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= Delaware Route 12 =
Delaware Route 12 ( DE 12 ) is a state highway in Kent County , Delaware . It runs from Maryland Route 314 ( MD 314 ) at the Maryland border near Whiteleysburg , Maryland east to an interchange with DE 1 near Frederica . The route follows a mostly rural alignment , passing through the towns of Felton and Frederica . DE 12 intersects U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Felton and DE 15 east of Felton . What would become DE 12 was built as a state highway during the 1920s . DE 12 was designated between Felton and Frederica by 1936 and extended west to Maryland by 1938 . The eastern terminus was moved to its current location in 1965 when US 113 ( now DE 1 ) was routed to bypass Frederica . The DE 1 intersection became an interchange in 2011 .
= = Route description = =
DE 12 begins at the Maryland border , continuing west into that state as MD 314 at the state line . From the state line , the route heads southeast on two @-@ lane undivided Whiteleysburg Road briefly before turning northeast onto Whites Lane . A short distance later , DE 12 intersects Two State Road and becomes Burnite Mill Road . The road runs through farmland with some woods and homes , curving east and entering Felton . At this point , DE 12 becomes Main Street and heads into residential areas , crossing Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line . The road comes to an intersection with US 13 on the eastern edge of Felton .
Upon leaving Felton , the route becomes Midstate Road and continues through agricultural areas with some woods and homes . DE 12 crosses DE 15 and comes to an intersection with Andrews Lake Road , where the name changes to Johnnycake Landing Road . The road passes through more rural areas before entering Frederica , where it becomes Front Street and is lined with homes . In the eastern part of town , the route splits into the one @-@ way pair of David Street eastbound and Front Street westbound . DE 12 turns north onto two @-@ way Frederica Road and leaves Frederica , passing through marshland and crossing a branch of the Murderkill River . DE 12 continues to its eastern terminus at an interchange with DE 1 .
DE 12 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 5 @,@ 207 vehicles where it intersects Frederica Road from the west to a low of 2 @,@ 204 vehicles at the eastern terminus at DE 1 . None of DE 12 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 12 existed as an unimproved county road by 1920 . By 1924 , the route was completed as a state highway between Hollandsville and Frederica and was proposed as a state highway between the Maryland border in Whiteleysburg and Hollandsville and within Frederica . The entire road between Whiteleysburg and Frederica was built as a state highway a year later . DE 12 was designated to run from US 13 in Felton to US 113 ( Frederica Road ) in Frederica by 1936 . By 1938 , DE 12 was extended west to the Maryland border in Whiteleysburg .
In 1965 , US 113 was moved to a bypass to the east of Frederica , and DE 12 was extended north on the former alignment of US 113 to end at that route a short distance north of Frederica . In November 2009 , construction began for a grade @-@ separated interchange at DE 1 ( which had replaced US 113 ) ; the interchange was completed in June 2011 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Kent County .
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= Cyclone Keila =
Cyclonic Storm Keila ( IMD designation : ARB 02 , JTWC designation : 03A ) was the first named storm of the 2011 North Indian Ocean cyclone season . A weak system for much of its duration , Keila developed in the western Arabian Sea in late October 2011 , amid an area of marginally favorable conditions . On November 2 , it briefly organized enough to be classified as a cyclonic storm , which has maximum sustained winds of at least 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Given the name Keila by the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) , the storm quickly moved ashore southern Oman near Salalah , and weakened while meandering over the country . The remnants soon after moved offshore , dissipating on November 4 .
The storm brought heavy rainfall to Oman , reaching just over 700 mm ( 28 in ) in the mountains near Salalah . Moisture from the storm spread across most of the country , causing flash flooding near the capital Muscat . Floods from the storm killed 14 people , injured over 200 , washed away hundreds of cars , and damaged many buildings . Two hospitals were damaged , forcing 60 patients to be evacuated elsewhere by helicopter . Overall damage was estimated at US $ 80 million ( 2011 USD ) . Offshore , Keila capsized a boat originating from India , killing five of the crew and leaving another nine missing ; six sailors were rescued by the Omani Coast Guard .
= = Meteorological history = =
The Intertropical Convergence Zone produced an area of convection in the southeastern Arabian Sea toward the end of October 2011 . The overall system moved west @-@ northwestward , developing a distinct low pressure area on October 27 . By that time , the thunderstorm activity was still disorganized and associated with a weak circulation . Environmental conditions were unfavorable initially , consisting of strong wind shear and dry air . An anticyclone over the system caused the shear to decrease by October 28 , amid warm water temperatures of 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) , both more favorable conditions . By that time the circulation became well @-@ defined , although still elongated , and the convection was still scattered . On October 29 , the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) designated the system as Depression ARB 02 about 885 km ( 550 mi ) east of the Yemeni island of Socotra .
Convection continued to organize and deepen as the nascent depression continued west @-@ northwestward , steered by a ridge to the north . However , dry air from the Arabian Peninsula and cooler waters proved deleterious to the system , and the circulation became more disorganized on October 30 . Despite the marginally favorable conditions , the overall structure improved on November 1 , with pronounced outflow developing along the western periphery . A nearby buoy reported a barometric pressure of 998 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) , which confirmed the increasing organization . At 03 : 00 UTC on November 1 , the IMD upgraded the depression to a deep depression , and 24 hours later to Cyclonic Storm Keila . By that time , the agency estimated peak 3 minute sustained winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) while the storm was just 150 km ( 95 mi ) southeast of Oman . The American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also designated the system as Tropical Cyclone 03A at 03 : 00 UTC on November 2 .
With cool waters and an unfavorable phase of the Madden – Julian oscillation , Keila failed to intensify significantly as it approached the southeastern Arabian Peninsula . An irregular central dense overcast developed over the circulation , consisting of shallow convection . A passing trough weakened the ridge to the north , steering Keila toward the north . After weakening to a deep depression again , Keila made landfall near Salalah , Oman around 18 : 00 UTC on November 2 . Around that time , the JTWC discontinued advisories , once the storm was weakening rapidly over land . With a ridge to the north and east , Keila followed the track of the anticyclone aloft , which brought it back offshore Oman on November 3 . Such looping near the coast was considered rare by the IMD . According to the agency , the system continued eastward and dissipated on November 4 . However , the JTWC tracked the system further in a post @-@ season analysis , estimating that Keila intensified once offshore and attained peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) on November 3 . The agency assessed that the storm turned to the southwest and weakened , only to turn back to the northwest and dissipate over extreme eastern Yemen on November 5 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
There was confusion in the country over Keila 's intensity ; the IMD classified it as a cyclonic storm , while officials in Oman designated it as a deep depression , based on available observations . Officials warned residents of the potential for heavy rainfall . The Pakistani government also warned fishermen not to venture to the open seas , due to the uncertain effects of the storm .
While Keila was offshore and still in its developmental stages , it brought winds of 41 km / h ( 25 mph ) to Salalah International Airport , and at the time of landfall , the station reported slightly stronger winds of 43 km / h ( 26 mph ) . However , the storm 's most severe effects were related to the heavy rainfall it produced over Oman , which peaked at just over 700 mm ( 28 in ) in the mountains near Salalah . In southern Oman , Keila dropped 50 to 100 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall at Salalah , the equivalent of a year 's worth of precipitation . Moisture from the storm coalesced over the Al Hajar Mountains in northern Oman , producing severe thunderstorms that led to flash flooding . Across southern Oman where the storm crossed , there were no deaths ; all of the deaths occurred due to the flash floods in northern Oman , where 14 people lost their lives . Three people were killed due to electrocutions , another two were crushed to death by large objects , and nine drowned . Overall damage was estimated at US $ 80 million , and over 200 people were injured nationwide .
The rains caused wadis – typically dry riverbeds – to accumulate with floodwaters , washing away hundreds of cars and disrupting traffic . Police officers helped rescue victims who were stranded in flooded wadis . Some drivers rode out the floods on the roofs of their cars . The deluge also damaged crops and farm buildings elsewhere in the country . Damage was heaviest near the capital city Muscat , where houses and businesses were damaged by the floods , and there were many traffic accidents . A school bus was swept away in Wadi Kabir , although the students were soon after rescued by local authorities . Several buildings collapsed in Sur due to the rains . In the valley near Al @-@ Rustaq , floodwaters swept away cars , dead animals , and property , with water levels reaching 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) high in some places . The floods damaged two hospitals in northern Oman ; police helicopters transferred 60 patients after the facilities were closed for maintenance , and other patients were moved to other local hospitals . Just days after Keila dissipated , another deep depression threatened Oman and brought additional rainfall .
Sailing from the Indian state of Gujarat to Dubai , a ship with the call sign MSV Shiv Sagar MNV 2169 encountered Keila offshore southern Oman . The storm 's high winds caused the boat to capsize , killing five of the sailors , and leaving nine others missing . Six of the crew were rescued by the Omani Coast Guard .
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= Plateosaurus =
Plateosaurus ( probably meaning " broad lizard " , often mistranslated as " flat lizard " ) is a genus of plateosaurid dinosaur that lived during the Late Triassic period , around 214 to 204 million years ago , in what is now Central and Northern Europe . Plateosaurus is a basal ( early ) sauropodomorph dinosaur , a so @-@ called " prosauropod " . As of 2011 , two species are recognized : the type species P. engelhardti from the late Norian and Rhaetian , and the slightly earlier P. gracilis from the lower Norian . However , others have been assigned in the past , and there is no broad consensus on the species taxonomy of plateosaurid dinosaurs . Similarly , there are a plethora of synonyms ( invalid duplicate names ) at the genus level .
Discovered in 1834 by Johann Friedrich Engelhardt and described three years later by Hermann von Meyer , Plateosaurus was the fifth named dinosaur genus that is still considered valid . Although it had been described before Richard Owen formally named Dinosauria in 1842 , it was not one of the three genera used by Owen to define the group , because at the time , it was poorly known and difficult to identify as a dinosaur . It is now among the dinosaurs best known to science : over 100 skeletons have been found , some of them nearly complete . The abundance of its fossils in Swabia , Germany , has led to the nickname Schwäbischer Lindwurm ( Swabian lindworm ) .
Plateosaurus was a bipedal herbivore with a small skull on a long , flexible neck , sharp but plump plant @-@ crushing teeth , powerful hind limbs , short but muscular arms and grasping hands with large claws on three fingers , possibly used for defence and feeding . Unusually for a dinosaur , Plateosaurus showed strong developmental plasticity : instead of having a fairly uniform adult size , fully grown individuals were between 4 @.@ 8 and 10 metres ( 16 and 33 ft ) long and weighed between 600 and 4 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 300 and 8 @,@ 800 lb ) . Commonly , the animals lived for at least 12 to 20 years , but the maximum life span is not known .
Despite the great quantity and excellent quality of the fossil material , Plateosaurus was for a long time one of the most misunderstood dinosaurs . Some researchers proposed theories that were later shown to conflict with geological and palaeontological evidence , but have become the paradigm of public opinion . Since 1980 the taxonomy ( relationships ) , taphonomy ( how the animals became embedded and fossilized ) , biomechanics ( how their skeletons worked ) , and palaeobiology ( life circumstances ) of Plateosaurus have been re @-@ studied in detail , altering the interpretation of the animal 's biology , posture and behaviour .
= = Description = =
Plateosaurus had the typical body shape of a herbivorous bipedal dinosaur : a small skull , a long and flexible neck composed of 10 cervical vertebrae , a stocky body , and a long , mobile tail composed of at least 40 caudal vertebrae . The arms of Plateosaurus were very short , even compared to most other " prosauropods " . However , they were strongly built , with hands adapted for powerful grasping . The shoulder girdle was narrow ( often misaligned in skeletal mounts and drawings ) , with the clavicles ( collar bones ) touching at the body 's midline , as in other basal sauropodomorphs . The hind limbs were held under the body , with slightly flexed knees and ankles , and the foot was digitigrade , meaning the animal walked on its toes . The proportionally long lower leg and metatarsus show that Plateosaurus could run quickly on its hind limbs . The tail of Plateosaurus was typically dinosaurian , muscular and with high mobility .
The skull of Plateosaurus is small and narrow , rectangular in side view , and nearly three times as long as it is high . There is an almost rectangular lateral temporal foramen at the back . The large , round orbit ( eye socket ) , the sub @-@ triangular antorbital fenestra and the oval naris ( nostril ) are of almost equal size . The jaws carried many small , leaf @-@ shaped , socketed teeth : 5 to 6 per premaxilla , 24 to 30 per maxilla , and 21 to 28 per dentary ( lower jaw ) . The thick , leaf @-@ shaped , bluntly serrated tooth crowns were suitable for crushing plant material . The low position of the jaw joint gave the chewing muscles great leverage , so that Plateosaurus could deliver a powerful bite . These features suggest that it fed primarily to exclusively on plants . Its eyes were directed to the sides , rather than the front , providing all @-@ round vision to watch for predators . Some fossil skeletons have preserved sclerotic rings ( rings of bone plates that protect the eye ) .
The ribs were connected to the dorsal ( trunk ) vertebrae with two joints , acting together as a simple hinge joint , which has allowed researchers to reconstruct the inhaled and exhaled positions of the ribcage . The difference in volume between these two positions defines the air exchange volume ( the amount of air moved with each breath ) , determined to be approximately 20 l for a P. engelhardti individual estimated to have weighed 690 kg , or 29 ml / kg bodyweight . This is a typical value for birds , but not for mammals , and indicates that Plateosaurus probably had an avian @-@ style flow @-@ through lung , although indicators for postcranial pneumaticity ( air sacs of the lung invading the bones to reduce weight ) can be found on the bones of only a few individuals , and were only recognized in 2010 . Combined with evidence from bone histology this indicates that Plateosaurus was endothermic .
The type species of Plateosaurus is P. engelhardti . Adults of this species reached 4 @.@ 8 to 10 metres ( 16 to 33 ft ) in length , and ranged in mass from 600 to 4 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 300 to 8 @,@ 800 lb ) . The geologically older species , P. gracilis ( formerly named Sellosaurus gracilis ) , was somewhat smaller , with a total length of 4 to 5 metres ( 13 to 16 ft ) .
= = Discovery and history = =
In 1834 , physician Johann Friedrich Engelhardt discovered some vertebrae and leg bones at Heroldsberg near Nuremberg , Germany . Three years later German palaeontologist Hermann von Meyer designated them as the type specimen of a new genus , Plateosaurus . Since then , remains of well over 100 individuals of Plateosaurus have been discovered at various locations throughout Europe .
Material assigned to Plateosaurus has been found at over 50 localities in Germany ( mainly along the Neckar and Pegnitz river valleys ) , Switzerland ( Frick ) and France . Three localities are of special importance , because they yielded specimens in large numbers and of unusually good quality : near Halberstadt in Saxony @-@ Anhalt , Germany ; Trossingen in Baden @-@ Württemberg , Germany ; and Frick . Between the 1910s and 1930s , excavations in a clay pit in Saxony @-@ Anhalt revealed between 39 and 50 skeletons that belonged to Plateosaurus , along with teeth and a small number of bones of the theropod Liliensternus , and two skeletons and some fragments of the turtle Proganochelys . Some of the plateosaur material was assigned to P. longiceps , a species described by palaeontologist Otto Jaekel in 1914 but now considered a junior synonym of P. engelhardti . Most of the material found its way to the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin , where much of it was destroyed during World War II . The Halberstadt quarry today is covered by a housing development .
The second major German locality with P. engelhardti finds , a quarry in Trossingen in the Black Forest , was worked repeatedly in the 20th century . Between 1911 and 1932 , excavations during six field seasons led by German palaeontologists Eberhard Fraas ( 1911 – 1912 ) , Friedrich von Huene ( 1921 – 23 ) , and finally Reinhold Seemann ( 1932 ) revealed a total of 35 complete or partially complete skeletons of Plateosaurus , as well as fragmentary remains of approximately 70 more individuals . The large number of specimens from Swabia had already caused German palaeontologist Friedrich August von Quenstedt to nickname the animal Schwäbischer Lindwurm ( Swabian lindworm or Swabian dragon ) . Much of the Trossingen material was destroyed in 1944 , when the Naturaliensammlung in Stuttgart ( predecessor to the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart ( SMNS ) ) burnt to the ground after an Allied bombing raid . Luckily , however , a 2011 study by SMNS curator Rainer Schoch found that , at least from the finds of Seemann 's 1932 excavation , " the scientifically most valuable material is still available " .
The Plateosaurus skeletons in a clay pit of the Tonwerke Keller AG in Frick , Switzerland , were first noticed in 1976 . While the bones are often significantly deformed by taphonomic processes , Frick yields skeletons of P. engelhardti comparable in completeness and position to those of Trossingen and Halberstadt .
In 1997 , workers of an oil platform of the Snorre oil field , located at the northern end of the North Sea , were drilling through sandstone for oil exploration when they stumbled on a fossil they believed to be plant material . The drill core containing the fossil was extracted from 2 @,@ 256 metres ( 7 @,@ 402 ft ) below the seafloor . Martin Sander and Nicole Klein , palaeontologists of the University of Bonn , analysed the bone microstructure and concluded that the rock preserved fibrous bone tissue from a fragment of a limb bone belonging to Plateosaurus , making it the first dinosaur found in Norway . Plateosaurus material has also been found in the Fleming Fjord Formation of East Greenland .
Plateosaurus gracilis , the older species , is found in the Löwenstein Formation ( Lower Norian ) . P. engelhardti stems from the upper Löwenstein Formation ( Upper Norian ) , the Trossingen Formation ( Upper Norian ) , and equivalently aged rock units . Plateosaurus thus lived probably from approximately 214 to 204 million years ago .
