History.

Hurtigruten was established in 1893 by government contract to improve communications along Norway's long, jagged coastline. began the first round-trip journey from Trondheim on 2 July 1893 bound for Hammerfest, with calls at Rørvik, Brønnøy, Sandnessjøen, Bodø, Svolvær, Lødingen, Harstad, Tromsø and Skjervøy. The ship arrived at Svolvær on Monday 3 July at 8pm after 351⁄2 hours and at Hammerfest on Wednesday 5 July after 67 hours. She was commanded by founder of the route Richard With. At that time this was the fastest route between northern and southern Norway, and this resulted in the route being named Hurtigruten (express route). As of 2008, the Trondheim–Svolvær trip took 33 hours and the Trondheim–Hammerfest trip took 41 hours 15 min.  Before Hurtigruten opened, only Vesteraalens Dampskibsselskab was willing to make the trip through the then poorly-charted waters; the voyage was especially difficult during the long, dark winters. Hurtigruten was a substantial breakthrough for communities along its path. Mail from central Norway to Hammerfest, which used to take three weeks in summer and five months in winter, could now be delivered in seven days.  Encouraged by Vesteraalens' early success, several other shipping companies obtained a concession to operate the route, extended to run between Bergen in the southwest and Kirkenes in the far northeast. A fleet of 11 ships visits each of the 34 ports daily, both northbound and southbound.  Until the 1940s most ports north of Trondheim could not be reached by road from Oslo, so the sea was the only means of access. Beginning in the 1960s, the role of Hurtigruten changed, in part because of the construction of a local airport network and road improvements. Operating subsidies were gradually phased out, and the operators put more emphasis on tourism. New, bigger and more luxurious ships were introduced in the 1980s, with attention given to hot tubs, bars, restaurants and other comforts. However, Hurtigruten still serves important passenger and cargo needs, and operates 365 days a year. The last two independent shipping companies, Ofotens og Vesteraalens Dampskibsselskab (OVDS) and Troms Fylkes Dampskibsselskap (TFDS), merged on 1 March 2006 as the Hurtigruten Group, a year later becoming Hurtigruten ASA. In 2015 Hurtigruten was delisted from the Oslo stock exchange after the company was acquired by the private equity group TDR Capital. In addition to the voyages in Norway, the company operates expedition cruises to Greenland, Canada, South America, Iceland, Svalbard and Antarctica.

New contracts.

The Ministry of Transport and Communications in Norway announced in 2017 that the Hurtigruten contract was split into three contracts. The contracts were put up for bid and in the end, two were granted to Hurtigruten AS and one to Havila Kystruten AS, with each operating seven and four ships respectively. The two companies will alternate departure days for the entire route from Bergen to Kirkenes.  Havila Kystruten AS is building four new vessels to serve the route, while Hurtigruten AS will be refitting seven of its vessels to meet the stricter emissions requirements.  The four new vessels from Havila will run on LNG and battery power. LNG will cut CO2 emissions by 25 per cent, and the battery power will yield additional savings. The vessels will be named Havila Capella, Havila Castor, Havila Polaris and Havila Pollux. All four vessels are under construction at Tersan shipyard in Turkey.  Existing vessels from Hurtigruten will be modernized and renovated in order to meet the new requirements. MS Eirik Raude, MS Trollfjord and MS Otto Sverdrup are all getting modernized and renovated with a scandinavian interior style similar to the expedition vessels MS Roald Amundsen and MS Fridtjof Nansen.  The ships will be fitted with filters and LNG compatible engines in order to reduce emissions by 25%. The ships will also get hybrid motors, and battery packs.

Current fleet.

MS Eirik Raude  MS Trollfjord (Will be renamed MS Maud)  MS Nordlys  MS Otto Sverdrup  MS Vesterålen  MS Kong Harald  MS Nordnorge  MS Polarlys  MS Spitsbergen  MS Lofoten  MS Nordkapp  MS Richard With

Places visited on coastal route.

In order, northbound:

Live television broadcast.

As part of its slow television series, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation transmitted non-stop the Hurtigruten ship's 134-hour voyage from Bergen to Kirkenes, which started on June 16, 2011.

Post-World War II accidents and incidents.

Before World War II, a number of ships perished, usually because they ran aground in bad visibility.  Most of the Hurtigruten fleet was sunk during World War II.  In September 1954 ran aground in Raftsundet at night. The ship started taking on water and sank. Five persons died. There were 157 passengers and a crew of 46 on board.  On January 8, 1958, a fire broke out on board MS "Erling Jarl" while the vessel was docked at Bodø. Due to the thick smoke 14 people died of smoke inhalation. Today a memorial to the incident stands at Bodø.  On October 21, 1962 MS "Sanct Svithun" ran onto a reef in the maritime area Folda in Nord-Trøndelag because of a major navigational error after leaving Trondheim. Of 89 persons on board (passengers, crew and two postal officers) 41 died.  In 2011 suffered an engine room fire, leading to two deaths among the crew.

Hurtigruten ("Express Route", formally The coastal route Bergen-Kirkenes) is a Norwegian public coastal route transporting passengers that travel locally, regionally and between the ports of call, and also cargo between ports north of Tromsø.


Production.

Speech production is a multi-step process by which thoughts are generated into spoken utterances. Production involves the selection of appropriate words and the appropriate form of those words from the lexicon and morphology, and the organization of those words through the syntax. Then, the phonetic properties of the words are retrieved and the sentence is uttered through the articulations associated with those phonetic properties.  In linguistics (articulatory phonetics), articulation refers to how the tongue, lips, jaw, vocal cords, and other speech organs used to produce sounds are used to make sounds. Speech sounds are categorized by manner of articulation and place of articulation. Place of articulation refers to where the airstream in the mouth is constricted. Manner of articulation refers to the manner in which the speech organs interact, such as how closely the air is restricted, what form of airstream is used (e.g. pulmonic, implosive, ejectives, and clicks), whether or not the vocal cords are vibrating, and whether the nasal cavity is opened to the airstream. The concept is primarily used for the production of consonants, but can be used for vowels in qualities such as voicing and nasalization. For any place of articulation, there may be several manners of articulation, and therefore several homorganic consonants.  Normal human speech is pulmonic, produced with pressure from the lungs, which creates phonation in the glottis in the larynx, which is then modified by the vocal tract and mouth into different vowels and consonants. However humans can pronounce words without the use of the lungs and glottis in alaryngeal speech, of which there are three types: esophageal speech, pharyngeal speech and buccal speech (better known as Donald Duck talk).

Speech errors.

Speech production is a complex activity, and as a consequence errors are common, especially in children. Speech errors come in many forms and are often used to provide evidence to support hypotheses about the nature of speech. As a result, speech errors are often used in the construction of models for language production and child language acquisition. For example, the fact that children often make the error of over-regularizing the -ed past tense suffix in English (e.g. saying'singed' instead of'sang') shows that the regular forms are acquired earlier. Speech errors associated with certain kinds of aphasia have been used to map certain components of speech onto the brain and see the relation between different aspects of production: for example, the difficulty of expressive aphasia patients in producing regular past-tense verbs, but not irregulars like'sing-sang' has been used to demonstrate that regular inflected forms of a word are not individually stored in the lexicon, but produced from affixation of the base form.

Perception.

Speech perception refers to the processes by which humans can interpret and understand the sounds used in language. The study of speech perception is closely linked to the fields of phonetics and phonology in linguistics and cognitive psychology and perception in psychology. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how listeners recognize speech sounds and use this information to understand spoken language. Research into speech perception also has applications in building computer systems that can recognize speech, as well as improving speech recognition for hearing- and language-impaired listeners.  Speech perception is categorical, in that people put the sounds they hear into categories rather than perceiving them as a spectrum. People are more likely to be able to hear differences in sounds across categorical boundaries than within them. A good example of this is voice onset time (VOT). For example, Hebrew speakers, who distinguish voiced /b/ from voiceless /p/, will more easily detect a change in VOT from -10 ( perceived as /b/ ) to 0 ( perceived as /p/ ) than a change in VOT from +10 to +20, or -10 to -20, despite this being an equally large change on the VOT spectrum.

Repetition.

In speech repetition, speech being heard is quickly turned from sensory input into motor instructions needed for its immediate or delayed vocal imitation (in phonological memory). This type of mapping plays a key role in enabling children to expand their spoken vocabulary. Masur (1995) found that how often children repeat novel words versus those they already have in their lexicon is related to the size of their lexicon later on, with young children who repeat more novel words having a larger lexicon later in development. Speech repetition could help facilitate the acquisition of this larger lexicon.

Problems involving speech.

There are several organic and psychological factors that can affect speech. Among these are:

Brain physiology.

The classical model.

The classical or Wernicke-Geschwind model of the language system in the brain focuses on Broca's area in the inferior prefrontal cortex, and Wernicke's area in the posterior superior temporal gyrus on the dominant hemisphere of the brain (typically the left hemisphere for language). In this model, a linguistic auditory signal is first sent from the auditory cortex to Wernicke's area. The lexicon is accessed in Wernicke's area, and these words are sent via the arcuate fasciculus to Broca's area, where morphology, syntax, and instructions for articulation are generated. This is then sent from Broca's area to the motor cortex for articulation.  Paul Broca identified an approximate region of the brain in 1861 which, when damaged in two of his patients, caused severe deficits in speech production, where his patients were unable to speak beyond a few monosyllabic words. This deficit, known as Broca's or expressive aphasia, is characterized by difficulty in speech production where speech is slow and labored, function words are absent, and syntax is severely impaired, as in telegraphic speech. In expressive aphasia, speech comprehension is generally less affected except in the comprehension of grammatically complex sentences. Wernicke's area is named after Carl Wernicke, who in 1874 proposed a connection between damage to the posterior area of the left superior temporal gyrus and aphasia, as he noted that not all aphasic patients had suffered damage to the prefrontal cortex. Damage to Wernicke's area produces Wernicke's or receptive aphasia, which is characterized by relatively normal syntax and prosody but severe impairment in lexical access, resulting in poor comprehension and nonsensical or jargon speech.

