Family and early life.

William was born on 26 March 1876 in Neuwied Castle, near Koblenz, in the Prussian Rhineland, as Prince William of Wied (). Born into the mediatised house of Wied-Neuwied, he was the third son of William, 5th Prince of Wied (brother of Queen Elisabeth of Romania), and his wife Princess Marie of the Netherlands (sister of Queen Louise of Sweden).  Prince William served as a Prussian cavalry officer before becoming a captain in the German General Staff in 1911.

Candidate for the Albanian throne.

Prince William's aunt, Queen Elisabeth of Romania, on learning that the Great Powers were looking for an aristocrat to rule over Albania, asked Take Ionescu to attempt to persuade them to appoint her nephew to the post.  Eventually the European Great Powers — Austria-Hungary, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the French Third Republic, the German Empire, the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy — selected William, a member of the German princely house of Wied, and related to the Queen of the Netherlands to rule over the newly independent Albania. The announcement was made in November 1913 and the decision was accepted by Ismail Qemali, the head of the provisional government. The offer of the Albanian throne was first made to him in the spring of 1913 but he turned it down. Despite rejecting the offer, the Austrians put pressure on Prince William in an attempt to change his mind.  Western Europeans considered Albania to be a poor, lawless and backward country in 1913, and some foreign opinion was scathing. The French press referred to Wilhelm as "le Prince de Vide", meaning "the prince of emptiness"; vide being a pun on his homeland of Wied.

Prince of Albania.

On 7 February 1914, William let the Great Powers know that he would accept the throne. On 21 February 1914 a delegation of Albanian notables led by Essad Pasha Toptani and Arbëreshë ones (headed by Luigi Baffa and Vincenzo Baffa Trasci), made a formal request, which he accepted thereby becoming "By the grace of the powers and the will of the people the Prince (Mbret) of Albania". One month after accepting the throne on 7 March, he arrived in his provisional capital of Durrës and started to organise his government, appointing Turhan Pasha Përmeti to form the first Albanian cabinet. This first cabinet was dominated by aristocrats (prince Essad Pasha Toptani defence and foreign affairs, prince Gjergj Adhamidhi bej Frashëri finances, prince Aziz Pasha Vrioni agriculture).  His brief reign proved a turbulent one. Immediately following his arrival revolts of Muslims broke out in central Albania against his Chief Minister, Essad Pasha, and against foreign domination that was not Turkish. Greece encouraged the formation of a separatist provisional government in North Epirus. Although an agreement was made to grant extra rights to the Greek minority there, the Hellenic Army occupied Southern Albania excluding Berat and Korçë. William's position was also undermined by his own officials, notably Essad Pasha himself, who actually accepted money from Italy to finance a revolt and to stage a coup against William. The plot was exposed, Pasha was arrested on 19 May 1914, tried for treason and sentenced to death. Only the intervention of the Italian government saved his life and he escaped to exile in Italy.  The outbreak of World War I presented more problems for Prince William as Austria-Hungary demanded that he send Albanian soldiers to fight alongside them. When he refused, citing the neutrality of Albania in the Treaty of London, the remuneration that he had been receiving was cut off.

Exile and death.

Prince William left the country on 3 September 1914 originally heading to Venice. Despite leaving Albania he did so insisting that he remained head of state. In his proclamation he informed the people that "he deemed it necessary to absent himself temporarily."  He returned to Germany and rejoined the Imperial German Army under the pseudonym "Count of Kruja". The name derived from the city of Krujë in Albania. When the Austro-Hungarians forced the Serbian and Montenegrin armies out of Northern Albania in the early months of 1916, William's hopes of being restored were raised although ultimately they came to nothing. After the war, he still harboured ambitions that he might be restored, but the participants at the Paris Peace Conference were unlikely to restore the throne to someone who had just fought against them.  Although several of the factions competing for power in post-war Albania billed themselves as regencies for William, once central authority was definitively restored in 1924, the country was declared a republic on 31 January 1925, officially ending his reign.  With the monarchy in Albania set to be restored with President Ahmet Zogu becoming king, Prince William reaffirmed his claim to the throne announcing he still claimed the throne for himself and his heirs.  Prince William died in Predeal, near Sinaia, in Romania, leaving his son, Hereditary Prince Carol Victor, as heir to his Albanian claims. He was buried in the Lutheran church in Bucharest.

Marriage and children.

On 30 November 1906 at Waldenburg, Saxony, Prince William married Princess Sophie of Schönburg-Waldenburg (1885–1936); she was distantly related to the Orthodox Ghica family of Albanian origin. They had two children:

In popular culture.

Prince Wilhelm is portrayed in the 2008 Albanian film "Time of the Comet (based on Ismail Kadare's novel "The dark year" (Viti i mbrapshtë)", which takes place during his reign. He is played by the German actor Thomas Heinze.

Prince Wilhelm of Wied (German: "Wilhelm Friedrich Heinrich", 26 March 1876 – 18 April 1945), reigned briefly as sovereign of the Principality of Albania as Vilhelm I from 7 March to 3 September 1914, when he left for exile. His reign officially came to an end on 31 January 1925, when the country was declared an Albanian Republic.


Early life.

Baramidze was born on January 5, 1968, in Tbilisi, Georgia. He graduated from the Department of Chemical Technologies of the Georgian Technical University in 1992. While at the university, he was a co-founder and one of leaders of the student movement. In 1990, he joined forces with other activists establishing and leading Green Party of Georgia. Following graduation from the university in 1992, he worked as the head of a department at the Committee of Human Rights and National Minorities. In 1995, he graduated from George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies and Defense Economics in Garmisch, Germany.  After start of the military operations in Abkhazia in 1992, he became the head of Green Party Humanitarian Aid Office where he oversaw provision of humanitarian supplies, evacuation of peaceful population from the occupied territories and liberation of Georgian hostages. He's credited with freeing of 200 Georgian prisoners and facilitating rescue of 3,000 Georgian civilians who fled the conflict zone. He later participated in combat operations in Labra village of Ochamchire district and around Sukhumi.

Political career.

Member of Parliament.

In 1992, Baramidze was elected to the Parliament of Georgia and served as the Secretary for Commission of Human Rights and National Minorities and as member of Parliamentary Defense and Security Commission. He was also elected a member of the State Coordination Commission of Georgia's participation in NATO Partnership for Peace Program (PFP). In 1995, he was one of co-founders of Eduard Shevardnadze's Union of Citizens of Georgia Party and was elected its deputy chairman, acting as Secretary General of the party from 1995 through 1996. In the 1995 parliamentary elections, he was elected from Didube district of Tbilisi. In 1996, he was elected Chairman of Investigation Commission of Parliamentary Anti-Corruption Committee. As a result of anti-corruption activities, he masterminded to have the following several ministers resign, D. Gulua (Minister of Agriculture), P. Injia (Minister of Communications and Postage), D. Zubitashvili (Minister of Energy), D. Iakobidze (Minister of Finance) and D. Eliashvili (Chairman of Department of Gas of Georgia) among them.  In 1996, Baramidze was elected chairman of the parliamentary faction of Union of Citizens of Georgia. A year later, he started joint Georgian government-UNDP program on Corruption Investigation Center becoming its first director.  From 1998 through 1999, Baramidze worked as an Associate Researcher at Institute for the Study of Diplomacy of Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., conducting research on U.S. government policy, structures and functions as well as on political, military and defense issues in Caucasus. In 1999, he worked with Senator Carl Levin in the United States Senate Committee on Armed Services. Upon his return to Georgia in 1999, he was re-elected to the parliament from Didube district and elected Chairman of Defence and Security Committee in 2000 and Chairman of Faction of the United Democrats of Parliament of Georgia in 2002, subsequently playing an active role in the Rose Revolution in November 2003. In 2003 parliamentary elections, Baramidze was re-elected from the same district of Tbilisi.

Ministerial positions.

With the new government in power in late 2003, he was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs of Georgia.  He was seen as a member of the government faction grouped around the then Prime Minister (and Rose Revolution leader) Zurab Zhvania that were seen to be in opposition to the President Mikheil Saakashvili. As such he publicly cast doubt upon the official explanation for Zhvania's death due to carbon monoxide poisoning and instead appeared to endorse the possibility of foul play stating "none of the versions [of explanation for his death] should be ruled out."  In June 2004, he was appointed Minister of Defense replacing Gela Bezhuashvili. In December 2004, some sixty servicemen went AWOL and rallied outside the Human Rights Ombudsman’s Office to demand better social conditions in the army. The former military Ombudsman, Irakli Sesiashvili said that while Baramidze was in charge "these soldiers have not taken a bath for two months; there is not enough food. Over the last two months, they have eaten meat only a few times. The soldiers do not even have cold water regularly. Heating equipment has been installed, but there is no fuel... all of these Ministers care more about repairing their offices and purchasing new jeeps."  In December 2004, he was moved to the post of Vice Premier and State Minister for Euro-Atlantic Integration.

Return to the Parliament.

In August 2012, Baramdize resigned from his government position in order to run as the United National Movement's majoritarian candidate in Batumi in the 2012 parliamentary election. The election saw the defeat of the UNM by the Georgian Dream coalition and Baramidze lost the Batumi race, but he obtained a seat in the new parliament through a party list. On October 21, 2012, he was elected as one of the vice-speakers of the Parliament of Georgia, representing the parliamentary minority.  In June 2013, the UNM named Baramidze as one of the four candidates for the party's presidential primaries.

Personal life.

Baramidze speaks Georgian, English, Russian and French. He is divorced. Baramidze has one daughter, Ann.

Giorgi Baramidze (, born January 5, 1968) is a Georgian politician who served as Vice-Prime Minister of Georgia and State Minister for Euro-Atlantic Integration from 2004 to 2012. On October 21, 2012, he was elected as a vice-speaker of the Parliament of Georgia.


Biography.