= = Classification and type material = =
Plateosaurus is a member of a group of early herbivores known as " prosauropods " . The group name is obsolete , as " Prosauropoda " is not a monophyletic group ( thus given in quotation marks ) , and most researchers prefer the term basal sauropodomorph . Plateosaurus was the first " prosauropod " to be described , and gives its name to the family Plateosauridae Marsh , 1895 as type genus . Initially , when the genus was poorly known , it was only included in Sauria , being some kind of reptile , but not in any more narrowly defined taxon . In 1845 , von Meyer created the group Pachypodes ( a defunct junior synonym of Dinosauria ) to include Plateosaurus , Iguanodon , Megalosaurus and Hylaeosaurus . Plateosauridae was proposed by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1895 within Theropoda . Later it was moved to " Prosauropoda " by von Huene , a placement that was accepted by most authors . Before the advent of cladistics in paleontology during the 1980s , with its emphasis on monophyletic groups ( clades ) , Plateosauridae was defined loosely , as large , broad @-@ footed , broad @-@ handed forms with relatively heavy skulls , unlike the smaller " anchisaurids " and sauropod @-@ like " melanorosaurids " . Reevaluation of " prosauropods " in light of the new methods of analysis led to the reduction of Plateosauridae . For many years the clade only included Plateosaurus and various junior synonyms , but later two more genera were considered to belong to it : Sellosaurus and possibly Unaysaurus . Of these , Sellosaurus is probably another junior synonym of Plateosaurus .
The type series of Plateosaurus engelhardti included " roughly 45 bone fragments " , of which nearly half are lost . The remaining material is kept in the Institute for Palaeontology of the University of Erlangen @-@ Nuremberg , Germany . From these bones , German palaeontologist Markus Moser in 2003 selected a partial sacrum ( series of fused hip vertebrae ) as a lectotype . The type locality is not known for certain , but Moser attempted to infer it from previous publications and the colour and preservation of the bones . He concluded that the material probably stems from the " Buchenbühl " , roughly 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) south of Heroldsberg .
The type specimen of Plateosaurus gracilis , an incomplete postcranium , is kept at the Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart , Germany , and the type locality is Heslach , a suburb of the same city .
= = = Etymology = = =
The etymology of the name Plateosaurus is not entirely clear . Moser pointed out that the original description contains no information , and various authors have offered differing interpretations . German geologist Hanns Bruno Geinitz in 1846 gave " ( πλατυς , breit ) " [ English : broad ] In the same year , Agassiz offered Ancient Greek πλατη ( platê - " paddle " , " rudder " ; Agassiz translates this as Latin pala
= " spade " ) and σαυρος ( sauros - " lizard " ) . Agassiz consequently renamed the genus Platysaurus , probably from Greek πλατυς ( platys - " broad , flat , broad @-@ shouldered " ) , creating an invalid junior synonym . Later authors often referred to this derivation , and the secondary meaning " flat " of πλατυς , so that Plateosaurus is often translated as " flat lizard " . Often , claims were made that πλατυς is supposed to have been intended as a reference to flat bones , for example the laterally flattened teeth of Plateosaurus , but the teeth and other flat bones such as the pubic bones and some skull elements were unknown at the time of description .
In 1855 , von Meyer published a detailed description of Plateosaurus with illustrations , but again gave no details on the etymology . He repeatedly referred to its gigantic size ( " Riesensaurus " =
giant lizard ) and massive limbs ( " schwerfüssig " ) , comparing Plateosaurus to large modern land mammals , but did not describe any important features that fit the terms " flat " or " shaped like an oar . "
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Valid species = = =
The taxonomic history of Plateosaurus is " long and confusing " , a " chaotic tangle of names " . As of 2011 , only two species are universally accepted as valid : the type species P. engelhardti and P. gracilis , previously assigned to its own genus Sellosaurus . British palaeontologist Peter Galton showed clearly that all cranial material from Trossingen , Halberstadt and Frick pertains to one species . Moser performed the most extensive and detailed investigation of all plateosaurid material from Germany and Switzerland , concluding that all Plateosaurus and most other prosauropod material from the Keuper stems from the same species as the type material of Plateosaurus engelhardti . Moser considered Sellosaurus to be the same genus as Plateosaurus , but did not discuss whether S. gracilis and P. engelhardti belong to the same species . Palaeontologist Adam Yates of the University of the Witwatersrand cast further doubt on the generic separation . He included the type material of Sellosaurus gracilis in Plateosaurus as P. gracilis and reintroduced the old name Efraasia for some material that had been assigned to Sellosaurus . In 1926 , von Huene had already concluded the two genera were the same .
Yates has cautioned that P. gracilis may be a metataxon , which means that there is neither evidence that the material assigned to it is monophyletic ( belongs to one species ) , nor that it is paraphyletic ( belongs to several species ) . This is the case because the holotype of P. ( Sellosaurus ) gracilis has no skull , and the other specimens consist of skulls and material that overlaps too little with the holotype to make it certain that it belongs to the same taxon . It is therefore possible that the known material contains more species belonging to Plateosaurus .
Some scientists regard other species as valid as well , for example P. erlenbergensis . Such works , however , ignore Moser ( 2003 ) , the publication that shows the type series of P. engelhardti to be diagnostic , and other material to be referable to it .
= = = Invalid species = = =
All named species of Plateosaurus except the type species and P. gracilis have turned out to be junior synonyms of the type species or invalid names . Von Huene practically erected a new species and sometimes a new genus for each relatively complete find from Trossingen ( three species of Pachysaurus and seven of Plateosaurus ) and Halberstadt ( one species of Gresslyosaurus and eight of Plateosaurus ) . Later , he merged several of these species , but remained convinced that more than one genus and more than one species of Plateosaurus was present in both localities . Jaekel also believed that the Halberstadt material included several plateosaurid dinosaurs , as well as non @-@ plateosaurid prosauropods . Systematic research by Galton drastically reduced the number of genera and species . Galton synonymised all cranial material , and described differences between the syntypes of P. engelhardti and the Trossingen material , which he referred to P. longiceps . Galton recognized P. trossingensis , P. fraasianus and P. integer to be identical to P. longiceps . Markus Moser , however , showed that P. longiceps is itself a junior synonym of P. engelhardti . Furthermore , a variety of species in other genera were created for material belonging to P. engelhardti , including Dimodosaurus poligniensis , Gresslyosaurus robustus , Gresslyosaurus torgeri , Pachysaurus ajax , Pachysaurus giganteus , Pachysaurus magnus and Pachysaurus wetzelianus . The skull of AMNH FARB 6810 , the best @-@ preserved skull of Plateosaurus that has been taken apart during preparation and is thus available as separate bones , was described anew in 2011 . The authors of that publication , palaeontologists Albert Prieto @-@ Márquez and Mark A. Norell , refer the skull to P. erlenbergensis , a species erected in 1905 by Friedrich von Huene . If the P. erlenbergensis holotype is diagnostic ( i.e. , has enough characters to be distinct from other material ) , it is the correct name for the material assigned to P. longiceps Jaekel , 1913 . However , according to the last detailed study of the holotype material of P. engelhardti by Markus Moser , P. erlenbergensis is a junior synonym of P. engelhardti .
Aside from fossils clearly belonging to Plateosaurus , there is much prosauropod material from the German Knollenmergel in museum collections , most of it labeled as Plateosaurus , that does not belong to the type species and possibly not to Plateosaurus at all . Some of this material is not diagnostic ; other material has been recognized to be different , but was never sufficiently described .
= = Taphonomy = =
The taphonomy ( burial and fossilization process ) of the three main Plateosaurus sites — Trossingen , Halberstadt and Frick — is unusual in several ways . All three sites are nearly monospecific assemblages , meaning that they contain practically only one species , which requires very special circumstances . However , shed teeth of theropods have been found at all three sites , as well as remains of the early turtle Proganochelys . Additionally , a partial " prosauropod " skeleton was found in Halberstadt that does not belong to Plateosaurus , but is preserved in a similar position . All sites yielded almost complete and partial skeletons of Plateosaurus , as well as isolated bones . The partial skeletons tend to include the hind limbs and hips , while parts of the anterior body and neck are rarely found in isolation . The animals were all adults or subadults ( nearly adult individuals ) ; no juveniles or hatchlings are known . Complete skeletons and large skeleton parts that include the hind limbs all rest dorsal ( top ) side up , as do the turtles . Also , they are mostly well @-@ articulated , and the hind limbs are three @-@ dimensionally preserved in a zigzag posture , with the feet often much deeper in the sediment than the hips .
= = = Earlier interpretations = = =
In the first published discussion of the Trossingen Plateosaurus finds , Fraas suggested that only miring in mud allowed the preservation of the single complete skeleton then known . Similarly , Jaekel interpreted the Halberstadt finds as animals that waded too deep into swamps , became mired and drowned . He interpreted partial remains as having been transported into the deposit by water , and strongly refuted a catastrophic accumulation . In contrast , von Huene interpreted the sediment as aeolian deposits , with the weakest animals , mostly subadults , succumbing to the harsh conditions in the desert and sinking into the mud of ephemeral water holes . He argued that the completeness of many finds indicated that transport did not happen , and saw partial individuals and isolated bones as results of weathering and trampling . Seemann developed a different scenario , in which Plateosaurus herds congregated on large water holes , and some herd members got pushed in . Light animals managed to get free , while heavy individuals got stuck and died .
A different school of thought developed almost half a century later , with palaeontologist David Weishampel suggesting that the skeletons from the lower layers stemmed from a herd that died catastrophically in a mudflow , while those in the upper layers accumulated over time . Weishampel explained the curious monospecific assemblage by theorizing that Plateosaurus were common during this period . This theory was erroneously attributed to Seemann in a popular account of the plateosaurs in the collection of the Institute and Museum for Geology and Palaeontology , University of Tübingen , and has since become the standard explanation on most internet sites and in popular books on dinosaurs . Rieber proposed a more elaborate scenario , which included the animals dying of thirst or starvation , and being concentrated by mudflows .
= = = Mud @-@ miring trap = = =
A detailed re @-@ assessment of the taphonomy by palaeontologist Martin Sander of the University of Bonn , Germany , found that the mud @-@ miring hypothesis first suggested by Fraas is true : animals above a certain body weight sank into the mud , which was further liquefied by their attempts to free themselves . Sander 's scenario , similar to that proposed for the famous Rancho La Brea Tar Pits , is the only one explaining all taphonomic data . The degree of completeness of the carcasses was not influenced by transport , which is obvious from the lack of indications for transport before burial , but rather by how much the dead animals were scavenged . Juveniles of Plateosaurus and other taxa of herbivores were too light to sink into the mud or managed to extract themselves , and were thus not preserved . Similarly , scavenging theropods were not trapped due to their lower body weights , combined with proportionally larger feet . There is no indication of herding , or of catastrophic burial of such a herd , or catastrophic accumulation of animals that previously died isolated elsewhere .
= = Palaeobiology = =
= = = Posture and gait = = =
Practically every imaginable posture has been suggested for Plateosaurus in the scientific literature at some point . Von Huene assumed digitigrade bipedality with erect hind limbs for the animals he excavated at Trossingen , with the backbone held at a steep angle ( at least during rapid locomotion ) . In contrast , Jaekel , the main investigator of the Halberstadt material , initially concluded that the animals walked quadrupedally , like lizards , with a sprawling limb position , plantigrade feet , and laterally undulating the body . Only a year later , Jaekel instead favoured a clumsy , kangaroo @-@ like hopping , a change of heart for which he was mocked by German zoologist Gustav Tornier , who interpreted the shape of the articulation surfaces in the hip and shoulder as typically reptilian . Fraas , the first excavator of the Trossingen lagerstätte , also favoured a reptilian posture . Müller @-@ Stoll listed a number of characters required for an erect limb posture that Plateosaurus supposedly lacked , concluding that the lizard @-@ like reconstructions were correct . However , most of these adaptations are actually present in Plateosaurus .
From 1980 on , a better understanding of dinosaur biomechanics , and studies by palaeontologists Andreas Christian and Holger Preuschoft on the resistance to bending of the back of Plateosaurus , led to widespread acceptance of an erect , digitigrade limb posture and a roughly horizontal position of the back . Many researchers were of the opinion that Plateosaurus could use both quadrupedal gaits ( for slow speeds ) and bipedal gaits ( for rapid locomotion ) , and Wellnhofer insisted that the tail curved strongly downward , making a bipedal posture impossible . However , Moser showed that the tail was in fact straight .
The bipedal @-@ quadrupedal consensus was changed by a detailed study of the forelimbs of Plateosaurus by Bonnan and Senter ( 2007 ) , which clearly showed that Plateosaurus was incapable of pronating its hands . The pronated position in some museum mounts had been achieved by exchanging the position of radius and ulna in the elbow . The lack of forelimb pronation meant that Plateosaurus was an obligate ( i.e. unable to walk in any other way ) biped . Further indicators for a purely bipedal mode of locomotion are the great difference in limb length ( the hind limb is roughly twice as long as the forelimb ) , the very limited motion range of the forelimb , and the fact that the centre of mass rests squarely over the hind limbs .
Plateosaurus shows a number of cursorial adaptations , including an erect hind limb posture , a relatively long lower leg , an elongated metatarsus and a digitigrade foot posture . However , in contrast to mammalian cursors , the moment arms of the limb extending muscles are short , especially in the ankle , where a distinct , moment arm @-@ increasing tuber on the calcaneum is missing . This means that in contrast to running mammals , Plateosaurus probably did not use gaits with aerial , unsupported phases . Instead , Plateosaurus must have increased speed by using higher stride frequencies , created by rapid and powerful limb retraction . Reliance on limb retraction instead of extension is typical for non @-@ avian dinosaurs .
= = = Feeding and diet = = =
Important cranial characteristics ( such as jaw articulation ) of most " prosauropods " are closer to those of herbivorous reptiles than those of carnivorous ones , and the shape of the tooth crown is similar to that of modern herbivorous or omnivorous iguanas . The maximum width of the crown was greater than that of the root for the teeth of most " prosauropods " , including Plateosaurus ; this results in a cutting edge similar to those of extant herbivorous or omnivorous reptiles . Paul Barrett proposed that prosauropods supplemented their herbivorous diets with small prey or carrion .
So far , no fossil of Plateosaurus has been found with gastroliths ( gizzard stones ) in the stomach area . The old , widely cited idea that all large dinosaurs , implicitly also Plateosaurus , swallowed gastroliths to digest food because of their relatively limited ability to deal with food orally has been refuted by a study on gastrolith abundance , weight , and surface structure in fossils compared to alligators and ostriches by Oliver Wings . The use of gastroliths for digestion seems to have developed on the line from basal theropods to birds , with a parallel development in Psittacosaurus .
= = = Growth , metabolism and life span = = =
Similar to all non @-@ avian dinosaurs studied to date , Plateosaurus grew in a pattern that is unlike that of both extant mammals and birds . In the closely related sauropods with their typical dinosaurian physiology , growth was initially rapid , continuing somewhat more slowly well beyond sexual maturity , but was determinate , i.e. the animals stopped growing at a maximum size . Mammals grow rapidly , but sexual maturity falls typically at the end of the rapid growth phase . In both groups , the final size is relatively constant , with humans atypically variable . Extant reptiles show a sauropod @-@ like growth pattern , initially rapid , then slowing after sexual maturity , and almost , but not fully , stopping in old age . However , their initial growth rate is much lower than in mammals , birds and dinosaurs . The reptilian growth rate is also very variable , so that individuals of the same age may have very different sizes , and final size also varies significantly . In extant animals , this growth pattern is linked to behavioural thermoregulation and a low metabolic rate ( i.e. ectothermy ) , and is called " developmental plasticity " . ( Note that is not the same as neural developmental plasticity ) .
Plateosaurus followed a trajectory similar to sauropods , but with a varied growth rate and final size as seen in extant reptiles , probably in response to environmental factors such as food availability . Some individuals were fully grown at only 4 @.@ 8 metres ( 16 ft ) total length , while others reached 10 metres ( 33 ft ) . However , the bone microstructure indicates rapid growth , as in sauropods and extant mammals , which suggests endothermy . Plateosaurus apparently represents an early stage in the development of endothermy , in which endothermy was decoupled from developmental plasticity . This hypothesis is based on a detailed study of Plateosaurus long @-@ bone histology conducted by Martin Sander and Nicole Klein of the University of Bonn . A further indication for endothermy is the avian @-@ style lung of Plateosaurus .
Long @-@ bone histology also allows estimating the age a specific individual reached . Sander and Klein found that some individuals were fully grown at 12 years of age , others were still slowly growing at 20 years , and one individual was still growing rapidly at 18 years . The oldest individual found was 27 years and still growing ; most individuals were between 12 and 20 years old . However , some may well have lived much longer , because the fossils from Frick and Trossingen are all animals that died in accidents , and not from old age . Due to the absence of individuals smaller than 4 @.@ 8 metres ( 16 ft ) long , it is not possible to deduce a complete ontogenetic series for Plateosaurus or determine the growth rate of animals less than 10 years of age .
= = = Daily activity patterns = = =
Comparisons between the scleral rings and estimated orbit size of Plateosaurus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day and night , possibly avoiding the mid @-@ day heat .
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= Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands =
The Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands , fought during 25 – 27 October 1942 , sometimes referred to as the Battle of Santa Cruz or in Japanese sources as the Battle of the South Pacific ( 南太平洋海戦 ) , was the fourth carrier battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II and the fourth major naval engagement fought between the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy during the lengthy and strategically important Guadalcanal campaign . In similar fashion to the battles of Coral Sea , Midway , and the Eastern Solomons , the ships of the two adversaries were rarely in direct visual range of each other . Instead , almost all attacks by both sides were mounted by carrier or land @-@ based aircraft .
In an attempt to drive Allied forces from Guadalcanal and nearby islands and end the stalemate that had existed since September 1942 , the Imperial Japanese Army planned a major ground offensive on Guadalcanal for 20 – 25 October 1942 . In support of this offensive , and with the hope of engaging Allied naval forces , Japanese carriers and other large warships moved into a position near the southern Solomon Islands . From this location , the Japanese naval forces hoped to engage and decisively defeat any Allied ( primarily U.S. ) naval forces , especially carrier forces , that responded to the ground offensive . Allied naval forces also hoped to meet the Japanese naval forces in battle , with the same objectives of breaking the stalemate and decisively defeating their adversary .
The Japanese ground offensive on Guadalcanal was under way in the Battle for Henderson Field while the naval warships and aircraft from the two adversaries confronted each other on the morning of 26 October 1942 , just north of the Santa Cruz Islands . After an exchange of carrier air attacks , Allied surface ships were forced to retreat from the battle area with one carrier sunk and another heavily damaged . The participating Japanese carrier forces , however , also retired because of high aircraft and aircrew losses plus significant damage to two carriers . Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk and damaged , the loss of many irreplaceable , veteran aircrews would prove to be a long term strategic advantage for the Allies , whose aircrew losses in the battle were relatively low and could be quickly replaced . The high casualties for the Japanese prevented their carrier forces from further significant involvement in the battle for Guadalcanal , contributing to the eventual Allied victory in that campaign .