Modern research.

Modern models of the neurological systems behind linguistic comprehension and production recognize the importance of Broca's and Wernicke's areas, but are not limited to them nor solely to the left hemisphere. Instead, multiple streams are involved in speech production and comprehension. Damage to the left lateral sulcus has been connected with difficulty in processing and producing morphology and syntax, while lexical access and comprehension of irregular forms (e.g. eat-ate) remain unaffected. Moreover, the circuits involved in human speech comprehension dynamically adapt with learning, for example, by becoming more efficient in terms of processing time when listening to familiar messages such as learned verses.

Speech is human vocal communication using language. Each language uses phonetic combinations of vowel and consonant sounds that form the sound of its words (that is, all English words sound different from all French words, even if they are the same word, e.g., "role" or "hotel"), and using those words in their semantic character as words in the lexicon of a language according to the syntactic constraints that govern lexical words' function in a sentence. In speaking, speakers perform many different intentional speech acts, e.g., informing, declaring, asking, persuading, directing, and can use enunciation, intonation, degrees of loudness, tempo, and other non-representational or paralinguistic aspects of vocalization to convey meaning. In their speech speakers also unintentionally communicate many aspects of their social position such as sex, age, place of origin (through accent), physical states (alertness and sleepiness, vigor or weakness, health or illness), psychic states (emotions or moods), physico-psychic states (sobriety or drunkenness, normal consciousness and trance states), education or experience, and the like.


Uses.

Small caps are often used for sections of text that should be emphasized and where a run of uppercase capital letters would appear jarring to the reader. For example, the style of many American publications, including the "Atlantic Monthly" and "USA Today", is to use small caps for acronyms and initialisms longer than three letters—thus "U.S." in normal caps, but "ɴᴀᴛᴏ" in small caps. The initialisms ᴄᴇ, ʙᴄᴇ, ᴀᴍ, and ᴘᴍ are often typeset in small caps.  In printed plays and stage directions, small caps are usually used for the names of characters before their lines.  French and some British publications use small caps to indicate the surname by which someone with a long formal name is to be designated in the rest of a written work. An elementary example is Don Qᴜɪxᴏᴛᴇ de La Mancha. Similarly, they are used for those languages in which the surname comes first, such as the Romanization Mᴀᴏ Zedong.  In many versions of the Old Testament of the Bible, the word "Lᴏʀᴅ" is set in small caps. Typically, an ordinary "Lord" corresponds to the use of the word "Adonai" in the original Hebrew, but the small caps "Lᴏʀᴅ" corresponds to the use of "Yahweh" in the original; in some versions the compound "Lord Gᴏᴅ" represents the Hebrew compound "Adonai Yahweh".  In zoological and botanical nomenclature, it is common use to print names of the family group in small caps.  Linguists use small caps to analyze the morphology and tag (gloss) the parts of speech in a sentence; e.g.,  "The Bluebook" prescribes small caps for some titles and names in United States legal citations.  In many books, when one part of the book mentions another part of the same book, or mentions the work as a whole, the name is set in small caps (sometimes typesetting small caps after transforming to Title Case), not italics and not roman type within quotation marks. For example, articles in "The World Book Encyclopedia" refer to the encyclopedia as a whole and to the encyclopedia's other articles in small caps, as in the "Insurance" article's direction, at one point, to "See Nᴏ-Fᴀᴜʟᴛ Iɴsᴜʀᴀɴᴄᴇ", "No-Fault Insurance" being another of the encyclopedia's articles.

Criticism.

George Eliot's 1856 essay "Silly Novels by Lady Novelists" is critical of Victorian novelists for using excessive small caps and italics to indicate unnecessary emphasis.

Computer support for small caps.

Fonts.

The OpenType font standard provides support for transformations from normal letters to small caps by two feature tags, codice_1 and codice_2. A font may use the tag codice_1 to indicate how to transform lower-case letters to small caps, and the tag codice_2 to indicate how to transform upper-case letters to small caps.  Small capitals are not found in all fonts, as they were primarily used within body text and so are often not found in fonts that are not intended for this purpose, such as many sans-serif families. Some font families, especially digitisations of older metal type designs, often lack small caps in bold or italics, only having them in the regular or roman style. This is because they were normally only used in body text and cutting bold and italic small caps was thought unnecessary.

Word processors.

Professional desktop publishing applications supporting genuine small caps include Quark XPress, and Adobe Creative Suite applications.  Most word processing applications, including Microsoft Word and Pages, do not automatically substitute true small caps when working with OpenType fonts such as Hoefler Text that include them, instead generating scaled ones. These applications must therefore work with fonts that have true small caps as a completely separate style, similar to bold or italic. Few free and open-source fonts have this feature; an exception is Georg Duffner's EB Garamond, in open beta. LibreOffice Writer started allowing true small caps for OpenType fonts since version 5.3, they can be enabled via a syntax used in the Font Name input box, including font name, a colon, feature tag, an equals sign and feature value, for example, codice_5, and version 6.2 added a dialog to switch.

Unicode.

Although small caps are not usually "semantically important", the Unicode standard does define a number of "small capital" characters in the IPA extensions, Phonetic Extensions and Latin Extended-D ranges (0250–02AF, 1D00–1D7F, A720–A7FF). These characters, with official names such as, are meant for use in phonetic representations. For example, ʀ represents a uvular trill.  As of Unicode 13.0, the only character missing from the ISO basic Latin alphabet is the small-capital version of X.  The following table shows the existing Unicode small capital characters for the ISO basic Latin alphabet:  Additionally, a few less-common Latin characters, several Greek characters and a single Cyrillic character used in Latin-script notation (ᴫ, small capital Л) also have small capitals encoded:  Superscript small caps are the following:. Combining small caps are the following: ◌ᷛ ◌ᷞ ◌ᷟ ◌ᷡ ◌ᷢ.  Since these glyphs come from different ranges, they may not be of the same size and style, because few typefaces supply all of them.  These "small capital" characters should not be confused with the Unicode Standard's typographical convention of using small caps for formal Unicode character names in running text. For example, the name of U+0416 Ж is conventionally shown as.

Cascading Style Sheets.

Small caps can be specified in the web page presentation language CSS using. For example, the HTML renders as  Since the CSS styles the text, and no actual case transformation is applied, readers are still able to copy the normally-capitalized plain text from the web page as rendered by a browser.  CSS3 can specify OpenType small caps (given the'smcp' feature in the font replaces glyphs with proper small caps glyphs) by using, which is the recommended way, or, which is (as of May 2014) the most widely used way. If the font does not have small-cap glyphs, lowercase letters are displayed. renders as

Computer support for petite caps.

Fonts.

The OpenType font standard provides support for transformations from normal letters to petite caps by two feature tags, codice_6 and codice_7. A font may use the tag codice_6 to indicate how to transform lower-case letters to petite caps, and the tag codice_7 to indicate how to transform upper-case letters to petite caps.  Desktop publishing applications, as well as web browsers, can use these features to display petite caps. However, only a few currently do so. LibreOffice can use the method.

Cascading Style Sheets.

As of September 2018, there is no specific support for petite caps in web pages using the CSS Fonts Module Level 3 by the W3C, but can be specified by using font-feature-settings: 'pcap';. If the font does not have petite-cap glyphs, lowercase letters are displayed.

In typography, small capitals (usually abbreviated small caps) are lowercase characters typeset with glyphs that resemble uppercase letters ("capitals") but reduced in height and weight, close to the surrounding lowercase ("small") letters or text figures. This is technically a case-transformation, but a substitution of glyphs, although the effect is often simulated by case-transformation and scaling. Small caps are used in running text as a form of emphasis that is less dominant than all uppercase text, and as a method of emphasis or distinctiveness for text alongside or instead of italics, or when boldface is inappropriate. For example, the text "Text in small caps" appears as Tᴇxᴛ ɪɴ sᴍᴀʟʟ ᴄᴀᴘs in small caps. Small caps can be used to draw attention to the opening phrase or line of a new section of text, or to provide an additional style in a dictionary entry where many parts must be typographically differentiated.


History.

