Life.

Robert was born about 1029, a nobleman from Champagne, a younger son, who entered the Benedictine abbey of Montier-la-Celle near Troyes at age fifteen and rose to the office of prior.  He was made the abbot of Saint Michel-de-Tonnerre around the year 1070, but he soon discovered that the monks were quarrelsome and disobedient, so he returned to Montier-la-Celle.  Meanwhile, two hermits from a group of monks that had settled at Collan went to Rome and asked Pope Gregory VII to give them Robert as their superior. The pope granted their request, and as of 1074 Robert served as their leader. Soon after, Robert moved the small community to Molesme in the valley of Langres in Burgundy. Initially, the establishment consisted of only huts made of branches surrounding a chapel in the forest, dedicated to the Holy Trinity. Molesme Abbey quickly became known for its piety and sanctity, and Robert's reputation as a saintly man grew. It is because of this reputation that in 1082 Bruno of Cologne came to Robert seeking advice. He lived with Robert's community for a time before going on to found the Grande Chartreuse, the first Carthusian monastery.  In 1098 there were 35 dependent priories of Molesme, and other annexes and some priories of nuns. Donors from the surrounding area vied with one another in helping the monks; soon they had more than they needed, slackened their way of life and became tepid. Benefactors sent their children to the abbey for education and other non-monastic activities began to dominate daily life. The vast land holdings they had acquired required a large number of employees. As the community grew increasingly wealthy, it began to attract men seeking entry for the wrong reasons. They caused a division among the brothers, challenging Robert's severity. Robert twice tried to leave Molesme but was ordered back by the Pope.

Cîteaux.

In 1098, Robert and twenty-one of his monks left Molesme with the intention of never returning. Renaud, the viscount of Beaune, gave this group a desolate valley in a deep forest; there they founded Cîteaux Abbey. Stephen Harding and Alberic – two of Robert's monks from Molesme – were pivotal in founding the new house. The archbishop of Lyons, being persuaded that they could not subsist there without the endorsement of an influential churchman, wrote in their favour to Eudo, duke of Burgundy. Eudo paid for the construction they had begun, helped the monks finance their operating expenses and gave them much land and cattle. The bishop of Challons elevated the new monastery to the canonical status of an abbey.  In 1099, the monks of Molesme asked Robert to return and agreed to submit entirely to his interpretation of the Rule of St. Benedict; the local bishop also pressured Robert to return. He agreed and Molesme became a major center for the Benedictines under his tutelage. Albéric was made successor abbot at Cîteaux, with Stephen Harding as prior.  Robert died on 17 April 1111. Pope Honorius III canonized him in 1222. His feast day in the Roman Catholic Church was at first observed on 17 April, later transferred to April 29, and finally combined with the feast of Alberic and Stephen Harding and is observed in our day on 26 January.  The "Vie de saint Robert de Molesme" was written by Guy, his immediate successor as abbot of Molesme.

Robert of Molesme (1028 – 17 April 1111) was an abbot, one of the founders of the Cistercian Order and is honored as a Christian saint.


History.

The Kenpeitai was established in 1881 by a decree called the, figuratively "articles concerning gendarmes". Its model was the National Gendarmerie of France. Details of the Kenpeitai's military, executive, and judicial police functions were defined by the "Kenpei Rei" of 1898, which was amended twenty-six times before Japan's defeat in August 1945.  The force initially consisted of 349 men. The enforcement of the new conscription legislation was an important part of their duty, due to resistance from peasant families. The Kenpeitai's general affairs branch was in charge of the force's policy, personnel management, internal discipline, as well as communication with the Ministries of the Admiralty, the Interior, and Justice. The operation branch was in charge of the distribution of military police units within the army, general public security and intelligence.  In 1907, the Kenpeitai was ordered to Korea where its main duty was legally defined as "preserving the peace", although it also functioned as a military police for the Japanese army stationed there. This status remained basically unchanged after Japan's annexation of Korea in 1910.  The Kenpeitai maintained public order within Japan under the direction of the Interior Minister, and in the occupied territories under the direction of the Minister of War. Japan also had a civilian secret police force, "Tokkō", which was the Japanese acronym of "Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu" ("Special Higher Police") part of the Interior Ministry. However, the Kenpeitai had a "Tokkō" branch of its own, and through it discharged the functions of a secret police.  When the Kenpeitai arrested a civilian under the direction of the Justice Minister, the arrested person was nominally subject to civilian judicial proceedings.  The Kenpeitai's brutality was particularly notorious in Korea and the other occupied territories. The Kenpeitai were also abhorred in Japan's mainland as well, especially during World War II when Prime Minister Hideki Tojo, formerly the Commander of the Kenpeitai of the Japanese Army in Manchuria from 1935 to 1937, used the Kenpeitai extensively to make sure that everyone was loyal to the war.  According to United States Army TM-E 30-480, there were over 36,000 regular members of the Kenpeitai at the end of the war; this did not include the many ethnic "auxiliaries". As many foreign territories fell under the Japanese military occupation during the 1930s and the early 1940s, the Kenpeitai recruited a large number of locals in those territories. Taiwanese and Koreans were used extensively as auxiliaries to police the newly occupied territories in Southeast Asia, although the Kenpeitai recruited French Indochinese (especially, from among the Cao Dai religious sect), Malays and others. The Kenpeitai may have trained Trình Minh Thế, a Vietnamese nationalist and military leader.  The Kenpeitai was disarmed and disbanded after the Japanese surrender in August 1945.  Today, the post-war Self-Defense Forces' internal police is called "Keimutai" (警務隊). Each individual member is called "Keimukan".

Axis powers.

In the 1920s and the 1930s, the Kenpeitai forged various connections with certain prewar European intelligence services. Later, when Japan signed the Tripartite Pact, Japan formed formal links with the intelligence units, now under German and Italian fascists, known as the German Abwehr and the Italian Servizio Informazioni Militare. The army and the navy of Japan contacted their corresponding Wehrmacht intelligence units, Schutzstaffel (SS) or Kriegsmarine, about information on Europe and vice versa. Europe and Japan realized the benefits of the exchanges. For example, the Japanese sent data about Soviet forces in the Far East and in Operation Barbarossa from the Japanese embassy. Admiral Canaris offered aid in respect to the neutrality of Portugal in Timor.  One important contact point was at the Penang submarine base, in occupied British Malaya. The base served Axis submarine forces (Italian Regia Marina, German Kriegsmarine and the Dai Nippon Teikoku Kaigun, or Imperial Japanese Navy). At regular intervals, technological and information exchanges occurred there. While these were available to them, Axis forces used the bases in Italian East Africa, the Vichy France colony of Madagascar and some officially neutral places like Portuguese India.

Human rights abuses.

The Kenpeitai ran extensive criminal and collaborationist networks, extorting vast amounts of money from businesses and civilians wherever they operated. They also ran the Allied prisoner of war system, which often treated captives with extreme brutality. Many of the abuses were documented in Japanese war crimes trials, such as those committed by the Kempeitai East District Branch in Singapore.  The Kenpeitai also carried out revenge attacks against prisoners and civilians. For example, after Colonel Doolittle's raid on Tokyo in 1942, the Kenpeitai carried out reprisals against thousands of Chinese civilians and captured airmen, or in 1943 the Double Tenth massacre which was in response to an Allied raid on Singapore Harbour. All these actions together—including Unit 731's vivisection campaign—have become infamous.

Organization.

The Kenpeitai maintained a headquarters in each relevant Area Army, commanded by a Shosho (Major General) with a Taisa (Colonel) as Executive Officer and comprising two or three field offices, commanded by a Chusa (Lieutenant Colonel) and with a Shosa (Major) as executive officer and each with approximately 375 personnel.  The field office in turn was divided into 65-man sections called 'buntai'. Each was commanded by a Tai-i (Captain) with a Chu-i (1st Lieutenant) as his Executive Officer and had 65 other troops. The buntai were further divided into detachments called "bunkentai", commanded by a Sho-i (2nd Lieutenant) with a Junshikan (Warrant Officer) as Executive Officer and 20 other troops. Each detachment contained three squads: a police squad or "keimu han", an administration squad or "naikin han", and a special duties squad or "Tokumu han".  Kenpeitai Auxiliary units consisting of regional ethnic forces were organized in occupied areas. These troops supplemented the Kenpeitai and were considered part of the organization but were limited to the rank of Shocho (Sergeant Major).  By 1937 the Kenpeitai had 315 officers and 6,000 enlisted. These were the members of the known, public forces. The Allies estimated that by the end of World War II, there were at least 7,500 members of the Kenpeitai.

Active units.

The Kenpeitai operated commands on the Japanese mainland and throughout all occupied and captured overseas territories during the Pacific War. The external units operating outside Japan were:

Wartime mission.

The Kenpeitai was responsible for the following:  By 1944, despite the obvious tide of war, the Kenpeitai were arresting people for antiwar sentiment and defeatism.

Uniform.

Personnel wore either the standard M1938 field uniform or the cavalry uniform with high black leather boots. Civilian clothes were also authorized but badges of rank or the Japanese Imperial chrysanthemum were worn under the jacket lapel. Uniformed personnel also wore a black chevron on their uniforms and a white armband on the left arm with the characters "ken" (憲, "law") and "hei" (兵, "soldier"), together read as "kenpei" or "kempei," which translates to "military policeman".  A full dress uniform comprising a red kepi, gold and red waist sash, dark blue tunic and trousers with black facings was authorized for officers of the Kenpeitai to wear on ceremonial occasions until 1942. Rank insignia comprised gold Austrian knots and epaulettes.  Personnel were armed with either a cavalry sabre and pistol for officers and a pistol and bayonet for enlisted men. Junior NCOs carried a "shinai" (竹刀, "bamboo kendo sword") especially when dealing with prisoners.

The was the military police arm of the Imperial Japanese Army from 1881 to 1945. It was both a conventional military police and a secret police force. In Japanese-occupied territories, the kenpeitai also arrested those who were suspected of being anti-Japanese. While it was institutionally part of the army, the Kenpeitai also discharged the functions of the military police for the Imperial Japanese Navy under the direction of the Admiralty Minister (although the IJN had its own much smaller Tokkeitai), those of the executive police under the direction of the Home Minister and those of the judicial police under the direction of the Justice Minister. A member of the corps was called a "kenpei" ().