= = Background = =
On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. ) landed on Japanese @-@ occupied Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of neutralising the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
After the Battle of the Eastern Solomons from 24 – 25 August , in which the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise was heavily damaged and forced to travel to Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , for a month of major repairs , three U.S. carrier task forces remained in the South Pacific area . The task forces included the carriers USS Wasp , Saratoga , and Hornet plus their respective air groups and supporting surface warships , including battleships , cruisers , and destroyers , and were primarily stationed between the Solomons and New Hebrides ( Vanuatu ) islands . At this location , the carriers were charged with guarding the line of communication between the major Allied bases at New Caledonia and Espiritu Santo , supporting the Allied ground forces at Guadalcanal and Tulagi against any Japanese counteroffensives , covering the movement of supply ships to Guadalcanal , and engaging and destroying any Japanese warships , especially carriers , that came within range .
The area of ocean in which the U.S. carrier task forces operated was known as " Torpedo Junction " by U.S. forces because of the high concentration of Japanese submarines in the area .
On 31 August , USS Saratoga was torpedoed by Japanese submarine I @-@ 26 and was out of action for three months for repairs . On 14 September , USS Wasp was hit by three torpedoes fired by Japanese submarine I @-@ 19 while supporting a major reinforcement and resupply convoy to Guadalcanal and almost engaging two Japanese carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku ( which withdrew just before the two adversaries came into range of each other 's aircraft ) . With power knocked out from torpedo damage , Wasp 's damage @-@ control teams were unable to contain the ensuing large fires , and she was abandoned and scuttled .
Although the U.S. now had only one operational carrier ( Hornet ) in the South Pacific , the Allies still maintained air superiority over the southern Solomon Islands because of their aircraft based at Henderson Field on Guadalcanal . However , at night , when aircraft were not able to operate effectively , the Japanese were able to operate their ships around Guadalcanal almost at will . Thus , a stalemate in the battle for Guadalcanal developed , with the Allies delivering supplies and reinforcements to Guadalcanal during the day , and the Japanese doing the same by warship ( called the " Tokyo Express " by the Allies ) at night , with neither side able to deliver enough troops to the island to secure a decisive advantage . By mid @-@ October , both sides had roughly an equal number of troops on the island . The stalemate was briefly interrupted by two large @-@ ship naval actions . On the night of 11 / 12 October , a U.S. naval force intercepted and defeated a Japanese naval force en route to bombard Henderson Field in the Battle of Cape Esperance . But just two nights later , a Japanese force that included the battleships Haruna and Kongō successfully bombarded Henderson Field , destroying most of the U.S. aircraft and inflicting severe damage on the field 's facilities . Although still marginally operational , it took several weeks for the airfield to recover from the damage and replace the destroyed aircraft .
At this time , the U.S. made two moves to try to break the stalemate in the battle for Guadalcanal . First , repairs to Enterprise were expedited so that she could return to the South Pacific as soon as possible . On 10 October , Enterprise received her new air groups ; on 16 October , she left Pearl Harbor ; and on 23 October , she arrived back in the South Pacific and rendezvoused with Hornet and the rest of the Allied South Pacific naval forces on 24 October , 273 nmi ( 506 km ; 314 mi ) northeast of Espiritu Santo .
Second , on 18 October , Admiral Chester Nimitz , Allied Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of Pacific Forces , replaced Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley with Vice Admiral William Halsey , Jr. as Commander , South Pacific Area : this position commanded Allied forces involved in the Solomon Islands campaign . Nimitz felt that Ghormley had become too myopic and pessimistic to lead Allied forces effectively in the struggle for Guadalcanal . Halsey was reportedly respected throughout the U.S. naval fleet as a " fighter . " Upon assuming command , Halsey immediately began making plans to draw the Japanese naval forces into a battle , writing to Nimitz , " I had to begin throwing punches almost immediately . "
The Japanese Combined Fleet was also seeking to draw Allied naval forces into what was hoped to be a decisive battle . Two fleet carriers — Hiyō and Junyō — and one light carrier — Zuihō — arrived at the main Japanese naval base at Truk Atoll from Japan in early October and joined Shōkaku and Zuikaku . With five carriers fully equipped with air groups , plus their numerous battleships , cruisers , and destroyers , the Japanese Combined Fleet , directed by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , was confident that it could make up for the defeat at the Battle of Midway . Apart from a couple of air raids on Henderson Field in October , the Japanese carriers and their supporting warships stayed in the northwestern area of the Solomon Islands , out of the battle for Guadalcanal and waiting for a chance to approach and engage the U.S. carriers . With the Japanese Army 's next planned major ground attack on Allied forces on Guadalcanal set for 20 October , Yamamoto 's warships began to move towards the southern Solomons to support the offensive and to be ready to engage any Allied ( primarily U.S. ) ships , especially carriers , that approached to support the Allied defenses on Guadalcanal .
= = Prelude = =
From 20 – 25 October , Japanese land forces on Guadalcanal attempted to capture Henderson Field with a large @-@ scale attack against U.S. troops defending the airfield . However , the attack was decisively defeated with heavy casualties for the Japanese during the Battle for Henderson Field .
Incorrectly believing that the Japanese army troops had succeeded in capturing Henderson Field , a force of Japanese warships approached Guadalcanal on the morning of 25 October to provide further support for the army offensive . Aircraft from Henderson Field attacked the convoy throughout the day , sinking the light cruiser Yura and damaging the destroyer Akizuki .
Despite the failure of the Japanese ground offensive and the loss of Yura , the rest of the Combined Fleet continued to maneuver near the southern Solomon Islands on 25 October with the hope of encountering Allied naval forces in battle . The Japanese naval forces now consisted of four carriers , because Hiyō had suffered an accidental , damaging fire in her engine room on October 22 that forced her to return to Truk for repairs .
The Japanese naval forces were divided into three groups : The " Advanced " force consisted of the carrier Jun 'yō , plus two battleships , four heavy cruisers , one light cruiser , and 10 destroyers , and was commanded by Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō in heavy cruiser Atago ;
the " Main Body " consisted of Shōkaku , Zuikaku , and Zuihō plus one heavy cruiser and eight destroyers , and was commanded by Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo aboard Shōkaku ;
the " Vanguard " force contained two battleships , three heavy cruisers , one light cruiser , and seven destroyers , and was commanded by Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe in battleship Hiei . In addition to commanding the Advanced force , Kondo acted as the overall commander of the three forces .
The U.S. naval forces were deployed as two separate carrier groups , Task Force 16 under command of Rear Admiral Thomas Kinkaid and built around carrier Enterprise , and Task Force 17 under command of Rear Admiral George Murray and built around carrier Hornet . The two groups were under overall command by Kinkaid , and were separated from each other by about 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) . The carriers were supported by one battleship ( USS South Dakota ) , three heavy cruisers ( Portland , Northampton , Pensacola ) , three light anti @-@ aircraft cruisers ( San Juan , San Diego , Juneau ) , and 14 destroyers . A third U.S. task force , Task Force 64 , commanded by Rear Admiral Willis Lee , consisted of battleship USS Washington , heavy cruiser San Francisco , light cruiser Helena , anti @-@ aircraft cruiser Atlanta , and 6 destroyers . This last force , however , had withdrawn to the South East for fueling , and played no part in the upcoming battle .
The two U.S. carrier groups swept around to the north of the Santa Cruz Islands on October 25 searching for the Japanese naval forces . A U.S. PBY Catalina based in the Santa Cruz Islands located the Japanese Main body carriers at 11 : 03 . However , the Japanese carriers were about 355 nmi ( 657 km ; 409 mi ) from the U.S. force , just beyond carrier aircraft range . Kinkaid , hoping to close the range to be able to execute an attack that day , steamed towards the Japanese carriers at top speed and , at 14 : 25 , launched a strike force of 23 aircraft . But the Japanese , knowing that they had been spotted by U.S. aircraft and not knowing where the U.S. carriers were , turned to the north to stay out of range of the U.S. carriers ' aircraft . Thus , the U.S. strike force returned to their carriers without finding or attacking the Japanese warships .
= = Battle = =
= = = Carrier action on 26 October : first strikes = = =
At 02 : 50 on 26 October , the Japanese naval forces reversed direction and the naval forces of the two adversaries closed the distance until they were only 200 nmi ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) away from each other by 05 : 00 . Both sides launched search aircraft and prepared their remaining aircraft to attack as soon as the other side 's ships were located . Although a radar @-@ equipped PBY Catalina sighted the Japanese carriers at 03 : 10 , the report did not reach Kinkaid until 05 : 12 . Therefore , believing that the Japanese ships had probably changed position during the intervening two hours , he decided to withhold launching a strike force until he received more current information on the location of the Japanese ships .
At 06 : 45 , a U.S. scout aircraft sighted the carriers of Nagumo 's main body . At 06 : 58 , a Japanese scout aircraft reported the location of Hornet 's task force . Both sides raced to be the first to attack the other . The Japanese were first to get their strike force launched , with 64 aircraft , including 21 Aichi D3A2 dive bombers , 20 Nakajima B5N2 torpedo bombers , 21 A6M3 Zero fighters , and two Nakajima B5N2 command and control aircraft on the way towards Hornet by 07 : 40 . Also at 07 : 40 , two U.S. SBD @-@ 3 Dauntless scout aircraft , responding to the earlier sighting of the Japanese carriers , arrived and dove on Zuihō . With the Japanese combat air patrol ( CAP ) busy chasing other U.S. scout aircraft away , the two U.S. aircraft were able to hit Zuihō with both their 500 @-@ pound bombs , causing heavy damage and preventing the carrier 's flight deck from being able to land aircraft .
Meanwhile , Kondo ordered Abe 's Vanguard force to race ahead to try to intercept and engage the U.S. warships . Kondo also brought his own Advanced force forward at maximum speed so that Junyō 's aircraft could join in the attacks on the U.S. ships . At 08 : 10 , Shōkaku launched a second wave of strike aircraft , consisting of 19 dive bombers and eight Zeros , and Zuikaku launched 16 torpedo bombers at 08 : 40 . Thus , by 09 : 10 the Japanese had 110 aircraft on the way to attack the U.S. carriers .
The U.S. strike aircraft were running about 20 minutes behind the Japanese . Believing that a speedy attack was more important than a massed attack , and because they lacked fuel to spend time assembling prior to the strike , the U.S. aircraft proceeded in small groups towards the Japanese ships , rather than forming into a single large strike force . The first group — consisting of 15 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers , six Grumman TBF @-@ 1 Avenger torpedo bombers , and eight Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters , led by Lieutenant Commander R. Eation from Hornet — was on its way by about 08 : 00 . A second group — consisting of three SBDs , seven TBFs , and eight Wildcats from Enterprise — was off by 08 : 10 . A third group — which included nine SBDs , eight TBFs , and seven F4Fs from Hornet — was on its way by 08 : 20 .
At 08 : 40 , the opposing aircraft strike formations passed within sight of each other . Nine Zeros from Zuihō surprised and attacked the Enterprise group , attacking the climbing aircraft from out of the sun . In the resulting engagement , four Zeros , three Wildcats , and two TBFs were shot down , with another two TBFs and a Wildcat forced by heavy damage to return to Enterprise .
At 08 : 50 , the lead U.S. attack formation from Hornet spotted four ships from Abe 's Vanguard force . Pressing on , the U.S. aircraft sighted the Japanese carriers and prepared to attack . Three Zeros from Zuihō attacked the formation 's Wildcats , drawing them away from the bombers they were assigned to protect . Thus , the dive bombers in the first group initiated their attacks without fighter escort . Twenty Zeros from the Japanese carrier CAP attacked the SBD formation and shot down four of them . The remaining 11 SBDs commenced their attack dives on Shōkaku at 09 : 27 , hitting her with three to six bombs , wrecking her flight deck and causing serious damage to the interior of the ship . The final SBD of the 11 lost track of Shōkaku and instead dropped its bomb near the Japanese destroyer Teruzuki , causing minor damage . The six TBFs in the first strike force , having become separated from their strike group , missed finding the Japanese carriers and eventually turned back towards Hornet . On the way back , they attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser Tone , missing with all of their torpedoes .
The TBFs of the second U.S. attack formation from Enterprise were unable to locate the Japanese carriers and instead attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser Suzuya from Abe 's Vanguard force but caused no damage . At about the same time , the third U.S. attack formation — from Hornet — found Abe 's ships and attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser Chikuma , hitting her with two 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bombs and causing heavy damage . The three Enterprise SBDs then arrived and also attacked Chikuma , causing more damage with one bomb hit and two near @-@ misses . Finally , the eight TBFs from the third strike group arrived and attacked the smoking Chikuma , scoring one more hit . Chikuma — escorted by two destroyers — withdrew from the battle and headed towards Truk for repairs .
The U.S. carrier forces received word from their outbound strike aircraft at 08 : 30 that Japanese attack aircraft were headed their way . At 08 : 52 , the Japanese strike force commander sighted the Hornet task force ( the Enterprise task force was hidden by a rain squall ) and deployed his aircraft for attack . At 08 : 55 , the U.S. carriers detected the approaching Japanese aircraft on radar — about 35 nmi ( 65 km ; 40 mi ) away — and began to vector the 37 Wildcats of their CAP to engage the incoming Japanese aircraft . However , communication problems , mistakes by the U.S. fighter control directors , and primitive control procedures prevented all but a few of the U.S. fighters from engaging the Japanese aircraft before they began their attacks on Hornet . Although the U.S. CAP was able to shoot down several dive bombers , most of the Japanese aircraft commenced their attacks relatively unmolested by U.S. fighters .
At 09 : 09 , the anti @-@ aircraft guns of Hornet and her escorting warships opened fire as the 20 untouched Japanese torpedo planes and remaining 16 dive bombers commenced their attacks on the carrier . At 09 : 12 , a dive bomber placed its 551 lb ( 250 kg ) , semi @-@ armor @-@ piercing bomb dead center on Hornet 's flight deck , across from the island , which penetrated three decks before exploding , killing 60 men . Moments later , a 534 lb ( 242 kg ) " land " bomb struck the flight deck , detonating on impact and creating an 11 ft ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) hole as well as killing 30 men . A minute or so later , a third bomb hit Hornet near where the first bomb hit , penetrating three decks before exploding , causing severe damage but no direct loss of life . At 09 : 14 , a dive bomber was hit and damaged by Hornet 's anti @-@ aircraft guns ; on fire , the damaged aircraft deliberately crashed into Hornet 's stack , killing seven men and spreading burning aviation fuel over the signal deck .
At the same time that the dive bombers were attacking , the 20 torpedo bombers were also approaching Hornet from two different directions . Despite suffering heavy losses from anti @-@ aircraft fire , the torpedo planes planted two torpedoes into Hornet 's side between 09 : 13 and 09 : 17 , knocking out her engines . As Hornet glided to a stop , a damaged Japanese dive bomber approached and purposely crashed into the carrier 's side , starting a fire near the ship 's main supply of aviation fuel . At 09 : 20 , the surviving Japanese aircraft departed , leaving Hornet dead in the water and burning . Twenty @-@ five Japanese aircraft and six American aircraft were destroyed in this attack .
With the assistance of firehoses from three escorting destroyers , the fires on Hornet were under control by 10 : 00 . Wounded personnel were evacuated from the carrier , and an attempt was made by the heavy cruiser USS Northampton to tow Hornet away from the battle area . However , the effort to rig the towline took some time , and more attack waves of Japanese aircraft were inbound .
= = = Carrier action on October 26 : post @-@ first strike actions = = =
Starting at 09 : 30 , Enterprise landed many of the damaged and fuel @-@ depleted CAP fighters and returning scout aircraft from both carriers . However , with her flight deck full , and the second wave of Japanese aircraft inbound , which was detected on radar at 09 : 30 , Enterprise ceased landing operations at 10 : 00 . Fuel @-@ depleted aircraft then began ditching in the ocean as the carrier 's escorting destroyers rescued the aircrews . One of the ditching aircraft , a damaged TBF from Enterprise 's strike force that had been attacked earlier by Zuihō Zeros , crashed into the water near the destroyer USS Porter . As Porter rescued the TBF 's aircrew , she was struck by a torpedo , perhaps from the ditched aircraft , causing heavy damage and killing 15 crewmen . After the task force commander ordered the destroyer scuttled , the crew was rescued by the destroyer USS Shaw which then sank Porter with gunfire ( 08 ° 32 ′ S 167 ° 17 ′ E ) .
As the first wave of Japanese strike aircraft began returning to their carriers from their attack on Hornet , one of them spotted the Enterprise task force ( which had just emerged from a rain squall ) and reported the carrier 's position . Thus , the second Japanese aircraft strike wave — believing Hornet to be sinking — directed their attacks on the Enterprise task force , beginning at 10 : 08 . Again , the U.S. CAP had trouble intercepting the Japanese aircraft before they attacked Enterprise , shooting down only two of the 19 dive bombers as they began their dives on the carrier . Attacking through the intense anti @-@ aircraft fire put up by Enterprise and her escorting warships , the bombers hit the carrier with two 551 lb ( 250 kg ) bombs and near @-@ missed with another . The bombs killed 44 men and wounded 75 , and caused heavy damage to the carrier , including jamming her forward elevator in the " up " position . Twelve of the 19 Japanese bombers were lost in this attack .
Twenty minutes later , the 16 Zuikaku torpedo planes arrived and split up to attack Enterprise . One group of torpedo bombers was attacked by two CAP Wildcats which shot down three of them and damaged a fourth . On fire , the fourth damaged aircraft purposely crashed into the destroyer Smith , setting the ship on fire and killing 57 of her crew . To make matters worse , the torpedo carried by this aircraft somehow survived the initial impact but detonated shortly afterward , causing even more damage . The fires initially seemed out of control until Smith 's commanding officer ordered the destroyer to steer into the large spraying wake of the battleship USS South Dakota , which helped put out the fires . Smith then resumed her station , firing her remaining anti @-@ aircraft guns at the still attacking torpedo planes .