The ford across the river Dziwna on which Wolin is located has been used as far back as the Stone Age. Archaeological excavations of soil layers indicate that there was a settlement in the area during the Migration period, at the turn of the 5th and 6th centuries. The place was then abandoned for approximately hundred years. At the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 9th century the area was leveled and a new settlement constructed. The earliest evidence of fortifications dates to the first half of the 9th century. In the second half of the 9th century there was a central fortified area and two suburbs, to the north and south of the center. These became enclosed and fortified between the end of the 9th and the 10th centuries.  In the 8th century there was a West Slavic settlement on the island. The name of the local tribe was recorded as "Velunzani" (Wolinians) in the 9th century by the Bavarian Geographer, and is considered a sub-tribe of both the Slavic Pomeranians and the Veleti (later Lutizians). The Wolinians are described by Jan Maria Piskorski as the most powerful Pomeranian tribe, due to their control of a multi-ethnic emporium at the site of the present-day town. Similar emporia were also set up elsewhere along the southern coastline of the Baltic Sea since the 8th century. This emporium, by contemporary chronicles referred to as "Jumne" or "Julin", began to prosper in the 9th century. Archaeological research has revealed seaside fortifications that have been dated back to the beginning 10th century, and also remnants of older fortifications, probably pointing to an earlier burgh with an adjacent open settlement. In the 960s, the Jewish merchant Ibrahim ibn Jakub described the settlement as a town with several thousand inhabitants and twelve gates. Besides the Wolinians, there were Scandinavian, Saxons and Rus' (people). Later, the town was mentioned in the chronicles of Adam of Bremen. Adam mentioned a lighthouse, which he described as "the lamp of Vulcan". All these descriptions contributed to the Vineta legend. Though other towns are also considered possible locations of Vineta, it is believed today to be identical with Wolin. The same is true for Jomsborg, a stronghold set up by Danish king Harald Bluetooth and Swedish prince Styrbjörn in the course of Harald's internal struggles with his son, Sweyn Forkbeard, in the 970s or 980s, which housed a garrison of soldiers known as Jomsvikings.  In the late 10th century, the Polish dukes Mieszko I and Bolesław I Chrobry subdued parts of Pomerania and also fought the Wolinians. Despite a victory of Mieszko in a 967 battle, the Polish dukes, according to Jan Maria Piskorski, did not succeed to subdue the area. Władysław Filipowiak however says that the battle "probably led to the establishment of the rule of the winner over the town." In 1982, Joachim Herrmann suggested that Boleslaw had established a Viking colony under Palnatoki there to defend his realm, a thesis that in 2000 had been revisited by Leszek Słupecki who like Władysław Duczko (2000) called for further research on resident Vikings in Jomsborg/Wolin. Filipowiak says that, based on the archaeological evidence, "there might actually have existed in Wolin a mercenary company placed by the Piast rulers in the unruly town, which in 1007 informed the German Emperor that Boleslaw the Brave had been weaving a dangerous plot," but also points out the need for further research on this subject. The meeting with Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor in Regensburg on 6 April 1007 resulted in the latter declaring war on Boleslaw, after Wolinian and other delegates had reported that Boleslaw was preparing for war and had sought their support by offering money and making promises. Oskar Eggert and Filipowiak say that suggests that the town was independent in its policies by that time. Filipowiak further says that in the 11th century, Wolin became a "save haven for Danish refugees, which in that period led to inner unrest and conflicts as well as pirate activities." Much of Wolin was destroyed in 1043 by Dano-Norwegian King Magnus the Good, who however failed to conquer its center. Also in the mid-11th century, export and wealth were greatly reduced, in part due to the breakdown of the Polish market. Yet the Wolinians retained their independence and continued to house refugees from the Danish opposition, causing Danish king Erik I Evergood to mount another campaign in 1098. In 1121/22, the Polish duke Bolesław III Wrymouth conquered the area along with the Duchy of Pomerania under Wartislaw I. Boleslaw aimed at Christianizing the area and in 1122 sent the Spanish eremite Bernard on a mission to Wolin. The inhabitants, reluctant to convert to a religion of a man who did not even wear shoes, beat him up badly and expelled him. With the approval of both Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor, and Pope Callixtus II, Boleslaw initiated another mission of Saint Otto of Bamberg in 1124. When Otto, a respected and wealthy man accompanied by German and Polish clergymen and military units, arrived in Wolin, he had already successfully converted the Pyritz and Cammin areas. Yet, he was met with distrust, and the town's inhabitants finally gave in to convert to Christianity only if Otto managed to convert Szczecin, which the Wolinians assumed was unachievable. Yet, when Otto after two month work and threatening with another military intervention managed to convert Szczecin, he returned to Wolin and the Wolinians accepted conversion.  Otto's second mission in 1128 was initiated by Holy Roman Emperor Lothair in 1128 after a pagan reaction. While this second mission was oriented more towards Western Pomerania, Otto also visited Wolin again. Wartislaw I, Duke of Pomerania supported and aided both missions. In 1140, Wolin was made the first episcopal see in Pomerania: Pope Innocent II founded the diocese by a papal bull of 14 October, and made Wolin's church of "St. Adalbert" its see. However, the see was moved to Grobe Abbey on the island of Usedom after 1150.  At the same time Wolin economically decayed and was devastated by Danish expeditions, which contributed to the move of the episkopal see to Grobe. The Danish campaigns completely wiped out the town in the late 12th century.  On the ruins of the early medieval town, a new town was founded and granted Lübeck Law. The town remained in the Duchy of Pomerania (which was a vassal of Denmark from 1185, and afterwards was within the Holy Roman Empire since 1227), passing with the duchy to the Swedish Crown following the Treaty of Stettin (1630), the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Treaty of Stettin (1653). Since the Treaty of Stockholm (Great Northern War) of 1720, it was incorporated into the Prussian Province of Pomerania.  The town subsequently became part of the German Empire in 1871, then its successor states the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich. During World War II, the Germans operated a forced labour camp for French and Belgian prisoners of war from the Stalag II-B POW camp. In 1945, with the conclusion of the Second World War, Wollin was conquered by the Red Army and handed over to Poland and the German population was expelled in accordance to the Potsdam Agreement. The town was once again named Wolin and resettled by Poles.

Wolin () is a town in northwestern Poland, situated on the southern tip of the Wolin island off the Baltic coast of the historic region of Pomerania. The island lies at the edge of the strait of Dziwna in Kamień Pomorski County in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship.


History.

In the early Middle Ages, there was an important Scandinavian and Wendish settlement in the area near the present town now known as Altes Lager Menzlin. Anklam proper began as an associated Wendish fortress.  In the Middle Ages the town was a part of the Duchy of Pomerania. During the German expansion eastwards, the abandoned fortress was developed into a settlement named Tanglim after its new founder. The site possesses importance as the head of navigation on the Peene. It was elevated to town status in 1244 and became a member of the Hanseatic League the same year or in 1483. The town remained small and non-influential, but achieved a measure of wealth and prosperity with its membership.  As a town of considerable military importance, it suffered greatly during the Thirty Years' War when Swedish and Imperial troops battled over it across a twenty-year span. Amid this and subsequent wars, it also endured repeated outbreaks of fire and plague. It was occupied by imperial forces from 1627 to 1630, and thereafter by Swedish forces. After the war, Anklam became part of Swedish Pomerania in 1648. In 1676, it was captured by Frederick William of Brandenburg.  In 1713, Anklam was looted by soldiers of the Russian Empire. That it was not burned to the ground, as ordered by Peter the Great, was in large part due to the resistance of Christian Thomesen Carl ("Carlson"), after whom a street is named in remembrance. The southern parts of the town were ceded to Prussia by the 1720 Treaty of Stockholm, while a smaller section north of the Peene remained Swedish. It was damaged again during the Seven Years' War in the 1750s and '60s, with its fortifications being effectively dismantled in 1762. Sweden yielded its remaining part of the town in 1815, when all of Western Pomerania became part of the Prussian province of Pomerania.  In the 19th century, Anklam was connected with Berlin and Stettin by rail and developed its manufacture of linen and woolen goods, leather, beer, and soap. Its 1871 population was 10,739, which had risen to 14,602 by the turn of the century. By the time of the First World War, it possessed a military school and developed iron foundries and sugar factories. In 1939 the Wehrmacht took over the military school and constructed a military prison on the grounds.  Anklam was nearly completely destroyed by several bombing raids of the U.S. Air Force in 1943 and 1944 and in the last days of World War II, when the advancing Soviets burned and leveled most of the town. After Prussia and its Pomeranian province were dissolved and most of Pomerania was allocated to Poland under the terms of the Potsdam Conference, Anklam became part of the East German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. That was soon to be dissolved, too, and Anklam was within the district of Neubrandenburg. The town was rebuilt in the rather uniform socialist style.  After the 1990 reunification of Germany, Anklam became part of the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, re-created at that time.

Sights.

Anklam was a prosperous medieval city but suffered severely during the Thirty Years' War, the Seven Years' War, and the Second World War, as well as from periodic fires. Nonetheless, Anklam has some significant buildings remaining. The 12th-century church of St Mary was rebuilt in the 15th century, had a modern spire added in the 19th, and was repaired in 1947.

Transport.

Anklam is connected with the Autobahn 20 coastal highway.

International relations.

Anklam is twinned with:

Anklam [], formerly known as Tanglim and Wendenburg, is a town in the Western Pomerania region of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is situated on the banks of the Peene river, just 8 km from its mouth in the "Kleines Haff", the western part of the Stettin Lagoon. Anklam has a population of 14,603 (2005) and was the capital of the former Ostvorpommern district. Since September 2011, it has been part of the district of Vorpommern-Greifswald.


Description.

"Capsella bursa-pastoris" plants grow from a rosette of lobed leaves at the base. From the base emerges a stem about tall, which bears a few pointed leaves which partly grasp the stem. The flowers, which appear in any month of the year in the British Isles, are white and small, in diameter, with four petals and six stamens. They are borne in loose racemes, and produce flattened, two-chambered seed pods known as siliques, which are triangular to heart-shaped, each containing several seeds.  Like a number of other plants in several plant families, its seeds contain a substance known as mucilage, a condition known as myxospermy. Recently, this has been demonstrated experimentally to perform the function of trapping nematodes, as a form of 'protocarnivory'  "Capsella bursa-pastoris" is closely related to the model organism such as "Arabidopsis thaliana" and is also used as a model organism, due to the variety of genes expressed throughout its life cycle that can be compared to genes that are well studied in "A. thaliana". Unlike most flowering plants, it flowers almost all year round. Like other annual ruderals exploiting disturbed ground, "C. bursa-pastoris" reproduces entirely from seed, has a long soil seed bank, and short generation time, and is capable of producing several generations each year.

Taxonomy.