Lamé was born in Tours, in today's "département" of Indre-et-Loire.  He became well known for his general theory of curvilinear coordinates and his notation and study of classes of ellipse-like curves, now known as Lamé curves or superellipses, and defined by the equation:  where "n" is any positive real number.  He is also known for his running time analysis of the Euclidean algorithm, marking the beginning of computational complexity theory. Using Fibonacci numbers, he proved that when finding the greatest common divisor of integers "a" and "b", the algorithm runs in no more than 5"k" steps, where "k" is the number of (decimal) digits of "b". He also proved a special case of Fermat's last theorem. He actually thought that he found a complete proof for the theorem, but his proof was flawed. The Lamé functions are part of the theory of ellipsoidal harmonics.  He worked on a wide variety of different topics. Often problems in the engineering tasks he undertook led him to study mathematical questions. For example, his work on the stability of vaults and on the design of suspension bridges led him to work on elasticity theory. In fact this was not a passing interest, for Lamé made substantial contributions to this topic. Another example is his work on the conduction of heat which led him to his theory of curvilinear coordinates.  Curvilinear coordinates proved a very powerful tool in Lamé's hands. He used them to transform Laplace's equation into ellipsoidal coordinates and so separate the variables and solve the resulting equation.  His most significant contribution to engineering was to accurately define the stresses and capabilities of a press fit joint, such as that seen in a dowel pin in a housing.  In 1854, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.  Lamé died in Paris in 1870. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

Gabriel Lamé (22 July 1795 – 1 May 1870) was a who contributed to the theory of partial differential equations by the use of curvilinear coordinates, and the mathematical theory of elasticity (for which linear elasticity and finite strain theory elaborate the mathematical abstractions).


Franchise history.

New England/Hartford Whalers (1971–1997).

The New England Whalers were established in November 1971 when the World Hockey Association (WHA) awarded a franchise to begin play in Boston, Massachusetts. For the first two years of their existence, the club played their home games at the Boston Arena and Boston Garden. With the increasing difficulty of scheduling games at Boston Garden (owned by the NHL rival Boston Bruins), the owners decided to move the team to Hartford, Connecticut, beginning with the 1974–75 season. While waiting for the completion of a new arena in Hartford, the Whalers played the first part of the season at The Big E Coliseum in West Springfield, Massachusetts. On January 11, 1975, the team played its first game in front of a sellout crowd at the Hartford Civic Center Coliseum, and would maintain its home there through 1997.  As one of the most stable WHA teams, the Whalers, along with the Edmonton Oilers, Quebec Nordiques and Winnipeg Jets, were admitted to the

Move to North Carolina (1997–2001).

The Whalers were plagued for most of their existence by limited marketability. Hartford was the smallest American market in the league and was located on the traditional dividing line between the home territories for New York City and Boston teams. It did not help matters that the Hartford Civic Center was one of the smallest arenas in the league, seating under 16,000 spectators for hockey. The Whalers' off-ice problems were magnified when the start of the 1990s triggered a spike in player salaries.  Despite assurances made when he purchased the team in 1994 that the Whalers would remain in Hartford at least through 1998, in March 1997, owner Peter Karmanos announced that the team would move elsewhere after the 1996–97 season because of the team's inability to negotiate a satisfactory construction and lease package for

Stanley Cup Finals and slow starts (2001–2006).

The Hurricanes made national waves for the first time in the 2002 playoffs. They survived a late charge from the Washington Capitals to win the division, but expectations were low entering the first round against the defending Eastern Conference champion New Jersey Devils. However, Artūrs Irbe and Kevin Weekes were solid in goal and the Hurricanes won two games in overtime as they defeated the Devils in six games. Their second-round matchup was against the Montreal Canadiens, who were riding a wave of emotion after their captain Saku Koivu's return from cancer treatment. In the third period of Game 4 in Montreal, down 2–1 in the series and 3–0 in the game, Carolina would tie the game and later win on Niclas Wallin's overtime goal. The game became known to Hurricanes fans as the "Miracle at Molson"; Carolina won the next two games by a combined 13–3 margin over a dejected Habs club to take the series.  In the Eastern Conference Finals, Carolina met the heavily favored Toronto Maple Leafs. In Game 6 in Toronto, the Leafs' Mats Sundin tied the game with 22 seconds remaining to send it to overtime, where Carolina's Martin Gelinas would score to send

Post-championship slump (2006–2017).

The Hurricanes were unable to follow up their recent success. Losing four players to free agency in the offseason and 222-man games to injury during the 2006–07, the team struggled throughout the regular season, and once eliminated in the last game, the Hurricanes finished third in the Southeast and 11th overall in the Eastern Conference. This finish made them the first champions since the 1938–39 Chicago Black Hawks to have failed to qualify for the playoffs both the seasons before and after their championship season, and the third champion overall to not defend its title after both the Blackhawks and the 1995-96 New Jersey Devils. In the 2007–08, Carolina again missed out as Washington Capitals stormed back to take the division title on the last day of the season, leaving the Hurricanes second in the division and ninth overall in the conference, and making the Hurricanes only the second club in NHL history to miss the playoffs for two seasons running after a Stanley Cup triumph. After a slow start to the 2008–09 season, Cup-winning coach Peter Laviolette was fired in early December and replaced by his own predecessor, Paul Maurice. Teetering on the edge of the playoff picture again, the club,

Tom Dundon and the "Bunch of Jerks" (2018–present).

Before the 2017–18 season, the Hurricanes unveiled new uniforms. On July 13, 2017, it was reported that Chuck Greenberg had sent Karmanos a letter of intent to buy the team for $500 million. On December 7, 2017, it was announced that Thomas Dundon signed an agreement to purchase the Hurricanes, which ensured that the team would not be relocated. The deal was finalized on January 11, 2018, with Dundon becoming majority owner and having a 61 percent stake in the team, while Karmanos retained a minority interest.  Dundon wasted little time in overhauling the Hurricanes' front office. On March 8, 2018, the team announced that general manager Ron Francis had

Uniforms.

The Carolina Hurricanes currently wear red uniforms at home and white uniforms on the road. While black is one of the team's core colors, the Hurricanes kept its usage at a minimum, opting for red helmets and red pants while using black exclusively as a trim color along with silver. Nevertheless, the Hurricanes have worn black alternate uniforms for select games.  The initial Hurricanes uniforms featured the primary logo in front with the secondary logo, a hockey stick converted into a storm warning flag, on the shoulders. One enduring feature of this uniform was the red and black warning flags that dot the tail along with silver, red, black and white stripes. In 2000, black trim was added on the player's name, and upon moving to Reebok's Edge template in 2007, piping was added on the shoulder yoke.  In 2008, the Hurricanes unveiled their first black alternate uniform, featuring the flag logo in front and the primary logo (recolored to dark grey) on the shoulders. As with the primary uniforms, warning flag patterns dot the tail, albeit recolored to silver and black. "V" stripes of red

Minor league affiliates.

AHL/IHL

Season-by-season record.

"This is a list of the last five seasons completed by the Hurricanes. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Carolina

Personnel.

Retired numbers.

The Hurricanes also honor three numbers within the organization, but do not display their banners publicly:

Team captains.

"Note: This list of team captains does not

Hall of Famers.

In the franchise's history, WHA and NHL Whalers Gordie Howe, Mark Howe and Dave Keon are all members, as is Bobby Hull,

Broadcasters.

The regional broadcasting rights for the Carolina Hurricanes is presently held by Fox Sports Carolinas. Color commentary for Fox's broadcast is performed by Tripp Tracy, while play-by-play is provided by John Forslund. Mike Maniscalco is the team's in-game sideline reporter, as well as a television

First-round draft picks.

"Note: This list does

NHL awards and trophies.

Stanley Cup  Prince of Wales Trophy  Conn Smythe Trophy  Frank J.

Statistics.

Franchise scoring leaders.

These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise (Hartford and Carolina) history. Figures are updated after each completed

Franchise records.

"Note: these records

The Carolina Hurricanes are a professional ice hockey team based in Raleigh, North Carolina. They compete in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference. The Hurricanes play their home games at the 18,680-seat PNC Arena.


Early life.

Pierre Richard was born in a Bourgeois family from Valenciennes. He is the grandson of Léopold Defays who was the director of the company Escaut-et-Meuse. His name comes from the stage name of Pierre Richard-Willm who was his mother's favorite actor. Pierre Richard spent his childhood and a part of his teenage years in his native city where he was a student at the Henri-Wallon high school.  Skipping classes regularly to go to the cinema, it was Danny Kaye in "Up in Arms" that revealed his vocation. This being received with only a moderate enthusiasm by his family, he had to learn a real profession. He then studied kinesiotherapy without renouncing acting.

Acting career.

Pierre Richard started his career in the theater with Antoine Bourseiller and producing himself in famous cabarets from Paris, where he played his first sketches written with Victor Lanoux. He then began his film career in 1968 in the film "Very Happy Alexander" directed by Yves Robert. In 1970, he directed his first film "Le Distrait", followed by "Les Malheurs d'Alfred" (1972) and "I Don't Know Much, But I'll Say Everything" (1973). He worked again with Yves Robert for the film "The Tall Blond Man with One Black Shoe" (1973) and its sequel "The Return of the Tall Blond Man with One Black Shoe" (1974), both written by Francis Veber, who then cast him in the main role in his directorial debut, "The Toy" (1976). Their partnership achieved further success in three successful comedies of the early 1980s, "La Chèvre" (1981), "Les Compères" (1983) and "Les Fugitifs" (1986), which paired Richard with Gérard Depardieu. Richard returned behind the camera to direct "On peut toujours rêver" (1991) and "Droit dans le mur" (1997).

Recurring names.

Among his most famous film roles, Pierre Richard came to play different characters with the same name but without any link between them. He is named :

Other activities.

Since 1986, Pierre Richard has also become a businessman and winemaker. He owns the restaurant "Au pied de chameau" in Paris and a 50-hectare vineyard which produces some 80,000 bottles a year (red and rosé) labelled as "Château Bel Évêque" in Gruissan in the department of Aude.

Personal life.

Married and divorced three times, he has two sons who are both actors and musicians, Olivier is a group member of "Blues trottoir" and plays the saxophone whereas Christophe plays the double bass. His grandson, Arthur Defays, is a model and actor.