The remaining torpedo planes attacked Enterprise , South Dakota , and cruiser Portland , but all of their torpedoes missed or were duds , causing no damage . The engagement was over at 10 : 53 ; nine of the 16 torpedo aircraft were lost in this attack . After suppressing most of the onboard fires , at 11 : 15 Enterprise reopened her flight deck to begin landing returning aircraft from the morning U.S. strikes on the Japanese warship forces . However , only a few aircraft landed before the next wave of Japanese strike aircraft arrived and began their attacks on Enterprise , forcing a suspension of landing operations .
Between 09 : 05 and 09 : 14 , Junyō had arrived within 280 nmi ( 320 mi ; 520 km ) of the U.S. carriers and launched a strike of 17 dive bombers and 12 Zeros . As the Japanese Main body and Advanced force maneuvered to try to join formations , Junyō readied follow @-@ up strikes . At 11 : 21 , the Junyō aircraft arrived and dove on the Enterprise task force . The dive bombers scored one near miss on Enterprise , causing more damage , and one hit each on South Dakota and light cruiser San Juan , causing moderate damage to both ships . Eleven of the 17 Japanese dive bombers were destroyed in this attack .
At 11 : 35 , Kinkaid decided to withdraw Enterprise and her screening ships from the field of battle , since Hornet was out of action , Enterprise was heavily damaged , and surmising ( correctly ) that the Japanese had one or two undamaged carriers in the area . Leaving Hornet behind , all Kinkaid could do was to direct the carrier and her task force to retreat as soon as they were able . Between 11 : 39 and 13 : 22 , Enterprise recovered 57 of the 73 airborne U.S. aircraft as she headed away from the battle . The remaining U.S. aircraft ditched in the ocean , and their aircrews were rescued by escorting warships .
Between 11 : 40 and 14 : 00 , the two undamaged Japanese carriers , Zuikaku and Junyō , recovered the few aircraft that returned from the morning strikes on Hornet and Enterprise and prepared follow @-@ up strikes . It was now that the devastating losses sustained during these attacks became all too apparent . Lt. Cmdr. Okumiya Masatake , Junyō 's air staff officer , described the return of the carrier 's first strike groups :
Only one of Junyō 's bomber leaders returned from the first strike , and upon landing he appeared " so shaken that at times he could not speak coherently . "
At 13 : 00 , Kondo 's Advanced force and Abe 's Vanguard force warships together headed directly towards the last reported position of the U.S. carrier task forces and increased speed to try to intercept them for a warship gunfire battle . The damaged carriers Zuihō and Shōkaku , with Nagumo still on board , retreated from the battle area , leaving Rear Admiral Kakuji Kakuta in charge of the Zuikaku and Junyō aircraft forces . At 13 : 06 , Junyō launched her second strike of seven torpedo planes and eight Zeros , and Zuikaku launched her third strike of seven torpedo planes , two dive bombers , and five Zeros . At 15 : 35 , Junyō launched the last Japanese strike force of the day , consisting of four bombers and six Zeros .
After several technical problems , Northampton finally began slowly towing Hornet out of the battle area at 14 : 45 , but only at a speed of five knots . Hornet 's crew was on the verge of restoring partial power but at 15 : 20 , Junyō 's second strike arrived , and the seven torpedo planes attacked the almost stationary carrier . Although six of the torpedo planes missed , at 15 : 23 , one torpedo struck Hornet mid @-@ ship , which proved to be the fatal blow . The torpedo hit destroyed the repairs to the power system and caused heavy flooding and a 14 ° list . With no power to pump out the water , Hornet was given up for lost , and the crew abandoned ship . The third strike from Zuikaku attacked Hornet during this time , hitting the sinking ship with one more bomb . All of the Hornet 's crewmen were off by 16 : 27 . The last Japanese strike of the day dropped one more bomb on the sinking carrier at 17 : 20 .
After being informed that Japanese forces were approaching and that further towing efforts were unfeasible , Admiral Halsey ordered the Hornet sunk . While the rest of the U.S. warships retired towards the southeast to get out of range of Kondo 's and Abe 's oncoming fleet , destroyers USS Mustin and Anderson attempted to scuttle Hornet with multiple torpedoes and over 400 shells , but she still remained afloat . With advancing Japanese naval forces only 20 minutes away , the two U.S. destroyers abandoned Hornet 's burning hulk at 20 : 40 . By 22 : 20 , the rest of Kondo 's and Abe 's warships had arrived at Hornet 's location . Upon finding the carrier that had launched the Doolittle Raid , the Japanese briefly considered taking Hornet as a war trophy , but ultimately decided that she was too damaged to try to capture . The destroyers Makigumo and Akigumo then finished Hornet with four 24 in ( 610 mm ) torpedoes . At 01 : 35 on 27 October 1942 , she finally sank on the approximated position 08 ° 38 ′ S 166 ° 43 ′ E. Several night attacks by radar @-@ equipped Catalinas on Junyō and Teruzuki , knowledge of the head start the U.S. warships had in their retreat from the area , plus a critical fuel situation apparently caused the Japanese to reconsider further pursuit of the U.S. warships . After refueling near the northern Solomon Islands , the ships returned to their main base at Truk on 30 October . During the U.S. retirement from the battle area towards Espiritu Santo and New Caledonia , South Dakota collided with destroyer Mahan , heavily damaging the destroyer .
= = Aftermath = =
The Japanese claimed victory by claiming to have sunk three American carriers , one battleship , one cruiser , one destroyer and one " unidentified large warship " along with 79 American carrier aircraft destroyed ( plus many more sunk on the carriers ) . In fact , the Americans lost one carrier ( Hornet ) and the destroyer Porter . The Enterprise was heavily damaged as was the battleship South Dakota , the light cruiser San Juan , and the destroyers Smith and Mahan . Of the 175 U.S. aircraft at the start of the battle , 81 were lost ( 33 fighters , 28 dive @-@ bombers , and 20 torpedo bombers ) .
For the Japanese , two carriers ( Shōkaku and Zuihō ) and the heavy cruiser Chikuma had been badly damaged and 99 of 203 Japanese carrier aircraft involved in the battle had been lost .
The loss of Hornet was a severe blow for Allied forces in the South Pacific , leaving Enterprise as the one operational , but damaged , Allied carrier in the entire Pacific theater . As she retreated from the battle , the crew posted a sign on the flight deck : " Enterprise vs Japan . "
Enterprise received temporary repairs at New Caledonia and , although still somewhat damaged , returned to the southern Solomons area just two weeks later to support Allied forces during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , playing an important role in what turned out to be the decisive naval engagement in the overall campaign for Guadalcanal .
Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk , it came at a high cost for Japanese naval forces . Both damaged carriers were forced to return to Japan for extensive repairs and refitting . After repair , Zuihō returned to Truk in late January 1943 . Shōkaku was under repair until March 1943 and did not return to the front until July 1943 , when she was reunited with Zuikaku at Truk .
The most significant losses for the Japanese Navy , however , were in aircrew . The U.S. lost 81 aircraft along with 26 pilots and aircrew members in the battle . The Japanese , on the other hand , lost 99 aircraft and 148 pilots and aircrew members including two dive bomber group leaders , three torpedo squadron leaders , and 18 other section or flight leaders . Forty @-@ nine percent of the Japanese torpedo bomber aircrews involved in the battle were killed along with 39 % of the dive bomber crews and 20 % of the fighter pilots . The Japanese lost more aircrew at Santa Cruz than they had lost in each of the three previous carrier battles at Coral Sea ( 90 ) , Midway ( 110 ) , and Eastern Solomons ( 61 ) . By the end of the Santa Cruz battle , at least 409 of the 765 elite Japanese carrier aviators who had participated in the Attack on Pearl Harbor were dead .
Having lost so many of its veteran carrier aircrew , and with no quick way to replace them because of an institutionalized limited capacity in its naval aircrew training programs and an absence of trained reserves , the undamaged Zuikaku and Hiyō were also forced to return to Japan because of a scarcity of trained aircrew to man their air groups . Although the Japanese carriers returned to Truk by the summer of 1943 , they played no further offensive role in the Solomon Islands campaign .
Admiral Nagumo , upon being relieved of command shortly after the battle and reassigned to shore duty in Japan , stated in his report to the Combined Fleet Headquarters : " This battle was a tactical win , but a shattering strategic loss for Japan . Considering the great superiority of our enemy 's industrial capacity , we must win every battle overwhelmingly in order to win this war . This last one , although a victory , unfortunately , was not an overwhelming victory . "
In retrospect , despite being a tactical victory , the battle effectively ended any hope the Japanese navy might have had of scoring a decisive victory before the industrial might of the United States placed that goal out of reach . Historian Eric Hammel summed up the significance of the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands as , " Santa Cruz was a Japanese victory . That victory cost Japan her last best hope to win the war . "
Military historian Dr. John Prados offers a dissenting view : this was not a Pyrrhic Victory for Japan , but a Strategic victory .
" By any reasonable measure the Battle of Santa Cruz marked a Japanese victory -- and a strategic one . At its end the Imperial Navy possessed the only operational carrier force in the Pacific . The Japanese had sunk more ships and more combat tonnage , had more aircraft remaining , and were in physical possession of the battle zone ... Arguments based on aircrew losses or who owned Guadalcanal are about something else -- the campaign , not the battle . "
In his view , the real story of the aftermath is that the Imperial Navy failed to exploit the hard @-@ won victory .
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= The Boat Race 1952 =
The 98th Boat Race took place on 29 March 1952 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by former Cambridge rower Kenneth Payne , Oxford won by a canvas in a time of 20 minutes 23 seconds . At no point during the contest was there clear water between the boats . The race , described as " one of the closest fought of all time " , was their second win in seven years and took the overall record in the event to 53 – 44 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1951 race by a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , and had won the previous five races . They led overall with 53 victories to Oxford 's 43 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were A. J. M. Durand ( who had rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1920 race ) , Hugh " Jumbo " Edwards ( who rowed for Oxford in 1926 and 1930 ) , R. D. Hill ( who rowed in the 1940 wartime race ) and J. H. Page . Cambridge were coached by C. B. M. Lloyd ( three @-@ time Blue between 1949 and 1951 ) , Roy Meldrum ( a coach for Lady Margaret Boat Club ) , James Owen and Harold Rickett ( who rowed three times between 1930 and 1932 ) . The race was umpired for the third time by the former British Olympian Kenneth Payne , who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races .
Although Cambridge had arrived at Putney as clear favourites to win , Oxford 's improvements during the build @-@ up to the race had shortened their odds : as the rowing correspondent in The Manchester Guardian suggested , " anything might happen " . The rowing correspondent for the The Times reported that Cambridge were " quoted as even " but would " still start [ the ] race as favourites " . Moreover , the crews were " extraordinarily evenly matched , but Oxford have a very good chance of breaking the run of Cambridge wins . "
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 11 @.@ 5 lb ( 81 @.@ 2 kg ) , 2 @.@ 5 pounds ( 1 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained three rowers with Boat Race experience including their stroke Chris Davidge who was making his third appearance in the event . Cambridge saw three participants return , including cox John Hinde . Oxford 's number six Ken Keniston was the only participant registered as non @-@ British ; the former Harvard University rower was from the United States .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The weather was inclement , with gale @-@ force winds and snow disrupting the race , and limiting the number of spectators lining the banks of the Thames to a few thousand . Umpire Payne started the race at 3 : 15 p.m. Cambridge made the cleaner start in the rough conditions , and held a quarter @-@ length lead at the Dukes ' Head pub . Despite making a number of spurts , the Light Blues could not pull away from Oxford , the Dark Blues ' stroke maintaining a higher stroke rate to keep in touch . Keeping to more sheltered conditions yet in slower water , Cambridge passed the Mile Post with a lead of half a length .
With the bend in the river beginning to favour Oxford , the lead was slowly eroded until both boats passed nearly level below Hammersmith Bridge . Alongside Chiswick Eyot , the Dark Blues were almost half @-@ a @-@ length ahead but not gaining further . Cambridge 's cox Hinde pushed the Oxford boat towards the centre of the river and as they passed under Barnes Bridge the Dark Blue lead was down to less than a quarter of a length . Oxford won by a canvas ( approximately 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) ) in a time of 20 minutes 23 seconds , the narrowest margin of victory since 1877 , and their first win in six attempts . At no point during the course of the race did either boat have a clear water advantage over their opponent . The rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian described the race as " one of the closest fought of all time " , while Ian Thomson , writing in The Observer suggested it was " one of the most exciting races ever rowed . "
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= Nidan =
Nidan ( sometimes known as Midan or Idan ) was a Welsh priest and , according to some sources , a bishop , in the 6th and 7th centuries . He is now commemorated as a saint . He was the confessor for the monastery headed by St Seiriol at Penmon , and established a church at what is now known as Llanidan , which are both places on the Welsh island of Anglesey . He is the patron saint of two churches in Anglesey : St Nidan 's Church , Llanidan , built in the 19th century , and its medieval predecessor , the Old Church of St Nidan , Llanidan . Midmar Old Kirk in Aberdeenshire , Scotland , is also dedicated to him : Nidan is said to have helped to establish Christianity in that area as a companion of St Kentigern . St Nidan 's , Llanidan , has a reliquary dating from the 14th or 16th century , which is said to house his relics .
= = Life = =
Little is known in detail about Nidan 's life , and his year and place of birth are unknown . He is sometimes referred to as " Midan " or " Idan " . According to manuscript sources , such as Peniarth MS 45 ( which has been dated to the 14th century ) in the National Library of Wales , he was the son of Gwrfyw ab Pasgen ab Urien Rheged . He was a descendant of Urien Rheged , as was Saint Grwst of Llanrwst , a town on the north Wales mainland in present @-@ day Conwy County Borough . Urien was a " celebrated warrior " from the late 5th century , whose deeds were commemorated by the Welsh poet Taliesin .
Nidan was associated with St Seiriol 's monastery at Penmon , on the eastern tip of Anglesey in north Wales , and was the monastery 's confessor . He is also referred to as a bishop in one source . He founded a church in what is now known as Llanidan , also on Anglesey , near to the Menai Straits . According to tradition , this was established in 616 . He is reported to have lived at Cadair Idan , near the church , and a well about 200 yards ( 180 m ) away from the church is reputed to be his holy well .
Nidan is said to have been one of the 665 monks who travelled with St Kentigern , also known as St Mungo , and reputed to be a cousin of his , from Llanelwy , north Wales , to Scotland . Together with another of Kentigern 's companions , Finan or Ffinan , they are said to have established Christianity in Midmar , in what is now Aberdeenshire , in the 7th century . A church in Midmar was dedicated to Nidan . However , the existence of a link between Nidan and Kentigern has been doubted , with one author saying that " the whole idea that these people [ i.e. Nidan and Ffinan ] had any connection with Kentigern is without any real foundation . "
According to some sources , he died in about 610 , which would be inconsistent with the reported foundation date for the church at Llanidan of 616 .
= = Commemoration = =
The Old Church of St Nidan , Llanidan , was in use until the middle of the 19th century when it was replaced by St Nidan 's Church , Llanidan , nearer to the village of Brynsiencyn . This was for two reasons : the old church needed repair , and also because the population of Brynsiencyn needed a church . The old church was then partially demolished . The new church contains a sandstone reliquary , about 26 inches ( 66 cm ) long , which is said to contain Nidan 's relics . The reliquary 's date is uncertain : it has been described as being " probably " from the 14th century , but also , in a more recent description , as " probably 16th century " . It was found buried under the altar of the old church in 1700 .
His feast day in the Welsh calendar of saints is 30 September ; in the Scottish calendar of saints , it is 3 November . Nidan was venerated as a saint , although he was never canonized by a pope : as the historian Jane Cartwright notes , " In Wales sanctity was locally conferred and none of the medieval Welsh saints appears to have been canonized by the Roman Catholic Church " .
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= East Riding of Yorkshire =
The East Riding of Yorkshire , or simply East Yorkshire , is a ceremonial county of England . It is located in the region of Yorkshire and the Humber . It is a local government district with unitary authority status . For ceremonial purposes the county also includes the city of Kingston upon Hull , which is a separate unitary authority . It is named after the historic East Riding of Yorkshire ( one of three ridings alongside the North Riding and West Riding ) , which also constituted a ceremonial and administrative county until 1974 . From 1974 to 1996 the area of the modern East Riding of Yorkshire constituted the northern part of the non @-@ metropolitan county of Humberside . At the 2011 Census the Unitary Authority population was 334 @,@ 179 .
The landscape consists of a crescent of low chalk hills , the Yorkshire Wolds , surrounded by the low @-@ lying fertile plains of Holderness and the Vale of York . The Humber Estuary and North Sea mark its southern and eastern limits . Archaeological investigations have revealed artefacts and structures from all historical periods since the last ice age . There are few large settlements and no industrial centres . The area is administered from the ancient market and ecclesiastical town of Beverley . Christianity is the religion with the largest following in the area and there is a higher than average percentage of retired people in residence .
The economy is mainly based on agriculture and this , along with tourism , has contributed to the rural and seaside character of the Riding . These aspects are also reflected in the places of interest to visitors and major landmarks , which include historic buildings , nature reserves and the Wolds Way long @-@ distance footpath . The open and maritime aspects and lack of major urban developments have also led to the county being allocated relatively high targets for the generation of energy from renewable sources .
Major sporting and entertainment venues are concentrated in Kingston upon Hull , while the seaside and market towns support semi @-@ professional and amateur sports clubs and provide seasonal entertainment for visitors . Bishop Burton is the site of an agricultural college , and Hull provides the region 's only university . On the southern border , close to Hull , the Humber Bridge spans the Humber Estuary to enable the A15 to link Hessle with Barton @-@ upon @-@ Humber in North Lincolnshire .
= = History = =
When the last glacial period ended , the hunter gatherers of the Palaeolithic period followed the animal herds across the land between continental Europe and Britain . Then , as conditions continued to improve and vegetation became more able to support a greater diversity of animals , the annual range of seasonal movement by Mesolithic communities decreased , and people became more fixed to particular localities . Until about 6 @,@ 000 BC , Mesolithic people appear to have exploited their environment as they found it . As communities came to rely on a smaller territorial range and as population levels increased , attempts began to be made to modify or control the natural world . In the Great Wold Valley pollen samples of Mesolithic date , indicate that the forest cover in the area was being disturbed and altered by man , and that open grasslands were being created . The Yorkshire Wolds became a major focus for human settlement during the Neolithic period as they had a wide range of natural resources . The oldest monuments found on the Wolds are the Neolithic long barrows and round barrows . Two earthen long barrows in the region are found at Fordon , on Willerby Wold , and at Kilham , both of which have radiocarbon dates of around 3700 BC .