It was formally described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in his seminal publication 'Species Plantarum' in 1753, and then published by Friedrich Kasimir Medikus in "Pflanzen-Gattungen" (Pfl.-Gatt.) on page 85 in 1792.  "Capsella bursa-pastoris" subsp. "thracicus" (Velen.) Stoj. & Stef. is the only known subspecies.  William Coles (botanist) wrote in his book, 'Adam in Eden' (published in 1657), "It is called Shepherd's purse or Scrip (wallet) from the likeness of the seed hath with that kind of leathearne bag, wherein Shepherds carry their Victualls [food and drink] into the field.""  In England and Scotland, it was once commonly called'mother's heart', which is derived from a child's game/trick of picking the seed pod, which then would burst and the child would be accused of 'breaking his mother's heart'.

Uses.

"Capsella bursa-pastoris" gathered from the wild or cultivated has many uses, including for food, to supplement animal feed, for cosmetics, and in traditional medicine. It can be eaten raw in salad.

Cooking.

It is cultivated as a commercial food crop in Asia. In China, where it is known as "jìcài" (; ) it is commonly used in food in Shanghai and the surrounding Jiangnan region. It is stir-fried with rice cakes and other ingredients or as part of the filling in wontons. It is one of the ingredients of the symbolic dish consumed in the Japanese spring-time festival, "Nanakusa-no-sekku". In Korea, it is known as "naengi" () and used as a root vegetable in the characteristic Korean dish, namul (fresh greens and wild vegetables).  Shepherd's purse was used as a pepper substitute in colonial New England.

Chemistry.

Fumaric acid is one chemical substance that has been isolated from "C. bursa-pastoris".

Parasites.

Parasites of this plant include:

Capsella bursa-pastoris, known as shepherd's purse because of its triangular flat fruits, which are purse-like, is a small annual and ruderal flowering plant in the mustard family (Brassicaceae). It is native to eastern Europe and Asia minor, but is naturalized and considered a common weed in many parts of the world, especially in colder climates, including British Isles, where it is regarded as an archaeophyte, North America and China, but also in the Mediterranean and North Africa. "C. bursa-pastoris" is the second-most prolific wild plant in the world, and is common on cultivated ground and waysides and meadows.


History.

In 1325, the Teutonic Knights built an Ordensburg castle called "Yladia" or "Ilaw", later known as "Preussisch Eylau", in the center of the Old Prussian region Natangia. 'Ylow' is the Old Prussian term for'mud' or'swamp'. The settlement nearby developed in 1336, but in 1348 the Teutonic Order gave the privilege to establish twelve pubs in the area around the castle. Although the settlement had only a few inhabitants, due to its central position it was often used as meeting place for officials of the Order. During the Thirteen Years' War, the castle was besieged on 24 May 1455 by troops of the Prussian Confederation under the command of Remschel von Krixen, but the garrison repulsed the attack. During the Horsemen's War in 1520, the castle was unsuccessfully besieged by troops of the Polish Kingdom, who devastated the settlement.  Preußisch Eylau received its civic charter in 1585. In 1709–1711, the bubonic plague killed 2,212 inhabitants of the Eylau area.  The Battle of Eylau (7–8 February 1807) during the Napoleonic Wars involved the French troops of Napoleon Bonaparte, the Russian troops of General Bennigsen, and the Prussian troops of General Anton Wilhelm von L'Estocq. Only 3 inhabitants of Eylau died in the battle, but 605 persons died due to hunger and diseases in 1807 (with the average death rate in "normal" years being around 80-90). Napoleon used the local courthouse as his headquarters in Eylau on 7–17 February 1807.  On 1 April 1819, the town became the seat of the administrative district Preußisch Eylau (Kreis Pr. Eylau). In 1834, a Teachers' Seminary was founded, educating every East Prussian teacher until it was closed down in 1924. The town was connected to the railway on 2 September 1866. The town was occupied without a struggle by Russian troops on 27 August 1914, but these troops left on 3 September 1914 after massacring 65 civilians.  After 1933, large barracks were built by the Wehrmacht, and in 1935 Infantry and Artillery units were stationed there.  On February 10, 1945, during the Soviet Red Army's East Prussian Offensive, the town was occupied by troops of the 55th Guards "Irkutsk-Pinsk" Division commanded by Major General Adam Turchinsky. The German population that had not already fled during the evacuation of East Prussia was subsequently expelled, with the last transport leaving on November 23, 1947. The NKVD established a prison camp for German civilians inside the former Wehrmacht barracks in 1945-1949. It held an estimated 13,000 inmates, of whom some 6,000 people died.  In early August 1945, Polish officials took over the administrative power in the town, but left again on January 1, 1946, as the new borderline between the Soviet Union and Poland was set just at the southern outskirts of the town. The Polish administrative area south of the border was called "Powiat Ilawka" until 1958.  In January 1946, the town became a part of the newly established Kaliningrad Oblast within the Russian SFSR and the town was given its present name, honoring General Pyotr Bagration, who was one of the senior Russian leaders in the Napoleonic Wars and is also the namesake of the 1944 Operation Bagration offensive. Today the main border crossing point between Russia and Poland (Bezledy/Bagrationovsk) is south of the town. Since April 2007, government restrictions on visits to border areas have been tightened and travel to Sovetsk and Bagrationovsk is only allowed with special permission, unless in transit.

Administrative and municipal status.

Within the framework of administrative divisions, Bagrationovsk serves as the administrative center of Bagrationovsky District. As an administrative division, it is incorporated within Bagrationovsky District as the town of district significance of Bagrationovsk. As a municipal division, the town of district significance of Bagrationovsk is incorporated within Bagrationovsky Municipal District as Bagrationovskoye Urban Settlement.

Twin towns and sister cities.

Bagrationovsk is twinned with:

Bagrationovsk (), prior to 1946 known by its German name ( or '; or ') is a town and the administrative center of Bagrationovsky District in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located south of Kaliningrad, the administrative center of the oblast. It has a population of


History.

Pravdinsk was founded in 1312 at a ford across the Lava River after the local Natangian tribe in Prussia was subdued by the Teutonic Knights, and received town privileges in 1335 under Grand Master Luther von Braunschweig. Now known by its German language name Friedland ("peaceful land"), the town was devastated during the Thirteen Years' War between the Teutonic Order and the Prussian Confederation. Friedland became a part of the Duchy of Prussia after the secularization of the State of the Teutonic Order in 1525. Under the ruling Hohenzollern dynasty, Friedland became a part of Brandenburg-Prussia in 1618, and was again damaged by Swedish troops in the course of the Second Northern War 1655-1660.  Friedland belonged to the Kingdom of Prussia from 1701, and during the Napoleonic Wars on June 14, 1807, Napoleon's French army won the nearby Battle of Friedland against a combined Russian-Prussian army. The town became part of the German Empire in 1871, during the Prussian-led unification of Germany.  During World War II, Friedland was conquered by the Red Army on January 31, 1945 as part of the Soviet invasion of Germany. At the time Friedland belonged to Landkreis Bartenstein in the province of East Prussia, which was transferred from Nazi Germany to the Soviet Union according to the 1945 Potsdam Agreement. The German population fled or was expelled, and East Prussia was divided between the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of Poland, with Friedland belonging to the portion organized into Kaliningrad Oblast of the Russian SFSR. The town was made the administrative center of Fridlyandsky District under the name Fridlyand, but were renamed Pravdinsk and Pravdinsky District in 1946.

Administrative and municipal status.

Within the framework of administrative divisions, Pravdinsk serves as the administrative center of Pravdinsky District. As an administrative division, it is, together with thirty-two rural localities, incorporated within Pravdinsky District as the town of district significance of Pravdinsk.  Within the framework of municipal divisions, since May 5, 2015, the territories of the town of district significance of Pravdinsk, the urban-type settlement of district significance of Zheleznodorozhny, and of two rural okrugs of Pravdinsky District are incorporated as Pravdinsky Urban Okrug. Before that, the town of district significance was incorporated within Pravdinsky Municipal District as Pravdinskoye Urban Settlement.

Religion.

The Late Gothic church of St. George in the town center is well preserved and today used by the Moscow Patriarchate.  Pravdinsk is identified in some historical accounts with Romuva, said to be the center of Baltic paganism. The Lithuanian name for Pravdinsk is Romuva, and this was most likely its name in Old Prussian as well. Whether Romuva was in fact associated with Baltic paganism is disputed, however, as it has been suggested that this belief started when early Christian chroniclers were confused by the similarity between "Romuva" and "Rome", and by their own unwarranted assumption that Baltic paganism should resemble Roman paganism in being focused around a particular geographical center.

International relations.

Pravdinsk is part of the "Friedliches Land" (Peaceful Land) municipal association with:

Pravdinsk (), prior to 1946 known by its German name (; ) is a town and the administrative center of Pravdinsky District in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located on the Lava River, approximately east of Bagrationovsk and southeast of Kaliningrad. Population figures:


Etymology.

Mamonovo is named after a Soviet Commander, Nikolay Mamonov, killed in action near Pułtusk on October 26, 1944, who was posthumously awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union on March 24, 1945.

History.

Under the Teutonic Knights Heiligenstadt was built near an Old Prussian settlement. It was later renamed Heiligenbeil after a holy axe used by Augustinian monks, established in the area by Grand Master Winrich von Kniprode after the Battle of Rudau, to cut down an oak tree worshiped by pagan Prussians. It came under the bishopric Warmia, then to the territory of Natangia. Part of the Kingdom of Prussia, in Germany it was in the province of East Prussia.  Towards the end World War II in fierce fighting between January and March 1945 the Heiligenbeil pocket fell to the Red Army. It was captured by Red Army on March 26, 1945 and was soon integrated into the Kaliningrad Oblast. It took its present name in 1946. The defending 4th Army's archives were buried in a forest near the town and found in 2004, in an area still littered with debris from the final battles.

Administrative and municipal status.

Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with four rural localities, incorporated as the town of oblast significance of Mamonovo—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the town of oblast significance of Mamonovo is incorporated as Mamonovsky Urban Okrug.

Mamonovo (), prior to 1945 known by its German name Heiligenbeil ( or "Świętomiejsce"; ; Prussian: "Swintamīstan"), is a town in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia. Population figures:


Education.

Moore was born in San Francisco, California and grew up in nearby Pescadero, where his father was the county sheriff. He attended Sequoia High School in Redwood City. Initially, he went to San Jose State College (now University). After two years, he transferred to the University of California, Berkeley where he received a B.S. degree in chemistry in 1950.  In September 1950, Moore enrolled at the California Institute of Technology. While at Caltech, Moore minored in physics and received a Ph.D. in chemistry in 1954. Moore conducted postdoctoral research at the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University from 1953 to 1956.

Family.

Moore met his wife, Betty Irene Whitaker, while attending San Jose State College. They married in 1950.

Scientific career.

Fairchild Semiconductor Laboratory.

Moore joined MIT and Caltech alumnus William Shockley at the Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory division of Beckman Instruments but left with the "traitorous eight", when Sherman Fairchild agreed to back them and created the influential Fairchild Semiconductor corporation.

Moore's law.

In 1965, Moore was working as the director of research and development (R&D) at Fairchild Semiconductor. He was asked by Electronics Magazine to predict what was going to happen in the semiconductor components industry over the next ten years. In an article published on April 19, 1965, Moore observed that the number of components (transistors, resistors, diodes, or capacitors) in a dense integrated circuit had doubled approximately every year and speculated that it would continue to do so for at least the next ten years. In 1975, he revised the forecast rate to approximately every two years. Carver Mead popularized the phrase "Moore's law." The prediction has become a target for miniaturization in the semiconductor industry and has had widespread impact in many areas of technological change.

Intel Corporation.

In July 1968, Robert Noyce and Moore founded NM Electronics, which later became Intel Corporation. Moore served as executive vice president until 1975 when he became president. In April 1979, Moore became chairman and chief executive officer, holding that position until April 1987, when he became chairman. He was named chairman emeritus in 1997. Under Noyce, Moore, and later Andrew Grove, Intel has pioneered new technologies in the areas of computer memory, integrated circuits, and microprocessor design.

Philanthropy.

In 2000, Moore and his wife established the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, with a gift worth about $5 billion. Through the Foundation, they initially targeted environmental conservation, science, and the San Francisco Bay Area.  The foundation gives extensively in the area of environmental conservation, supporting major projects in the Andes-Amazon Basin and the San Francisco Bay area, among others. Moore was a director of Conservation International for some years. In 2002, he and Conservation International senior vice president Claude Gascon received the Order of the Golden Ark from Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld for their outstanding contributions to nature conservation.  Moore has been a member of Caltech's board of trustees since 1983, chairing it from 1993 to 2000, and is now a life trustee. In 2001, Moore and his wife donated $600 million to Caltech, at the time the largest gift ever to an institution of higher education. He said that he wants the gift to be used to keep Caltech at the forefront of research and technology.  In December 2007, Moore and his wife donated $200 million to Caltech and the University of California for the construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT), expected to become the world's second largest optical telescope once it and the European Extremely Large Telescope are completed in the mid-2020s. The TMT will have a segmented mirror 30 meters across and be built on Mauna Kea in Hawaii. This mirror will be nearly three times the size of the current record holder, the Large Binocular Telescope. The Moores, as individuals and through their foundation, have also, through a series of gifts and grants, given over $110 million to the University of California, Berkeley.  In addition, through the Foundation, his wife created the Betty Irene Moore Nursing Initiative, targeting nursing care in the San Francisco Bay Area and Greater Sacramento. In 2007, the foundation pledged $100 million over 11 years to establish a nursing school at the University of California, Davis.  In 2009, the Moore received the Andrew Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy.

Scientific awards and honors.

Moore has received many honors. He became a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1976.  In 1990, Moore was presented with the National Medal of Technology and Innovation by President George H.W. Bush, "for his seminal leadership in bringing American industry the two major postwar innovations in microelectronics – large-scale integrated memory and the microprocessor – that have fueled the information revolution."  In 1998, he was inducted as a Fellow of the Computer History Museum "for his fundamental early work in the design and production of semiconductor devices as co-founder of Fairchild and Intel."  In 2001, Moore received the Othmer Gold Medal for outstanding contributions to progress in chemistry and science.  Moore is also the recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian honor, as of 2002. He received the award from President George W. Bush. In 2002, Moore also received the Bower Award for Business Leadership.  In 2003, he was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.  Moore was awarded the 2008 IEEE Medal of Honor for "pioneering technical roles in integrated-circuit processing, and leadership in the development of MOS memory, the microprocessor computer, and the semiconductor industry." Moore was featured in the documentary film "Something Ventured" which premiered in 2011.  In 2009, Moore was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.  He was awarded the 2010 Future Dan David Prize for his work in the areas of Computers and Telecommunications.  The library at the Centre for Mathematical Sciences at the University of Cambridge is named after him and his wife Betty, as are the Moore Laboratories building (dedicated 1996) at Caltech and the Gordon and Betty Moore Materials Research Building at Stanford.  The Electrochemical Society presents an award in Moore's name, the Gordon E. Moore Medal for Outstanding Achievement in Solid State Science and Technology, every two years to celebrate scientists' contributions to the field of solid state science. The Society of Chemical Industry (American Section) annually presents the Gordon E. Moore Medal in his honor to recognize early career success in innovation in the chemical industries.

Personal life.

Moore is an avid sport fisherman and actively pursues any type of fishing. He has extensively traveled the world, catching species from black marlin to rainbow trout. He has said his conservation efforts are partly inspired by his interest in fishing and his time spent outdoors.  In 2011, Moore's genome was the first human genome sequenced on Ion Torrent's Personal Genome Machine platform, a massively parallel sequencing device, which uses ISFET biosensors.

Gordon Earle Moore (born January 3, 1929) is an American businessman, engineer, and the co-founder and chairman emeritus of Intel Corporation. He is also the author of Moore's law. As of October 2019, Moore's net worth is reported to be $11.9 billion.


Life.

Maurice was born in Kassel as the son of William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, and of his wife Sabine of Württemberg.  Although Maurice had been raised in the Lutheran faith, he converted to Calvinism in 1605. On the principle "Cuius regio eius religio", Maurice's subjects were also required to convert to Calvinism. Maurice's conversion was controversial since the Peace of Augsburg had only settled religious matters betweens Roman Catholics and Lutherans and had not considered Calvinists. Maurice tried to introduce Calvinism to the lands which he had inherited from the extinct Hesse-Marburg branch of his family. Such a change of faith was contrary to the inheritance rules, and resulted in an ongoing conflict with the Hesse-Darmstadt branch. It also brought him into conflict with the Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias.  English strolling players ('Die Englische Comoedianten') were frequent visitors to, and performers in, towns and cities in Germany and other European countries, including Kassel, during the 16th and 17th centuries. Landgraf Moritz (to use his German nomenclature) was a great supporter of the performing arts and even built the first permanent theatre in Germany, named the Ottoneum, in 1605. This building still exists today but as a Natural History Museum.  Maurice's actions (though not necessarily the Ottoneum) ruined Hesse-Kassel financially. In 1627 he abdicated in favour of his son William V. Five years later he died in Eschwege. He was not only a serious musician but an expert composer (a "Pavane" of his, for the lute, has several times been recorded by both lutenists and guitarists). The leading musical figures whom he supported included Heinrich Schütz and John Dowland.

Marriages and issue.

On 23 September 1593, Maurice married Agnes of Solms-Laubach (7 January 1578 – 23 November 1602). They had six children:  On 22 May 1603, Maurice married Countess Juliane of Nassau-Dillenburg (3 September 1587 – 15 February 1643). They had fourteen children:

Maurice of Hesse-Kassel () (25 May 1572 – 15 March 1632), also called Maurice the Learned, was the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) in the Holy Roman Empire from 1592 to 1627.


Etymology.

The name "Sauerland" is first mentioned as "Suderland" in an official document from 1266. After 1400 the letter 'd' started to disappear. Therefore, Sauerland = "southern country" is the most convincing meaning, opposed to the theory that Sauer is from the German word "sauer" meaning "sour" (poor "sour" soil). Linguistically, "suder-“ is similar to the Old Saxon "sûðar" (southbound).

History.

Before 1800 the western part of the Sauerland was part of the County of the Mark based in Altena; the eastern part adhered to the County of Arnsberg, later became known as the Duchy of Westphalia and was owned by the Archbishops and Electorate of Cologne. The Duchy of Limburg covered a very small area in the lower Lenne river valley. After the Napoleonic Wars the area became part of Prussia and was integrated into the new province of Westphalia. After World War II, Westphalia was merged with the new federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Today, the Sauerland consists of the districts Märkischer Kreis, Olpe and Hochsauerland. The western part of the Hessian district Waldeck-Frankenberg is also attributed to the Sauerland because of its geomorphological, as well as its sociocultural similarity, and the stark contrast to the rest of the adjoining Hessian landscape.

Geography.

To the west the hills continue into the Bergisches Land, to the south into the Siegerland, and to the north-east into the Teutoburg Forest. The major rivers of the Sauerland are the Ruhr and the Lenne. Several artificial lakes were created on the smaller rivers by building dams to store water for the nearby Ruhr area, the biggest reservoirs being the Möhne and Bigge. Although the highest elevation of the Sauerland is the "Langenberg" (843 m) near Olsberg, the much more renowned summit, which is well known for the nearby skiing facilities, its weather station and observation tower, is the slightly lower "Kahler Asten" (842 m) near Winterberg. Both Langenberg and Kahler Asten are peaks in the Rothaargebirge mountains.