Research career.

Burbidge studied at University College London (UCL), where she received an undergraduate degree in 1939 and a PhD in 1943. During World War Two, she acted as a caretaker at University of London Observatory (ULO); the wartime blackout made it easier for her to use the observatory's telescopes. In August 1944, her observations at ULO were twice interrupted by V-1 flying bomb explosions nearby. She was turned down for a postdoctoral fellowship from Carnegie Observatories in 1945 because the job required observing at Mount Wilson Observatory, which was reserved for men only at that time. Shortly after the war, she taught astronomy at ULO to undergraduate students from across the University of London system, including Arthur C. Clarke who was then an undergraduate at King's College London.  In 1951 she took a position at the University of Chicago's Yerkes Observatory, Wisconsin, her first job in the United States. Her research during this period focused on the abundances of chemical elements in stars. She returned to the UK in 1953, when Margaret and her husband Geoffrey Burbidge were invited to work with William Alfred Fowler and Fred Hoyle at the University of Cambridge. The team combined data on elemental abundances produced by the Burbidges with Hoyle's hypothesis that all chemical elements might be produced in stars by a series of nuclear reactions, and Fowler's laboratory experiments on those reactions. The idea became known as stellar nucleosynthesis. They published their model in a series of papers, culminating in a magnum opus in 1957, now known as the BFH paper after the initials of Burbidge, Burbidge, Fowler & Hoyle. Margaret Burbidge was the first author of the paper, which was written while she was pregnant. The theory they developed remains the fundamental basis for stellar nucleosynthesis. Fowler was later awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar) for his work on nucleosynthesis, and expressed surprise that Burbidge was not included.  When Fowler moved back to the US, he advised the Burbidges to come with him to California, suggesting Margaret (the observer) should re-apply for the fellowship at Mount Wilson Observatory while Geoff (the theorist) should seek the Kellogg Fellowship at Caltech. Margaret's application was again refused on gender grounds, so the couple swapped applications. Geoff won the position at Mount Wilson, while Margaret took the Caltech job in 1955. Whenever Geoff was required to go observing on Mount Wilson, Margaret would accompany him, ostensibly as his assistant. In reality, Geoff worked in the photographic dark room while Margaret operated the telescope. When the observatory's management found out, they eventually agreed that she could observe there, but only if she and her husband stayed in a separate self-catered cottage on the grounds, rather than the catered dormitory which had been designed for men only.  She joined the University of California San Diego (UCSD) in 1962. In the 1960s and 1970s she measured the masses, compositions, and rotation curves of galaxies and performed early spectroscopic studies of quasars. Her discoveries in this area included QSO B1442+101 at a redshift of 3.5, making it the most distant known object at the time, a record which she held from 1974–82. She was a supporter of the steady state theory of cosmology, but her own work on quasars helped to support the alternative Big Bang theory.  In 1972 Burbidge became director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory (RGO), on secondment from UCSD. For 300 years the post had always been held by the Astronomer Royal, but when Burbidge was appointed to the RGO directorship the posts were split, with radio astronomer Martin Ryle appointed as Astronomer Royal. Burbidge sometimes attributed this to sexism, and at other times to politics intended to reduce the clout of the RGO director. Burbidge left the RGO in 1974, fifteen months after joining, due to controversy over moving the Isaac Newton Telescope from RGO headquarters at Herstmonceux Castle to Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in the Canary Islands.  Burbidge campaigned in opposition to discrimination against women in astronomy and was also opposed to positive discrimination. In 1972 she turned down the Annie J. Cannon Award of the American Astronomical Society (AAS) because it was awarded to women only: "It is high time that discrimination in favor of, as well as against, women in professional life be removed". Her letter declining the prize caused the AAS to set up its first committee on the status of women in astronomy. In 1976, she became the first female president of the AAS. During her term as president she convinced the members to ban AAS meetings in states which had not ratified the Equal Rights Amendment to the US Constitution. In 1984 the AAS awarded her its highest honor, regardless of gender, the Henry Norris Russell Lectureship.  From 1979 to 1988, she served as the first director of the UCSD's Center for Astrophysics and Space Science. In 1981 she was elected President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), serving her one-year term from February 1982 to February 1983.  At UCSD she helped develop the Faint Object Spectrograph for the Hubble Space Telescope, which launched in 1990. With this instrument, she and her team discovered that the galaxy Messier 82 contains a supermassive black hole at its center. As professor emerita at UCSD she continued to be active in research until the early 21st century. Burbidge authored over 370 research papers.

Personal life.

Eleanor Margaret Peachey was born in Davenport, Stockport, UK, nine months after the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ended the First World War. She was the daughter of Marjorie Stott Peachey and Stanley John Peachey. She first became interested in astronomy aged 3 or 4, after seeing the stars on a ferry trip across the English Channel. By age 12, she was reading astronomy textbooks by James Jeans, a distant relative of her mother.  On 2 April 1948, Margaret Peachey married Geoffrey Burbidge. The couple had met six months earlier at University College London. Geoffrey was a theoretical physicist, but Margaret's passion for astronomy convinced him to switch to theoretical astrophysics. The two collaborated on much of their subsequent research. The couple had a daughter, Sarah, who was born in late 1956. In 1977, Margaret became a United States citizen. Geoffrey Burbidge died in 2010. Margaret Burbidge died on 5 April 2020, in San Francisco at the age of 100 after suffering a fall.

Eleanor Margaret Burbidge, FRS ("née" Peachey; 12 August 1919 – 5 April 2020) was a British-American observational astronomer and astrophysicist. In the 1950s, she was one of the founders of stellar nucleosynthesis and was first author of the influential BFH paper. During the 1960s and 70s she worked on galaxy rotation curves and quasars, discovering the most distant astronomical object then known. In the 1980s and 90s she helped develop and utilise the Faint Object Spectrograph on the Hubble Space Telescope. Burbidge was well known for her work opposing discrimination against women in astronomy.


Biography.

Špidlík was born in 1919 in Boskovice, then Czechoslovakia, now Czech Republic. In 1938, he entered the Department of Philosophy at the University of Brno, in what is now the Czech Republic. In the following year, he entered the Jesuit novitiate and after many interruptions in his education due to World War II, he was ordained a priest of the Society of Jesus on 22 August 1949 in Maastricht.in 1949. A year later, in Florence, he finished his formation period as a Jesuit.  In 1951, Špidlík was called to Rome by Vatican Radio. The programs broadcast to the countries behind the Iron Curtain were a precious aid to a freedom in danger of being slowly but inexorably suffocated. From this work with Vatican Radio sprang a special mission that would always accompany him and that made him known in lands despite their communist domination. Among others, he met with Alexander Dubček, the former first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, and Václav Havel, who became president of Czechoslovakia and the Czech Republic after the fall of the communist regime. Špidlík's Sunday homilies in the Czech language have been translated and published in various languages including Polish, Romanian and Italian.  He lived in Rome from 1951 until his death.  In 1995 he delivered the annual Lenten retreat meditations for the pope and officials of the Roman Curia. In June he defended his doctoral dissertation at the Pontifical Oriental Institute in Rome. That year marked the beginning of his university career as a professor of Patristic and Eastern Spiritual Theology at various universities in Rome. Špidlík became known as an expert in the spirituality of Eastern Christianity.  For 38 years he was the spiritual director of the Pontifical Nepomuceno Seminary, the old Bohemian Seminary.  On 21 October 2003, at the age of 83, he was created Cardinal Deacon of the titular church of Sant'Agata dei Goti. Although he was not a voting cardinal, he was created a cardinal in recognition of his theological writings.  The Cardinal was a prolific author and was equally acknowledged in the academic and international fields. He was chosen Man of the Year, 1990 and "the most admired person of the decade" by the American Bibliographical Institute of Raleigh in North Carolina, was received at the Kremlin, led the spiritual exercises of Pope John Paul II and his Curia, and was decorated with the medal of the Masaryk Order, one of the highest honors of the Czech State, by president Václav Havel.  In 2005 Špidlík delivered the meditation on the first day of the papal conclave just before the first ballot was taken. Because of age he was not eligible to participate in the voting.  He died in Rome on 16 April 2010.

Tomáš Josef Špidlík, S.J. (17 December 1919 – 16 April 2010) was a Czech prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He was a Jesuit priest and theologian. Pope John Paul II made him a Cardinal in 2003.


History.

During the 17th century, King Felipe IV of Spain ordered a country palace or hunting lodge to be built at La Zarzuela near Madrid. The name "Zarzuela" is thought to be derived from the word "zarzas" meaning brambles, due to its function as a hunting lodge, meaning that it is situated amongst the brambles of the King's Hunting Grounds. It was a rectangular, slate-roofed building with two lateral arcades. King Carlos IV had the building altered to adapt it to 18th century fashion, and adorned it with tapestries and porcelain, as well as furniture and his much-loved clocks.

Royal residence.

King Juan Carlos I and his wife, Queen Sofía, have lived in the palace since their marriage in May 1962. After the death of "Generalísimo" Francisco Franco in November 1975, the King decided not to occupy his Palace of El Pardo, leaving it for foreign state guests, designating the Palacio de la Moncloa as the residence of the President of the Spanish Government, while they remained at the Zarzuela. The "Palacio Real" (Royal Palace) in the centre of Madrid, the former principal residence of the Spanish monarchs, is the official residence of the King, although it is now used only for state occasions.  During the summer of 2002, King Felipe VI, then Prince of Asturias, moved into a new residence, a palace built within the grounds of the Palace of La Zarzuela.

Opera.

The palace theatre was the place of origin of the Spanish genre of musical drama, "zarzuela".

The Zarzuela Palace ( ) is the residence and working offices of the reigning monarch of Spain (King Felipe VI), although the official residence of the Spanish Royal Family is the Royal Palace of Madrid. The Zarzuela Palace is on the outskirts of Madrid, near the Royal Palace of El Pardo, which accommodates visiting heads of state. The palace is owned by the Spanish government and administered by a state agency named Patrimonio Nacional (National Heritage).


History.