From around 2000 to 800 BC the people of the Bronze Age built the 1 @,@ 400 Bronze Age round barrows that are known to exist on the Yorkshire Wolds . These are found both in isolation and grouped together to form cemeteries . Many of these sites can still be seen as prominent features in the present @-@ day landscape . By the later Bronze Age , an open , cleared , landscape predominated on the Wolds . It was used for grazing and also for arable cultivation . The wetlands on either side of the Wolds in the River Hull valley , Holderness and the Vale of York were also being used for animal rearing at this time . In the Iron Age there were further cultural changes in the area . There emerged a distinctive local tradition known as the Arras Culture , named after a site at Arras , near Market Weighton . There are similarities between the chariot burials of the Arras Culture and groups of La Tene burials in northern Europe , where the burial of carts was also practised . The area became the kingdom of the tribe known as the Parisi .
After invading Britain in 43 AD the Romans crossed the Humber Estuary in 71 AD to invade the Northumbrian territory of the Parisi tribe . From their bridgehead at Petuaria they travelled northwards and built roads along the Wolds to Derventio , present day Malton , and then westwards to the River Ouse where they built the fort of Eboracum . There is evidence of extensive use of the light soils of the Wolds for grain farming in the Roman era . Several Roman villas which were the centres of large agricultural estates have been identified around Langton and Rudston . In the low @-@ lying lands on either side of the Wolds there was an increase in the number of settlements between 500 BC and 500 AD as the land became drier and more accessible due to a fall in sea level . The lower @-@ lying land was used for stock breeding . During the last years of Roman occupation Anglo @-@ Saxon raiders were troubling the area and , by the second half of the fifth century , settlement by Anglian invaders was taking place in east Yorkshire . Village names containing the elements -ing , -ingham or -ham are Anglian settlement names . As Christianity became established in the area from the seventh century onwards , several cemeteries like the one at Garton on the Wolds show evidence of the abandonment of pagan burial practices . In 867 AD the Great Danish Army captured the Anglian town of York , and the remnants of the army settled in Yorkshire from 876 AD when their leader Halfdan shared out the land among them . Scandinavian settlements have names including the elements -by and -thorpe . Scandinavian rule in the area came to an end in 954 AD with the death of their ruler Eric Bloodaxe .
After the Norman Conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066 AD , the land in the East Riding was granted to followers of the new Norman king and ecclesiastical institutions . When some of the northern earls rebelled , William retaliated with the Harrying of the North which laid waste many East Riding villages . The land was then distributed among powerful barons , such as the Count of Aumale in Holderness and the Percy family in the Wolds and the Vale of York . These lay lords and ecclesiastical institutions , including the monasteries , continued to improve and drain their holdings throughout the Middle Ages to maximise the rents they could charge for them .
In the mid @-@ sixteenth century Henry VIII of England dissolved the monasteries , resulting in the large areas of land owned by Meaux Abbey , Bridlington Priory and other monastic holdings being confiscated . The Crown subsequently sold these large tracts of land into private ownership . Along with the land already belonging to lay owners , they formed some of the vast estate holdings which continued to exist in the Riding until the twentieth century .
The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw first the expansion of canals and then the construction of rail links . The River Derwent was canalised as far upstream as Malton and was linked to Pocklington by the cutting of the Pocklington Canal . Other canals were cut to join the towns of Beverley and Driffield to the River Hull , which was also improved to aid navigation . The Market Weighton Canal connected the town directly to the Humber Estuary . An early rail link was constructed between Filey and Bridlington in 1847 and the Malton to Driffield railway was the first to cross the Wolds in 1853 . These routes primarily served the agricultural community in helping to get their products to the expanding industrial markets in the West Riding of Yorkshire and to the port of Hull for export . The rail links served also to transport holidaymakers to the expanding coastal resorts of Bridlington , Hornsea and Withernsea . The canals and canalisation of some of the rivers helped to aid drainage in such of the low @-@ lying ill @-@ drained areas that then still existed . The landscape in the East Riding had changed little since the enclosure of the open fields , in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , except for the removal of some hedgerows to allow for the use of large agricultural machinery in the twentieth century .
= = Geography = =
= = = Location = = =
As a ceremonial county , the East Riding of Yorkshire borders North Yorkshire , South Yorkshire and Lincolnshire , and includes the city of Kingston upon Hull , which is a separate unitary authority . As a district the East Riding borders North East Lincolnshire , beyond the Humber estuary ; North Lincolnshire , beyond the Humber and on land ; Hull , Doncaster , Selby , York , Ryedale and Scarborough .
= = = Geology = = =
Geologically the East Riding district is split into three parts . The western part is the eastern section of the Vale of York with the southern extension into the Humberhead Levels . In this area there is a belt of sandstones overlain by glacial and lake deposits formed at the close of the last ice age . The middle part is the Yorkshire Wolds , a chalk formation which extends from the Humber at North Ferriby to the coast at Flamborough Head , a chalk headland . The south @-@ east of the district is the low @-@ lying coastal plain of Holderness , which faces east to the North Sea , and to the south drains into the Humber estuary . South of Flamborough Head is Bridlington , which features several beaches , and at the far south @-@ east of the district is the Spurn peninsula .
Before the last ice age the eastern coastline of the area was located along the eastern foot of the Yorkshire Wolds where remnants of beaches have been discovered . The North Sea ice sheet deposited huge amounts of boulder clay as it retreated and this subsequently formed a wet and swampy area which became the plain of Holderness . Another ice sheet in the Vale of York retreated at the same time leaving thick glacial deposits and two prominent moraines to the west of the Wolds . These Vale of York deposits also formed wetlands . The Wolds themselves were largely ice @-@ free , well drained , chalk uplands . Gradually the tundra conditions that had existed as the ice retreated gave way to vegetation that could support grazing fauna . Because a lot of water was still locked in the northern ice sheets , sea level was much lower than in the present day and an area of land stretched eastwards to the low countries .
= = = Landscape = = =
The Wolds area takes the form of an elevated , gently rolling plateau , cut by numerous deep , steep @-@ sided , flat @-@ bottomed valleys of glacial origin . The chalk formation of the hills provides exceptionally good drainage , with the result that most of these valleys are dry . Surface water is quite scarce throughout the Wolds . At Flamborough Head the Wolds rise up to form high chalk cliffs , where there are water @-@ worn caves and stacks along the shore . Flamborough Headland is designated a Heritage Coast . Coastal erosion around Flamborough Head has led to visitors being warned by the Humber Coastguard to be very careful on coastal paths .
The Holderness landscape is dominated by deposits of till , boulder clays and glacial lake clays . These were deposited during the Devensian glaciation . The glacial deposits form a more or less continuous lowland plain which has some peat filled depressions ( known locally as meres ) which mark the presence of former lake beds . There are other glacial landscape features such as drumlin mounds , ridges and kettle holes scattered throughout the area . The well drained glacial deposits provide fertile soils that can support intensive arable cultivation . Fields are generally large and bounded by drainage ditches . There is very little woodland in the area and this leads to a landscape that is essentially rural but very flat and exposed .
The Holderness coastline suffers the highest rate of coastal erosion in Europe : 2 metres a year on average or 2 million tonnes of material a year . Some of this is transported by longshore drift with about 3 % of material being deposited at Spurn Head spit , to the south . The coastline has retreated noticeably in the last 2 @,@ 000 years , with many former settlements now flooded , particularly Ravenser Odd and Ravenspurn , which was a major port until its destruction in the 14th century . Erosion is an ongoing concern in the area . The East Riding of Yorkshire Council has been carrying out cliff erosion defences between Sewerby and Kilnsea since 1951 . The Holderness area drains mostly into the Humber and the eponymous River Hull drains the area north of Hull .
The western part of the district in the Vale of York borders on and is drained by the River Derwent . The landscape is generally low @-@ lying and flat although minor ridges and glacial moraines provide some variations in topography . Where there are dry sandy soils there are remnants of historic heathlands and ancient semi @-@ natural woodlands . Arable fields dominate the land cover of the area and grasslands are infrequent . There are very few flood meadows left , although some significant areas remain on the lower reaches of the River Derwent .
= = = Climate = = =
The East Riding generally has cool summers and relatively mild winters . Weather conditions vary from day to day as well as from season to season . The latitude of the area means that it is influenced by predominantly westerly winds with depressions and their associated fronts , bringing with them unsettled and windy weather , particularly in winter . Between depressions there are often small mobile anticyclones that bring periods of fair weather . In winter , anticyclones bring cold dry weather . In summer the anticyclones tend to bring dry settled conditions which can lead to drought , particularly on the Wolds . For its latitude this area is mild in winter and cooler in summer due to the influence of the Gulf Stream in the northern Atlantic Ocean . Air temperature varies on a daily and seasonal basis . The temperature is usually lower at night , and January is the coldest time of the year . The two dominant influences on the climate of the area are the shelter against the worst of the moist westerly winds provided by the Pennines and the proximity of the North Sea .
The High Mowthorpe weather station is in the East Riding on the Yorkshire Wolds , but areas in Holderness which are lower and nearer to the sea have generally milder weather .
= = Governance = =
= = = Administrative history = = =
The administrative division of the East Riding of Yorkshire originated in antiquity . Unlike most counties in Great Britain , which were divided anciently into hundreds , Yorkshire was divided first into three ridings and then into numerous wapentakes within each riding . The separate Lieutenancy for the riding was established after the Restoration , and the ridings each had separate Quarter Sessions . For statistical purposes in the 19th century an East Riding of Yorkshire registration county was designated , consisting of the entirety of the Poor Law Unions of Beverley , Bridlington , Driffield , Howden , Hull , Patrington , Pocklington , Sculcoates , Skirlaugh and York .
A county council for the East Riding of Yorkshire was set up in 1889 , covering an administrative county which did not cover the county borough of Hull , but otherwise had the same boundaries as the historic riding . Both the administrative county and the historic Lieutenancy were abolished under the Local Government Act 1972 , on 1 April 1974 , with most of the riding going to form the northern part of Humberside . The creation of this cross @-@ Humber authority was unpopular and this culminated in the local government review in the 1990s , which saw Humberside abolished and the northern part form two unitary authorities . The East Riding district was formed on 1 April 1996 . The ceremonial county , the area in which the Lord Lieutenant of the East Riding of Yorkshire represents the Crown , was re @-@ established the same day , covering Hull as well as the district . The district is entirely parished ; Hull has no parishes . From 1996 Beverley had Charter Trustees to maintain the charter of the borough of Beverley : these were replaced by a Beverley Town Council in 1999 , and Bridlington was parished in 1999 . The unparished area consisting of the urban district of Haltemprice was divided into various parishes in 1999 and 2000 .
= = = Current administration = = =
The East Riding of Yorkshire Council is based in Beverley , in the former headquarters of Humberside County Council , and East Riding County Council before that . There are 26 wards electing a total of 67 councillors in the District . The council elects on a four @-@ yearly cycle with all seats up for election at the same time . It first had elections in 1995 — a year before it came into its powers — as a shadow authority . Between 1995 and 2007 the council had No overall control . In the 2007 local elections the Conservative Party gained a majority of seats , including those of the Liberal Democrat and Labour Party leaders . The council has a leader @-@ and @-@ executive system , the leader being Stephen Parnaby of the Conservatives . In the Audit Commission report covering 2007 the council was given a four @-@ star rating , which places the authority as one of the best in the country .
= = = 2007 local election results = = =
= = = Westminster parliamentary = = =
For representation in the Parliament of the United Kingdom the bulk of the East Riding district is divided into three county constituencies : Beverley and Holderness , East Yorkshire and Haltemprice and Howden , which are all Conservative @-@ held . One of Hull 's three borough constituencies , Kingston upon Hull West and Hessle , spills into the area , as does Brigg and Goole , otherwise in North Lincolnshire . All the Hull seats are Labour @-@ held .
= = = European parliamentary = = =
For the European Parliament it lies within the Yorkshire and the Humber constituency , which in the May 2014 European Election elected three UKIP , two Labour and one Conservative MEPs .
= = Demographics = =
Until 1 April 2009 , the East Riding was the largest district and the largest unitary authority in England by area and the second largest non @-@ metropolitan district in England by population . Following the 2009 structural changes to local government in England it fell to fifth place by area and sixth place by population .
The East Riding of Yorkshire covers 240 @,@ 768 hectares ( 930 sq mi ) and has a population of 335 @,@ 049 ( 2008 Office for National Statistics mid @-@ year estimates ) , a density of 1 @.@ 4 people per hectare . The most populous parishes in the main 2001 census were Bridlington ( 34 @,@ 000 ) , Goole ( 17 @,@ 000 ) , Beverley ( 17 @,@ 000 ) , Cottingham ( 17 @,@ 000 , part of the Hull urban area ) , Hessle ( 15 @,@ 000 , by Hull ) , Driffield ( 11 @,@ 000 ) , Anlaby with Anlaby Common ( 10 @,@ 000 , by Hull ) , Hornsea ( 8 @,@ 000 ) and Willerby ( 8 @,@ 000 , by Hull ) , Pocklington ( 8 @,@ 000 ) and Elloughton @-@ cum @-@ Brough ( 7 @,@ 000 ) . Half the district 's population reside in these 11 parishes , with the other half living in the other 160 parishes . In comparison , Hull 's population according to the same census was 243 @,@ 589 . The population density of the district was around 135 people per square km , which made it the least densely populated unitary authority after the Isles of Scilly , Rutland and Herefordshire .
The East Riding has a larger than average number of residents aged 40 and above . There is a particularly strong deficit in the number of young adults . There is a higher @-@ than @-@ average level of car ownership . 36 @.@ 4 % of all households do not have a car . Less than 5 % of the population travel to work by public transport compared with 15 % nationally . The district is one of the lowest non @-@ white populations , with the census reporting 98 @.@ 8 % of the inhabitants being white . Hull itself is also quite monoethnic for a city of its size , with the census reporting 97 @.@ 7 % white .
Areas of the East Riding show significant signs of affluence , including the Parliamentary constituency of Haltemprice and Howden which mainly consists of middle class suburbs , towns and villages including Swanland , Cottingham , Howden , Brough and North Ferriby . The area is affluent and has one of the highest proportions of owner @-@ occupiers in the country .
The crime rate in the East Riding is lower than the national average in robbery , sexual offences , theft of a vehicle , theft from a vehicle , violence against a person and burglary .
Christianity is the religion with the largest following in the area , with 79 @.@ 67 % residents so identifying in the 2001 census . These census figures show no other single religion returned affiliation , as a percentage of population , above the national average for England . At the time of the 2001 UK census the population of the East Riding was 314 @,@ 113 and its ethnic composition was 96 @.@ 80 % white , compared with the English average of 90 @.@ 92 % . The area has a slightly higher elderly population , of 24 @.@ 0 % in 2008 , than the national average .
= = Towns and villages = =
Excluding Kingston upon Hull there are several areas of settlement in the East Riding , each giving rise to distinctive types of small to medium @-@ sized towns and villages . Cottingham and Willerby are exceptional in that they are suburban villages which are almost contiguous with the Hull urban area . Bridlington is the most populous of the coastal settlements , which also include Flamborough , Hornsea , Withernsea and Aldbrough . Towns and villages on the flat agricultural area of Holderness are Hedon and Roos , and nestling in the Great Wold Valley is Rudston . Along the eastern foot of the Wolds lie Beverley , Bishop Burton , Driffield and Lockington . In the low @-@ lying lands close to the Humber Estuary are Goole , Brough , North Ferriby , Hessle and Kirk Ella . Stamford Bridge , Pocklington , Market Weighton , Holme @-@ on @-@ Spalding @-@ Moor , Howden and South Cave all lie to the north and west of the area , between the River Derwent and the scarp slope of the Wolds .
= = Places of interest = =
There are a wide range of interesting places to visit in the East Riding . These include historic buildings such as Burnby Hall , Burton Agnes Manor House , Burton Agnes Hall , Sewerby Hall , Skipsea Castle and the gun battery of Fort Paull . The religious edifices of the Rudston Monolith , Beverley Minster and Beverley Friary , and Howden Minster can be visited at all seasons .
The sails of Skidby Windmill can be seen providing the power to grind flour on certain days , and natural sites provide interest at Spurn , Bempton Cliffs , Hornsea Mere , Humber Estuary , River Hull , Watton Beck , River Derwent , River Ouse , River Aire , River Trent , and River Don , some of which are owned or run by the Yorkshire Wildlife Trust .
The Driffield Navigation , Leven Canal , Market Weighton Canal and Pocklington Canal offer glimpses of tranquillity . Stamford Bridge is the site of the famous battle , and the Yorkshire Wolds Way is a long @-@ distance footpath that takes a winding route through the Yorkshire Wolds to Filey .
= = = Religious sites = = =
Most of the East Riding is in the East Riding Archdeaconry of the Church of England Diocese of York . The archdeaconry includes the Yorkshire Wolds and the City of Hull , with a coastline extending from Scarborough and Bridlington in the north to Spurn Point . The Middlesbrough Roman Catholic diocese covers the East Riding of Yorkshire and North Yorkshire , together with the City of York . Notable religious sites include Beverley Minster and Bridlington Priory along with the historic parish church of St Augustine , Hedon , known as the ' King of Holderness ' , which is a Grade I listed building . The Sykes Churches Trail is a tour of East Yorkshire churches which were built , rebuilt or restored by the Sykes family of Sledmere House in the nineteenth century .
= = Transport = =
The East Riding has only a small segment of motorway . Part of the M62 serves to link the Hull area to West Yorkshire and the national motorway network , while the M18 incidentally passes the district border near Goole . Primary roads in the district include the A63 , A164 , A165 , A1034 , A166 , A1033 and the A1079 .
Hull Paragon is a large railway station , served by the Selby Line to the west and the Yorkshire Coast Line to the north . See Railway stations in the East Riding of Yorkshire .
