herzog has reportedly reached out to Shas leader Aryeh Deri to increase cooperation between the two opposition factions. In June 2014, Herzog criticized PM Benjamin Netanyahu for failing to engage the international community, failing to present a proposal for peace with Palestinians, and failure to work effectively with the President of the United States, Barack Obama. Herzog declared that Netanyahu's "loathing and hostility for Barack Obama" was one of his greatest failures, since it put Israel's security at risk.  With the governing coalition dissolving and new elections expected in March 2015, Herzog called on Hatnua and Kadima parties to join his Labor Party in forming a new coalition. In an interview with YNET, he stated, "I am capable of replacing Netanyahu. I will do everything in order to establish a bloc before the elections." Shortly thereafter, Herzog and Tzipi Livni, who was justice minister and is head of a centrist faction, announced they would campaign on a joint slate in the upcoming election in an effort to keep Netanyahu, leader of the Likud Party, from securing a fourth term as prime minister. The joint list was named Zionist Union, winning 24 seats to Likud's 30 in the 2015 election, making it the largest Opposition faction.  In July 2017, Herzog was eliminated in the first round of the Labor party primaries. Avi Gabbay went on to win the leadership elections, however Herzog remained official leader of the opposition in the Knesset as Gabay was not an elected MK. However, after being elected chairman of the Jewish Agency for Israel, Herzog resigned as Leader of the Opposition and from the Knesset. Tzipi Livni succeeded him as Leader of the Opposition, whilst Robert Tiviaev replaced him in the Knesset.

Chairman of the Jewish Agency.

In June 2018 Herzog was unanimously elected chairman of the Jewish Agency for Israel. Herzog marked bridging the gap between the Jewish people and the State of Israel as one of his objectives. In an interview on Ynet news, Herzog stated that he views intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews as a plague to which there must be a solution. On October 24, 2018, Herzog led a resolution to reaffirm the Jewish Agency's Board of Governors' commitment to the principles of a democratic Israel as emerging from the Declaration of Independence. Following the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting, Herzog expressed his concern from the rising anti-Semitism all over the world. In the International Holocaust Remembrance Day ceremony at the European Parliament in Brussels he urged the leaders of European countries to fight anti-Semitism and to adopt the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance’s definition of anti-Semitism. In March 2019 the Jewish Agency became the first public institution in Israel to help employees finance surrogacy services abroad so that they can become parents (this includes gay and single parents).

Personal life.

Herzog is married to Michal, a lawyer, and has three sons. He resides in his childhood home in the Tzahala neighborhood of Tel Aviv.

Isaac 'Bougie' Herzog (; born 22 September 1960) is an Israeli politician. He served as a member of the Knesset between 2003 and 2018 and held several ministerial posts, including Minister of Welfare and Social Services (2007–11). Formerly the chairman of the Labor Party, he served as the opposition leader from 2013 until 2018. In June 2018 he was elected Chairman of the Jewish Agency for Israel and his term began on August 2018.


Description.

The technical distinction between the New World platyrrhines and Old World catarrhines is the shape of their noses. The platyrrhines (from Ancient Greek "platu-", "flat", and "rhin-", "nose") have nostrils which face sideways. The catarrhines (from Ancient Greek "kata-", "down", and "rhin-", "nose") have nostrils that face downwards. Catarrhines also never have prehensile tails, and have flat fingernails and toenails, a tubular ectotympanic (ear bone), and eight, not 12, premolars, giving them a dental formula of:, indicating 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, and 3 molars on each side of the upper and lower jaws.  Most catarrhine species show considerable sexual dimorphism and do not form a pair bond. Most, but not all, species live in social groups. Like the platyrrhines, the catarrhines are generally diurnal, and have grasping hands and (with the exception of bipedal humans) grasping feet.  The apes – in both traditional and phylogenic nomenclature – are exclusively catarrhine species. In traditional usage, ape describes any tailless, larger, and more typically ground-dwelling species of catarrhine. "Ape" may be found as part of the common name of such species, such as the Barbary ape. In phylogenic usage, the term ape applies only to the superfamily Hominoidea. This grouping comprises the two families Hylobatidae, the lesser apes or gibbons, and Hominidae, the great apes, including orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, humans, and related extinct genera, such as the prehuman australopithecines and the giant orangutan relative "Gigantopithecus".

Classification and evolution.

According to Schrago & Russo, New World monkeys split from their Old World kin about 35 million years ago (Mya). They use the major catarrhine division between cercopithecoids and hominoids of about 25 Mya (which they argue is strongly supported by the fossil evidence), as a calibration point, and from this also calculate the gibbons separating from the great apes (including humans) about 15-19 Mya.  According to Begun and Harrison, the Catarrhini split from their New World monkey kin about 44 - 40 Mya, with the first catarrhines appearing in Africa and Arabia, and not appearing in Eurasia (outside Arabia) until 18-17 Mya.  The distinction between apes and monkeys is complicated by the traditional paraphyly of monkeys: Apes emerged as a sister group of Old World monkeys in the catarrhines, which are a sister group of New World monkeys. Therefore, cladistically, apes, catarrhines and related contemporary extinct groups such as Parapithecidae are monkeys as well, for any consistent definition of "monkey". "Old World Monkey" may also legitimately be taken to be meant to include all the catarrhines, including apes and extinct species such as "Aegyptopithecus", in which case the apes, Cercopithecoidea and "Aegyptopithecus" emerged within the Old World Monkeys.