Filmography.

Note : Pierre Richard has played in all the films he has directed.

Pierre Richard (born Pierre-Richard Maurice Charles Léopold Defays; 16 August 1934) is a French actor, film director and screenwriter, best known for the roles of a clumsy daydreamer in comedy films. Richard is considered by many, such as Louis de Funès and Gérard Depardieu, to be one of the greatest and most talented French comedians in the last 50 years. He is also a film director and occasional singer.


Geography.

The range stretches from the Lusatian Mountains (Zittau Mountains) in the northwest to the Krkonoše in the southeast. The Jizera Mountains comprise the sources of the Jizera river, as well as of the Kwisa and the Lusatian Neisse.  The major part in the south is formed from granite, in the northern part from gneisses and mica schists, with some areas formed from basalt.  The weather conditions are characterized by above-average annual precipitation. On 30 July 1897, the measuring station at Nová Louka recorded a daily precipitation amounting to 345.1 mm (13.6 inches), still an unbroken European record.

Peaks.

The highest peak is Wysoka Kopa ("Hinterberg", 1,127 m, 3,698 feet) near the town of Szklarska Poręba in Poland. Neverteheless, a better-known mountain is Smrk (1124 m, 3,688 feet), with a recently rebuilt look-out tower. Other peaks include Jizera (1,122 m, 3,681 feet) and Stóg Izerski ("Heufuder", 1,107 m, 3,632). The peaks in order of elevation:

History.

The first settlements in the area date back to prehistory. Later on, Celts, German tribes resides in the valleys until they left in 5th century. Later came Lusatian Sorbs. In the 14th century, German-speaking colonists came and started clearing of the dense primeval forests. Permanent settlements were established. In the 16th century, several glass works were founded. Glassmaking had a profound effect on the ecosystem. The primeval forest was gradually replaced by fast-growing spruce monoculture. Other important industries included tin-mining, metallurgy and textile. The Tabulový kámen (), 1072 m) on the northern edge of the Smrk Mountain marked the border between the properties of the Counts of in Friedland, Bohemia, the von Gersdorff family from Meffersdorf, Upper Lusatia (Unięcice, now part of Wigandsthal) and the Counts of Schaffgotsch from Schreiberhau, Silesia.  In the second half of the 20th century the character of the Jizera Mountains changed completely. The German population of the area was expelled in 1945 and replaced by Poles on the now Polish and Czechs on the Czechoslovakian side of the mountains. The ecosystem was badly hit by emissions, produced by lignite fired power stations located in the Zittau basin, part of Europe's ecological Black Triangle. Weakened spruce forest, less resistant against various types of parasites, were on the verge of extinction. The higher parts of the mountains, once densely wooded, became largely treeless, in part also because of excessive deforestation. New roads cut through the once-secluded landscape.  The situation improved only after the fall of communism in 1989. Open-pit coal mines in the former East Germany were closed, as well as several major power plants. Emission filters were installed at the immense Turów Power Station in Bogatynia on the Polish side of Lusatian Neisse. At the same time large-scale reforestation projects were started.

Tourism.

The Jizera Mountains are an attractive location for winter sports, cycling and hiking. The centre for both downhill skiing and ski run is Bedřichov. The international cross-country races "Jizerská 50" and "Bieg Piastów" (in Polana Jakuszycka) take place there. Its summer MTB counterpart is also gaining popularity.  The towns surrounding the mountains include Liberec, Frýdlant v Čechách, Nové Město pod Smrkem, Świeradów Zdrój, Szklarska Poręba, Desná, Tanvald and Jablonec nad Nisou.

Protections.

Large parts of the Jizera Mountains are under some form of protection. In the smaller Polish parts, the peat bogs in Jizera Valley are part of a relatively small nature protection of about 5 km2; Rezerwat Torfowiska Doliny Izery. In the Czech parts, Jizera Mountains Protected Landscape Area ("CHKO Jizerské hory") covers 368 km2, or almost all of the Czech parts of the mountains. This landscape protection contains several reserves, including the Jizera Dark Sky Park ("Rašeliniště Jizery"), dedicated to star watching.

Jizera Mountains (), or Izera Mountains (; ), are part of the Western Sudetes on the border between the Czech Republic and Poland. The range got its name from the Jizera River, which rises at the southern base of the Smrk massif.


History.

Orlík was established as a royal castle beside a ford across the River Vltava in the second half of the 13th century, probably by Přemysl Otakar II, although in the Middle Ages it came into the hands of noble families and its ownership changed many times. From 1408 the Zmrzlík of Svojšín family owned it, and during their time the Hussite Captain Jan Žižka of Trocnov stayed in the castle. In 1508 the castle burned down, and was rebuilt as a Renaissance chateâu by the new owners, the Lords of Švamberk. In 1623 the Eggenbergs acquired Orlík, and in 1717 it was inherited by the Schwarzenbergs. At the beginning of the 19th century it became their main residence. In 1802 the chateâu was burned out, and during the subsequent repairs a fourth storey was added to the building. The most famous member of the family was Field Marshal Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg, who was victorious over Napoleon in the Battle of Leipzig in 1813. The current Romantic Gothic appearance dates from 1849 to 1860, when partial remodelling in this style was carried out according to plans by Bernard Gruber. The Early Gothic style castle of Orlík was confiscated by the Communist Regime after 1948, but in 1990s was reverted to the Schwarzenbergs.  Access to the chateâu is by a stone bridge across the moat. Three round towers rise above the main façade, one of them being the original, built in the 14th century. The passage into the chateâu is cut into the rock and leads to a trapezoidal courtyard, with arcades on the ground floor. The oldest building is the former palace, which dates from the 14th century and forms the north side of the courtyard.  The interiors are mainly in the Empire style, from the first half of the 19th century. The Lovecký sál (Hunter's Hall), with quadripartite ribbed vaulting, is original Gothic, and the chapel, also dating from the Gothic period, has a net vault. From an artistic point of view, the most valuable rooms are the state rooms on the first floor; the Greater and Lesser Knight's Halls; Hunting Hall; Blue and Empire Saloons; Library, and the Gun Corridor. The interiors are furnished in the style of the period and feature the family's collection of art works.  Adjoining the chateâu is an English-style large park, covering, with native and non-native species of trees and shrubs, and a greenhouse with a collection of fuchsias. The Pseudo-Gothic Schwarzenberg vault is in the western part of the park.

Orlík Castle is a château northeast of the village of Orlík nad Vltavou, in the northern part of the District of Písek, in the South Bohemia Region of the Czech Republic. The original position of the chateâu, on a rock above the Vltava valley, was altered by the creation of the Orlík reservoir in 1954–62, and the chateâu is now barely a few metres above the water level.


Name and origins.

The name of the deity is derived from the syncretic worship of Osiris and the bull Apis as a single deity under the Egyptian name "wsjr-ḥp." This name was later written in Coptic as "Userhapi". "Sarapis" was the most common form in Ancient Greek until Roman times, when "Serapis" became common.  The most renowned serapeum was in Alexandria. Under Ptolemy I Soter, efforts were made to integrate Egyptian religion with that of their Hellenic rulers. Ptolemy's policy was to find a deity that should win the reverence alike of both groups, despite the curses of the Egyptian priests against the gods of the previous foreign rulers (e.g. Set, who was lauded by the Hyksos). Alexander the Great had attempted to use Amun for this purpose, but he was more prominent in Upper Egypt, and not as popular in Lower Egypt, where the Greeks had stronger influence.  The Greeks had little respect for animal-headed figures, and so a Greek-style anthropomorphic statue was chosen as the idol, and proclaimed as the equivalent of the highly popular Apis. It was named "Userhapi" (i.e. "Osiris-Apis"), which became Greek "Sarapis", and was said to be Osiris in full, rather than just his "ka" (life force).

History.

The earliest mention of a Sarapis occurs in the disputed death scene of Alexander (323 BC). Here, Sarapis has a temple at Babylon, and is of such importance that he alone is named as being consulted on behalf of the dying king. The presence of Sarapis in Babylon would radically alter perceptions of the mythologies of this era: the unconnected Babylonian god Ea (Enki) was titled "Šar Apsi", meaning "king of the Apsu" or "the watery deep", and perhaps he is the one meant in the diaries. His significance in the Hellenic psyche, due to its involvement in Alexander's death, may have also contributed to the choice of Osiris-Apis as the chief Ptolemaic god.  According to Plutarch, Ptolemy stole the cult statue from Sinope in Asia Minor, having been instructed in a dream by the "unknown god" to bring the statue to Alexandria, where the statue was pronounced to be Sarapis by two religious experts. One of the experts was of the Eumolpidae, the ancient family from whose members the hierophant of the Eleusinian Mysteries had been chosen since before history, and the other was the scholarly Egyptian priest Manetho, which gave weight to the judgement both for the Egyptians and the Greeks.  Plutarch may not be correct, however, as some Egyptologists allege that the "Sinope" in the tale is really the hill of Sinopeion, a name given to the site of the already existing Serapeum at Memphis. Also, according to Tacitus, Serapis (i.e., Apis explicitly identified as Osiris in full) had been the god of the village of Rhakotis before it expanded into the great capital of Alexandria. The statue suitably depicted a figure resembling Hades or Pluto, both being kings of the Greek underworld, and was shown enthroned with the modius, a basket/grain-measure, on his head, since it was a Greek symbol for the land of the dead. He also held a sceptre in his hand indicating his rulership, with Cerberus, gatekeeper of the underworld, resting at his feet. The statue also had what appeared to be a serpent at its base, fitting the Egyptian symbol of rulership, the uraeus.  With his (i.e. Osiris's) wife Isis, and their son Horus (in the form of Harpocrates), Serapis won an important place in the Greek world. In his 2nd-century AD "Description of Greece", Pausanias notes two "Serapeia" on the slopes of Acrocorinth, above the rebuilt Roman city of Corinth and one at Copae in Boeotia.  Serapis figured among the international deities whose cult was received and disseminated throughout the Roman Empire, with Anubis sometimes identified with Cerberus. At Rome, Serapis was worshiped in the Iseum Campense, the sanctuary of Isis built during the Second Triumvirate in the Campus Martius. The Roman cults of Isis and Serapis gained in popularity late in the 1st century when Vespasian experienced events he attributed to their miraculous agency while he was in Alexandria, where he stayed before returning to Rome as emperor in 70. From the Flavian Dynasty on, Serapis was one of the deities who might appear on imperial coinage with the reigning emperor.  The main cult at Alexandria survived until the late 4th century, when a Christian mob destroyed the Serapeum of Alexandria in 385. The Theodosian decree of 380 implicitly included the cult in its general proscription of religions other than approved forms of Nicene Christianity.