Train operators active in the area are Northern , Virgin Trains East Coast and TransPennine Express . Hull Trains is an ' open access ' operator established in 2002 running fast services between London and Hull . Bus services are provided by several operators including FirstGroup , which provides services from the East Riding into York , Goole Town Service and also services from Goole to Doncaster . Stagecoach provides services from the East Riding to Hull and into Lincolnshire , and East Yorkshire Motor Services , historically the dominant area operator , provides a wide variety of bus services throughout the East Riding . Yorkshire Coastliner provides services from Bridlington to Malton , York and Leeds . Holderness Area Rural Transport , a charity , provides a community transport service for North Holderness , taking people to medical appointments in Hull and to the shops .
The Humber Bridge , a road @-@ only bridge , part of the A15 , links Hessle , west of Hull , with Barton @-@ upon @-@ Humber in Lincolnshire . West of this the next crossing of the river ( the Ouse at this point ) are three bridges near Goole : a railway bridge , the M62 bridge and the A614 .
The area is served by Humberside Airport located in Lincolnshire .
= = Economy = =
The district is generally rural , with no towns approaching the size of Hull . There are a few market towns such as Beverley , Driffield , Goole , Market Weighton and Pocklington , and the coastal towns of Bridlington , Hornsea and Withernsea . In the south the district contains areas such as Hessle which are part of the Hull urban area but outside the city boundaries . Rural areas tend to have a greater business stock than urban areas , reflecting the number of agricultural businesses and small businesses in rural areas . 20 % of all VAT registered businesses in the East Riding are in agriculture and related sectors , although the number of such businesses fell by 40 % between 1997 and 2003 . Easington , on the coast , is the site of a natural gas terminal , Easington Gas Terminal , used for the Langeled pipeline , as well as three other gas terminals operated by BP and Centrica .
This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of East Riding of Yorkshire at current basic prices with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling .
a Components may not sum to totals due to rounding
b includes hunting and forestry
c includes energy and construction
d includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured
The East Riding is characterised by a high employment rate and a relatively low unemployment level . The overall unemployment rate is 4 @.@ 3 % , which is 1 @.@ 2 percentage points lower than the national average . However , there are unemployment hotspots in Bridlington , Goole and Withernsea . Unemployment levels tend to fluctuate over the course of the year with lower levels during the summer months due to increased employment in the tourism and food production sectors . A major year @-@ round employer in the East Riding is the Defence School of Transport at RAF Leconfield , which trains 14 @,@ 000 personnel from the Army , the Royal Air Force and the Royal Marines each year and provides more than 1 @,@ 000 civilian jobs .
The East Riding of Yorkshire Council has joined Hull City Council , North East Lincolnshire and North Lincolnshire Councils in the Hull and Humber Ports City Region Partnership .
= = = Renewable energy = = =
The UK government has set a target to generate 10 % of the UK 's electricity from renewable energy sources by 2010 . The Energy White Paper ( 2003 ) sets out the Government 's aspiration to double that figure to 20 % by 2020 . It has additionally signed up to the legally binding Kyoto Protocol , which requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 12 @.@ 5 % of 1990 levels by 2008 – 12 and a reduction of CO2 emissions by 20 % of 1990 levels by 2010 . Regional and local authorities are required to contribute to the delivery of these national targets . The East Riding has an above @-@ average potential to generate renewable electricity for Local Authorities in the region due its large wind energy potential . The East Riding of Yorkshire is set a target of 41 MW by 2010 , and a target for 2021 of 148 MW for installed grid @-@ connected renewable energy . There are operational wind farms at Lissett in Holderness and Out Newton to the north of the Humber estuary .
There are single turbines at the Waste Water Treatment Works at Saltend and at Loftsome Bridge Water Treatment Works near Barmby on the Marsh . In addition , several other wind developments have either been given or are applying for permission . By late February 2009 there was existing developed capacity or planning approval for 140 MW of renewable energy from wind farm developments . The overall renewable energy target for 2010 and 2021 has therefore already been exceeded by wind energy proposals alone , assuming some of these schemes will be operational by 2010 . The East Riding has also exceeded 148 MW , when other renewable energy types such as biomass are included in the calculation . The Humber estuary is to be used for trials of a tidal stream generator . If successful , it will be used to develop larger models which could be deployed in a 100 @-@ unit " renewable power station " capable of powering 70 @,@ 000 homes .
= = Education = =
The East Riding local education authority supports 150 schools : 131 primary schools and 19 secondary schools . The total net spending per head of population on education rose from £ 578 @.@ 08 in 2006 / 07 to £ 632 @.@ 88 in 2007 / 08 . In 2009 primary school test results showed a slide down the national performance table for the East Riding authority , dropping eight places in the national league table to 28th after other education authorities improved more in the tests .
At secondary level the authority slipped seven places to 39th out of 149 authorities , despite producing the best set of General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) results since the inception of East Riding Council in 1996 . The percentage of students achieving five or more good GCSEs , at grades A * – C including maths and English , rose to 52 @.@ 5 per cent , from 50 @.@ 8 per cent in 2007 . This is above the national average of 47 @.@ 6 per cent . Bishop Burton is the location of Bishop Burton College , a further education and higher education college specialising in agriculture and equine studies . Beverley Grammar School , which was founded around 700 AD , is widely renowned for being the oldest continuously operating state school in England .
Furthermore , Hull is home to several schools , including the private Hymers College , and a university . The University of Hull was founded as a university college in 1927 and received full university status in 1954 ; it is home to the Hull York Medical School , and has seen large scale expansion in recent years to cater for the ever growing number of students .
= = Public services = =
Both the East Riding and Hull are still covered by the Humberside Police area and the Humberside Fire and Rescue Service . Piped water is supplied by Yorkshire Water who also maintain the sewerage system . About 1 % of the population use water from private supplies . They are usually in the more remote parts of the East Riding . The majority are bore holes but they can be wells or natural springs . NHS East Riding of Yorkshire provides health services such as district nursing , health visiting , school nursing , intermediate care and therapy services . It works with local GP practices , pharmacists , dentists , optometrists and ambulance services to provide a primary healthcare service . Hull and East Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust provides hospitals at Castle Hill Hospital , Hull Royal Infirmary and Beverley Westwood Hospital . Scarborough and North East Yorkshire Healthcare NHS Trust runs Bridlington Hospital and also provides health care from the community hospitals at Driffield and Malton which are run by the local primary care trusts ( NHS East Riding and NHS North Yorkshire and York ) . Small cottage and community hospitals provide a range of services at Hornsea and Withernsea .
There are ten household waste recycling sites across the East Riding . In the financial year 2004 / 05 210 @,@ 112 tonnes ( 206 @,@ 794 long tons ; 231 @,@ 609 short tons ) of municipal waste was collected by East Riding and 154 @,@ 723 tonnes ( 152 @,@ 279 long tons ; 170 @,@ 553 short tons ) by Hull . Between 2003 / 04 and 2004 / 05 the amount of waste collected in Hull increased by 1 @.@ 77 % ( 2 @,@ 696 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 653 long tons ; 2 @,@ 972 short tons ) ) and in the East Riding by 4 @.@ 80 % ( 9 @,@ 629 tonnes ( 9 @,@ 477 long tons ; 10 @,@ 614 short tons ) ) . Target 45 + is a joint sustainable waste @-@ management strategy developed in partnership by Hull City Council and the East Riding of Yorkshire Council . The overall aim is to achieve 45 % recycling or composting by 2010 and then go beyond this . At the outset it was anticipated that recycling rates in the East Riding by the end of 2005 / 06 would be 22 @.@ 4 % and in Hull the rate would be 17 @.@ 4 % . The Waste Recycling Group is a company working in partnership with the Hull City and East Riding of Yorkshire councils to deal with waste . The company has plans to build an energy from waste plant at Saltend to deal with 240 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 240 @,@ 000 long tons ; 260 @,@ 000 short tons ) of rubbish and put waste to a productive use by providing power for the equivalent of 20 @,@ 000 houses .
= = Sport and leisure = =
Hull is the main centre for national @-@ level sport in the region . Hull City A.F.C. play in the Premier League , the first tier of the English football league system , after promotion from the Championship in the 2016 play @-@ off final win against Sheffield Wednesday . Bridlington Town A.F.C. play in the Northern Counties East League Premier Division . There are two professional rugby league teams based in Hull : Hull F.C. and Hull Kingston Rovers . Both teams play in the Super League . Bridlington Rugby Union Football Club plays at Dukes Park in Bridlington . The Hull Stingrays ice hockey team plays in the highest tier of the sport , the Elite League .
Horse racing is catered for at Beverley Racecourse on the Westwood to the west of Beverley . What the organisers claim is the world 's oldest horse race , the Kiplingcotes Derby , has been held annually in the East Riding since 1519 . There are more than a dozen golf clubs in the Riding including the cliff @-@ top course at Flamborough . The Royal Yorkshire Yacht Club is based at Bridlington , and flying and gliding take place from Pocklington airfield and Eddsfield airfield .
= = Media = =
The region is covered by the BBC Yorkshire and Lincolnshire based in Hull and ITV Yorkshire , broadcast from Leeds . Local analogue radio stations include BBC Radio Humberside , Capital Yorkshire , KCFM , Viking FM and Yorkshire Coast Radio . A local Digital Audio Broadcasting multiplex is based around Humberside . The county also has three Community radio stations Seaside FM , which serves the Holderness area on 105 @.@ 3 FM MHz , Vixen 101 which serves Market Weighton and Pocklington and 107 @.@ 8 Beverley FM which serves Beverley and the surrounding areas .
Newspapers include the Hull Daily Mail , owned by the Northcliffe Media group . An East Riding Mail has recently been launched as a sister paper to this . Other newspapers in the area include the Bridlington Free Press , the Beverley Guardian , the Driffield Times & Post , the Goole Times and the Holderness Gazette .
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= HMS Philomel ( 1890 ) =
HMS Philomel , later HMNZS Philomel , was a Pearl @-@ class cruiser . She was the fifth ship of that name and served with the Royal Navy . After her commissioning in 1890 , she served on the Cape of Good Hope Station and later with the Mediterranean Fleet .
In 1914 , she was loaned to New Zealand for service with what would later become the Royal New Zealand Navy . During the early stages of the First World War she performed convoy escort duties and then carried out operations in the Mediterranean against the Turks . She later conducted patrols in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf .
By 1917 , she was worn out and dispatched back to New Zealand where she served as a depot ship in Wellington Harbour for minesweepers . In 1921 she was transferred to the Devonport Naval Base in Auckland for service as a training ship . Decommissioned and sold for scrap in 1947 , her hulk was scuttled in 1949 .
= = Design and description = =
HMS Philomel was laid down on 9 May 1889 at HM Naval Dockyard in Devonport , Plymouth . Her name is derived from Philomela , in Greek mythology the daughter of Pandion I , King of Athens , and was the fifth ship to be so named .
The ship had an overall length of 278 feet ( 84 @.@ 7 m ) , a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) and a draught of 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 575 long tons ( 2 @,@ 616 t ) . Propulsion was through 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , driving two shafts , which produced a total of 7 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 600 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . She was also rigged for sail and when installing the foremast , workmen noticed it was stamped " Devonport Dockyard 1757 " . Her main armament consisted of eight QF 4 @.@ 7 inch ( 120 mm ) guns with a secondary armament of eight 3 @-@ pounders . As well as four machine guns , the ship also mounted two submerged 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) torpedo tubes .
Philomel was launched on 28 August 1890 , and completed the following March . After completing sea trials , she was commissioned in the Royal Navy on 10 November 1891 . Commanded by Captain Charles Campbell , she was assigned to the Cape of Good Hope Station although fitting work and working up trials meant that Philomel did not arrive in South Africa until June 1892 .
= = Operational history = =
For six years , Philomel served on station , intercepting slave traders along the coast of Africa . In 1896 , she participated in the Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War , during which rebels murdered the Sultan of Zanzibar and seized his palace . Along with the three gunboats and HMS St George , she bombarded the palace fortress and the only ship of the Zanzibar Navy , the HHS Glasgow . This action lasted less than an hour and resulted in the routing of the rebels . The following year , Philomel was transferred to the West Africa Station and participated in the Benin Expedition .
A refit was completed in 1898 after which Philomel returned to Cape of Good Hope Station . She served throughout the Second Boer War . Some of her complement of 220 men served in the field with the Naval Brigade . Two of her 4 @.@ 7 inch guns were disembarked and used in the Battle of Colenso . After the war , she returned to Devonport and was paid off on 22 March 1902 . She was laid up in the Firth of Forth for several years before a refit was carried out in 1907 at Haulbowline Dock in Ireland . During her tow to Ireland she went adrift for a night in the North Sea when the rope to the towing vessel , the HMS Hampshire , broke .
Philomel was recommissioned in February 1908 for service with the Mediterranean Fleet under the command of Captain John Seagrave . She provided assistance in the wake of the earthquake at Messina in Sicily . The following year she served with the East Indies Station , running patrols from Aden in the Persian Gulf for two years .
= = = Transfer to New Zealand = = =
In 1913 the Admiralty agreed to lend Philomel to New Zealand as a seagoing training cruiser to form the nucleus of the newly established New Zealand Naval Forces , which was a new division of the Royal Navy . This was in response to the desire of the New Zealand Minister of Defence at the time , James Allen , who wanted to establish a local naval force which would co @-@ operate with the fledgling Royal Australian Navy .
Philomel was recommissioned in October 1913 in Singapore and later sailed for New Zealand to join HMAS Psyche and HMAS Pyramus , both Pelorus @-@ class cruisers serving on the New Zealand Station . The Philomel was commissioned for New Zealand service on 15 July 1914 , under the command of Captain Percival Hall @-@ Thompson . Although mainly crewed by Englishmen , she was the country 's first warship .
= = = First World War = = =
The Philomel was on a short shakedown voyage to Picton on 30 July 1914 , prior to taking on its first complement of New Zealand cadets , when it was recalled to Wellington Harbour in anticipation of the outbreak of war . Largely crewed by personnel from the Royal Navy , volunteers were brought on board to bring the ship up to full strength and after stocking up with supplies , she departed for Auckland to await further instructions . On 15 August 1914 she formed part of the ocean escort for the New Zealand forces which was dispatched to occupy German Samoa ( now Samoa ) . The escort would have been unlikely to offer much resistance to the German cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and SMS Gneisenau that were known to be in the area . Fortunately , the convoy did not encounter the German ships . Philomel then steamed for the Kingdom of Tonga to deliver news of the hostilities with Imperial Germany before returning to New Zealand .
By now the main body of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force , formed for service overseas , were ready to embark from Wellington on a convoy for the Middle East . Philomel escorted the convoy as far as Western Australia . Then , along with Pyramus , she sailed northeastwards for Singapore in search of the German cruiser SMS Emden , which was then carrying out raids in the Indian Ocean . The two ships , which would have been outgunned by the more modern Emden , had reached Christmas Island when they received news of the Emden 's sinking by HMAS Sydney . They arrived in Singapore on 12 November from where Philomel continued onto Port Said , escorting three French troopships .
From late 1914 , Philomel , needing maintenance and an update of equipment , was berthed at Malta and underwent an overhaul . This was completed by late January 1915 and she then started operations in the Mediterranean against the Turks . On 8 February she landed an armed party in Southern Turkey where a large force of Turkish soldiers were encountered , resulting in three seamen being killed and three wounded . This action marked the first deaths in the war of New Zealanders serving with a New Zealand formation .
Subsequently Philomel was deployed in the Red Sea and in the Persian Gulf for much of the remainder of the year . In December 1915 she sailed to Bombay for maintenance work but was back in the Persian Gulf in January 1916 , continuing her patrolling . By the end of the year , her engines were giving trouble and her stern glands were worn out . A lengthy and costly refit was required and rather than incur this cost for a ship which was nearly at the end of her operational life , the Admiralty decided to gift her to New Zealand and dispatched her home to be paid off . She duly arrived in Wellington Harbour in March 1917 . A large portion of her Royal Navy crew were returned to England to be assigned to other berths . Armament removed , Philomel was recommissioned as a depot ship in Wellington , supporting minesweeping operations until May 1919 .
= = = Postwar service = = =
In March 1921 , on the creation of the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy , Philomel was recommissioned as a training base . She steamed from her berth at Wellington to the dockyard at the Devonport Naval Base in Auckland . Moored alongside the training jetty , she was operated as a training facility for new recruits to the naval service , under the command of a series of officers from the Royal Navy including , for nearly six months in 1923 , Commander Augustus Agar VC . Training armament was installed and in 1925 , her boilers and engines were removed to create more accommodation space . Further accommodation , in the form of wooden cabins , was later constructed on her deck . In October 1941 , on the creation of the Royal New Zealand Navy , Philomel was recommissioned as the training base HMNZS Philomel .
= = = Fate = = =
Philomel was paid off and decommissioned on 17 January 1947 and her name transferred to the Devonport Naval Shore Establishment . On the day of her decommissioning , the New Zealand Naval Board sent a signal to Philomel which stated :
" ... their regret at the passing from the service of the first of His Majesty ’ s New Zealand Ships , a ship that has meant so much to all who served in her . She goes as many good ships have gone before her , but when HMNZS Philomel ’ s colours are hauled down at sunset this evening , the tradition which she has established during her long career will live on in the depot to which she has given her name . "
The hulk of the Philomel was sold to the Strongman Shipping Company , based in Coromandel . She was towed and deliberately ran aground in Coromandel harbour , near the wharf . After her fittings and parts were removed , she was towed out to sea and sunk near Cuvier Island on 6 August 1949 . Much of the teak timber and some fittings went into a newly built coaster named Coromel , an amalgamation of Coromandel and Philomel . Her crest is mounted to the gate of the Devonport Naval Base .
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= Personal relationships of Michael Jackson =
The personal relationships of Michael Jackson have been the subject of public and media attention for several decades . He was introduced to the topic of sexual activity at age nine while a member of The Jackson 5 . He and his brothers would perform at strip clubs , sharing the bill with female strippers and drag queens , and the sexual adventures of his brothers with groupies further affected Jackson 's early life . The entertainer said his " first real date " was with the child actress Tatum O 'Neal , when he was a teenager in the 1970s ; he called her " my first love - after Diana [ Ross ] . " The pair eventually " cooled off " and Jackson entered into a romance with model Brooke Shields in 1981 . Although the relationship became largely platonic , Shields said there were times he had asked her to marry him . As they grew older , the two saw each other less .