Nerf Herder was formed in Santa Barbara in 1994 by Parry Gripp (vocals, guitar), Charlie Dennis (bass), and Steve Sherlock (drums). Dennis left the band after the release of their debut self-titled album, and was replaced first by Pete Newbury, with Dave Ehrlich also joining as a second guitarist. Newbury's tenure touring with the band was, however, short-lived. He was briefly replaced in 1999 by bassist Marko 72, and then by Justin Fisher, who played bass and keyboards on two albums ("How To Meet Girls" & "American Cheese").  In 1999, Nerf Herder asked Arista to release them from their contract, so they could move forward with a new record, "How to Meet Girls", with Honest Don's Records, a subsidiary of Fat Wreck Chords. A special EP for My Records (run by Joey Cape from Lagwagon) entitled "My EP" was released in 2001, and was followed in 2002 by their album "American Cheese".  The band wrote and performed the theme song for the TV series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (1997). In April 2003, Nerf Herder appeared as the musical guest in the final-season "Buffy" episode "Empty Places" – the very last band to play at The Bronze. Their special connection to the series was further acknowledged by a bit of dialogue, as "Rock City News" played in the background:  <poem>Kennedy: What kind of band plays during an apocalypse? Dawn: I think this band might actually be one of the signs.</poem>  By 2003, after the final "American Cheese" tour dates—during which time Ben Pringle (also of The Rentals during 2005–2008) had replaced Fisher (who had left amicably to front his own band, Psoma)—the band disintegrated. No official split was announced, but a post by Gripp on the band's website some time afterwards detailed how most of the former band members had gone on to get normal jobs. Gripp did some work as a jingle writer, which led to his 2005 solo album "For Those About to Shop, We Salute You", a 51-track concept album mimicking various musical styles and focusing on product commercialization.  In late 2005, Nerf Herder made a surprise comeback, announcing on their website that they were playing a handful of gigs with the original lineup of Gripp, Dennis, and Sherlock. For Gripp's May 7, 2007 review of the day, he announced that the original lineup had finally finished recording their 4th album, which did not have a title at that time. Gripp stated that he wanted the title to be "Brownerton", but that idea was shot down. He also stated that of the 13 songs recorded, they would probably pick 10 to be on the album. In June 2007, the band decided on the title "Nerf Herder IV", and the album was released through Oglio Records on April 29, 2008. Pringle returned, and Former Size 14 singer Linus of Hollywood joined the live band (playing guitar and keyboard) in early 2008 for a series of West Coast shows and a short tour of Japan.  In 2014, Nerf Herder began working on album number five, entitled "Rockingham", which was released on March 11, 2016.  As of 2019, Nerf Herder has continued to perform live and is currently writing and recording new material.

Origin of band name.

The band takes their name from the "Star Wars" franchise. A "nerf" is a domesticated, bison-like quadruped, bred mainly as fatstock; thus, a "" (equivalent to a sheep herder) is not a well-regarded occupation, especially not by Princess Leia (Carrie Fisher). In the film "The Empire Strikes Back" (1980), Leia insults Han Solo (Harrison Ford) for asserting that she has romantic feelings for him: "Why you stuck-up, half-witted, scruffy-looking nerfherder!"  Solo naturally takes exception: "Who's scruffy-looking...?"

Band members.

Current members Former members  The following are songs that have been featured on compilations that have not been released on any of the band's albums or EPs

Nerf Herder is an American rock band from Santa Barbara, California, formed in 1994 by Parry Gripp (vocals, guitar), Charlie Dennis (bass) and Steve Sherlock (drums). They describe themselves as a "geek rock" band, and are known for simplistic modern punk-style songs with frequently humorous, juvenile, and pop-culture-referencing lyrics. They are the inventors of the "nerdcore" music subgenre, a reference to bands from Oxnard who called themselves "Nard"-core, which Gripp updated in the mid-90s to explain Nerf Herder and their nerdy influences.


Design.

The free-standing three-story villa is on a slope and faces the south-west. The second story (the ground floor) consists of the main living and social areas with the conservatory and the terrace, and the kitchen and servants' rooms. The third story (the first floor) has the main entrance from the street with a passage to the terrace, the entrance hall, and rooms for the parents, children and the nanny with appropriate facilities. The chauffeur's flat with the garages and the terrace are accessed separately.  Mies' design principle of "less is more" and emphasis on functional amenities created a fine example of early functionalism architecture, a groundbreaking new vision in building design at the time. Mies used a revolutionary iron framework, which enabled him to dispense with supporting walls and arrange the interior in order to achieve a feeling of space and light. One wall is a sliding sheet of plate glass that descends to the basement the way an automobile window does. Mies specified all the furnishings, in collaboration with interior designer Lilly Reich (two armchairs designed for the building, the Tugendhat chair and the Brno chair, are still in production). There were no paintings or decorative items in the villa, but the interior was by no means austere d′ue to the use of naturally patterned materials such as the onyx wall and rare tropical woods. The onyx wall is partially translucent and changes appearance when the evening sun is low. The architect managed to make the magnificent view from the villa an integral part of the interior.  The cost was very high due to the unusual construction method, luxurious materials, and the use of modern technology for heating and ventilation. The lower-ground level was used as a service area. An ultra-modern air-conditioning system was here and a glass façade that opens completely assisted by a mechanism built into the wall. The floor area was unusually large and open compared to the average family home of the period, which, in addition to the various storage rooms, made the structure unique if not confusing to visitors not used to such minimalism.

Features.

The main living area features a dividing wall of brown-gold onyx, which Mies sourced from the Atlas mountains in Morocco and supervised the cutting and finishing himself.  Unusually for the time, the building features air conditioning.  In the basement there are a series of dedicated service rooms, including a mechanism to retract the windows and the "Mottenkammer", a dedicated moth-resistant storage room for keeping fur coats.

History.

The villa was commissioned by the Jewish German Fritz and Greta Tugendhat. The construction company of Artur and Mořic Eisler began construction in the summer of 1929 and finished it in 14 months.  Fritz and Greta Tugendhat lived in the villa for just eight years before fleeing Czechoslovakia with their children in 1938 (including philosopher Ernst Tugendhat), shortly before the country was dismembered following the Munich Agreement.  The family moved to Switzerland and then to Venezuela; after the war they returned to Switzerland, but never lived in the villa again.

During World War II.

The villa was confiscated by the Gestapo in 1939 and used as an apartment and office; its interior was modified and many pieces disappeared.  In 1942 the house was rented out as offices of the Messerschmidt aeroplane works. Willy Messerschmidt had his own apartment in the villa.  In April 1945, Brno was liberated by the Red Army and a Russian cavalry unit stabled its horses in the villa, doing considerable damage to the building's white linoleum floor. What furniture remained in the villa was used for firewood.

Post-war restoration and opening to the public.

In the post-war years, the building was partially repaired and used for various purposes (for example as a children's physiotherapy centre) for several decades after World War II.  Greta Tugendhat returned to the villa in 1967 with Dirk Lohan a senior architect from Mies's Chicago studio (and his grandson) and explained the original design to him, and a group of Czech architects set out to repair it. It was inscribed on the National List of Cultural Heritage in 1969 and restored after 1980. On 26 August 1992, Václav Klaus and Vladimír Mečiar, the political leaders of Czechoslovakia, met there to sign the document that divided the country into the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic. Since 1994 the villa has been open to the public as a museum administered by the city of Brno.  In 1993 the Villa Tugendhat Fund and Friends of Tugendhat were formed to preserve the villa. In 1995 Brno received a $15,000 grant to pay for preliminary research from the Samuel H. Kress European Preservation Program, part of the World Monuments Fund. The International Music and Art Foundation, based in Lichtenstein, pledged $100,000, because a trustee, Nicholas Thaw, was also a trustee of the World Monuments Fund. The Robert Wilson Foundation matched the $100,000. The villa was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2001.  In 2007 the Tugendhats' heirs applied for the restitution of the villa, citing a law covering works of art confiscated during the Holocaust. The reason for this application appears to have been their frustration over the failure of the municipality of Brno to carry out vital restoration work due to the deterioration of the concrete used in construction. Entire sections of the interior were missing. Later, parts of the original wood panelling were found at Masaryk University, a building used by the Gestapo as their Brno headquarters.  Reconstruction and restoration started in February 2010 with estimated costs of 150 million CZK (approximately EUR 5,769,000; US$7,895,000). This reconstruction finished in February 2012 and the villa was reopened to the public in March. To celebrate the villa's restoration, the Royal Institute of British Architects launched 'Villa Tugendhat in Context', an exhibition in London giving a visual history and a record of the recent renovation through the testimony of three generations of photographers.  Near Villa Tugendhat is Greta's family home, the Art Nouveau Löw-Beer Villa (now a branch of the Museum of the Brno Region), which will present an exhibition "The World of the Brno Bourgeoisie around the Löw-Beers and Tugendhat".

In popular culture.

The villa was a principal location in the 2007 film "Hannibal Rising", serving as the villa of the villain, Vladis Gutas. Simon Mawer's 2009 Booker Prize-shortlisted novel, "The Glass Room", is a fictional account of a house inspired by the villa.

Villa Tugendhat is an architecturally significant building in Brno, Czech Republic. It is one of the pioneering prototypes of modern architecture in Europe, and was designed by the German architects Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Lilly Reich. Built of reinforced concrete between 1928 and 1930 for Fritz Tugendhat and his wife Greta, the villa soon became an icon of modernism.


Terminology.

Over the years, elements of the MACD have become known by multiple and often over-loaded terms. The common definitions of particularly overloaded terms are:  Divergence: 1. As the D in MACD, "divergence" refers to the two underlying moving averages drifting apart, while "convergence" refers to the two underlying moving averages coming towards each other. 2. Gerald Appel referred to a "divergence" as the situation where the MACD line does not conform to the price movement, e.g. a price low is not accompanied by a low of the MACD. and 3. Thomas Asprey dubbed the difference between the MACD and its signal line the "divergence" series. In practice, definition number 2 above is often preferred.  Histogram: 1. Gerald Appel referred to bar graph plots of the basic MACD time series as "histogram". In Appel's Histogram the height of the bar corresponds to the MACD value for a particular point in time. 2. The difference between the MACD and its Signal line is often plotted as a bar chart and called a "histogram". In practice, definition number 2 above is often preferred.