Dams and reservoirs (lakes).

The Sauerland has six reservoir lakes.

Geology.

The Sauerland is part of the "Rhine Massif" ("Rheinisches Schiefergebirge") including 'Bergisches Land', Westerwald, Siegerland, and, separated by the Rhine valley, the Eifel, Hohes Venn and Hunsrück. The Rheinisches Schiefergebirge was subjected to folding and faulting in the Variscan orogeny in Carboniferous times and eroded to a peneplain in the Permian. The tectonic uplift to the present-day low mountain range began approximately 500,000 years ago and is still going on.  Most of the bedrock underneath the Sauerland originates from a Middle and Upper Devonian period, when it was under a marginal and shallow sea. This has meant that slates, sandstones and greywackes are the most abundant rock types in the Sauerland. In some areas limestones from an ancient reef fringe prevail and are karstified. The Sauerland has several caves, especially in the northern part, the biggest caves being in Attendorn and Balve. In some areas of the Sauerland the occurrence of lead-zinc-silver-ores lead to the development of a considerable mining industry, the center of which was the town of Meggen. Mining in this area lasted until the late second half of the 20th century, today there is no active mining in the Sauerland. The sandstones, greywackes and quartzites of the Sauerland as well as, to a minor extent, the limestones are still exploited in numerous quarries. Some of these caves are now becoming modest attractions to tourists.

Towns and municipalities.

The largest town of the Sauerland is Iserlohn; other larger towns are Lüdenscheid and Arnsberg. Meschede is the home of an abbey. Another abbey is placed at Bestwig.

Economy.

Parts of the Sauerland, especially the major valleys in the northwest, represent an old industrial region. The availability of iron ore and the abundance of wood and water allowed iron production long before the Ruhr area industrialisation and the mining of its coal took place. Today there are only a few remains of this early heavy industry; wire production is still important in Altena and a number of small factories still occupy the old industrial areas. Warsteiner is Germany's largest privately owned brewery.

Tourism.

Sauerland has become a popular tourist area, attracting many visitors from the Ruhr Area and relatively close Netherlands. The forests and picturesque small towns are attractive for hikers and outdoor sports. There are more than 30,000 km of tagged hiking trails in Sauerland region maintained by Sauerland hiking association (SGV). Some of the towns have the title "Bad" ("Spa") because of their good air quality and stimulating climate. Winter sports are popular in the Sauerland. The bob sleigh track in Winterberg is widely known in Germany, as well as the ski jumping in Willingen. Sauerland also has a successful theme park called Fort Fun.  Balve Cave is one of the biggest prehistorical caves of Europe and is situated in Balve. The largest accessible limestone cave outside the Alps is in Attendorn.

Transport.

The Sauerland can be reached by car or train. The drive either via the BAB 4 from Cologne or via the BAB 45 and BAB 46 from Dortmund, takes about one hour; from Kassel or Frankfurt-Rhine-Main (via the Sauerlandlinie) the journey takes about two hours. The closest commercial airport is Dortmund Airport.  In the region, railways were once the most important means of transportation, but between 1950 and 1990 many smaller branch lines were closed and rail travel is now only present in the major valleys.  The most important lines are:

The Sauerland is a rural, hilly area spreading across most of the south-eastern part of North Rhine-Westphalia, in parts heavily forested and, apart from the major valleys, sparsely inhabited. For these reasons, it has been chosen as the first place in Germany to reintroduce the Wisent (European bison).


Algorithm.

At the termination of the algorithm, the forest forms a minimum spanning forest of the graph. If the graph is connected, the forest has a single component and forms a minimum spanning tree

Pseudocode.

The following code is implemented with disjoint-set data structure:

Complexity.

Kruskal's algorithm can be shown to run in "O"("E" log "E") time, or equivalently, "O"("E" log "V") time, where "E" is the number of edges in the graph and "V" is the number of vertices, all with simple data structures. These running times are equivalent because:  We can achieve this bound as follows: first sort the edges by weight using a comparison sort in "O"("E" log "E") time; this allows the step "remove an edge with minimum weight from "S"" to operate in constant time. Next, we use a disjoint-set data structure to keep track of which vertices are in which components. We place each vertex into its own disjoint set, which takes O("V") operations. Finally, in worst case, we need to iterate through all edges, and for each edge we need to do two 'find' operations and possibly one union. Even a simple disjoint-set data structure such as disjoint-set forests with union by rank can perform O("E") operations in "O"("E" log "V") time. Thus the total time is "O"("E" log "E") = "O"("E" log "V").  Provided that the edges are either already sorted or can be sorted in linear time (for example with counting sort or radix sort), the algorithm can use a more sophisticated disjoint-set data structure to run in "O"("E" α("V")) time, where α is the extremely slowly growing inverse of the single-valued Ackermann function.

Proof of correctness.

The proof consists of two parts. First, it is proved that the algorithm produces a spanning tree. Second, it is proved that the constructed spanning tree is of minimal weight.

Spanning tree.

Let formula_4 be a connected, weighted graph and let formula_5 be the subgraph of formula_4 produced by the algorithm. formula_5 cannot have a cycle, being within one subtree and not between two different trees. formula_5 cannot be disconnected, since the first encountered edge that joins two components of formula_5 would have been added by the algorithm. Thus, formula_5 is a spanning tree of formula_4.

Minimality.

We show that the following proposition P is true by induction: If "F" is the set of edges chosen at any stage of the algorithm, then there is some minimum spanning tree that contains "F" and none of the edges rejected by the algorithm.

Parallel algorithm.

Kruskal's algorithm is inherently sequential and hard to parallelize. It is, however, possible to perform the initial sorting of the edges in parallel or, alternatively, to use a parallel implementation of a binary heap to extract the minimum-weight edge in every iteration. As parallel sorting is possible in time formula_12 on formula_13 processors, the runtime of Kruskal's algorithm can be reduced to "O"("E" α("V")), where α again is the inverse of the single-valued Ackermann function.  A variant of Kruskal's algorithm, named Filter-Kruskal, has been described by Osipov et al. and is better suited for parallelization. The basic idea behind Filter-Kruskal is to partition the edges in a similar way to quicksort and filter out edges that connect vertices of the same tree to reduce the cost of sorting. The following pseudocode demonstrates this.  Filter-Kruskal lends itself better for parallelization as sorting, filtering, and partitioning can easily be performed in parallel by distributing the edges between the processors.  Finally, other variants of a parallel implementation of Kruskal's algorithm have been explored. Examples include a scheme that uses helper threads to remove edges that are definitely not part of the MST in the background, and a variant which runs the sequential algorithm on "p" subgraphs, then merges those subgraphs until only one, the final MST, remains.

This algorithm first appeared in "Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society", pp. 48–50 in 1956, and was written by Joseph Kruskal.


Occurrence.

Halite dominantly occurs within sedimentary rocks where it has formed from the evaporation of seawater or salty lake water. Vast beds of sedimentary evaporite minerals, including halite, can result from the drying up of enclosed lakes, and restricted seas. Such salt beds may be hundreds of meters thick and underlie broad areas. Halite occurs at the surface today in playas in regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation such as in the salt flats of Badwater Basin in Death Valley National Park.  In the United States and Canada extensive underground beds extend from the Appalachian basin of western New York through parts of Ontario and under much of the Michigan Basin. Other deposits are in Ohio, Kansas, New Mexico, Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan. The Khewra salt mine is a massive deposit of halite near Islamabad, Pakistan.  Salt domes are vertical diapirs or pipe-like masses of salt that have been essentially "squeezed up" from underlying salt beds by mobilization due to the weight of overlying rock. Salt domes contain anhydrite, gypsum, and native sulfur, in addition to halite and sylvite. They are common along the Gulf coasts of Texas and Louisiana and are often associated with petroleum deposits. Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Romania and Iran also have salt domes. Salt glaciers exist in arid Iran where the salt has broken through the surface at high elevation and flows downhill. In all of these cases, halite is said to be behaving in the manner of a rheid.  Unusual, purple, fibrous vein filling halite is found in France and a few other localities. Halite crystals termed "hopper crystals" appear to be "skeletons" of the typical cubes, with the edges present and stairstep depressions on, or rather in, each crystal face. In a rapidly crystallizing environment, the edges of the cubes simply grow faster than the centers. Halite crystals form very quickly in some rapidly evaporating lakes resulting in modern artifacts with a coating or encrustation of halite crystals. "Halite flowers" are rare stalactites of curling fibers of halite that are found in certain arid caves of Australia's Nullarbor Plain. Halite stalactites and encrustations are also reported in the Quincy native copper mine of Hancock, Michigan.

Mining.

The world's largest underground salt mine is the Sifto Salt Mine. It produces over 7 million tons of rock salt per year using the room and pillar mining method. It is located half a kilometre under Lake Huron in Ontario, Canada. In the United Kingdom there are three mines; the largest of these is at Winsford in Cheshire, producing, on average, one million tonnes of salt per year.

Uses.