Having first been introduced to Lisa Marie Presley by her father , Elvis , in 1974 , Jackson reconnected with Lisa Marie in November 1992 . Shortly after becoming involved with her , in 1993 , Jackson was subjected to his first set of child sexual abuse accusations , followed by similar allegations in 2003 . Presley supported Jackson as he became dependent on pain medication , and eventually helped convince him to enter drug rehabilitation . In a telephone call , he proposed marriage to Presley . She agreed , and the two wed on May 26 , 1994 , at a private ceremony in the Dominican Republic . Married life for the couple was difficult , and the union ended in divorce in August 1996 . Presley and Jackson continued to date , on and off , for four more years after their divorce .
Throughout his marriage with Presley , Jackson maintained a friendship with Debbie Rowe . She was the assistant of the pop singer 's dermatologist and had been treating his appearance @-@ changing disease vitiligo since the mid @-@ 1980s . While separated but still married to Presley , Jackson impregnated Rowe , but she suffered a miscarriage and lost their baby in March 1996 . Following the ordeal and the finalization of his first divorce , Jackson wed the pregnant Rowe on November 13 , 1996 , in Sydney , Australia . From the marriage , two of Jackson 's three children were produced : son Michael Joseph " Prince " Jackson , Jr . ( born February 13 , 1997 ) and daughter Paris Michael Katherine Jackson ( born April 3 , 1998 ) . Jackson and Rowe divorced on October 8 , 1999 , with Rowe giving full custody rights of the children to Jackson . His third and final child , son Prince Michael Jackson II , was born to an unnamed surrogate mother on February 21 , 2002 .
In July 2009 , it was revealed Jackson 's will named Diana Ross as the next @-@ in @-@ line guardian for his children , after his mother , Katherine . In September 2009 , Rabbi Shmuley Boteach released a book based on taped conversations he had with Jackson in 2001 . It included Jackson 's thoughts on personal relationships in general and specific ones . His romantic feelings for two famous friends were widely cited in the media ; when asked if he got jealous when his long @-@ time friend Elizabeth Taylor dated other men , he replied , " Yes and no . I know that if we ever did anything romantically the press would be so mean and nasty and call us the Odd Couple . It would turn into a circus and that 's the pain of it all . "
= = Early sexual and emotional experiences = =
= = = Strip clubs = = =
From a young age , Jackson was exposed to sex . He received mixed messages on the subject from his parents . His mother Katherine was a devout Jehovah 's Witness and conveyed her thoughts clearly ; lust in thought or deed was sinful outside of marriage , and physical intimacy should be saved for marriage . In contrast to his wife , father Joseph , a steel mill worker , shunned the religion and would have The Jackson 5 perform at strip clubs and seedy bars in the earliest days of their career . He allowed nine @-@ year @-@ old Michael to watch from the wings of the stage as male audience members whistled at women who stripped until nude . In one incident , a fascinated Michael watched as an apparently big breasted female removed all but her underwear . The stripper then proceeded to reach into her bra , removing two large oranges and the wig from her head , to reveal that the person he thought was a female was not a woman at all .
While playing at Chicago 's Peppermint Lounge , the brothers made use of a peephole in their dressing room , through which they had a clear view of the women 's bathroom . They would take turns watching the women and , as Marlon recalled , " learned everything there was to know about ladies " . During other residencies , the siblings would perform Joe Tex 's " Skinny Legs and All " . Joseph Jackson would instruct a young Michael to make his way into the audience , crawl under tables , lift up ladies ' skirts and peek at their panties as part of the performance . Though embarrassed by the task , Jackson feigned enjoyment as he knew the audience loved the routine .
Following such performances , the Jackson brothers would be tucked in bed by their oblivious mother and reminded of the virtues of being a good Jehovah 's Witness . Katherine remained unaware of her sons ' strip club activities for many years . Journalist J. Randy Taraborrelli reflected on Jackson 's early life and noted that at such a young age , the singer may not have been psychologically equipped to fully understand any sexual stimulation he may have received from such voyeuristic events . The writer further commented that Jackson 's views on sex must have been conflicted between those of his religiously strict mother and his more libertine and promiscuous father .
= = = Groupies and prostitutes = = =
As members of the increasingly successful Jackson 5 , Michael 's brothers Jermaine and Jackie found fame advantageous . As they toured the country , they had sex with many female fans . Their guide was their father Joseph , who would often organize and arrange sexual encounters for his sons as well as cheat on his wife Katherine with their sons ' groupies . The two brothers would bring girls back to a hotel room , where younger siblings Michael and Marlon were instructed to " play sleep " . One girl , who had sexual relations with Jermaine , recalled such an experience :
" I jumped into bed with him and he climbed on top of me . As he climaxed , he shuddered so loudly I was afraid he would wake up Michael and Marlon , who were sleeping three feet away in the next bed . Or at least I thought they were sleeping . As I was slipping out of the room , I heard Michael say to Jermaine , ' Nice job . Now , can we please get some sleep ? ' "
While Marlon would correspond with and eventually marry his wife Carol at 18 , Michael never had sex with groupies , finding his brothers ' behavior toward women disgusting . In addition to not touching groupies , Jackson reportedly never had an interest in having any type of sex as a youngster . In one alleged incident , when he was 15 years old , a male family member arranged for two prostitutes to take his virginity . They were told to " work him over " , before being locked in a room with him . Instead Michael picked up a bible and read bible verses to the girls . The girls left in tears . James McField , who worked with The Jackson 5 , stated that the lead singer of the band often needed someone to talk with . It was at these times that women would be introduced to him for companionship . McField asserted that he never witnessed anything sexual , and that such females were not Jackson 's type ; " He liked nice girls , pure girls who appeared to have no street background . "
Jackson occasionally admonished and advised the groupies and prostitutes sent to pleasure his siblings . One Jackson fan recalled being selected from the audience to meet with Jackie . Backstage , she was handed a scrap of paper with an address to the location in which they were to meet . Michael approached her from behind and warned her that his brothers did not treat women right and that his brother only wanted to use her for sex . Changing the subject , the female fan asked for the pop star 's autograph , which request he obliged in addition to writing , " Please , don 't go " . The woman ignored Michael 's request and headed to the Jacksons ' apartment complex , where she had sex with Jackie . Afterward , Jackie informed the woman that they would not meet again . Ashamed and upset , the fan left the apartment in tears .
On another occasion , a prostitute was brought to Jackson 's room after a concert in Madison Square Garden . There , the pop star interrogated the sex worker , asking why she was a prostitute , whether she wanted to have sex with him , and how much it would cost . The woman responded that she was a prostitute for the money , but that she would have sex with him for free because she wanted him . The prostitute then proceeded to unbutton her blouse , exposing her breasts . Apparently repulsed , Jackson turned his head and begged her to " put them back " . The singer suggested that they talk instead but would still pay her , which the prostitute declined to do ; she was not there to talk . Instead , she gave Jackson her telephone number , urging him to call her when he wanted to " get off " . Jackson acknowledged the prostitute as she left , stating that he would perhaps call her one day , though he never did .
= = First relationships = =
= = = Tatum O 'Neal = = =
One of Jackson 's first documented relationships was with the child actress Tatum O 'Neal in the 1970s . Their friendship was established by the time O 'Neal was 12 and Jackson was 17 , and featured in gossip columns for several years after . Jackson reflected in 1982 that he and O 'Neal had been engaged in a serious relationship , but because both were busy , it had " cooled off " to the point of their remaining just friends .
In the documentary Living With Michael Jackson ( 2003 ) , Michael alleged that near the beginning of their relationship , the 12 @-@ year @-@ old actress tried to seduce the then 17 @-@ year @-@ old singer . According to Jackson , the incident happened at her home , where she attempted to unbutton his shirt and talked explicitly about sex . O 'Neal 's behavior apparently proved too much for Jackson , who became scared and covered his face , before she walked away . When confronted with the allegation , O 'Neal claimed to have been " just as shocked as everyone else " . She stated that while having respect for Jackson as an artist and a person , he had " a very vivid imagination " . The actress described his statements as " inaccurate " ; " at 12 years old , there was no way she was capable of being as mature or as sophisticated as he claimed " . O 'Neal released her autobiography A Paper Life in 2004 , a year after the Jackson documentary . In the book , she claimed it was Jackson who attempted to make out with her . The actress wrote , " I was just 12 and not at all ready for a real @-@ life encounter [ ... ] Michael , who was sweating profusely , seemed as intimidated as I was . He jumped up nervously and said , ' Uh ... gotta go . ' "
But this contradicted O 'Neal 's own account of the relationship in 1995 in Vibe , where she remembered Jackson as " being so shy " and " one of the nicest , most innocent people I 've ever met " , and , " Once he came into my bedroom , and he wouldn 't even sit on my bed . " She described the relationship as " a really wonderful friendship " where they would dance and " talk on the phone all the time . " She recalled that he found it funny that she could drive at 12 and he couldn 't . And that one time they had a " jam session " at her house where he played the drums and her brother played guitar . She said the relationship ended when she was 12 , after he asked her to go to the premiere of The Wiz with him , but her agent disapproved , " maybe because they thought he wasn 't a big enough star yet " , and she did what she was told because she was a child . While she claimed they never spoke after that , they were actually shown to be together a number of times after this would have happened .
Jackson also spoke about O 'Neal in 2001 with Rabbi Shmuley . He described holding hands with her : " I was , like , in heaven . It was the most magical thing . It was better than kissing her , it was better than anything . " He recalled one of the times they held hands :
I remember we went to this club , and I don 't go to clubs , which was called the Roxy . And I was watching the band , I was sitting there , and underneath the table , she was holding my hand , and I was , like melting . [ Rabbi Shmuley : She held your hand and you felt love ? ] Fireworks going off . It was all I needed . But that means nothing to kids today . She grew up too fast . She wasn 't into innocence , and I love that .
And similar to what he told Bashir , he said , " ... she was 13 . And I was naive . She wanted to do everything and I didn 't want to have sex at all . "
= = = Brooke Shields = = =
Jackson met 15 @-@ year @-@ old actress / model Brooke Shields in 1981 , at the Academy Awards . From there , the pair enjoyed a close relationship . Speaking in 2009 , she reflected that they were close because sex was never an issue for them . Although the headlines in the media referred to Shields ' talking about an " asexual Jackson " after his death , what she actually said was , “ As he grew older and the more he started to change physically , the more asexual he became to me . ” She also said that as she grew up and started having boyfriends , she would confide in him about her intimate experiences , as he was curious . She said , " he was like a little kid who talked about the bases – what first base was , what second base was " – and his curiosity was understandable given his guarded life .
In 2001 , Jackson told Rabbi Shmuley : Shields was " one of the loves of my life . I just wished she loved me as much as I loved her " , and , they " dated a lot . " Before meeting her , he said that he had pictures of her all over his room . He recalled his happiness when they first met in 1981 . He was at the 53rd Academy Awards with Diana Ross , and Shields walked up and introduced herself ; then at the after @-@ party she asked him to dance with her . They exchanged numbers , and he " was up all night , singing , spinning around my room , just so happy . " He also said , “ We had one encounter when she got real intimate and I chickened out . And I shouldn ’ t have . ”
In Moonwalk ( 1988 ) , Jackson said his relationship with Shields was " romantically serious for a while . " Shields said that while never formally proposing , he would speak about the two marrying and raising adoptive children together . The suggestions were met with disapproval from Shields , who felt such a move would have " divided [ her ] life too much " . She recalled : " There were times when he would ask me to marry him , and I would say , ' You have me for the rest of your life , you don ’ t need to marry me , I ’ m going to go on ... have my own marriage and my own kids , and you ’ ll always have me . ' I think it made him relax . He didn ’ t want to lose things that meant something to him . "
As the couple 's separate lives diverged , the two gradually saw each other less . At the time of Jackson 's death in 2009 , the pair had not seen each other for 16 years . Shields claimed that in the singer 's last years " it was harder to get the right number to get through to him " . In July 2009 , she spoke at the Michael Jackson memorial service , reminiscing about their time together :
" Thinking back to when we met and the many times that we spent together and whenever we were out together , there would be a caption of some kind , and the caption usually said something like ' an odd couple ' or ' an unlikely pair , ' but to us it was the most natural and easiest of friendships .... Michael always knew he could count on me to support him or be his date and that we would have fun no matter where we were . We had a bond .... Both of us needed to be adults very early , but when we were together , we were two little kids having fun . "
In a June 30 , 2009 interview , Ola Ray also said that she and Jackson " would play like little kids " when working on the Thriller video ( 1983 ) , as she recalled how he was clearly " into Brooke Shields " and kept on teasing her about Shields ' visiting the set .
= = Lisa Marie Presley = =
= = = First meeting and courtship = = =
In 1974 , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old Michael Jackson — who would later be dubbed " The King of Pop " — was introduced for the first time to his future wife at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino in Paradise , Nevada by her father , " The King of Rock ' n ' Roll " , Elvis Presley . Lisa Marie was six at the time , and had been brought to the hotel to watch a show by The Jackson 5 , of whom she was a big fan . The young girl was particularly fascinated by lead singer Michael Jackson and his talent at dancing .
According to a friend of Presley 's , " their adult friendship began in November 1992 in L.A. " They met at a private dinner held at the home of their mutual friend the artist Brett @-@ Livingstone Strong . Knowing that Presley had been looking for help within the music industry , Strong had her play tapes for Jackson , who was impressed with the female singer 's voice . The pair talked for the remainder of the night , until it was time for Jackson to leave . At this point , according to Strong , the entertainer gave Presley , who was still married at the time , a penetrating look and said in a conspiratorial voice , " You and me , we could get into a lot of trouble . Think about that , girl . "
In the days following this interaction , Presley and Jackson spoke on the telephone almost every day , forging a strong friendship . The two came to realize they had much in common : both had been protected and sheltered from the real world , both felt they had missed out on a normal childhood , both were mistrustful of outsiders having spent most of their lives feeling exploited by them , and both had problems with the media . Presley was raised in Graceland , while Jackson lived at Neverland .
In 1993 , he became the subject of child sexual abuse accusations and the female singer , along with a few others , was there for emotional support . Michael would call Presley from overseas as he embarked upon the second leg of the Dangerous World Tour and the child abuse investigation intensified . During such telephone conversations , the female star attempted to reverse Jackson 's sadness with humour and advice . Presley later recalled that she believed in the musician 's innocence and that she could " save him " . Fueled by her past addictions and her father 's death , Presley supported Jackson as he became addicted on painkillers , urging him to settle the allegations out of court and go into rehabilitation . He subsequently did both .
= = = Proposal and wedding = = =
It was during one of Jackson 's calls to Presley that he proposed marriage . " If I asked you to marry me , would you do it ? " , the singer queried . Though still married to actor Danny Keough , whom she had wed in 1988 and had two children with , Presley replied that she would . After a pause , Jackson exclaimed that he had to use the bathroom . Having apparently relieved himself , the singer explained to his new fiancee that his love for her was genuine and she had to believe him . In 2010 , Presley acknowledged to Oprah Winfrey that Jackson did formally propose one day in the library , taking out a 10 carat diamond ring and getting down on his knees .
Following several months engaged , Jackson and Presley wed on May 26 , 1994 , at a ceremony in the Dominican Republic . Presley had divorced Keough only 20 days before . The 15 @-@ minute ceremony was held by Judge Hugo Francisco Alvarez Perez at his home in the La Vega Province . The union was conducted in Spanish and translated for Presley and Jackson by an attorney . Eva Darling , Presley 's friend , served as a witness along with Thomas Keough , her ex @-@ husband 's brother . At the time of their marriage , the press and public were unaware that the two even knew each other . The wedding was kept secret from them , Jackson 's family , and Presley 's mother Priscilla . However , Gotham Chopra recalled that Jackson called him " in a panic " on his wedding night and asked if he had any " sex advice " , wanting " to make sure that Lisa was impressed with his ' moves . ' "
Upon being informed of her daughter 's marriage with Jackson a week later , Priscilla became irritated ; she believed the male pop singer was using her child to rehabilitate his image following the child abuse accusations . To the press , however , Priscilla stated that she was " very supportive of Lisa Marie and everything she does " .
The union was met with a mixed reaction from the media when it was made public two months later . Some sources described the union of " The King of Pop " and " The Princess of Rock ' n ' Roll " as being " The Marriage of the Century " . One newspaper headline scoffed , " Jackson @-@ Presley Union Sparks Shock , Doubt , Laughs . " Addressing both the media and public , the new Mrs. Presley @-@ Jackson issued a statement :
" My married name is Mrs. Lisa Marie Presley @-@ Jackson . My marriage to Michael Jackson took place in a private ceremony outside the United States ( 11 ) weeks ago . It was not formally announced until now for several reasons ; foremost being that we are both very private people living in the glare of the public media . We both wanted a private marriage ceremony without the distraction of a media circus . I am very much in love with Michael , I dedicate my life to being his wife . I understand and support him . We both look forward to raising a family and living happy , healthy lives together . We hope friends and fans will understand and respect our privacy . "
= = = Married life and disagreements = = =
For the next year of their married life , the newly wedded couple divided their time between Jackson 's 2 @,@ 700 @-@ acre ( 11 km2 ) Neverland Ranch in Santa Ynez , California and Presley 's 1 @-@ acre ( 4 @,@ 000 m2 ) estate , 100 miles ( 160 km ) away in Hidden Hills . Defying the initial thoughts of some of the public , Presley did not move into Jackson 's home upon getting married . According to J. Randy Taraborrelli , this was due to her wanting to remain independent , as well as Presley 's children ( Danielle and Benjamin ) finding their new stepfather " a little strange " .
The pair 's first appeared together on television at the 1994 MTV Video Music Awards , in what has been described as a " memorable moment " . Holding hands , the couple walked onto the stage in New York . In front of a television audience of 250 million , Jackson announced , " Just think , nobody thought this would last " , before embracing Presley in a kiss . Afterward , Presley became angered at her husband , feeling he had used her . The male pop singer reasoned that the liplock , which was dubbed " The Kiss of the Century " , would be talked about for decades , with people playing the clip over and over . Jackson 's attempts at placating his wife proved futile ; she told the singer not to " fucking even come near me " and remained angry for several days .