Serapis (, later form) or Sarapis (, earlier form, originally Demotic: "wsjr-ḥp," "Userhapi" "Osiris-Apis") is a Graeco-Egyptian deity. The cult of Serapis was introduced during the third century BC on the orders of Pharaoh Ptolemy I Soter of the Ptolemaic Kingdom as a means to unify the Greeks and Egyptians in his realm. A serapeum ( "serapeion") was any temple or religious precinct devoted to Serapis. The "cultus" of Serapis was spread as a matter of deliberate policy by the Ptolemaic kings, who also built the immense Serapeum of Alexandria. Serapis continued to increase in popularity during the Roman Empire, often replacing Osiris as the consort of Isis in temples outside Egypt.


Nature of the game.

The performance area is square for juniors or square for adults and for aero dance and step.  In International competition there are 9 different events: Individual Women, Individual Men, Mixed Pairs, Trios, Group (five athletes), Step Dance (both eight athletes) and trapezium pass. The last four are regardless of the genders of the athletes.  The performances are made up of four groups of elements. The routine must be performed entirely to music.  In the competition, there are specific requirements regarding the outfit, the number of elements performed, the number of lifts performed, the number of elements performed on the floor and much more.  Performances are scored in the following areas: artistry, execution, difficulty and the chair of the judges panel determines the final score deductions based on deductions that change with each code of points. If the combined scores are the same, the tiebreaker is the team with higher execution scores.  The long-term ultimate goal of the sport of aerobic gymnastics is to be included in the Olympic Games.

Competitive aerobic gymnastics.

National Aerobic Championships.

The National Aerobic Championships is a competition of aerobic gymnastics started in 1984 in the United States. Founded by Sport Fitness International, it was the first major championships in the sport predating the Aerobic Gymnastics World Championships by 11 years. From 1988 onwards the individual events were separated by gender. The sport became popular around the world after it gained popularity in the US when major championships were aired on ESPN during the height of the fitness movement in the US. In recent years, the sport has experienced growth in Eastern Europe, China, Argentina, Mexico, Canada and Australia among other countries but has not grown significantly in the US as the creators of the sport in the USA struggled to transition the focus from fitness to gymnastics. As other countries have blended successfully with their gymnastic federations, the US, where the sport was created, has not been as successful in making that transition. The USAG does not officially acknowledge the sport as a gymnastic discipline even though the international governing body, the FIG, does so.

FIG aerobics.

The competitive aerobic gymnastics are governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG). The FIG designs the Code of Points and regulates all aspects of international elite competition. Within individual countries, gymnastics is regulated by national federations. In 1995, the FIG recognised sport aerobics as a new competitive gymnastics discipline, organised judges and coaches courses and launched the 1st Aerobic Gymnastics World Championships in Paris (34 countries). In 1997, the IWGA (International World Games Association) included Aerobic Gymnastics in its programme of the 5th World Games (Lahti, Finland). Since 1999 The European Union of Gymnastics has been conducting Aerobic European Gymnastics Championships in all uneven years. Leading nations who have provided World Medallists are: Australia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, China, France, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Romania, Russia and Spain.

FISAF aerobics.

The Federation of International Sports, Aerobics and Fitness (FISAF) is an international non-profit "umbrella organization" active in over 40 countries. It is self-described as "the largest fitness industry organisation in the world" and "the largest instructor certification agency in the world".

In popular culture.

The sport was added in the biannual Idol Star Athletics Championships for Lunar New Year, 2017 as a male team equivalent to the female individual rhythmic gymnastics, and the scores are given in accordance to FIG Standards. Seventeen (9.8 Technical+9.3 Execution-0.0 Penalty) and ASTRO (9.75+9.45-0.1) both scored 19.10 out of 20.00, but since ASTRO scored higher in Execution, ASTRO won the inaugural event.

Aerobic gymnastics or sport aerobics is a competitive sport originating from traditional aerobics in which complex, high-intensity movement patterns and elements of varying difficulty are performed to music.


Design and development.

The elegant Do 26, sometimes referred to as the "most beautiful flying-boat ever built", was of all-metal construction. The hull had a central keel and a defined step; the wings were of gull wing configuration, the outer sections being equipped with fully retractable narrow stabilising wing-floats, instead of Dornier's famous "water-wing" sponsons extending from the lower hull for lateral stabilization.  Its four engines, Junkers Jumo 205C diesels, were mounted in tractor/pusher pairs in tandem nacelles located at the joint between the dihedral and horizontal wing sections. The rear (pusher) engines could be swung upwards through 10° during take-off and landing, to prevent contact between the three-blade airscrew and water spray created by the forward propellers.  The tail unit was of conventional design, comprising a horizontal tailplane and a single, vertical fin with rudder.

Operational history.

Pre-war.

In 1937, "Deutsche Lufthansa" ordered three Do 26 aircraft, which were designed to be launched by catapult from special supply ships, for transatlantic air mail purposes. The first, "Do 26 A" D-AGNT V1 "Seeadler" ("Sea eagle"), was piloted on its maiden flight by Flight Captain Erich Gundermann on 21 May 1938; D-AWDS V2 "Seefalke" ("Sea Falcon"), followed on 23 November 1938, piloted by Flight Captain Egon Fath. Both were completed and handed over to "Deutsche Lufthansa" before the outbreak of World War II. Due to opposition from the United States, the German airline was unable to operate these aircraft on the intended transatlantic route; instead, in 1939 they were used to carry air mail between Bathurst and Natal on the Southern Atlantic route. The third aircraft, "Do 26 B" D-ASRA "Seemöwe" ("Seagull") was completed shortly before the start of World War II.  One notable Do 26 civilian mission was carried out by V2 "Seefalke", when on 14 February 1939 the veteran "Lufthansa" pilot Flight Captain Siegfried Graf Schack von Wittenau embarked on a mercy flight to Chile, taking 580 kg (1,279 lb) of medical supplies for earthquake victims in Chile. The 10,700 km (6,600 mi) flight between Lisbon and Rio de Janeiro lasted 36 hours.

World War II.

All three "Deutsche Lufthansa" aircraft were impressed into military service in 1939 at the outbreak of World War II, as "P5+AH", "P5+BH" and "P5+CH" respectively.  Three other Do 26 aircraft (V4 – V6) were built as "Do 26 C" for the "Luftwaffe" with the more powerful 648 kW (880 hp) Junkers Jumo 205D engines; the original three aircraft were similarly converted for military service. Armament consisted of one 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon and three 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 15 machine guns.

Norwegian Campaign.

The Do 26s saw service in April and May 1940 in the Norwegian Campaign, transporting supplies, troops and wounded to and from the isolated German forces fighting at Narvik under the command of General Eduard Dietl. During this campaign three of them were lost:  On 8 May 1940, V2 (ex "Seefalke") was shot down by three Blackburn Skuas of 803 Naval Air Squadron, Fleet Air Arm, operating from the Royal Navy aircraft carrier while carrying 18 Gebirgsjägers to the Narvik front. After a running fight V2 crash-landed in Efjorden in Ballangen. Siegfried Graf Schack von Wittenau, the crew and 18 soldiers, were captured in bloody fighting with Norwegian forces. One of the Skuas, flown by future Fleet Air Arm fighter ace Sub-Lieutenant Philip Noel Charlton, was hit by return fire from V2 and made an emergency landing at Tovik near Harstad.  Then, on 28 May 1940, both V1 (ex "Seeadler" piloted by Ernst-Wilhelm Modrow) and V3 (ex "Seemöwe") were set ablaze with gunfire and sunk at their moorings at Sildvik in Rombaksfjord near Narvik, when discovered and attacked by three Hawker Hurricanes of No. 46 Squadron RAF led by the New Zealander Flight Lieutenant (later Group Captain) P.G. "Pat" Jameson, DSO, DFC and bar shortly after landing. Three mountain guns destined for the German forces fighting in the mountains east of Narvik were lost with the destruction of V1 and V3, whilst one gun was recovered from one of the aircraft before it was lost.

Later World War II service.

V5 was lost on 16 November 1940, killing its crew, after being launched at night from the catapult ship "Friesenland" in Brest, France. The fate of V4 and V6, which in 1944 were still assigned to the Test Unit (German: "Erprobungsstelle") in Travemünde, is unclear.

Surviving aircraft.

The wrecks of V1 "Seeadler" and V3 "Seemöwe" were located in Norwegian waters off Narvik after the war. "Seemöwe" has been removed but the fuselage and wings of "Seeadler" remain in situ (and are an attraction for divers). Some components from "Seeadler", including the cockpit instrument panel and a propeller, are on display at the Narvik War Museum; another propeller can be seen at the flying club in Bodø, Norway.

The Dornier Do 26 was an all-metal gull-winged flying boat produced before and during World War II by "Dornier Flugzeugwerke" of Germany. It was operated by a crew of four and was intended to carry a payload of 500 kg (1,100 lb) or four passengers on the Lisbon to New York route.


Mechanism of action.