Mathematical interpretation.

In signal processing terms, the MACD series is a filtered measure of the derivative of the input (price) series with respect to time. (The derivative is called "velocity" in technical stock analysis.) MACD estimates the derivative as if it were calculated and then filtered by the two low-pass filters in tandem, multiplied by a "gain" equal to the difference in their time constants. It also can be seen to approximate the derivative as if it were calculated and then filtered by a single low pass exponential filter (EMA) with time constant equal to the sum of time constants of the two filters, multiplied by the same gain. So, for the standard MACD filter time constants of 12 and 26 days, the MACD derivative estimate is filtered approximately by the equivalent of a low-pass EMA filter of 38 days. The time derivative estimate (per day) is the MACD value divided by 14.  The average series is also a derivative estimate, with an additional low-pass filter in tandem for further smoothing (and additional lag). The difference between the MACD series and the average series (the divergence series) represents a measure of the second derivative of price with respect to time ("acceleration" in technical stock analysis). This estimate has the additional lag of the signal filter and an additional gain factor equal to the signal filter constant.

Classification.

The MACD can be classified as an absolute price oscillator (APO), because it deals with the actual prices of moving averages rather than percentage changes. A percentage price oscillator (PPO), on the other hand, computes the difference between two moving averages of price divided by the longer moving average value.  While an APO will show greater levels for higher priced securities and smaller levels for lower priced securities, a PPO calculates changes relative to price. Subsequently, a PPO is preferred when: comparing oscillator values between different securities, especially those with substantially different prices; or comparing oscillator values for the same security at significantly different times, especially a security whose value has changed greatly.  Another member of the price oscillator family is the detrended price oscillator (DPO), which ignores long term trends while emphasizing short term patterns.

Trading interpretation.

Exponential moving averages highlight recent changes in a stock's price. By comparing EMAs of different lengths, the MACD series gauges changes in the trend of a stock. The difference between the MACD series and its average is claimed to reveal subtle shifts in the strength and direction of a stock's trend. It may be necessary to correlate the signals with the MACD to indicators like RSI power.  Some traders attribute special significance to the MACD line crossing the signal line, or the MACD line crossing the zero axis. Significance is also attributed to disagreements between the MACD line or the difference line and the stock price (specifically, higher highs or lower lows on the price series that are not matched in the indicator series).

Signal-line crossover.

A "signal-line crossover" occurs when the MACD and average lines cross; that is, when the divergence (the bar graph) changes sign. The standard interpretation of such an event is a recommendation to buy if the MACD line crosses up through the average line (a "bullish" crossover), or to sell if it crosses down through the average line (a "bearish" crossover). These events are taken as indications that the trend in the stock is about to accelerate in the direction of the crossover.

Zero crossover.

A "zero crossover" event occurs when the MACD series changes sign, that is, the MACD line crosses the horizontal zero axis. This happens when there is no difference between the fast and slow EMAs of the price series. A change from positive to negative MACD is interpreted as "bearish", and from negative to positive as "bullish". Zero crossovers provide evidence of a change in the direction of a trend but less confirmation of its momentum than a signal line crossover.

Divergence.

A "positive divergence" or "bullish divergence" occurs when the price makes a new low but the MACD does not confirm with a new low of its own. A "negative divergence" or "bearish divergence" occurs when the price makes a new high but the MACD does not confirm with a new high of its own. A divergence with respect to price may occur on the MACD line and/or the MACD Histogram.

Timing.

The MACD is only as useful as the context in which it is applied. An analyst might apply the MACD to a weekly scale before looking at a daily scale, in order to avoid making short term trades against the direction of the intermediate trend. Analysts will also vary the parameters of the MACD to track trends of varying duration. One popular short-term set-up, for example, is the (5,35,5).

False signals.

Like any forecasting algorithm, the MACD can generate false signals. A false positive, for example, would be a bullish crossover followed by a sudden decline in a stock. A false negative would be a situation where there is bearish crossover, yet the stock accelerated suddenly upwards.  A prudent strategy may be to apply a filter to signal line crossovers to ensure that they have held up. An example of a price filter would be to buy if the MACD line breaks above the signal line and then remains above it for three days. As with any filtering strategy, this reduces the probability of false signals but increases the frequency of missed profit.  Analysts use a variety of approaches to filter out false signals and confirm true ones.  A MACD crossover of the signal line indicates that the direction of the acceleration is changing. The MACD line crossing zero suggests that the average velocity is changing direction.

Further reading.

MACD Calculation Formula

MACD, short for moving average convergence/divergence, is a trading indicator used in technical analysis of stock prices, created by Gerald Appel in the late 1970s. It is designed to reveal changes in the strength, direction, momentum, and duration of a trend in a stock's price. The MACD indicator (or "oscillator") is a collection of three time series calculated from historical price data, most often the closing price. These three series are: the MACD series proper, the "signal" or "average" series, and the "divergence" series which is the difference between the two. The MACD series is the difference between a "fast" (short period) exponential moving average (EMA), and a "slow" (longer period) EMA of the price series. The average series is an EMA of the MACD series itself.


Biography.

Early life.

Nelson was born in 1916 in Clear Lake, Wisconsin, the son of Mary (Bradt), a nurse, and Anton Nelson, a country doctor. He had Norwegian and Irish ancestry. He grew up and was educated in the local public schools. In 1939, he received a bachelor's in political science at what is now San Jose State University in San Jose, California. In 1942, he received an LL.B. degree from the University of Wisconsin Law School in Madison and was admitted to the bar. He practiced as a lawyer before serving in the United States Army, during which time he saw action in the Okinawa campaign during World War II.

Political career.

In 1948, Nelson was elected to the Wisconsin State Senate. He remained there until 1958, when he was elected governor of Wisconsin. He served for four years as governor, in two two-year terms, before being elected to the Senate in 1962. He served three consecutive terms as a senator from 1963 to 1981. In 1963 he convinced President John F. Kennedy to take a national speaking tour to discuss conservation issues. Senator Nelson founded Earth Day, which began as a teach-in about environmental issues on April 22, 1970.  During his 1968 re-election campaign, Nelson was praised by Vince Lombardi, the General Manager and former coach of the Green Bay Packers, as the "nation's #1 conservationist" at a banquet in Oshkosh. Nelson's campaign turned Lombardi's banquet speech into a radio and television campaign commercial, infuriating Lombardi, the Wisconsin Republican Party, and Vince's wife, Marie, who was a staunch Republican.  Although known primarily for his environmental work, Nelson also was a leading consumer advocate, strong supporter of civil rights and civil liberties, and one of the early outspoken opponents of the Vietnam war.  In 1970, Nelson called for Congressional hearings on the safety of combined oral contraceptive pills, which were famously called "The Nelson Pill Hearings." As a result of the hearings, side-effect disclosure in patient inserts was required for the pillthe first such disclosure for a pharmaceutical drug. Nelson was also a noted advocate of small business. While chairman of the Senate Small Business Committee, he led successful efforts to authorize the first modern White House Conference on Small Business, create the system of Small Business Development Centers at U.S. universities, and improve the way that federal agencies regulate small businesses and other small entities, the Regulatory Flexibility Act.  In 1973, Nelson was one of the three senators who opposed the nomination of Gerald Ford to be Vice President. (The other two were Thomas Eagleton and William Hathaway.)

Life after politics.

After Nelson's 1980 defeat for re-election, he became counselor for The Wilderness Society in January 1981. He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in September 1995 in recognition of his environmental work.  Nelson viewed the stabilization of the nation's population as an important aspect of environmentalism. In his words:  The bigger the population gets, the more serious the problems become... We have to address the population issue. The United Nations, with the U.S. supporting it, took the position in Cairo in 1994 that every country was responsible for stabilizing its own population. It can be done. But in this country, it's phony to say "I'm for the environment but not for limiting immigration."  He also rejected the suggestion that economic development should take precedence over environmental protection:  The economy is a wholly owned subsidiary of the environment, not the other way around.  In 2002, Nelson appeared on "To Tell the Truth" as a contestant, with his founding of Earth Day highlighted.

Fraternity membership.

Nelson was an initiated member of Pi Kappa Phi fraternity, having been initiated in 1972 during a trip to LaGrange, Georgia, to promote the second annual Earth Day.

Death and legacy.

Nelson died of cardiovascular failure at age 89 on July 3, 2005.  The Gaylord Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies (or Nelson Institute) at the University of Wisconsin–Madison is named after him in recognition of his love for nature. In addition, the Gaylord Nelson Wilderness in the Apostle Islands National Lakeshore -– comprising more than 80% of the land area of the park –- was named after him in honor of his efforts to have the park created. Governor Nelson State Park near Waunakee, Wisconsin, is also named after him. The elementary school in Clear Lake, Wisconsin is named Gaylord A. Nelson Educational Center.  Retrieved on 2008-02-06

Gaylord Anton Nelson (June 4, 1916July 3, 2005) was an American politician and environmentalist from Wisconsin who served as a United States Senator and governor. A Democrat, he was the founder of Earth Day, which launched a new wave of environmental activism.


Life Cycle and Pathology.