Salt is used extensively in cooking as a flavor enhancer, and to cure a wide variety of foods such as bacon and fish. It is frequently used in food preservation methods across various cultures. Larger pieces can be ground in a salt mill or dusted over food from a shaker as finishing salt.  Halite is also often used both residentially and municipally for managing ice. Because brine (a solution of water and salt) has a lower freezing point than pure water, putting salt or saltwater on ice that is below will cause it to melt — this effect is called freezing-point depression. It is common for homeowners in cold climates to spread salt on their sidewalks and driveways after a snow storm to melt the ice. It is not necessary to use so much salt that the ice is completely melted; rather, a small amount of salt will weaken the ice so that it can be easily removed by other means. Also, many cities will spread a mixture of sand and salt on roads during and after a snowstorm to improve traction. Using salt brine is more effective than spreading dry salt because moisture is necessary for the freezing-point depression to work and wet salt sticks to the roads better. Otherwise the salt can be wiped away by traffic.  In addition to de-icing, rock salt is occasionally used in agriculture. An example of this would be inducing salt stress to suppress the growth of annual meadow grass in turf production. Other examples involve exposing weeds to salt water to dehydrate and kill them preventing them from affecting other plants. Salt is also used as a household cleaning product. Its coarse nature allows for its use in various cleaning scenarios including grease/oil removal, stain removal, and even dries out and hardens sticky spills for an easier clean.  Some cultures, especially in Africa and Brazil, prefer a wide variety of different rock salts for different dishes. Pure salt is avoided as particular colors of salt indicates the presence of different impurities. Many recipes call for particular kinds of rock salt, and imported pure salt often has impurities added to adapt to local tastes. Historically, salt was used as a form of currency in barter systems and was exclusively controlled by authorities and their appointees. In some ancient civilizations the practice of salting the earth was done to make conquered land of an enemy infertile and inhospitable as an act of domination. One biblical reference to this practice is in Judges 9:45: "he killed the people in it, pulled the wall down and sowed the site with salt."  Polyhalite a mineral fertiliser, is not an NaCl-polymer but hydrated KCaMg-sulfate.

Halite ( or ), commonly known as rock salt, is a type of salt, the mineral (natural) form of sodium chloride (Na Cl). Halite forms isometric crystals. The mineral is typically colorless or white, but may also be light blue, dark blue, purple, pink, red, orange, yellow or gray depending on inclusion of other materials, impurities, and structural or isotopic abnormalities in the crystals. It commonly occurs with other evaporite deposit minerals such as several of the sulfates, halides, and borates. The name "halite" is derived from the Ancient Greek word for salt, ἅλς (háls).


Structure and physical properties.

Lycopene is a symmetrical tetraterpene assembled from eight isoprene units. It is a member of the carotenoid family of compounds, and because it consists entirely of carbon and hydrogen, is also a carotene. Isolation procedures for lycopene were first reported in 1910, and the structure of the molecule was determined by 1931. In its natural, all-"trans" form, the molecule is long and straight, constrained by its system of 11 conjugated double bonds. Each extension in this conjugated system reduces the energy required for electrons to transition to higher energy states, allowing the molecule to absorb visible light of progressively longer wavelengths. Lycopene absorbs all but the longest wavelengths of visible light, so it appears red.  Plants and photosynthetic bacteria naturally produce all-"trans" lycopene. When exposed to light or heat, lycopene can undergo isomerization to any of a number of "cis"-isomers, which have a bent rather than linear shape. Different isomers were shown to have different stabilities due to their molecular energy (highest stability: 5-cis ≥ all-trans ≥ 9-cis ≥ 13-cis > 15-cis > 7-cis > 11-cis: lowest). In human blood, various "cis"-isomers constitute more than 60% of the total lycopene concentration, but the biological effects of individual isomers have not been investigated.  Carotenoids like lycopene are found in photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes in plants, photosynthetic bacteria, fungi, and algae. They are responsible for the bright orange–red colors of fruits and vegetables, perform various functions in photosynthesis, and protect photosynthetic organisms from excessive light damage. Lycopene is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, and xanthophylls.  Dispersed lycopene molecules can be encapsulated into carbon nanotubes enhancing their optical properties. Efficient energy transfer occurs between the encapsulated dye and nanotube — light is absorbed by the dye and without significant loss is transferred to the nanotube. Encapsulation increases chemical and thermal stability of lycopene molecules; it also allows their isolation and individual characterization.

Biosynthesis.

The unconditioned biosynthesis of lycopene in eukaryotic plants and in prokaryotic cyanobacteria is similar, as are the enzymes involved. Synthesis begins with mevalonic acid, which is converted into dimethylallyl pyrophosphate. This is then condensed with three molecules of isopentenyl pyrophosphate (an isomer of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate), to give the 20-carbon geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. Two molecules of this product are then condensed in a tail-to-tail configuration to give the 40-carbon phytoene, the first committed step in carotenoid biosynthesis. Through several desaturation steps, phytoene is converted into lycopene. The two terminal isoprene groups of lycopene can be cyclized to produce beta-carotene, which can then be transformed into a wide variety of xanthophylls.

Staining and removal.

Lycopene is the pigment in tomato sauces that turns plastic cookware orange. It is insoluble in plain water, but it can be dissolved in organic solvents and oils. Because of its non-polarity, lycopene in food preparations will stain any sufficiently porous material, including most plastics. To remove this staining, the plastics may be soaked in a solution containing a small amount of chlorine bleach. The bleach oxidizes the lycopene, thus allowing the now-polarized metabolite to dissolve.

Diet.

Consumption by humans.

Absorption of lycopene requires that it be combined with bile salts and fat to form micelles. Intestinal absorption of lycopene is enhanced by the presence of fat and by cooking. Lycopene dietary supplements (in oil) may be more efficiently absorbed than lycopene from food.  Lycopene is not an essential nutrient for humans, but is commonly found in the diet mainly from dishes prepared from tomatoes. The median and 99th percentile of dietary lycopene intake have been estimated to be 5.2 and 123 mg/d, respectively.

Sources.

Fruits and vegetables that are high in lycopene include autumn olive, gac, tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruit, pink guava, papaya, seabuckthorn, wolfberry (goji, a berry relative of tomato), and rosehip. Ketchup is a common dietary source of lycopene. Although gac ("Momordica cochinchinensis" Spreng) has the highest content of lycopene of any known fruit or vegetable (multiple times more than tomatoes), tomatoes and tomato-based sauces, juices, and ketchup account for more than 85% of the dietary intake of lycopene for most people. The lycopene content of tomatoes depends on variety and increases as the fruit ripens.  Unlike other fruits and vegetables, where nutritional content such as vitamin C is diminished upon cooking, processing of tomatoes increases the concentration of bioavailable lycopene. Lycopene in tomato paste is up to four times more bioavailable than in fresh tomatoes. Processed tomato products such as pasteurized tomato juice, soup, sauce, and ketchup contain a higher concentration of bioavailable lycopene compared to raw tomatoes.  Cooking and crushing tomatoes (as in the canning process) and serving in oil-rich dishes (such as spaghetti sauce or pizza) greatly increases assimilation from the digestive tract into the bloodstream. Lycopene is fat-soluble, so the oil is said to help absorption. Gac has high lycopene content derived mainly from its seed coats. Cara cara navel, and other citrus fruit, such as pink grapefruit, also contain lycopene. Some foods that do not appear red also contain lycopene, e.g., asparagus, which contains about 30 μg of lycopene per 100-g serving (0.3 μg/g) and dried parsley and basil, which contain around 3.5–7.0 μg/g of lycopene.

Safety.

In humans, the Observed Safe Level for lycopene is 75 mg/day, according to one preliminary study.

Adverse effects.

Lycopene is non-toxic and commonly found in the diet, mainly from tomato products. There are cases of intolerance or allergic reaction to dietary lycopene, which may cause diarrhea, nausea, stomach pain or cramps, gas, and loss of appetite. Lycopene may increase the risk of bleeding when taken with anticoagulant drugs. Because lycopene may cause low blood pressure, interactions with drugs that affect blood pressure may occur. Lycopene may affect the immune system, the nervous system, sensitivity to sunlight, or drugs used for stomach ailments.  Lycopenemia is an orange discoloration of the skin that is observed with high intakes of lycopene. The discoloration is expected to fade after discontinuing excessive lycopene intake.

Research and potential health effects.

A 2017 review concluded that tomato products and lycopene supplementation had small positive effects on cardiovascular risk factors, such as elevated blood lipids and blood pressure. A 2010 review concluded that research has been insufficient to establish whether lycopene consumption affects human health. Lycopene has been studied in basic and clinical research for its potential effects on cardiovascular diseases and prostate cancer, although there is no good evidence of benefit in prostate cancer.

Regulatory status in Europe and the United States.

In a review of literature on lycopene and its potential role as a dietary antioxidant, the European Food Safety Authority concluded that evidence was insufficient for lycopene having antioxidant effects in humans, particularly in skin, heart function, or vision protection from ultraviolet light.  Although lycopene from tomatoes has been tested in humans for cardiovascular diseases and prostate cancer, no effect on any disease was found. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), in rejecting manufacturers' requests in 2005 to allow "qualified labeling" for lycopene and the reduction of various cancer risks, provided a conclusion that remains in effect :  "...no studies provided information about whether lycopene intake may reduce the risk of any of the specific forms of cancer. Based on the above, FDA concludes that there is no credible evidence supporting a relationship between lycopene consumption, either as a food ingredient, a component of food, or as a dietary supplement, and any of these cancers."

Lycopene (from the neo-Latin "Lycopersicum", the tomato species) is a bright red carotenoid hydrocarbon found in tomatoes and other red fruits and vegetables, such as red carrots, watermelons, grapefruits, and papayas, but it is not present in strawberries or cherries. Although lycopene is chemically a carotene, it has no vitamin A activity. Foods that are not red may also contain lycopene, such as asparagus, guava and parsley.


Geography.

Sovetsk lies at the confluence of the Tilse and Neman rivers.

History.