The aim of Kegel exercises is to improve muscle tone by strengthening the pubococcygeus muscles of the pelvic floor. Kegel is a popular prescribed exercise for pregnant women to prepare the pelvic floor for physiological stresses of the later stages of pregnancy and childbirth. Kegel exercises are said to be good for treating vaginal prolapse and preventing uterine prolapse in women and for treating prostate pain and swelling resulting from benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostatitis in men. Kegel exercises may be beneficial in treating urinary incontinence in both men and women. Kegel exercises may also increase sexual gratification, allowing women to complete pompoir and aid in reducing premature ejaculation in men. The many actions performed by Kegel muscles include holding in urine and avoiding defecation. Reproducing this type of muscle action can strengthen the Kegel muscles. The action of slowing or stopping the flow of urine may be used as a test of correct pelvic floor exercise technique.  It is now known that the components of levator ani (the pelvic diaphragm), namely pubococcygeus, puborectalis and ileococcygeus, contract and relax as one muscle. Hence, pelvic floor exercises involve the entire levator ani rather than pubococcygeus alone. Pelvic floor exercises may be of benefit in cases of fecal incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse conditions e.g. rectal prolapse.

Health effects.

Women.

Factors such as pregnancy, childbirth, aging, being overweight, and abdominal surgery such as cesarean section, often result in the weakening of the pelvic muscles. This can be assessed by either digital examination of vaginal pressure or using a Kegel perineometer. Kegel exercises are useful in regaining pelvic floor muscle strength in such cases.  The symptoms of prolapse and its severity can be decreased with pelvic floor exercises. Effectiveness can be improved with feedback on how to do the exercises.

Men.

The muscles involved in men's Kegels are called the perineal muscles which can contract both voluntarily and involuntarily. Kegel exercises can train the perineal muscles by increasing oxygen supply to the muscle and increasing the strength of those muscles. The names of the perineal muscles are: Ischiocavernosus (erection), bulbocavernosus (ejaculation), external sphincter of the anus, striated urethral sphincter, transverse perineal, levator of the prostate, and puborectalis.  Premature ejaculation is when male ejaculation occurs after less than one minute of penetration. The perineal muscles are involved in ejaculation when they are involuntarily contracted. The ischiocavernosus are responsible for the male erection and the bulbocavernosus is responsible for ejaculation. By actively contracting the perineal muscles with kegels regularly, strength and control of these muscles will increase, which can aid in reducing premature ejaculation.

Urinary incontinence.

Pelvic floor exercises (muscle training) can be included in conservative treatment approaches for women with urinary incontinence. There is tentative evidence that biofeedback may give added benefit when used with pelvic floor muscle training. There is no clear evidence that teaching pelvic floor exercises alters the risk of stress urinary incontinence in men that develop this condition post prostatectomy.  In pregnant women, antenatal PFMT probably helps prevent urinary continence during pregnancy and up to six months after giving birth but for pregnant women who already have incontinence, it is not clear if antenatal PFMT helps to reduce symptoms.

Faecal incontinence.

In pregnancy, it is not yet clear if antenatal PFMT helps to prevent or treat faecal incontinence.

Pelvic toning devices.

Some devices, marketed to women, are for exercising the pelvic floor muscles and to improve the muscle tone of the pubococcygeal or vaginal muscle.  As of 2013 there was no evidence that doing pelvic floor exercise with weights worked better than doing Kegel exercises without weights; there is greater risk with weights, because a foreign object is introduced into the vagina.  Inserting foreign objects into the vagina increases the risk of infections and can lead to vaginosis or toxic shock syndrome.

Marketing.

During the latter part of the 20th century, a number of medical and pseudo-medical devices were marketed to consumers as improving sexual performance or orgasms, increasing "energy", "balancing hormones", and as having other health or lifestyle benefits. There is no evidence for any of these claims, and many of them are pseudoscience.

Kegel exercise, also known as pelvic-floor exercise, involves repeatedly contracting and relaxing the muscles that form part of the pelvic floor, now sometimes colloquially referred to as the "Kegel muscles". The exercise can be performed multiple times each day, for several minutes at a time, but take one to three months to begin to have an effect.


Early life.

Sophie was a daughter of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and his second wife, Princess Caroline of Baden. She was said to be her father’s favorite daughter although she was more attached to her mother, whom she loved dearly. Sophie adored her twin sister Maria Anna and was very close to all her sisters.

Marriage.

On 4 November 1824, she married Archduke Franz Karl of Austria. Her paternal half-sister, Caroline Augusta of Bavaria, had married the groom's widowed father, Francis II, in 1816. Sophie and Franz Karl had six children. Emperor Francis II was truly fond of Sophie. Although Sophie had little in common with her husband she was caring and devoted wife to Franz Karl who loved and respected her.  Unlike her husband Sophie was attached to all her children especially Francis Joseph as well as Ferdinand Maximilian who was her favourite son. She had a reputation for being strong-willed and authoritarian by nature but she was also known as familiar and sociable person devoted to her family and the Habsburg empire she married into. She enjoyed court life, dance, art and literature as well as horse riding.  Her ambition to place her oldest son on the Austrian throne was a constant theme in Austrian politics. At the time she was called "the only man at court". During the Revolution of 1848, she persuaded her somewhat feeble-minded husband to give up his rights to the throne in favour of their son Franz Joseph. After Franz Joseph's accession, Sophie became the power behind the throne.  Historically, Sophie is remembered for her extremely adversial relationship with Franz Joseph's wife Sisi, who was also her niece. Elisabeth hated Sophie for being strict and demanding to her but there is no evidence that Archduchess had the same feelings toward her niece since she usually described Elisabeth quite pleasantly in her diary and letters. Nonetheless she had a good relationships with her other daughters-in-law and was caring mother-in-law to Maria Annunziata.  Sophie kept a detailed diary most of her life, which reveals much about Austrian court life. She was deeply affected in 1867 by the execution in Mexico of her second son Maximilian. She never recovered from that shock, and withdrew from public life. She died of a brain tumor in 1872.  She was also noted for her close relationship with Napoleon II, who lived at the Austrian Court as the Duke of Reichstadt. There were rumors of a sexual affair between them. There was even suspicion that Maximilian, born two weeks before Reichstadt's death in 1832, was actually his child. These claims were never verified, but it is certain that they were very good friends and that his death affected her very much. She is said to have turned into the hard, ambitious woman described in fiction after he died.

Princess Sophie of Bavaria (Sophie Friederike Dorothea Wilhelmine; 27 January 1805 – 28 May 1872) was born to King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and his second wife Caroline of Baden. She was the identical twin sister of Princess Maria Anna of Bavaria, Queen of Saxony as wife of Frederick Augustus II of Saxony. Her eldest son Franz Joseph reigned as Emperor of Austria, and King of Hungary; her second son Maximilian reigned as Emperor of Mexico.


History.

Hebrew writers.

The foundations of modern Israel writing were laid by a group of literary pioneers from the Second Aliyah including Shmuel Yosef Agnon, the only Nobel Prize winner for literature in Hebrew and the only one for Israeli literature, Moshe Smilansky, Yosef Haim Brenner, David Shimoni, and Jacob Fichman. Until World War I, Hebrew literature was centered in Eastern Europe. After the war and the Russian Revolution many Hebrew writers found their way to Palestine, so that at the time Palestinian writing was essentially a continuation of the European tradition. In 1921, 70 writers met in Tel Aviv and founded the Hebrew Writers' Association. About this time the first literary periodicals made their appearance—"Ha-Adamah", edited by Brenner, and "Ma'abarot", edited by Fichman. The 1920 and 1930s witnessed the emergence of Palestine as the dominant center of Hebrew literary activity. Many of the pioneers of Hebrew literature were Zionists, and eventually made their way to Palestine. The great figures of the early part of the century—Bialik, Ahad Ha-Am, Tchernichovsky—all spent their last years in Tel Aviv, and although this was not the period of their greatest creativity, they exerted a great influence on younger Hebrew writers.  Among the earliest modern Hebrew writers was a small minority of writers who were born in Palestine. This cadre includes Yitzhaq Shami and Yehuda Burla, Sepharadi Jews whose families migrated to Palestine in the 19th and 18th centuries, respectively. The writing of this group stands out for its authentic depiction of the Arab and Jewish population of Palestine, told from the vantage point of those who grew up in its midst.  The most important writers of the first generation, S.Y. Agnon and Haim Hazaz, were deeply rooted in their European background, and served as links between the classical writers of the early decades of the Hebrew revival and the Hebrew writers in Palestine during the following generations.  For the next generation of writers, the center of focus was Palestine, even when they were writing about other parts of the world. Their framework was the period of aliyah and, very often, life in the kibbutz. Among the outstanding names are Uri Zvi Greenberg and Avraham Shlonsky, who found in Palestine the antidote to the rootlessness of the Diaspora.  The third generation of writers emerged around the time of the Israeli war of independence. Its key figures (S. Yizhar, Moshe Shamir, Hanoch Bartov, Haim Gouri, Benjamin Tammuz, Aharon Megged) were all sabras or had been brought to the country at an early age. Strong influences now came in from other countries, especially Western. A group called the "Canaanites" even sought to deny the connection between Israelis and Jews elsewhere. But after 1948, a feeling of emptiness and of searching for new values was leading to experiments in exploring the Jewish past.  The subsequent generation of the 1960s (A. B. Yehoshua, Amos Oz, Natan Yonatan, Yoram Kaniuk, Yaakov Shabtai) has endeavoured to place Israeli culture within a world context and stresses not so much the unique aspects of Jewish life and Israel as the universal. This school of writers often identifies itself with the protest literature of other countries.  The following generation, writers who were born in the 1960s and 1970s and made their debut in the 1980s and 1990s, examined the basic questions of Jewish-Israeli existence by exposing the collective tensions in individual characters and fates. Notable writers from this era include Etgar Keret and Sayed Kashua.

Yiddish writers.