Myxozoans are endoparasitic animals exhibiting complex life cycles that, in most of the known cases involves an intermediate host, usually a fish, but in rare cases amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals; and a definitive host, usually an annelid or an ectoproct. Only about 100 life cycles have been resolved and it is suspected that there may be some exclusively terrestrial. The mechanism of infection occurs through valve spores that have many forms, but their main morphology is the same: one or two sporoplasts, which are the real infectious agent, surrounded by a layer of attenuated cells called valve cells, which can secrete a layer protective coating and form float appendages. Integrated into the layer of valve cells are two to four specialized capsulogenic cells (in a few cases, one or even 15), each carrying a polar capsule containing coiled polar filaments, an extrudable organelle used for recognition, contact and infiltration. Myxospores are ingested by annelids, in which the polar filaments extrude to anchor the spore to the gut epithelium. Opening of the shell valves allows the sporoplasms to penetrate into the epithelium. Subsequently, the parasite undergoes reproduction and development in the gut tissue, and finally produces usually eight actinosporean spore stages (actinospores) within a pansporocyst. After mature actinospores are released from their hosts they float in the water column. Upon contact with skin or gills of fish, sporoplasms penetrate through the epithelium, followed by development of the myxosporean stage. Myxosporean trophozoites are characterized by cell-in-cell state, where the secondary (daughter) cells develop in the mother (primary) cells. The presporogonic stages multiply, migrate via nervous or circulatory systems, and develop into sporogonic stages. At the final site of infection, they produce mature spores within mono- or disporic pseudoplasmodia, or polysporic plasmodia.  Relationships between myxosporeans and their hosts are often highly evolved and do not usually result in severe diseases of the natural host. Infection in fish hosts can be extremely long-lasting, potentially persisting for the lifetime of the host. However, an increasing number of myxosporeans have become commercially important pathogens of fish, largely as a result of aquaculture bringing new species into contact with myxosporeans to which they had not been previously exposed and to which they are highly susceptible. The economic impact of such parasites can be severe, especially where prevalence rates are high; they may also have a severe impact on wild fish stocks.  The economically most significant diseases worldwide caused by myxosporeas in cultured fishes are PKD-Proliferative Kidney Disease, caused by a Malacosporea member, "Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae", and whirling disease, caused by a Myxosporea member "Myxobolus cerebralis"; both diseases affect salmonids. Enteromyxosis is caused by "Enteromyxum leei" in cultured marine sparids, while "Hamburger disease” or Proliferative Gill Disease is caused by "Henneguya ictaluri" in catfish and "Sphaerospora renicola" infections occur in common carp.

Anatomy.

Myxozoans are very small animals, typically 10-300μm in length. Like other cnidarians they possess cnidocysts, which were referred to as "polar capsules" before the discovery that myxozoans are cnidarians. These cnidocysts fire tubules as in other cnidarians; some inject substances into the host. However, the tubules lack hooks or barbs, and in some species are more elastic than in other cnidarians.  Myxozoans have secondarily lost epithelial structures, a nervous system, gut, and cilia. Most lack muscles, though some members of malacosporea retain muscles.  Myxozoans do not undergo embryogenesis during development and have lost true gametes. Instead, they reproduce via multicellular spores. These spores contain the polar capsules, which are not typically present in somatic cells.  Centrioles do not participate in the nuclear division of myxozoans. Cell division by binary fission is rare, and cells divide instead via endogeny.  In 2020, the myxozoan "Henneguya salminicola" was found to lack a mitochondrial genome and thus be incapable of oxygenic respiration, the first animal to be positively identified as such. Its actual method of metabolism is currently unknown.

Phylogenetics.

Myxozoans were originally considered protozoan, and were included among other non-motile forms in the group Sporozoa. As their distinct nature became clear through 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequencing, they were relocated in the metazoa. Detailed classification within the metazoa was however long hindered by conflicting rDNA evidence: although 18S rDNA suggested an affinity with Cnidaria, other rDNA sampled, and the HOX genes of two species, were more similar to those of the Bilateria.  The discovery that "Buddenbrockia plumatellae", a worm-like parasite of bryozoans up to 2 mm in length, is a myxozoan initially appeared to strengthen the case for a bilaterian origin, as the body plan is superficially similar. Nevertheless, closer examination reveals that "Buddenbrockia"'s longitudinal symmetry is not twofold, but fourfold, casting doubt on this hypothesis.  Further testing resolved the genetic conundrum by sourcing the first three previously identified discrepant HOX genes ("Myx1-3") to the bryozoan "Cristatella mucedo" and the fourth ("Myx4") to Northern pike, the respective hosts of the two corresponding Myxozoa samples. This explained the confusion: the original experiments had used samples contaminated by tissue from host organisms, leading to false positives for a position among the Bilateria. More careful cloning of 50 coding genes from "Buddenbrockia" firmly established the clade as severely modified members of the phylum Cnidaria, with medusozoans as their closest relatives. Similarities between myxozoan polar capsules and cnidarian nematocysts had been drawn for a long time, but were generally assumed to be the result of convergent evolution.  Taxonomists now recognize the outdated subgroup Actinosporea as a life-cycle phase of Myxosporea.  Molecular clocks suggest that myxozoans and their closest relatives, the polypodiozoa, shared their last common ancestor with medusazoans about 600 million years ago, during the Ediacaran period.

Taxonomy.

It seems clear that myxozoans belong to the phylum Cnidaria although they have many differences. For this reason, the mixozoan taxonomy has undergone great and important changes in its levels of generic, family and suborder classification. Thus, a new classification in the phylum Cnidaria was proposed with the taxonomic revision based on spores up to the gender level.

Myxozoa (etymology: Greek: μύξα "myxa" "slime" or "mucus" + thematic vowel o + ζῷον "zoon" "animal") is an unranked subphylum of aquatic, obligately parasitic cnidarian animals and contains the smallest animals ever known to have lived. Over 2180 species have been described and some estimates have suggested at least 30,000 undiscovered species. Many have a two-host lifecycle, involving a fish and an annelid worm or a bryozoan. The average size of a myxosporean spore usually ranges from 10 μm to 20 μm, whereas that of a malacosporean (a subclade of the Myxozoa) spore can be up to 2 mm. Myxozoans can live in both freshwater and marine habitats.


Biography.

Toni Kurz was born on 13 January 1913 in Berchtesgaden, Bavaria, Germany, where he was raised. He completed a brief apprenticeship as a pipefitter before joining the German "Wehrmacht" in 1934 as a professional soldier. Together with his childhood friend Andreas Hinterstoisser, he made numerous first ascents of peaks in the Berchtesgaden Alps, including some of the most difficult climbs of that time. The two young men climbed the southwest wall of the Berchtesgadener Hochthron in 1934, and the south wall of the straight pillar in 1936. They also made first ascents in the Reiter Alpe on the German–Austrian border, and of the direct southern route up the Watzmannkinder in the Watzmann in 1935.  In July 1936, Kurz and Hinterstoisser left Berchtesgaden, where they were serving in the military, and travelled by bicycle to Kleine Scheidegg, Switzerland to attempt to climb the Eiger north face. While on the mountain, they met up with two Austrian climbers—Edi Rainer and Willy Angerer—and the four decided to continue their attempt together.  During the ascent, Angerer was injured by falling rocks loosened by the warmth of the rising sun as they crossed the first ice field. As a result of Angerer's worsening condition and their slow progress across the second ice field, they abandoned the attempt on the Eiger and decided to descend. A further challenge arose when Kurz and his comrades failed to retrace their route across the area now known as the Hinterstoisser Traverse and had to climb downwards. As the result of another avalanche, Hinterstoisser himself became disconnected, plummeted down the mountain, and perished. Later, Willy Angerer, now climbing below Kurz, was smashed against the wall, dying instantly. Edi Rainer, the climber who had been securing the other two, was pulled against the wall and died minutes later of asphyxiation. Kurz, alone now, remained uninjured.  Later that day, amid worsening weather, a rescue team attempted to reach Kurz from below, ascending by means of the railway tunnel that ran through the mountain, the Jungfraubahn. They could not reach Kurz due to the severity of the storm and were forced to leave him dangling unprotected and exposed to the elements for the entire night. The next day, the team again attempted to effect a rescue; Kurz himself made the effort, despite a frozen hand due to losing a glove, to abseil down the face of the mountain and reach the team. To accomplish this, he first had to cut loose the dead body of his comrade hanging below him, then climb up and cut loose his other dead comrade. To increase the length of his rope, he unravelled it and tied it together again. This entire process took five gruelling hours. He then lowered the rope to the waiting rescuers, who attached their own rope. The mountain guides only had one long rope – 60 metres – with them. Hans Schlunegger just put it between his back and his rucksack (not into his rucksack) to save some time. This was not an unusual practice for them. Unfortunately when he made a sudden movement the rope dropped and fell down to the foot of the wall. As a result the team combined two shorter ropes to reach the required length; however the combined ropes still fell short. Kurz pulled up their rope, fixed it, and began his abseiling descent. He was stopped a mere couple of metres above his rescuers by the knot. To abseil any further he would have had to raise himself enough to release the tension on the knot and let it pass through his gear. Desperately, Kurz tried to move himself past the knot, but in vain. Facing the futility of his situation, he said only "Ich kann nicht mehr" ("I can't [go on] anymore") and died. His body was later recovered by a German team.

Legacy.

The tragic story became well known after publication of Heinrich Harrer's classic 1960 book "The White Spider" and was more recently covered by Joe Simpson's book (and Emmy-winning TV documentary), "The Beckoning Silence", as well as the 2008 German dramatic movie "North Face".

Toni Kurz (13 January 1913 – 22 July 1936) was a German mountain climber active in the 1930s. He died during an attempt to climb the Eiger north face with his partner Andreas Hinterstoisser.


Life.

Karl-Theodor was born at Possenhofen Castle, the third son of Duke Maximilian in Bavaria and of his wife, Princess Ludovika of Bavaria.  At the age of fourteen Karl-Theodor joined the Bavarian Army. In 1866 he fought in the Austro-Prussian War. When he left active duty, he became a student at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he studied philosophy, law, economics, and medicine. Among his teachers were the chemist Justus von Liebig, the pathologist Ludwig von Buhl, and the physicist Philipp von Jolly.  In 1870 Karl-Theodor's studies were interrupted by the Franco-Prussian War in which he served as a proprietary colonel of the 3rd Bavarian Light Horse. After the war he returned to his studies. In 1872 he was named an honorary Doctor of Medicine by the Ludwig Maximilian University; the following year he completed the requirements for the degree. Then he studied ophthalmology under Professor Deutschland and continued his education under Professor Arlt in Vienna and Professor Horner in Zürich.  In 1877 Karl-Theodor began practicing medicine in Mentone on the Côte d'Azur, often assisted by his wife Maria Josepha. In 1880 he opened an eye-clinic in his castle at Tegernsee. In 1895 he founded the "Augenklinik Herzog Carl Theodor" () in Munich; the clinic in the Nymphenburger Strasse remains one of the most respected eye clinics in Bavaria to the present day. Between 1895 and 1909 Carl Theodor personally carried out more than 5,000 cataract operations as well as treating countless other eye disorders.