Tilsit, which received civic rights from Albert, Duke of Prussia in 1552, developed around a castle of the Teutonic Knights, known as the Schalauer Haus, founded in 1288.  The Treaties of Tilsit were signed here in July 1807, the preliminaries of which were settled by the emperors Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon I of France on a raft moored in the Neman River. This treaty, which created the Kingdom of Westphalia and the Duchy of Warsaw, completed Napoleon's humiliation of the Kingdom of Prussia, when it was deprived of one half of its dominions.  This short-lived peace-treaty is also remarkable for quite another reason. Three days before its signing, Prussian queen Louise (1776–1810) tried to persuade Napoleon in a private conversation to ease his hard conditions on Prussia. Though unsuccessful, Louise's effort greatly endeared her to the Prussian people.  Until 1945, a marble tablet marked the house in which King Frederick William III of Prussia and Queen Louise resided. Also, in the former Schenkendorf Platz was a monument to the poet Max von Schenkendorf (1783–1817), a native of Tilsit. During the 19th century when the Lithuanian language in Latin characters was banned within the Russian Empire, Tilsit was an important centre for printing Lithuanian books which then were smuggled by Knygnešiai to the Russian-controlled part of Lithuania. In general, Tilsit thrived and was an important Prussian town. By 1900 it had electric tramways and 34,500 inhabitants; a direct railway line linked it to Königsberg and Labiau and steamers docked there daily. It was occupied by Russian troops between 26 August 1914 and 12 September 1914 during World War I. The Act of Tilsit was signed here by leaders of the Lietuvininks in 1918.  Hitler visited the town just before World War II, and a photo was taken of him on the famous bridge over the Memel River. Tilsit was occupied by the Red Army on January 20, 1945, and was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1945. The remaining Germans who had not evacuated were subsequently forcibly expelled and replaced with Soviet citizens. The town was renamed Sovetsk in honor of Soviet rule.  Modern Sovetsk has sought to take advantage of Tilsit's rich traditions of cheese production (Tilsit cheese), but the new name ("Sovetsky cheese") has not inherited its predecessor's reputation.  Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, there has been some discussion about the possibility of restoring the town's original name, given its significance in Russian history. In 2010, the Kaliningrad Oblast's then-governor Georgy Boos of the ruling United Russia Party proposed restoring the original name and combining the town with the Nemen and Slavsk Districts to form a new Tilsit District. Boos emphasized that this move would stimulate development and economic growth, but that it could happen only through a referendum. The idea was opposed by the Communist Party of Russia. In particular, Igor Revin, the Kaliningrad Secretary of the Communist Party, accused Boos and United Russia of Germanophilia.  In April 2007, government restrictions on visits to border areas have been tightened, and for foreigners, and Russians living outside the border zone, travel to the Sovetsk and Bagrationovsk areas required advance permission from the Border Guard Service (in some cases up to 30 days beforehand). It was alleged that this procedure slowed the development of these potentially thriving border towns. In June 2012, these restrictions were lifted (the only restricted area is the Neman river shoreline), which gave a boost to local and international tourism.

Administrative and municipal status.

Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the town of oblast significance of Sovetsk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the town of oblast significance of Sovetsk is incorporated as Sovetsky Urban Okrug.

Architecture.

Many of the town's buildings were destroyed during World War II. However, the old town centre still includes several German buildings, including those of Jugendstil design. The Queen Louise Bridge, now connecting the town to Panemunė/Übermemel in Lithuania, retains an arch – all that is left of a more complex pre-war bridge structure built in 1907. The carved relief portrait of Queen Louise above the arch still exists; however, the German inscription "KÖNIGIN LUISE-BRÜCKE" was removed after the Soviets took over the town.  Ethnic composition in 2010:

Twin towns – sister cities.

Sovetsk is twinned with:

Popular culture.

The town is the location of a scene in Leo Tolstoy's "War and Peace" (Book Two Part Two Chapter 21).

Sovetsk (), before 1946 known as Tilsit in German (; ) in East Prussia, is a town in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located on the south bank of the Neman River.


Childhood.

Gustav Meyrink was born with the name "Gustav Meyer" in Vienna, Austria-Hungary (now Austria) on January 19, 1868. He was the illegitimate son of Baron Karl von Varnbüler und zu Hemmingen, a Württembergian minister, and actress Maria Wilhelmina Adelheyd Meier. Meyrink was not, despite the statements of some of his contemporaries, of Jewish descent – this rumour arose due to a confusion of his mother with a Jewish woman of the same name.  Until thirteen years of age Meyrink lived mainly in Munich, where he completed elementary school. He then stayed in Hamburg for a brief time, until his mother relocated to Prague in 1883.

Prague.

Meyrink lived in Prague for twenty years and has depicted it many times in his works. In 1889, together with the nephew of poet Christian Morgenstern, Meyrink established his own banking company, named "Meier & Morgenstern".  In Prague an event occurred which played a providential role in Meyrink's life. Meyrink described it in the autobiographical short story "The Pilot". That day, August 14, 1892, on Assumption Eve, Meyrink, twenty-four years old, was allegedly standing at his table with a gun at his head, determined to shoot himself. At that moment he heard a strange scratching sound and someone's hand put a tiny booklet under his door. The booklet was called Afterlife. Meyrink was surprised by this dramatic coincidence and started to study the literature of the occult. He studied theosophy, Kabbala, Christian Sophiology and Eastern mysticism. Until his death Meyrink practiced yoga and other occult exercises. Results of these studies and practices are found in Meyrink's works, which almost always deal with various occult traditions.  At that time Meyrink also was a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn in London. This is evidenced by the letter from William Wynn Westcott (1893), which has remained in Meyrink's private archives. He was also member of the Theosophical Society, but only temporarily.  In 1902 Meyrink was charged with fraud. He was charged with using spiritualism in order to benefit from banking operations. Though, after two months, he was released from jail, his banking career was effectively ended. His jailhouse experiences are depicted in his most famous novel, "The Golem" (1913–14).

Early works.

During the 1900s Meyrink started publishing satiric short stories in the magazine Simplicissimus, signing them with his mother's surname. During spring 1903 Meyrink's first book, "The Hot Soldier and Other Stories" was released. Approximately at the same time he relocated to Vienna. Almost immediately after his arrival another compilation of his short stories, "The Orchid. Strange stories", was released.  On May 8, 1905 Meyrink married Philomene Bernt, whom he had known since 1896. On July 16, 1906 his daughter Sybille Felizitas was born. On January 17, 1908, two days before Meyrink's fortieth birthday, the second son, Harro Fortunat, was born. Subsequently, the main character of the second Meyrink's novel "The Green Face" was given the same name. In 1908 the third compilation of short stories, "Waxworks", was published.  Being in need of money, Meyrink started working as a translator and he became a prolific one; during five years he managed to translate into German fifteen volumes of Charles Dickens, as well as work by Rudyard Kipling and Lafcadio Hearn. He continued translating until his death, including various occult works and even the Egyptian "Book of the Dead". Meyrink also edited a series of books on the occult.  In 1911 Meyrink relocated with his family to the little Bavarian town Starnberg, and in 1913 the book "Des deutschen Spießers Wunderhorn" ("The German Philistine's Magic Horn") was published in Munich. It was a compilation of short stories from the previous three books and several new ones; the title is a parody of "Des Knaben Wunderhorn". Many of these stories had satirical styles, ridiculing institutions such as the army and the church; Austrian writer Karl Kraus would later describe Meyrink's work as combining "Buddhism with a dislike for the infantry".

Fame.

In 1915 the first and most famous of Meyrink's novels, "The Golem", was published, though its drafts may be traced back to 1908. The novel is based on the Jewish legend about a Rabbi who made a living being known as a golem (גולם) out of clay and animated it with a Kabbalistic spell, although these legends have little to do with the story's plotline. The main character is Athanasius Pernath, a contemporary lapidary from Prague. It is left to the reader to decide whether Pernath is simply writing down his hallucinations or gradually becoming a real golem. Frenschkowski describes "the Golem" as both "a deep-footed initiatory tale and an urban fantasy". The novel was a great commercial success. In 1916 one more compilation of short stories, "Bats", and soon a second novel, "The Green Face", was published. The next year his third novel, "Walpurgis Night", was written. The success of these works caused Meyrink to be ranked as one of the three main German-language supernatural fiction authors (along with Hanns Heinz Ewers and Karl Hans Strobl).  Meyrink was opposed to World War One, which caused him to be denounced by German nationalists; the German "Völkisch" journalist Albert Zimmermann (1873-1933) described Meyrink as "one of the cleverest and most dangerous opponents of the German nationalist ideal. He will influence – and corrupt – thousands upon thousands, just as Heine did". In 1916 "Des deutschen Spießers Wunderhorn" was banned in Austria.  By 1920 Meyrink's financial affairs improved so that he bought a villa in Starnberg. The villa became known as "The House at the Last Lantern" after the name of the house from "The Golem". There he and his family lived for the next eight years and two more works – "The White Dominican" and Meyrink's longest novel "The Angel of the West Window" – were written.  In 1927 Meyrink formally converted to Mahayana Buddhism.

Death.

The name "Fortunat" did not bring much luck to Meyrink's son: during the winter of 1931, while skiing, he seriously injured his backbone and for the rest of his life he was confined to his armchair. On July 12, at the age of 24 he committed suicide – at the same age his father was going to do it. Meyrink survived his son by half a year. He died on December 4, 1932 in Starnberg, Bavaria, Germany. He is buried in Starnberg Cemetery.

Reputation.

Frenschkowski notes "like those of most other German and Austrian fantastic writers, his books were prohibited during the Nazi era". Later, Meyrink's work enjoyed a revival; Meyrink was discussed in a special edition of the French journal "L'Herne" (1976), and his work was translated into French, Russian, Dutch and English.

Gustav Meyrink (January 19, 1868 – December 4, 1932) was the pseudonym of Gustav Meyer, an Austrian author, novelist, dramatist, translator, and banker, most famous for his novel "The Golem". He has been described as the "most respected German language writer in the field of supernatural fiction".