Apart from Hebrew writers, there is considerable creative productivity in Israel in other languages, notably in Yiddish. Before World War II, Warsaw, Moscow, and New York were the main centers of Yiddish activity. In Palestine there was still a certain hostility to the Yiddish language, which was felt as a challenge to the Hebrew revival. However, with World War II the whole picture changed. The European centers were liquidated by Hitler and Stalin, and the New York center declined. Immigration brought many of the leading Yiddish writers to Israel. Here the internal attitude relaxed and became friendly, in view of the Holocaust in Europe, on the one hand, and the secure position attained by Hebrew, on the other.  Yiddish writing in Israel can be marked by generations, similar to those in Hebrew literature. The first consisted of writers such as David Pinski and Sholem Asch, who passed their last years in Israel. The second generation, led by Abraham Sutzkever, started its career in Eastern Europe but continued in Israel. The third generation was centered on "Young Israel", a modernist group of poets and prose writers, most of whom are kibbutz members, whose work has been influenced by the avant-garde schools of English and French writing.  Yiddish writing in Israel is concentrated on the European Holocaust (the leading writer on this is Ka-Tzetnik), and life among new immigrants. Yiddish authors in Israel are organized in a Yiddish authors' association.

Arabic writers.

The presence of Arabic-language literature in Israeli society can be initially attributed to Emile Habibi, an Israeli-Palestinian writer and a communist politician. In 1992, he was awarded the Israel Prize for Arabic literature. A fervent communist, Habibi helped created the Israeli Communist Party and established "Al-Ittihad", a communist daily Arabic language newspaper published in Haifa. Habibi's works, while often a critique of Israeli society, are nevertheless part of Israeli culture.

Publication of books in Israel.

By law, the Jewish National and University Library of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem receives two copies of each book published in Israel. In 2004 it reported that it received 6,436 new books. Most of them were published in Hebrew, and 89% those books published in Hebrew were original to the Hebrew language. Almost 8% of the 2004 crop were children's books and another 4% were textbooks. According to the type of publisher, the books were 55% commercial, 14% self-published, 10% governmental, 7% educational, and 14% published by other types of organizations. The orthodox and ultra-orthodox sector was responsible for 21% of the total titles. 2017 figures show that 17% of books were Torah-related, 16% were literature and 14% children's books.

Israeli literature is literature written in the State of Israel by Israelis. Most works classed as Israeli literature are written in the Hebrew language, although some Israeli authors write in Yiddish, English, Arabic and Russian.


Life.

Schmoller was born in Heilbronn. His father was a Württemberg civil servant. Young Schmoller studied "" (a combination of economics, law, history, and civil administration) at the University of Tübingen (1857–61). In 1861, he obtained an appointment at the. During his academic career, he held appointments as a professor at the universities of Halle (1864–72), Strasbourg (1872–82), and Berlin (1882–1913). After 1899, he represented the University of Berlin in the Prussian House of Lords.  Schmoller's influence on academic policy, economic, social and fiscal reform, and economics as an academic discipline for the time between 1875 and 1910 can hardly be overstated. He was an outspoken proponent of the assertion of German naval power and the expansion of the German overseas empire.

Work.

As an outspoken leader of the "younger" historical school, Schmoller opposed what he saw as the axiomatic-deductive approach of classical economics and, later, the Austrian school—indeed, Schmoller coined the term to suggest provincialism in an unfavorable review of the 1883 book "Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics (Untersuchungen über die Methode der Socialwissenschaften und der politischen Oekonomie insbesondere)" by Carl Menger, which attacked the methods of the historical school. This led to the controversy known as the "Methodenstreit", which today often appears as a waste of energies and one of the main reasons for the later demise of the whole historical school, although—as Joseph Schumpeter once pointed out—this was really a quarrel "within" that school. Schmoller's primarily inductive approach, requesting careful study, comparative in time and space, of economic performance and phenomena generally, his focus on the evolution of economic processes and institutions, and his insistence on the cultural specificity of economics and the centrality of values in shaping economic exchanges stand in stark contrast to some classical and most neoclassical economists, so that he and his school fell out of the mainstream of economics by the 1930s, being replaced in Germany by the successor Freiburg school.  However, it is often overlooked that Schmoller's primary preoccupation in his lifetime was not with economic "method" but with economic and social "policy" to address the challenges posed by rapid industrialization and urbanization. That is, Schmoller was first and foremost a social reformer. As such, Schmoller's influence extended throughout Europe, to the Progressive movement in the United States, and to social reformers in Meiji Japan. His most prominent non-German students and followers included William J. Ashley, W.E.B. Du Bois, Richard T. Ely, Noburu Kanai, Albion W. Small, and E.R.A. Seligman.  Since the 1980s, Schmoller's work has been re-evaluated and found relevant to some branches of heterodox economics, especially development economics, behavioral economics, evolutionary economics, and neo-institutional economics. He has long had an influence within the subfield of economic history and the discipline of sociology.  His works, the majority of which deal with economic history and policy, include:  After 1881, Schmoller was editor of the "Jahrbuch für Gesetzebung, Verwaltung, und Volkswirthschaft im deutschen Reich". From 1878 to 1903, he edited a series of monographs entitled "Staats- und sozialwissenschaftliche Forschungen". He was also an editor and major contributor to "Acta Borussica", an extensive collection of Prussian historical sources undertaken by the Berlin Academy of Science upon Schmoller's and Sybel's instigation.  One of the reasons why Schmoller is not more widely known today is that most of his books and articles were not translated, as during his time Anglo-American economists generally read German, which was the dominant scholarly language of the time. German having fallen out of favor, the untranslated texts are now inaccessible to readers without knowledge of German. Two exceptions are: His "magnum opus" is

Gustav Friedrich (after 1908: von) Schmoller (; 24 June 1838 – 27 June 1917) was the leader of the "younger" German historical school of economics.


Early formulations.

The phenomenon of countertransference () was first defined publicly by Sigmund Freud in 1910 ("The Future Prospects of Psycho-Analytic Therapy") as being "a result of the patient's influence on [the physician's] unconscious feelings"; although Freud had been aware of it privately for some time, writing to Carl Jung for example in 1909 of the need "to dominate 'counter-transference', which is after all a permanent problem for us". Freud stated that since an analyst is a human himself he can easily let his emotions into the client. Because Freud saw the countertransference as a purely personal problem for the analyst, he rarely referred to it publicly, and did so almost invariably in terms of a "warning against any countertransference lying in wait" for the analyst, who "must recognize this countertransference in himself and master it". However, analysis of Freud's letters shows that he was intrigued by countertransference and did not see it as purely a problem.  The potential danger of the analyst's countertransference – "In such cases, the patient represents for the analyst an object of the past on to whom past feelings and wishes are projected" – became widely accepted in psychodynamic circles, both within and without the psychoanalytic mainstream. Thus, for example, Jung warned against "cases of counter-transference when the analyst really cannot let go of the patient...both fall into the same dark hole of unconsciousness". Similarly Eric Berne stressed that "Countertransference means that not only does the analyst play a role in the patient's script, but she plays a part in his...the result is the 'chaotic situation' which analysts speak of". Lacan acknowledged of the analyst's "countertransference...if he is re-animated the game will proceed without anyone knowing who is leading".  In this sense, the term includes unconscious reactions to a patient that are determined by the psychoanalyst's own life history and unconscious content; it was later expanded to include unconscious hostile and/or erotic feelings toward a patient that interfere with objectivity and limit the therapist's effectiveness. For example, a therapist might have a strong desire for a client to get good grades in university because the client reminds her of her children at that stage in life, and the anxieties that the therapist experienced during that time. Even in its most benign form, such an attitude could lead at best to "a 'countertransference cure'...achieved through compliance and a 'false self' suppression of the patient's more difficult feelings".  Another example would be a therapist who did not receive enough attention from her father perceiving her client as being too distant and resenting him for it. In essence, this describes the transference of the treater to the patient, which is referred to as the "narrow perspective".

Middle years.

As the 20th century progressed, however, other, more positive views of countertransference began to emerge, approaching a definition of countertransference as the entire body of feelings that the therapist has toward the patient. Jung explored the importance of the therapist's reaction to the patient through the image of the wounded physician: "it is his own hurt that gives the measure of his power to heal". Heinrich Racker emphasised the threat that "the repression of countertransference...is prolonged in the mythology of the analytic situation". Paula Heimann highlighted how the "analyst's countertransference is not only part and parcel of the analytic relationship, but it is the patient's "creation", it is part of the patient's personality". As a result, "counter-transference was thus reversed from being an interference to becoming a potential source of vital confirmation". The change of fortune "was highly controversial. Melanie Klein disapproved on the grounds that poorly analyzed psycho-analysts could excuse their own emotional difficulties" thereby; but among her younger followers "the trend within the Kleinian group was to take seriously the new view of counter-transference" – Hanna Segal warning in typically pragmatic fashion however that "Countertransference can be the best of servants but is the most awful of masters".

Late twentieth-century paradigm.

By the last third of the century, a growing consensus appeared on the importance of "a distinction between 'personal countertransference' (which has to do with the therapist) and 'diagnostic response' – that indicates something about the patient...diagnostic countertransference". A new belief had come into being that "countertransference can be of such enormous clinical usefulness...You have to distinguish between what your reactions to the patient are telling you about his psychology and what they are merely expressing about your own". A distinction between ""neurotic countertransference"" (or ""illusory countertransference"") and ""countertransference proper"" had come (despite a wide range of terminological variation) to transcend individual schools. The main exception is that for "most psychoanalysts who follow Lacan's teaching...counter-transference is not simply one form of resistance, it is "the" ultimate resistance of the analyst".  The contemporary understanding of countertransference is thus generally to regard countertransference as a "jointly created" phenomenon between the treater and the patient. The patient pressures the treater through transference into playing a role congruent with the patient's internal world. However, the specific dimensions of that role are colored by treater's own personality. Countertransference can be a therapeutic tool when examined by the treater to sort out who is doing what, and the meaning behind those interpersonal roles (The differentiation of the object's interpersonal world between self and other). Nothing in the new understanding alters of course the need for continuing awareness of the dangers in the narrow perspective – of "serious risks of unresolved countertransference difficulties being acted out within what is meant to be a therapeutic relationship"; but "from that point on, transference and counter-transference were looked upon as an inseparable couple...'total situation.

Twenty-first-century developments.