Honours.

Karl-Theodor received a number of honours:  Karl-Theodor died at Kreuth in 1909. He is buried in the family crypt in Schloss Tegernsee.

Marriages and family.

On 11 February 1865, at Dresden, Karl-Theodor married his first cousin Princess Sophie of Saxony (1845–1867), daughter of King John of Saxony and his maternal aunt Princess Amalie Auguste of Bavaria. They had one child:  On 29 April 1874, at Kleinheubach, Karl-Theodor married Infanta Maria Josepha of Portugal (1857–1943), daughter of exiled King Miguel I of Portugal and Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg, and had issue:

Karl-Theodor, Duke in Bavaria (9 August 1839 – 30 November 1909), was a member of the House of Wittelsbach and a professional oculist. He was the favorite brother of the Empress Elisabeth of Austria, and father of Queen Elisabeth of the Belgians.


Family.

Born in Possenhofen Castle, her father was Karl-Theodor, Duke in Bavaria, head of a cadet branch of the Bavarian royal family, and an ophthalmologist. She was named after her father's sister, Empress Elisabeth of Austria, better known as Sisi. Her mother was Maria Josepha of Portugal, daughter of exiled Miguel I of Portugal. Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, Zita, the last Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary, and Felix of Bourbon-Parma, husband of Grand Duchess Charlotte and brother of Empress Zita, were among Elisabeth's first cousins.  An artist himself, Duke Karl-Theodor cultivated the artistic tastes of his family and Elisabeth was raised with a deep love for painting, music and sculpture. At her father's clinic, where her mother assisted her father as a nurse, Elisabeth obtained exposure to productive labour and to human suffering unusual at that time for a princess.

Married life and queenship.

In Munich on 2 October 1900, Duchess Elisabeth married Prince Albert, second-in-line to the throne of Belgium (after his father Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders). Upon her husband's accession to the Belgian throne in 1909, Elisabeth became queen. The city of Élisabethville, today Lubumbashi, in the Congo was named in her honour.  They had first met in 1897 at the funeral of Elisabeth's aunt Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria, who was also the mother-in-law of Albert's sister Henriette. At the time, Prince Albert was the heir to his uncle Leopold II of Belgium. Albert was the second son of Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders and Princess Marie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a sister of King Carol I of Romania.  At birth, Albert occupied the third place in the line of succession behind his father and elder brother, Prince Baudouin. The unexpected death of Baudouin in January 1891 immediately raised Albert to prominence within his country. A studious, quiet man, Albert was not the choice of heir that King Leopold II would have relished. As the only living male member of his generation, Albert was guaranteed the Crown of the Belgians upon the King's death. Albert had two sisters who survived into adulthood, Princess Henriette who married Prince Emmanuel of Orléans, and Princess Joséphine Caroline who married her cousin, Prince Karl-Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, brother of King Ferdinand I of Romania.  In December 1909, Albert and Elisabeth became King and Queen of the Belgians, following the death of Albert’s uncle, King Leopold II. The new Queen took on a much more public role than her predecessors, getting involved with many charities and organizations, particularly those in the arts and social welfare. She often surrounded herself with famous authors and artists, as well as leading scientists of the day. Her friendly nature, and true care and concern for others, quickly endeared her to the people of Belgium.  When war broke out in 1914, Queen Elisabeth worked with the nurses on the front and helped establish the Symphony Orchestra of the field army. She also travelled to the UK often, under the pretext of visiting her children who were studying there. She was often bringing important messages and information to the British government from her husband and his forces. Following the war, the family made a triumphant return to Brussels and set about to rebuild the nation.  During the First World War, she and the King resided in De Panne. The Queen made herself beloved by visiting the front lines and by sponsoring a nursing unit. Despite her German background, she was a popular queen, perceived as eagerly supporting her adoptive country.  From September 23 to 13 November 1919, the Queen, together with the King and Prince Léopold, undertook an official visit to the United States of America. During a journey in the historic pueblo of Isleta in New Mexico, the King awarded the Order of Léopold to Father Anton Docher. As a memento, the King was given a turquoise cross mounted in silver made by the Tiwa people. Ten thousand people traveled to Isleta for the occasion.

Later years.

On February 17, 1934, Albert I died in a mountain climbing accident in the Ardennes of Belgium, near Namur. He was succeeded by their elder son, King Leopold III. Elisabeth withdrew from public life, so as not to hinder the efforts of her daughter-in-law, now Queen Astrid. However, in August 1935, Queen Astrid was killed in a car crash in Küssnacht am Rigi, Switzerland. Queen Elisabeth returned to the public life, doing her best to support her son and his family, and resuming her position as first lady of the land.  Elisabeth lived to see her son become king (but also go into exile and abdicate), her younger son become, effectively, regent of the realm, and her grandson mount the throne.  As queen dowager, she became a patron of the arts and was known for her friendship with such notable scientists as Albert Einstein. During the German occupation of Belgium from 1940 to 1944, she used her influence as queen and German connections to assist in the rescue of hundreds of Jewish children from deportation by the Nazis. When Brussels was liberated, she allowed her palace to be used for headquarters of the British XXX Corps, and presented its commander General Horrocks with its mascot, a young wild boar named 'Chewing Gum'. After the war she was awarded the title Righteous Among the Nations by the Israeli government.  During the 1950s, the Queen evoked controversy abroad by visiting the Soviet Union, China and Poland, trips that prompted some to label her as the "Red Queen."  Queen Elisabeth died in Brussels at the age of 89 on 23 November 1965 from a heart attack. She is interred in the royal vault at the Church of Our Lady of Laeken, Brussels. She was the 1,016th Dame of the Royal Order of Queen Maria Luisa.

Legacy.

The city of Lubumbashi in Congo (Kinshasa) was formerly known as "Élisabethville", and it was named in her honor when it was founded in 1910 in what was then the Belgian Congo. It adopted its current name in 1966 when, after six years of wrangling following independence, the regime of Joseph Desire Mobutu began purging The Congo of its colonial-era place names.  The Queen Elisabeth Competition, an international competition for career-starting musicians held in Brussels, is named after her.

Queen Elisabeth of Belgium (born Duchess Elisabeth of Bavaria; 25 July 187623 November 1965) was Queen consort of the Belgians as the spouse of King Albert I, and a Duchess in Bavaria by birth. She was the mother of King Leopold III of Belgium and of Queen Marie-José of Italy, and grandmother of kings Baudouin and Albert II of Belgium, and Grand Duchess Joséphine-Charlotte of Luxembourg.


Background.

Renée was born on 25 October 1510 at the Château de Blois, Blois, Touraine and was the second daughter of Louis XII of France and Anne of Brittany. Anne, who had always fought fiercely to keep Brittany independent of the French crown, tried to will the duchy to Renée, but Louis disagreed, so the Duchy passed to her elder sister, Claude.  Her early education was undertaken by her governess, Michelle de Saubonne, Madame de Soubise. Saubonne was a partisan of Anne of Brittany and opposed to Anne's enemy, Louise of Savoy; so, after the death of Renée's parents, Louise and her son, Francis I of France, had Saubonne sacked. Renée never forgot this, and when she married, she took Saubonne with her.  In return for renouncing her claims to the duchy of Brittany, Renée was granted the duchy of Chartres by Francis. As a child, one of her companions was the young Anne Boleyn, whom Renée always remembered with kindness and affection. She was considered as a possible bride for King Henry VIII.

Duchess of Ferrara.

She was married in April 1528 to Ercole II, Duke of Ferrara, eldest son of Alfonso I d'Este and Lucrezia Borgia. By this marriage, she became known as "Renatia di Francia". Renée received from Francis I an ample dowry and annuity. Thus the court that she assembled about her in Ferrara, in the 1530 and 1540s, corresponded to the tradition which the cultivation of science and art implicitly required, including scholars like Bernardo Tasso and Fulvio Pellegrini. Her first child, Anna, born in 1531, was followed by Alfonso, in 1533; Lucrezia, 1535; after these, Eleonora and Luigi; whose education she carefully directed.  On 31 October 1534, her father-in-law died and Ercole succeeded to the throne. Hardly had he rendered his oath of allegiance to Pope Paul III when he turned against the French at his own court, many of whom had been brought by Renee. Both their number and influence displeased him; and, besides, he found them too expensive; so he by direct or indirect means secured their dismissal, including the poet Clément Marot. And while the Curia was urging the duke to put away the French that were suspected of heresy, there came to Ferrara no less a heretic than John Calvin, whose journey to Italy must have fallen in March and April 1536. Calvin passed several weeks at the court of Renée in the summer of 1536. As a result of Renée's tutelage, Calvin's "opus magnum" circulated at the court; the "Institutes of the Christian Religion", in two Latin editions (1536, 1539). This at a time when the persecution of those who adhered or sympathised with the Protestant faith had already begun in the area. Amongst those, it included a chorister by the name of Jehannet, also one Cornillan, of the attendants of the duchess, together with a cleric of Tournay, Bouchefort, who were also taken prisoners and tried. In a "man of small stature," whom the Inquisition likewise seized as under suspicion, although he made his escape, is to be recognized not Calvin, but Clément Marot.

Heresy trial.

Renée was not only in correspondence with a very large number of Protestants abroad, with intellectual sympathizers like Vergerio, Camillo Renato, Giulio di Milano, and Francis Dryander, but also that on two or three occasions, about 1550 or later, she partook of the Eucharist in the Protestant manner together with her daughters and fellow believers. Meanwhile, notwithstanding its external splendor, her life had grown sad. The last of her French guests, the daughter and son-in-law of Madame de Soubise of Pons, had been obliged, in 1543, by the constraint imposed by the duke, to leave the court. The Counter-Reformation, which had been operative in Rome since 1542, led to the introduction of a special court of the Inquisition at Ferrara, in 1545, through which, in 1550 and 1551, death sentences were decreed against Protestant sympathizers (Fannio of Faenza and Giorgio of Sicily), and executed by the secular arm.  Finally Duke Ercole lodged accusation against Renée before her nephew King Henry II of France, and through the Inquisitor Oriz, whom the king charged with this errand, Renée was arrested as a heretic, and declared forfeit of all possessions unless she recanted. She resisted steadfastly for some time, until her two daughters were taken away from her, supposedly forever. So, as a condition for being reunited with her children she had to recant and abjure her Protestant faith. She then yielded, made confession on 23 September 1554, although subsequently she refused to attend Catholic worship, and especially the mass, which for her was a form of blasphemy. "How seldom is there an example of steadfastness among aristocrats," wrote Calvin to Farel under date of 2 February 1555.