Cladogram.

Below is a cladogram with extinct species in which the crown Catharrhini, which emerged in the Propliopithecoidea. Also, Saadanioidea is sister of the Cercopithecoidea rather than of the Crown Catarrhini here. It is indicated how many million years ago (Mya) the clades diverged into newer clades. The Platyrrhini may have emerged in e.g. the Oligopithecidae.

The Catarrhini or catarrhine monkeys or Old World anthropoids are the sister group to the New World monkeys, the Platyrrhini. The Platyrrhini emerged within "monkeys" by migration to South America from Afro-Arabia (the Old World), likely by ocean. With respect to the ones that stayed behind, Geoffroy in 1812 grouped the apes (hominoidea) and the Cercopithecoidea together and established the name Catarrhini, "Old World monkeys", or "singes de l'Ancien continent". Darwin in the late 19th century imagined correctly that apes were the sister to the Cercopithecoidea. There has been some resistance to directly designate apes (and thus humans) as monkeys despite the scientific evidence, so "Old World monkey" may be taken to mean the Cercopithecoidea or the Catarrhini. That apes are monkeys was already realized by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in the 18th century. The apes are further divided into the lesser apes or gibbons and the great apes, consisting of the orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans. The Catarrhini are all native to Africa and Asia. Members of this parvorder are called catarrhines.


Early life.

David was born in New York City, a son of Austrian Jewish immigrants Lina (née Goldberg) and Gedalier David, who owned a delicatessen in Brooklyn, and younger brother of American lyricist and songwriter Mack David.

Career.

He is credited with popular music lyrics, beginning in the 1940s with material written for bandleader Sammy Kaye and for Guy Lombardo. He worked with Morty Nevins of The Three Suns on four songs for the feature film "Two Gals and a Guy" (1951), starring Janis Paige and Robert Alda.  In 1957, David met composer Burt Bacharach at Famous Music in the Brill Building in New York. The two teamed up and wrote their first hit "The Story of My Life", recorded by Marty Robbins in 1957. Subsequently, in the 1960s and early 1970s Bacharach and David wrote some of the most enduring songs in American popular music, many for Dionne Warwick but also for The Carpenters, Dusty Springfield, B. J. Thomas, Gene Pitney, Tom Jones, Jackie DeShannon and others.  In the UK, a version of "The Story of My Life" recorded by Michael Holliday reached #1 in 1958 before being replaced by Perry Como's "Magic Moments", the first time any songwriter had consecutive #1 hits in the UK Singles Chart.  Bacharach and David hits included "Alfie", "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head", "This Guy's in Love with You", "I'll Never Fall in Love Again", "Do You Know the Way to San Jose", "Walk On By", "What the World Needs Now Is Love", "I Say a Little Prayer", "(There's) Always Something There to Remind Me", "One Less Bell to Answer" and "Anyone Who Had a Heart".  The duo's film work includes the Oscar-nominated title songs for "What's New Pussycat?" and "Alfie", "The Look of Love", from "Casino Royale"; and the Oscar-winning "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head" from "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid". In addition, "Don't Make Me Over", "(They Long to Be) Close to You" and "Walk On By" have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.  David's work with other composers includes Albert Hammond for Willie Nelson and Julio Iglesias's "To All the Girls I've Loved Before"; Sarah Vaughan's "Broken Hearted Melody", with Sherman Edwards; the 1962 Joanie Sommers hit "Johnny Get Angry" also with Edwards; and "99 Miles From L.A." with Albert Hammond, recorded by Hammond and later Art Garfunkel. With Paul Hampton, David co-wrote the country standard "Sea of Heartbreak", a hit for Don Gibson and others.  David contributed lyrics to three James Bond film themes: in addition to "The Look of Love" from "Casino Royale" with Bacharach, he wrote "We Have All the Time in the World", with John Barry and sung by Louis Armstrong for the 1969 film "On Her Majesty's Secret Service", and in 1979, "Moonraker", also with Barry, sung by Bond regular Shirley Bassey for the film of the same name.  David and Bacharach were awarded the 2011 Gershwin Prize for Popular Song, bestowed by the Library of Congress, the first time a songwriting team was given the honor. David was recuperating from an illness and was unable to attend the Washington D.C. presentation ceremony in May 2012.

Death.

David died in the morning hours of September 1, 2012, of a stroke. He was 91. He had two sons Jim David and Craig David with his first wife Anne (died 1987). He married his second wife Eunice and had three grandchildren.  He is interred in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills) beside his first wife, Anne, who died in 1987.

Harold Lane David (May 25, 1921 – September 1, 2012) was an American lyricist. He grew up in Brooklyn, New York City. He was best known for his collaborations with composer Burt Bacharach and his association with Dionne Warwick.