Further developments in the current century might be said to be the increased recognition that "Most countertransference reactions are a blend of the two aspects", personal and diagnostic, which require careful disentanglement in their interaction; and the possibility that nowadays psychodynamic counsellors use countertransference much more than transference – "another interesting shift in perspective over the years". One explanation of the latter point might be that because "in object relations therapy...the relationship is so central, 'countertransference' reactions are considered key in helping the therapist to understand the transference", something appearing in "the post-Kleinian perspective...[as] "Indivisible transferencecountertransference"".

Body-centred countertransference.

Psychologists at NUI Galway and University College Dublin have recently begun to measure body-centred countertransference in female trauma therapists using their recently developed "Egan and Carr Body Centred Countertransference Scale", a sixteen symptom measure. High levels of body-centred countertransference have since been found in both Irish female trauma therapists and clinical psychologists. This phenomenon is also known as "somatic countertransference" or "embodied countertransference" and links to mirror neurons and automatic somatic empathy for others due to the actions of these neurons have been hypothesised.

Countertransference is defined as redirection of a psychotherapist's feelings toward a client – or, more generally, as a therapist's emotional entanglement with a client.


Ownership History.

In 1966, PADI was founded by John Cronin and Ralph Erickson. On 9 August 2012, Lincolnshire Management and Providence Equity Partners jointly acquired PADI from Seidler Equity Partners. In 2015, Providence Equity Partners acquired majority stake of PADI from Lincolnshire Management. In 2017, PADI was sold by Providence Equity Partners LLC and acquired by "Altas Partners" And "Florac".

Membership.

In 2019, PADI reported it had a membership of over 137,000 professional members and 6,600 dive centers, and had awarded more than 27,000,000 diving certifications internationally. PADI operates in 186 countries and territories. Membership is heavily weighted toward males, but in 2016, the organization experienced a growth of 1.1% in female certifications. Women accounted for 37.2% of all certifications during 2016. The organization hosts Women's Dive Day events across the globe in an effort to increase awareness of women divers.

Training system.

PADI courses are performance-based diver training programs, and at the introductory level emphasize practical knowledge, safety and motor skills. The basics of diving physics and physiology are introduced during entry level programs. The details of these concepts are left for later courses when they are necessary for the required competences of the specific training. These practices fall within current modern learning philosophies and receive regular updates via peer review.  The PADI training system is composed of modules with standardized learning objectives divided into theory and practical skills development. Each module is a stand-alone course for which certification is provided to the participant on successful completion of the course. Theory is mainly conveyed by way of self-study using books or digital training using PADI eLearning. All study options are supplemented with video and, in most cases, live instruction to help the participant visualize what they have read. Confirmation of the student diver's level of mastery in standardized knowledge review sessions is carried out by a scuba instructor. The instructor utilizes both written tests and live observation during actual dives to verify a student's knowledge and skills. Practical skills are obtained through confined water training (pools or relatively shallow water) and performance evaluations in open water.

Certification Levels.

Recreational specialty courses

Workplace programs.

PADI offers a speciality program called Public Safety Diver for divers who are either employed in or serve as volunteers in the public safety diving sector principally within the United States.

First aid programs.

PADI via its subsidiary, "Emergency First Response, Corp", distributes the following programs in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and first aid for both divers and non-divers:

Contributions, accreditations, recognitions and affiliations.

PADI courses are recognized, recommended and cited by a variety of institutions and organizations throughout the world for both recreational diving and vocational training.

United States.

PADI courses are recommended for college credit by ACE.  Since 2009, PADI and the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) have maintained a mutual support partnership.  PADI is a member of the United States Recreational Scuba Training Council (RSTC).

Other countries.

In Canada, PADI sponsors the Scouts Canada Scuba Program.  Recognitions and equivalencies has been established between PADI and Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques, the Colombian Navy, and Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM). PADI is also a registered training organisation in Australia. As of 2012, PADI rescue diver and divemaster programs are included on the United Kingdom's Health and Safety Executive list of approved diving qualifications.  Those PADI courses aligning with standards published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) for ‘Recreational diving services’ were audited by the European Underwater Federation (EUF) Certification Body in 2004 and 2009, and were certified at both times as complying with these standards.  PADI is a member of the following member councils of the World Recreational Scuba Training Council – the RSTC Canada, the RSTC Europe and the C-Card Council (Japan).

Citations in professional literature.

PADI's instructional methodology is cited in EDUCAUSE's 2012 book, "Game Changers: Education and Information Technologies" regarding badges as “a symbol or indicator of an accomplishment, skill, quality, or interest. From the Boy and Girl Scouts to PADI diving instruction, to the more recently popular geolocation game Foursquare, badges have been successfully used to set goals, motivate behaviors, represent achievements, and communicate success in many contexts.”  PADI's environmental emphasis is cited in the 2007 book, "New Frontiers in Marine Tourism", in its section, Dive Tourism, Sustainable Tourism and Social Responsibility: A Growing Agenda – Environmental management and education: the case of PADI, (Chapter Seven). “PADI, as well as other diver certification organisations and individual businesses, has put significant resources into conservation and developed public awareness programmes”.  "New Frontiers in Marine Tourism" also cites in the section entitled Student Scholarships and Social Responsibility: A Growing Agenda for PADI, that “The PADI Scholarship programme... is a good example of the way that various disparate parts of an industry, each with limited resources, can pool their efforts to help more people from developing countries to enter the diving profession... PADI recognises that good relations with the involvement of local people is essential both to business development and to environmental protection. The scholarship scheme makes entry into the dive business more possible for some students who have the backing of their dive centre.”

PADI Travel.

In 2018, PADI launched PADI Travel, an online dive travel resource and booking platform for dive resort and liveaboard packages.

Criticism.

In 2006, PADI was severely criticized by a Coroner's court in the United Kingdom for providing what experts regarded as short and insufficient training. Although PADI training standards differ from those formerly prevalent in the United Kingdom under the BSAC system, PADI training standards are consistent with World Recreational Scuba Training Council standards.

Project AWARE.

In 1989, PADI founded Project AWARE to help conserve underwater environments. In 1992, Project AWARE Foundation became a registered nonprofit organization with an environmental mission and purpose. PADI continues to partner with Project AWARE, supporting the organization with in-kind services, donations through its processes and connection to the PADI network of divers, dive professionals and dive centers. Project AWARE information has been integrated in most courses and divers are offered the chance to exchange their normal certification card for an AWARE-certification card by making a donation to the program when sending in their application for a new certification.

The Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) is a recreational diving membership and diver training organization founded in 1966 by John Cronin and Ralph Erickson. Cronin was originally a NAUI instructor who decided to form his own organization with Erickson, and to break diver training down into several modular courses instead of the single universal course then prevalent.


Biography.

Early life.

Daniel Bell was born in 1919 in the Lower East Side of Manhattan in New York City. His parents, Benjamin and Anna Bolotsky, were Jewish immigrants, originally from Eastern Europe. They worked in the garment industry. His father died when he was eight months old, and he grew up poor, living with relatives along with his mother and his younger brother. When he was 13 years old, the family's name was changed from Bolotsky to Bell.

Education.

Bell was graduated from Stuyvesant High School. He received a bachelor's degree from the City College of New York in 1938, and completed graduate work at Columbia University during the 1938–1939 academic year. He received a Ph.D. in sociology from Columbia in 1961 after he was permitted to submit "The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties" (a 1960 essay collection), in lieu of a conventional doctoral dissertation.

Career.

Bell began his professional life as a journalist, being managing editor of "The New Leader" magazine (1941–1945), labor editor of "Fortune" (1948–1958), and later, co-editor (with his college friend Irving Kristol) of "The Public Interest" magazine (1965–1973). In the late 1940s Bell was Instructor in the Social Sciences in the College of the University of Chicago. During the 1950s, it was close to the Congress for Cultural Freedom. Subsequently, he taught sociology, first at Columbia (1959–1969) and then at Harvard until his retirement in 1990. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1964.  Bell also was the visiting Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions at Cambridge University in 1987. He served as a member of the President's Commission on Technology in 1964–1965 and as a member of the President's Commission on a National Agenda for the 1980s in 1979.  Bell served on the board of advisors for the "Antioch Review", and published some of his most acclaimed essays in the magazine: "Crime as an American Way of Life" (1953), "Socialism: The Dream and the Reality" (1952), "Japanese Notebook" (1958), "Ethics and Evil: Frameworks for Twenty-First Century Culture" (2005), and "The Reconstruction of Liberal Education: A Foundational Syllabus" (2011).  Bell received honorary degrees from Harvard, the University of Chicago, and fourteen other universities in the United States, as well as from Edinburgh Napier University and Keio University in Japan. He also received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Sociological Association in 1992, and the Talcott Parsons Prize for the Social Sciences from the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1993. He was given the Tocqueville Award by the French government in 1995.  Bell was a director of Suntory Foundation and a scholar in residence of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.  Bell once described himself as a "socialist in economics, a liberal in politics, and a conservative in culture."

Scholarship.

Bell is best known for his contributions to post-industrialism. His most influential books are, "The End of Ideology" (1960), "The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism" (1976), and "The Coming of Post-Industrial Society" (1973). Two of his books, the "End of Ideology" and the "Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism", were listed by the "Times Literary Supplement" as among the 100 most important books in the second half of the twentieth century. Besides Bell only Isaiah Berlin, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Albert Camus, George Orwell, and Hannah Arendt, had two books so listed.

"The End of Ideology".

In "The End of Ideology" (1960), Bell suggests that the older grand humanistic ideologies, derived from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are exhausted and that new more parochial ideologies will soon arise.

"The Coming of Post-Industrial Society".

In "The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting" (1973), Bell outlined a new kind of society, the post-industrial society. He argued that post-industrialism would be information-led and service-oriented. Bell also argued that the post-industrial society would replace the industrial society as the dominant system.  There are three components to a post-industrial society, according to Bell:  Bell also conceptually differentiates between three aspects of the post-industrial society: data, or information describing the empirical world; information, or the organization of that data into meaningful systems and patterns such as statistical analysis; and knowledge, which Bell conceptualizes as the use of information to make judgments. Bell discussed the manuscript of "The Coming of Post-Industrial Society" with Talcott Parsons before its publication.