Return to France.

Renée's longing to return home was not satisfied until a year following the death of her husband on 3 October 1559. In France she found her eldest daughter's husband, Francis, Duke of Guise, at the head of the Roman Catholic party. His power, indeed, was broken by the death of his nephew Francis II, in December, 1560, so that Renée became enabled not only to provide Protestant worship at her estate, Montargis, engaging a capable preacher by application to Calvin, but also generally to minister as benefactress of the surrounding Protestants. In fact, she made her castle a refuge for them, when her son-in-law once again lighted the torch of war.  Again, her conduct won Calvin's praise (10 May 1563), and she is one of the frequently recurring figures in his correspondence of that period; he repeatedly shows recognition of her intervention in behalf of the Evangelical cause; and one of his last writings in the French tongue, dispatched from his deathbed (4 April 1564), is addressed to her. While Renée continued unmolested in the second religious war (1567), in the third (1568–70) her castle was no longer respected as an asylum for her fellow believers. On the other hand, she succeeded in rescuing a number of them from the massacre of Saint Bartholomew's night, when she happened to be in Paris. They left her personally undisturbed at that time, though Catherine de' Medici still sought to move her to retract, a demand which she ignored.

Children.

With Ercole II she had:  Renee was widowed in 1559. As a result of being on bad terms with her son, Alfonso, she returned to France in 1560 and settled in Montargis, where she then died on 12 June 1574.

Renée of France (25 October 1510 – 12 June 1574), was the Duchess of Ferrara from 31 October 1534 until 3 October 1559 due to her marriage to Ercole II d'Este, grandson of Pope Alexander VI. She was the younger surviving child of Louis XII of France and Anne of Brittany. In her later life she became an important supporter of the Protestant Reformation and ally of John Calvin.


Marketing and advertising issues.

Unlike its sister models, the Citroën C1 and C3, the C2 was seen as a victim of poor advertising. According to many in the motoring press, it was the most neglected model in the Citroën lineup in terms of promotion. In comparison, the C1 and the C3, on which the C2 is based, were both well presented in the media. Despite that, the Citroën C2 was awarded the "Best European Hatchback of 2003" in September 2003.

Versions.

The LX model was the "no frills" version of the C2 and came with basic equipment, including black plastic bumpers and no fog lamps. The L model, produced from 2003 to 2005, came with black lower bumper and door handles, CD player, rear seat modulation and no fog lamps. The Design included body coloured bumpers and electric windows. The SX was the luxury spec.  It featured 'bumper colour coded paint' and air conditioning, the latter of which increases the 1.1 SX's 0–100 km/h time by 4.5 seconds to 17.2 seconds.  The Furio, VTR and VTS are the sports models which made the C2's predecessor, the Saxo, famous as an affordable, sporty looking and very fast 'pocket rocket'. The Furio has the same sports body kit as the more expensive VTR and VTS models but lacks their alloy wheels. Earlier models of the Furio had 15" Coyote alloys, but these were later replaced with wheel trims from the end of 2003 onwards.  The VTR also has a engine, whereas the VTS, the premium sports model, has a engine capable of accelerating from 0 to in 8.0 seconds, seen as sluggish by modern hot hatch standards where the fastest contemporary hot hatch achieved 5.3 seconds (Clio V6), although this is designed to be more insurance friendly.  Other additions which helped the VTS model achieve a low insurance rating (in the United Kingdom) were security based including deadlocks and a Thatcham Category 1 alarm system which includes perimeter and volumetric detection as well as an engine immobiliser.  The limited edition model "GT", introduced in September 2004, offered a sporty bodykit, with bright red, blue, silver and black paintwork and unique white alloy wheels. All GTs have a number certificate to show their authenticity. Only 2,250 were made, exclusive to the United Kingdom.  In 2006, there were a number of small revisions to the C2. Externally the car looks identical save minor changes to alloy wheels (on the VTR), half colour coded door mirrors, clear side indicator lenses, and white indicator rear lenses. Internal changes saw a new stereo with vehicle computer integration and some cosmetic changes to the driver displays and centre console.  The previous models ran two integrated electrical systems. The popular CAN BUS (Controller Area Network, by Bosch) and PSA's proprietary VAN BUS (Vehicle Area Network).  In 2006, PSA dumped the VAN BUS system for an all CAN BUS system, giving it better functionality and compatibility with more component manufacturers. This required some of the electrical components to be replaced, explaining why the displays, radio/CD and some other electronic equipment were changed.  The VTR Sensodrive and VTS manual were the two petrol options available for the Australian C2.

Safety.

Euro NCAP test results for a LHD, three door hatchback variant on a registration of 2003:

Facelift.

April 2007 saw Citroën Europe announcing a facelift for its C2 model, which had received a minor update in November 2006. The 2009 C2 featured a larger front bumper and restyled grille with a chrome surround. The trim specifications remain in line with the range of 2008. Levels remained unchanged.

Technology.

The Citroën C2 brings with it two key new technologies, the Stop & Start environmental system, and the SensoDrive five speed semi-automatic transmission.  The engine quickly restarts when pressure on the brake pedal is relieved. The technology has been developed by Valeo and results in lower urban fuel consumption. The system, however, requires pressure on the brake pedal when stationary for the system to work, holding the vehicle on the handbrake (parking brake) alone will not be sufficient for the system to operate. The Stop & Start system is mounted to the SensoDrive gearbox.  A Stop & Start system was previously seen in the 1980s, with the Volkswagen Polo "Formel E" and the Volkswagen Golf MKIII "Ecomatic", although this was different in operation; in the Volkswagen system the engine stopped automatically when placed in neutral. Selecting a gear by moving the stick to the left (for first or reverse) activated the starter motor.  One actuator changes gears while the other, which is equipped with a facing wear compensation system, opens and closes the clutch. The gearbox control unit also dialogues with the engine control unit. The SensoDrive gearbox has two shifting options of either the fully automated mode, or the paddle shifted/gear shifted manual mode.

Chinese version.

From October 2006, the Peugeot 206 has been sold by PSA, for the Chinese market only as the Citroën C2. With a modified front and rear body, this is similar to the way the Citroën LN was derived from the Peugeot 104. The car has no common features with the model sold on other markets, due to the positioning of the model in the line up of Citroën China.  It is produced in China at the Wuhan Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën Automobile site. It has a length of, width of, height of, with a wheelbase of, and is powered by one of the two engine options: a 1.4 L () and a 1.6 L (). Weight ranges from to.

C2 in Motorsport.

After the success of Citroën's Xsara in the World Rally Championship (WRC), Citroën expanded their interests to achieve success not only in the WRC but in the support championship, the Junior World Rally Championship (JWRC) in 2004. The earlier Citroën Saxo Super 1600 JWRC car was highly successful.  The car won the JWRC title with Sébastien Loeb in 2001, and brought him to the attention of Citroën Total World Rally Team, and again with Daniel Solà in 2002. With the new C2 replacing the aging Saxo, Citroën concentrated upon making their new car a winner.  Using a heavily modified C2 to create the "Citroën C2 S1600", the works team and Dani Sordo succeeded in winning the championship in 2005. The C2 S1600 has continued to compete in the championship with privateer teams, and remains successful despite newer machinery from Suzuki, Renault and Fiat works teams.  In the season of 2008, Sébastien Ogier brought the Citroën C2 its second junior title, and in 2009, the C2 was again the title winning car, with Martin Prokop taking the championship.

The Citroën C2 is a supermini that was produced by the French manufacturer Citroën, with production starting August 2003. It replaced the Citroën Saxo, and was built at the Aulnay plant, on the outskirts of Paris. A different design of the C2, based on that of the Peugeot 206, is sold in China. The Citroën C2 was discontinued in October 2009, and replaced by the Citroën DS3 in January 2010.


Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein

Early career.

Liechtenstein chose a military career at age 22 and entered the army as a lieutenant in a cuirassier regiment. During the Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791) he earned, in rapid succession, promotion to Major, Oberstleutnant, and Oberst (colonel). He earned renown as a good cavalry officer and was honored with the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa in 1790.

French Revolutionary Wars.

During the French Revolutionary Wars, he participated in an "outstandingly effective cavalry action" at Avesnes-le-Sec on 12 September 1793, where 4,663 Republican troops suffered losses of 2,000 killed and wounded with the Allies losing only 69 men. In addition, 2,000 soldiers and 20 artillery pieces were captured. He also participated in many other battles. Soon after being promoted to General-Major in June 1794, he fought at the Battle of Fleurus. He commanded a mixed cavalry-infantry brigade in Anton Sztaray's division at the Battle of Würzburg on 3 September 1796. After this action he was awarded the Commander's Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa.  In the War of the Second Coalition, Liechtenstein commanded the Austrian Reserve at the Battle of Trebbia. In August 1799 he received promotion to Feldmarschal-Leutnant. He commanded 8,000 men in the successful siege of Cuneo in November and December. On 3 December 1800, he led a 5,109-man cavalry division in the Battle of Hohenlinden.

Napoleonic Wars.

Liechtenstein was prominent in the Napoleonic Wars. At the Battle of Austerlitz, he led the 4,600 cavalry of the 5th Column. His troops fought well but he was unable to save the Austrian-Russian army from a disastrous defeat. Afterward, he carried on the negotiations with Emperor Napoleon I which concluded with the Peace of Pressburg. He earned the rank of General of Cavalry in 1808.  Throughout the War of the Fifth Coalition Liechtenstein commanded the I Reserve Korps in the army of Archduke Charles. He led his cavalry and grenadiers at the Battle of Eckmühl on 22 April 1809, the Battle of Aspern-Essling on 21–22 May, and the Battle of Wagram on 5–6 July. He took command of the main army after Archduke Charles resigned and held this responsibility until the end of the year. Emperor Francis II promoted him Feldmarschall in September. He negotiated and signed the Peace of Schönbrunn. Both of these treaties were very favourable to Napoleon and hard on Austria. Afterward, Liechtenstein was accused of having little diplomatic skill. To escape criticism he resigned from the military in 1810.

Sovereign.

As Prince of Liechtenstein, Johann made forward-thinking reforms, but also had an absolutist governing style. In 1818 he granted a constitution, although it was limited in its nature. He expanded agriculture and forestry and radically reorganized his administration, in an attempt to take the requirements of what was then a modern estate into account.  He proved a trendsetter in the area of garden art by planting Biedermeier gardens and park landscapes in an English model.  In 1806 Napoleon incorporated Liechtenstein in the Confederation of the Rhine and made it a sovereign state. At the Vienna Congress the sovereignty of Liechtenstein was approved. Liechtenstein became a member of the German Confederation in 1815. This membership confirmed Liechtenstein’s sovereignty.  He was the 869th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria in 1806.

Marriage and issue.

On 12 April 1792 in Vienna, he married Landgravine Josepha of Fürstenberg-Weitra (Vienna, 21 June 1776 – Vienna, 23 February 1848), Dame of the Imperial Court and Dame of the Order of the Starry Cross. They had 14 children:

Johann I Joseph ("Johann Baptist Josef Adam Johann Nepomuk Aloys Franz de Paula"; 26 June 1760 – 20 April 1836) was Prince of Liechtenstein between 1805 and 1806 and again from 1814 until 1836. He was the last Liechtenstein prince to rule under the Holy Roman Empire between 1805 and 1806 and as regent of Liechtenstein from 1806 until 1814. He was the fourth son of Franz Joseph I, Prince of Liechtenstein.


Judo career.

Geesink took up judo aged 14 and by 17 started competing internationally, winning a silver medal in 1951. The following year, he won his first European title. Through to 1967, twenty more European titles followed.  At the 1956 World Championships, Geesink was eliminated in the semi-finals against Yoshihiko Yoshimatsu. At the 1961 World Championships, Geesink, then 5th dan, became World Champion in the open class, defeating the Japanese champion Koji Sone. Japanese judokas had won all the World Championship titles contested up to that point.  Judo debuted as an official sport at the 1964 Summer Olympics, which were held in the sport's home country, Japan. Although Japan dominated three of the four weight divisions (light, middle and heavy), Anton Geesink won the final of the open weight division, defeating Akio Kaminaga in front of his home crowd.  After winning the 1965 World Championships and a last European title in 1967, Geesink quit competitive judo.  Anton Geesink was one of the few 10th Dan grade judoka (jūdan) recognized by the IJF but not by Kodokan at that rank. Promotions from 6th to 10th Dan are awarded for services to the sport of judo. In 2010 there are three living 10th dan grade judoka (jūdan) recognized by Kodokan: Toshiro Daigo, Ichiro Abe and Yoshimi Osawa. The Kodokan has not awarded the 10th Dan to anybody outside Japan.

Professional wrestling career.

In October 1973, "All Japan Pro Wrestling" owner Giant Baba recruited Anton Geesink to join AJPW. Baba sent him to Amarillo, TX and Dory Funk Jr. and Terry Funk trained him for a month. He worked for "All Japan" from 1973 to 1978, as a popular part-timer.  Geesink's notable professional wrestling opponents included Bruno Sammartino, Gorilla Monsoon, Dick Murdoch, Dory Funk Jr., Bobby Duncum, Bob Remus (Sgt. Slaughter), Don Leo Jonathan, and Jumbo Tsuruta.

Films and publications.

Geesink made his acting debut in 1962, playing a detective in the Dutch film "Rififi in Amsterdam". In 1965 he starred as Samson in the Italian historical film "", and in the 1970s-1980s took part in two Dutch TV series. In the 1960s he published several books on judo in Dutch and English.

International Olympic Committee work.

In 1987, Geesink became a member of the board of the Dutch National Olympic Committee, and a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).  Geesink was among the IOC members suspected of accepting bribes during the scandal surrounding the election of Salt Lake City as the host of the 2002 Winter Olympics. Geesink's name was cleared by the IOC which nevertheless issued him a warning for the appearance of a conflict of interest which could have damaged the reputation of the IOC. Geesink continued working for IOC until his death in 2010.

Personal life and death.

Geesink was born and raised in Utrecht. His family was poor and he started work as a builder aged 12. He died in 2010 aged 76 in the town of his birth. He was survived by Jans Geesink, his wife of more than 50 years; his daughters Willy and Leni; and son Anton jr..

Honours.

Geesink was chosen as the Dutch Sportsman of the Year in 1957, 1961, 1964 and 1965. He was awarded the Order of the Sacred Treasure by the Japanese government in 1997.  His home town of Utrecht has a street named after him — which is the street he lived on for some time up until his death in August 2010. On 29 January 2000, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Kokushikan University, a Japanese university known for its sport education and of which four alumni are Olympic gold medalists in judo, with the following praise: ヘーシンク氏は、一九六四年東京オリンピックにおいて、柔道無差別級で外国人選手として初めて金メダルを獲得し、その後、武道精神をもって国際平和に貢献するとともにオランダ・日本両国民の文化交流・友好関係の促進に努め、また柔道を教育学や生体学的角度から研究し、その普及発展のために尽力された。 武道の精神を重視する本大学は、柔道の国際的普及における同氏の功績を讃え、国士舘大学名誉博士の学位を贈呈した。  At the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, Mr. Geesink won the gold medal in the open class as the first non-Japanese. Since then, with the spirit of budō, he has contributed to the international peace and promoted the cultural exchange and friendship between the people of the Netherlands and of Japan. Furthermore, he explored judo in light of education and somatology and has been devoted to its diffusion and development. To honor his contribution to the worldwide diffusion of judo, this university, as a body which prizes the spirit of budō, awarded him an honorary doctorate of Kokushikan University.

Antonius Johannes Geesink (6 April 1934 – 27 August 2010) was a Dutch 10th dan judoka. He was the first non-Japanese judoka to win gold at the World Judo Championship, a feat he accomplished in 1961 and 1965. He was also an Olympic Champion, having won gold at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Japan, and won a record 21 European Judo Championships during his career.


Life.

Vieira da Silva was born in Lisbon, Portugal. At an early age, she traveled around the world because her affluent father was a diplomat. During this time, she came in contact with various avant-garde groups, such as the Italian Futurists and the Ballets Russes. At the age of eleven she had begun seriously studying drawing and painting at the "Academia de Belas-Artes" in Lisborn. In her teen years she studied painting with Fernand Léger, sculpture with Antoine Bourdelle, and engraving with Stanley William Hayter. Vieira da Silva also worked with Fauve artist Othon Friesz.  In 1928 Vieira da Silva left Lisbon to study sculpture in Paris, but decided in 1929 to focus on painting. By 1930 she was exhibiting paintings in Paris; that same year she married the Hungarian painter Árpád Szenes. At the onset of World War II in 1939, Vieira da Silva moved to Portugal from France. The following year, she left for Rio de Janeiro, Brazil where she gained prominence as an artist for her dense and complex compositions. After the War, Vieira da Silva lived and worked in Paris the rest of her life. She adopted French citizenship in 1956. Vieira da Silva received the French government's Grand Prix National des Arts in 1966, the first woman so honored. She was named a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1979. She died in Paris on 6 March 1992.  Her name sometimes appears written as "Elena", but the correct version, in Portuguese, is "Helena".

Work.

Despite being a French citizen, Vieira da Silva is considered to be Portugal's greatest contemporary artist by many. In 1988 in honor of her 80th birthday, the Gulbenkian Museum in Lisbon and the Grand Palais in Paris had major retrospectives of her work.  Vieira da Silva’s work is included in the permanent collections of the Museum of Modern Art in Paris, the Stedelijk in Amsterdam, the National Museum of Women in the Arts, the Museum of Modern Art, New York, the Tate Gallery, the National Gallery of Canada, the Guggenheim Museum and the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.  Vieira da Silva’s initial work featured a decorative style of abstract patterning. She enjoyed toying with the idea of space and creating a false perception of space by having her painting set on a neutral background with flecks color giving a sense of depth. In the 1930s Vieira da Silva began producing her characteristic works which were heavily impastoed, and overlaid with a complex arrangement of small rectangles. In 1943, Vieira da Silva exhibited in Peggy Guggenheim's show "Exhibition by 31 Women" at the Art of This Century gallery in New York. As she evolved as an artist, she focused more on spatial manipulations using a wide range of techniques. She employed detailed patterns to create fabricated architectural forms and worked with complex lines, luminous spots and patterned surfaces. By the late 1950s she was internationally known for her dense and complex compositions, influenced by the art of Paul Cézanne and the fragmented forms, spatial ambiguities, and restricted palette of cubism and abstract art. She is considered to be one of the most important Post-War abstract artists although she is not a “pure” abstract painter. Her work is related to French Tachisme, American Abstract expressionism, and Surrealism, as were many of her contemporaries who were painting in Post-War Paris during the mid to late 1940s and early 1950s. Her paintings often resemble mazes, cities seen in profile or from high above or even library shelves in what seems to be an allegory to a never-ending search for Knowledge or the Absolute. Vieira da Silva has also created many prints, designs, for tapestries, ceramic decorations, and stained glass windows. She exhibited her work widely, winning a prize for painting at the São Paulo Art Biennial in São Paulo in 1961.  In 1966-76 she made a stained-glass window for the Saint Jacques church in Reims together with Josef Sima. In 1974 she made the painting "A Library Burning" which uses many of the elements from that window. She decorated in 1988 the new "Cidade Universitária" subway station of Lisbon with "azulejo" panels.  In November 1994, the Árpád Szenes-Vieira da Silva Foundation was inaugurated in Lisbon, a museum that displays a large collection of paintings by both artists.

Maria Helena Vieira da Silva (13 June 1908 – 6 March 1992) was a Portuguese abstract painter. She was considered a leading member of the European abstract expressionism movement known as Art Informel. Her works feature complex interiors and city views using lines that explore space and perspective. She also worked in tapestry and stained glass.