In "The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism" (1976), Bell contends that the developments of twentieth century capitalism have led to a contradiction between the cultural sphere of consumerist instant self-gratification and the demand, in the economic sphere, for hard-working, productive individuals. Bell articulates this through his "three realms" methodology, which divides modern society into the cultural, economic, and political spheres.  Bell's concern is that, with the growth of the welfare state throughout the post-war years, the population is beginning to demand that the state fulfill the hedonistic desires that the cultural sphere is encouraging. That dovetails with the ongoing requirement for the state to maintain the kind of strong economic environment conducive to continual growth. For Bell, the competing, contradictory demands place excessive strain on the state that were manifest in the economic turbulence, fiscal pressure, and political upheaval characteristic of the 1970s.

Personal life.

His first two marriages to Nora Potashnick and Elaine Graham ended in divorce. In 1960, Bell married Pearl Kazin, a scholar of literary criticism, and sister of Alfred Kazin. She was also Jewish. Bell's son, David Bell, is a professor of French history at Princeton University, and his daughter, Jordy Bell, was an academic administrator and teacher of, among other things, U.S. Women's history at Marymount College, Tarrytown, New York, before her retirement in 2005.  He died at home in Cambridge, Massachusetts on January 25, 2011.

Works.

Articles  Books (authored)  Books (edited)  Books contributions  Published lectures

Daniel Bell (May 10, 1919 – January 25, 2011) was an American sociologist, writer, editor, and professor at Harvard University, best known for his contributions to the study of post-industrialism. He has been described as "one of the leading American intellectuals of the postwar era". His three best known works are "The End of Ideology", "The Coming of Post-Industrial Society", and "The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism".


Example.

Imagine two people (Octavio and Abby) with a fixed amount of resources between the two of them — say, 10 liters of water and 20 hamburgers. If Abby takes 4 liters of water and 5 hamburgers, then Octavio is left with 6 liters of water and 15 hamburgers. The Edgeworth box is a rectangular diagram with Octavio's origin on one corner (represented by the 'O') and Abby's origin on the opposite corner (represented by the 'A'). The width of the box is the total amount of one good, and the height is the total amount of the other good. Thus, every possible division of the goods between the two people can be represented as a point in the box.  Indifference curves (derived from each consumer's utility function) can be drawn in the box for both Abby and Octavio. The points on each person's indifference curve represent equally liked combinations of quantities of the two goods for that person. Hence Abby is indifferent between one combination of goods and another on any one of her indifference curves, and the same is true for Octavio. For example, Abby might value 1 liter of water and 13 hamburgers the same as 5 liters of water and 4 hamburgers, or 3 liters and 10 hamburgers. There are an infinite number of such curves that could be drawn among the combinations of goods for each consumer (Octavio or Abby).  With Octavio's origin (the point representing zero of each good) at the lower left corner of the Edgeworth box and with Abby's origin at the upper right corner, typically Octavio's indifference curves would be convex to his origin and Abby's would be convex to her origin.  When an indifference curve for Abby crosses one of the indifference curves for Octavio at more than one point (so the two curves are not tangent to each other), a space in the shape of a lens is created by the crossing of the two curves. Any point in the interior of this lens represents an allocation of the two goods between the two people such that both people would be better off than at the corners of the lens, since the interior point is on an indifference curve farther from both of their respective origins, and thus, each individual achieves a higher utility.

Pareto set.

Wherever one of these curves for Abby happens to be tangent to a curve of Octavio's, a combination of the two goods is identified that yields both consumers a level of utility that could not be improved for one person by a reallocation without decreasing the utility of the other person. Such a combination of goods is said to be Pareto optimal. The set of tangential points of contact between pairs of indifference curves, if all traced out, will form a trace connecting Octavio's origin (O) to Abby's (A). This curve connecting points 'O' and 'A', which will not in general be a straight line, is called the Pareto set or the efficient locus, since each point on the curve is Pareto optimal.  The vocabulary used to describe different objects which are part of the Edgeworth box diverges. The entire Pareto set is sometimes called the contract curve, while Mas-Colell, Winston, and Green (1995) restrict the definition of the contract curve to only those points on the Pareto set which make both Abby and Octavio at least as well off as they are at their initial endowment. Other authors who have a more game theoretical bent, such as Martin Osborne and Ariel Rubinstein (1994), use the term core for the section of the Pareto set which is at least as good for each consumer as the initial endowment.  In order to calculate the Pareto set, the slope of the indifference curves for both consumers must be calculated at each point. That slope is the negative of the marginal rate of substitution, so since the Pareto set is the set of points where both indifference curves are tangent, it is also the set of points where each consumer's marginal rate of substitution is equal to that of the other person.

In economics, an Edgeworth box, named after Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, is a way of representing various distributions of resources. Edgeworth made his presentation in his book "Mathematical Psychics: An Essay on the Application of Mathematics to the Moral Sciences", 1881. Edgeworth's original two-axis depiction was developed into the now familiar box diagram by Pareto in his 1906 book "Manual of Political Economy" and was popularized in a later exposition by Bowley. The modern version of the diagram is commonly referred to as the Edgeworth–Bowley box.


Design and development.

The United States Army Air Forces commissioned the DC-6 project as the XC-112 in 1944. The Army Air Forces wanted a lengthened, pressurized version of the DC-4-based C-54 Skymaster transport with more powerful engines. By the time the prototype XC-112A flew on 15 February 1946, the war was over, the USAAF had rescinded its requirement, and the aircraft was converted to YC-112A, being sold in 1955.  Douglas Aircraft modified the design into a civil transport longer than the DC-4. The civil DC-6 first flew on 29 June 1946, being retained by Douglas for testing. The first airline deliveries were to American Airlines and United Airlines on 24 November 1946. A series of inflight fires (including the fatal crash of United Airlines Flight 608) grounded the DC-6 fleet in 1947. The cause was found to be a fuel vent next to the cabin cooling turbine intake; all DC-6s were modified and the fleet was flying again after four months on the ground.

Operational history.

In April 1949, United, American, Delta, National, and Braniff were flying DC-6s in the United States. United flew them to Hawaii, Braniff flew them to Rio de Janeiro, and Panagra flew Miami-Buenos Aires; KLM, SAS, and Sabena flew DC-6s across the Atlantic. BCPA DC-6s flew Sydney to Vancouver, and Philippine flew Manila to London and Manila to San Francisco.  Pan Am used DC-6Bs to start transatlantic tourist-class flights in 1952. These were the first DC-6Bs that could gross, with CB-17 engines rated at on 108/135 octane fuel. Several European airlines followed with their own transatlantic services. The DC-6B and C subtypes could perhaps fly nonstop from the eastern US to Europe, but needed to refuel in Goose Bay, Labrador or Gander, Newfoundland when flying westbound into prevailing westerly winds.  Douglas designed four variants of the DC-6: the basic DC-6, and the longer-fuselage () higher-gross-weight, longer-range versions—the DC-6A with cargo doors forward and aft of the wing on the left side, with a cargo floor; the DC-6B for passenger work, with passenger doors only and a lighter floor; and the DC-6C convertible, with the two cargo doors and removable passenger seats.  The DC-6B, originally powered by Double Wasp engines with Hamilton Standard 43E60 constant-speed reversing propellers, was regarded as the ultimate piston-engine airliner from the standpoint of ruggedness, reliability, economical operation, and handling qualities.  The military version, similar to the DC-6A, was the USAF C-118 Liftmaster; the USN R6D version used the more powerful R-2800-CB-17 engines. These were later used on the commercial DC-6B to allow international flights. The R6D Navy version (in the late 1950s and early 1960s) had Curtiss Electric constant-speed reversing propellers.  The USAF and USN renewed their interest in the DC-6 during the Korean War, and ordered 167 C-118/R6D aircraft, some of which later found their way to civil airlines. Harry Truman's first presidential aircraft was an Air Force short-fuselage DC-6 which was designated VC-118, and named "The Independence". It is preserved in the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Dayton, Ohio.  Total production of the DC-6 series was 704, including military versions.  In the 1960s two DC-6s were used as transmitter platforms for educational television, based at Purdue University, in a program called the Midwest Program on Airborne Television Instruction.  Many older DC-6s were replaced in airline passenger service from the mid-1950s by the Douglas DC-7, but the simpler, more economical engines in the DC-6 have meant the type has outlived the DC-7, particularly for cargo operations. DC-6/7s surviving into the jet age were replaced in frontline intercontinental passenger service by the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8.  Basic prices of a new DC-6 in 1946–47 were around £210,000–£230,000 and had risen to £310,000 by 1951. By 1960, used prices were around £175,000 per aircraft. Prices for the DC-6A in 1957–58 were £460,000–£480,000. By 1960, used prices were around £296,000. Equivalent prices for the DC-6B in 1958 were around £500,000. Used prices in 1960 were around £227,000.  From 1977 to 1990, five yellow-painted Douglas DC-6Bs were used as water bombers in France by the Sécurité Civile. They were registered F-ZBAC, F-ZBAD, F-ZBAE, F-ZBAP, and F-ZBBU.

Operators.

Current operators.

Today, most DC-6s are inactive, stored, or preserved in museums. A number of DC-6s are still flying in northern bush operations in Alaska and Canada, while several are based in Europe and a few are still in operation for small carriers in South America.

Former operators.

A great number of airlines and air forces from several countries included the DC-6 in their fleets at some point in time; these are further detailed in the list of Douglas DC-6 operators. Beginning in the 1980s, several DC-6Bs were used as fire retardant tankers by Conair Aerial Firefighting of Abbotsford, Canada. The last aircraft was sold to Everts Air Cargo in Fairbanks, AK in the late 2000s.

Surviving aircraft.

, 147 DC-6s survived, of which 47 were airworthy; several were preserved in museums.

The Douglas DC-6 is a piston-powered airliner and cargo aircraft built by the Douglas Aircraft Company from 1946 to 1958. Originally intended as a military transport near the end of World War II, it was reworked after the war to compete with the Lockheed Constellation in the long-range commercial transport market. More than 700 were built and many still fly today in cargo, military, and wildfire control roles.