In the same week , Jackson and Presley had another argument . Newspaper reports had been suggesting that if Elvis were alive , he would not approve of his daughter 's marriage . Annoyed , Jackson reportedly suggested that the couple could find out by holding a séance to contact the deceased " King of Rock ' n ' Roll " . During the session they would ask his opinion of the union . Presley felt the idea was tasteless and , upon Jackson 's continuing to push the idea , warned , " If you stay on this particular road , they 're gonna need a medium to contact you in the Great Beyond , because I 'm about to put you there , right now . " The two supposedly never spoke of the incident again .
= = = Primetime and further marriage difficulties = = =
Jackson and Presley appeared on the television show Primetime in June 1995 . In Jackson 's first interview since 1993 and Presley 's first ever , Diane Sawyer quizzed the pair on their private life with , according to Jet , a series of " insensitive " questions . Presley boasted that she and Jackson had regular sex , following Sawyer 's questioning their sex life . When asked if the marriage was a sham , Presley asserted that such rumors were " crap " ; she said she would never marry someone for any other reason than being in love with him , and concluded that if the public thought differently , they could " eat it " . The following day , Presley reflected that the interview had been a disaster ; she had hoped the couple would be perceived as being serious , yet Jackson fooled around during the show , at one point holding two fingers behind his wife 's head to make bunny ears . Presley 's friend Monica Pastelle revealed that it was at this point that the female singer began to wonder whether she had made a mistake in choosing Jackson as a long @-@ term partner .
A further problem for the pair was Jackson 's insistence on being around children . Though she never believed he was a pedophile — " I wouldn 't have let him near my kids if I thought that " — she felt her husband was only opening himself up to more rumor and innuendo following the 1993 allegations . One evening at Neverland , Presley confronted the pop star on the issue and was met with a defiant Jackson , resulting in another argument . Upon being called selfish , the male musician pointed to his humanitarian endeavors . Presley countered that his philanthropy was irrelevant , that the issue was about them .
Presley also disagreed with having children with the singer . Imagining the future and what would happen if the marriage ended , Presley saw a " custody battle nightmare " . In addition , she felt her husband was too emotionally immature to be a parent , having watched his daily interactions with other people ; she believed he was the one in need of parenting . Jackson explained to his wife over breakfast one morning that she did not have to be the biological mother if she so desired . He explained , " My friend Debbie [ Rowe ] said she will get pregnant and have my baby . If you won 't do it , then she will . How about that ? " Unmoved , Presley replied that it was fine by her .
Following several more troubled months , Jackson ended up in the hospital ; he had collapsed while rehearsing for a concert in New York . Presley arrived to meet her ill husband , and yet another heated debate ensued . The argument ended after Jackson warned her that she was making his heart rate go up and asked her to leave . She obliged , and was admonished by a doctor and Jackson 's mother Katherine along the way . Presley subsequently returned to Los Angeles . Upon being discharged from hospital , Jackson went to Disneyland Paris to recover .
= = = Divorce = = =
Presley filed for divorce in early 1996 , citing " irreconcilable differences " and noting their date of separation as December 10 , 1995 , shortly after the incident in the hospital . The divorce was finalized on August 20 , 1996 . As part of the settlement , the female singer received 10 % of the royalties from HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , which album contained the song " You Are Not Alone " , whose music video featured a semi @-@ nude Presley and Jackson frolicking against an ethereal backdrop . As she did not sign a confidentiality agreement , a further clause stated that Presley could write a tell @-@ all book about her time with Jackson . At the time , " The Princess of Rock ' n ' Roll " revealed that she had no wish to write a memoir ; the singer still had respect for Jackson and did not want to speak critically of him . Presley also wanted to preserve her own dignity and keep their life together private .
The divorce proved difficult for Jackson , who spent several weeks lamenting his loss . Presley was the first person with whom he had connected on such a high level . She had supported him as he faced allegations and became dependent on pain medication . It was also the first time that the pop singer had had a sexual chemistry with another . Presley was able to make him open up and express himself through their physically intimate moments together . At the time , Jackson was afraid there would never be another who made him feel the way his ex @-@ wife had . He eventually realized he had to move on ; he had a world tour coming up and music to work on . Jackson also knew that Presley would never make him a father , which he longed to be .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Presley was seen with Jackson in various cities during HIStory World Tour in 1997 ; notably at various functions in South Africa and in London , holding hands backstage and around the city . In February 1998 , they were photographed in an intimate moment together outside a Beverly Hills restaurant on Presley 's birthday .
In a 2010 Oprah interview , Presley admitted that they spent four years after the divorce " getting back together and breaking up " , until she felt she " had to push it away . " She described the parallels between the lives of Jackson and her father Elvis , and said Jackson constantly asked her about the details of Elvis ' death because he felt that he was " going to end up the same way . " She had described such a conversation in a blog post the day after Jackson died , wherein she shared her feelings about his death . According to Presley , the last " coherently good conversation " she had with Jackson was in 2005 . She said Jackson told her she had been right about certain people around him , whom she called " vampires . " She replied that she was indifferent when he asked if she still loved him . But Presley also said his death made her realize he loved her . She acknowledged his efforts in the relationship , saying , " He honestly tried so hard and went through so much with me " , but " I didn ’ t appreciate it then and I wish I did . " At the end of the conversation , he reportedly told her " he felt that someone was going to try to kill him to get a hold of his catalog and his estate " and named some names she didn 't want to say in the interview .
= = Debbie Rowe = =
= = = Background and friendship = = =
Debbie Rowe met Michael Jackson in the mid @-@ 1980s , while working as an assistant for the pop star 's dermatologist Dr. Arnold Klein . Rowe treated Jackson 's vitiligo , which he had been diagnosed with in 1986 and which would affect his physical appearance for the remainder of his life . Rowe supported Jackson , providing answers to the questions Jackson asked about his medical condition . The pair became good friends ; the pop star frequently sent autographed merchandise to the woman , who hung it on the walls of her office . According to Rowe 's friend Tanya Boyd , the dermatologist 's assistant would obsess over Jackson , gushing over him and his traits . She would say to her friend , " If people knew him like I knew him , they would not think he was strange . He 's unique , kinky , actually . "
The Jackson @-@ Rowe friendship would last for several years , during which time the female assistant married and divorced Richard Edelman , a man she claimed to have felt trapped by . Rowe and the musician would both talk to each other about their unhappy marriages ; his with Presley and hers with Edelman , a teacher at Hollywood High School . Like Jackson 's first wife , Rowe supported the entertainer when he was accused of child sexual abuse . Jackson kept his friendship with Rowe a secret from his wife , who eventually found out but thought nothing of it ; she felt the dermatologist 's assistant was not her husband 's type because she was not glamorous enough .
= = = First pregnancy and miscarriage = = =
As Presley had refused to carry Jackson 's children , Rowe offered to give birth to a child for the pop singer . Shortly after Presley and Jackson 's separation , Rowe became pregnant but suffered a miscarriage in March 1996 . The event devastated the woman , who feared she would never be able to have a baby . Jackson comforted and consoled Rowe throughout the ordeal , which remained hidden from the media and public .
= = = Second pregnancy and reaction = = =
Jackson embarked on the first leg of his HIStory World Tour on September 1996 . One month into the tour and several months after his divorce from Presley , Jackson 's personal life made headlines as it was revealed that Debbie Rowe was pregnant with his child . One tabloid newspaper , the News of the World , told the story under the headline " I 'm Having Michael 's Baby " . Rowe reacted furiously to the publication , labeling the editorial staff " bastards " and complaining that they reported the story as if she and Jackson were freaks . J. Randy Taraborrelli later noted that the article , which had been put together from a secret tape recording between Rowe and a friend , had been fairly accurate . It detailed that Jackson was the father of the baby and that he would be raising the child alone . It also stated that Jackson impregnated Rowe artificially with his own sperm cells , a " foolproof " method of insemination . Further reports alleged that the relationship was an " economic " one ; she was in it for the money and he sought a baby .
In a statement , Jackson condemned the accusations of being in an economic relationship and using artificial insemination as " completely false and irresponsible " . Despite the denials , it was noted that Rowe had received millions of dollars from Jackson as " gifts " over the years . Among court papers filed against Jackson in 2002 by business manager Myung Ho Lee , a monthly budget for Jackson was detailed and included a $ 1 @.@ 5 million payment to Rowe . The pop musician later bought the woman a $ 1 @.@ 3 million home in 1997 ; he and Rowe never lived together .
When the news of Rowe 's pregnancy broke to Jackson 's mother Katherine , the Jackson family matriarch urged her son to wed the mother of his unborn child . Katherine did not want her son to be like his father , who had produced an illegitimate child with a woman while married to Michael 's mother . Katherine first spoke on the telephone to Rowe about the sanctity of marriage and about the Jehovah 's Witness faith . She later spoke to Jackson , telling him to marry " that nice girl , Debbie " and " give your child a name , not like your poor , half @-@ sister , Joh 'Vonnie " . The words resonated with the musician , who did not want to repeat his father 's sins .
Prior to Katherine 's words , the view had been for Rowe to act as a surrogate mother ; she would give the baby to Jackson as a friendly favor and he would raise it . Jackson intended to issue a statement following the birth that the identity of the mother was a secret , in the same way that the identities of many surrogates are protected . Katherine 's involvement , however , influenced Jackson to call Rowe and ask her to meet him in Australia , where he was staying , as soon as she could . There , the entertainer announced his plans for them to wed the next day .
= = = Wedding = = =
Jackson and Rowe wed on November 13 , 1996 , at the Sheraton on the Park Hotel in Sydney , Australia . The night before the wedding , Jackson had called Presley , who gave him and Rowe her blessing . In front of 15 friends , the pair exchanged vows at the hotel . An 8 @-@ year @-@ old boy named Anthony , who was Jackson 's nephew , served as the best man during the ceremony . For the occasion , Jackson had put special effort into his appearance .
Media and public reaction to the marriage was negative and cynical . Some commentators believed Jackson was marrying a person he did not love , and Rowe was having a baby who may not have been biologically Jackson 's . The Daily Mirror , a British tabloid newspaper , published a photograph of Rowe on the balcony of an Australian hotel . In it , she is seen holding her head in her hands . One Jackson biographer stated that the woman 's dismayed and exasperated pose was most probably due to the excessive presence of paparazzi below . The Daily Mirror , however , ran the photograph while mockingly proclaiming , " Oh , God ! I 've Just Married Michael Jackson . "
= = = Birth of Prince Michael = = =
Jackson and Rowe 's first child together , Michael Joseph Jackson , Jr . ( also known as " Prince Michael " ) , was born on February 13 , 1997 , at Cedars @-@ Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles . The baby was named after Michael 's grandfather and great @-@ grandfather , who were both called Prince . After Rowe and Jackson cut the baby 's umbilical cord together , Prince was taken to intensive care , where he spent five hours with only minor problems . He was subsequently taken by his father to Neverland Ranch . Prince 's mother recuperated at a friend 's house upon her release from the hospital .
Six weeks after the birth , Rowe saw her son for the first time since his arrival into the world . She had met with Jackson to pose for photographs with their newborn son at a hotel . Upon arriving , Rowe was ushered into the hotel room , where she was given the infant to hold and told to smile for the camera with Michael . Afterward , she was sent on her way . Rowe did not want to become too attached to Prince , as she felt it would make her situation harder to deal with . At Neverland , Prince was cared for by a team of six nannies and six nurses during his first few months . According to one nanny who worked at the Californian ranch , Prince Michael 's mother was not a significant presence in the child 's early life . " I saw her maybe three times and she seemed very sullen . "
= = = Second pregnancy and birth of Paris = = =
Rowe announced that she was pregnant with Jackson 's second child in November 1997 . The baby was to be a girl and named Paris , after the French city in which her parents said she was conceived . On April 3 , 1998 , blue @-@ eyed Paris @-@ Michael Katherine Jackson was born . Her middle names come from Michael and his mother , Katherine . Jackson later claimed that he was so anxious following the birth of his daughter , that he " snatched " her and ran straight home " with all the placenta and everything all over her " . Rowe later confirmed that Jackson had the placenta frozen . Following the birth , Jackson 's associates contacted Pope John Paul II at the Vatican in Rome , in the hope that the Pontiff would personally baptize the pop star 's daughter . An official for the Pope informed Jackson by letter that the leader of the Catholic Church would not participate in what may be perceived as a publicity stunt .
= = = Divorce = = =
Feeling uncomfortable with their arrangement , Rowe asked Jackson for a divorce , which he granted on October 8 , 1999 . Rowe received around $ 10 million in a settlement , which started with an immediate payment of $ 1 @.@ 5 million . With the divorce , Rowe gave Jackson full custody rights to her children . At the time , both Rowe and Jackson requested privacy and asked the public not to speculate on the reasons for their divorce . They concluded that despite coming to the end of married life , they would continue to remain friends .
= = = After divorce = = =
Following the divorce , Jackson would go on to have a third child . Prince Michael II was born on February 21 , 2002 , to an unnamed surrogate mother . Rowe denied being the biological mother of Prince Michael II , who is nicknamed " Blanket " . Jackson stated that the baby was produced through artificial insemination using his own sperm cells . He further claimed that he did not know the mother , and she did not know him . The pop star added that in asking for a surrogate mother , he did not care how old she was or what race she was . It did , however , matter to him that she was intelligent , healthy , and had uncorrected eyesight .
In the television documentary , The Michael Jackson Interview : The Footage You Were Never Meant to See , a rebuttal video to Martin Bashir 's Living with Michael Jackson ( 2003 ) interview , Rowe attempted to explain her relationship with Jackson and their two children :
" My kids don 't call me Mom because I don 't want them to . They 're Michael 's children . It 's not that they are not my children , but I had them because I wanted him to be a father . People make remarks , ' I can 't believe she left her children . ' Left them ? I left my children ? I did not leave my children . My children are with their father , where they are supposed to be . I didn 't do it to be a mother ... If he called me tonight and said let 's have five more [ children ] , I 'd do it in a heartbeat . "
In 2006 , Rowe legally applied for her access to her two children to be reinstated and subsequently reached an agreement with Jackson . Following the singer 's death in 2009 , his mother Katherine was made the permanent guardian of Prince Michael , Paris , and their half @-@ brother Prince Michael II . In addition , a new custody arrangement was made with Rowe , who has visitation rights with her two children and will continue to receive spousal support payments .
Questions have frequently arisen as to whether Jackson was the biological father of his three children . Doubts first surfaced after it was reported that his son , Prince , had " white skin " . Jackson insisted in 2003 that the children were biologically his .
= = Allegations regarding sexuality = =
Despite his relationships with women , Jackson 's sexuality was the subject of speculation and controversy for decades . The pop singer faced allegations of being gay since he was a teenager , as well as later being labelled asexual . One 1970s newspaper story alleged that the then 19 @-@ year @-@ old singer was to have a sex change operation and marry the songwriter Clifton Davis . Jackson found out about the story from a crying fan . The musician reassured the girl that the tale was untrue and condemned it as a " stupid rumor " . The story circulated for many months , during which time Jackson became upset ; he was raised in a family where homosexuality was considered sinful . Jackson would continue to deny being gay throughout his life . In a 1979 interview , the pop star stated that he was not gay and that he would not " have a nervous breakdown because people think I like having sex with men " . He added that if he let the rumor affect him , it would make him cheap and make it sound as if he was prejudice against gay people . He expressed that many of his fans may be gay , and that he did not mind that . " That 's their life and this is mine . "
= = = 1993 child sexual abuse allegations = = =
In 1993 , Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse by Evan Chandler , on behalf of his then @-@ 13 @-@ year @-@ old child , Jordan Chandler . To the father 's disapproval and concern , his son had become friends with the musician in May 1992 . Allegedly under the influence of a controversial sedative administered by Evan Chandler , a dentist , his son said that Jackson had touched his penis . Evan Chandler was tape @-@ recorded threatening to damage the singer 's music career , and engaged Jackson in unsuccessful negotiations to resolve the issue with a financial settlement . Jordan Chandler then told a psychiatrist and later police that he and Jackson had engaged in acts of kissing , masturbation and oral sex . Jackson settled a civil suit out of court with the Chandler family and their legal team for $ 22 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in January 1994 . After Jordan Chandler refused to testify in the criminal proceedings , the state closed its criminal investigation citing lack of evidence , and Jackson was not charged with a crime . Jordan Chandler later admitted to lying . After Jackson 's death , Evan Chandler committed suicide .
= = = 2003 child sexual abuse allegations = = =
Further accusations of child sexual abuse were made in 2003 , by 13 @-@ year @-@ old Gavin Arvizo . The allegations came after Jackson and the boy appeared in the documentary Living with Michael Jackson , in which the entertainer stated that he shared his bed with children in a non @-@ sexual fashion . The musician was subsequently indicted on four counts of molesting a minor , four counts of intoxicating a minor , one count of abduction , and one count of conspiring to hold the boy and his family captive at Neverland Ranch . During the five @-@ month trial , Jackson faced allegations of child molestation and assertions that he had attempted to abduct the Arvizo family in a hot air balloon . He denied all the charges and family members proclaimed that he was the victim of an extortion attempt . One friend , Firpo Carr , expressed amazement at the allegations leveled against the singer , who at the time was living at Neverland Ranch . " I 'm surprised they haven 't accused him of bestiality because he also has a zoo there . I mean , it gets ridiculous after a while . " On June 13 , 2005 , the jury found Jackson not guilty on all charges .
= = = 2013 and 2014 child sexual abuse allegations = = =
In May 2013 , choreographer Wade Robson filed a civil lawsuit against Jackson 's estate for child sexual abuse . The date for the hearing which would determine whether or not Robson could sue Jackson 's estate was scheduled for June 2 , 2014 .
Robson met Jackson when he was 5 years old . In 2005 , he had testified in Jackson 's defense during his child molestation trial . At that trial , Jackson 's former housekeeper Blanca Francia had testified that she had witnessed Robson showering with Jackson when Robson was 8 or 9 years old .
However , in his 2013 filing , Robson claimed that by the time he was 7 years old , he was regularly having sleepovers at Jackson 's Neverland Ranch and Jackson 's homes in Los Angeles and Las Vegas , which lasted until he was 14 , and that Jackson sexually abused him throughout the 7 @-@ year period . Blanca Francia agreed to testify on Robson 's behalf in the case . The attorney for Jackson 's estate described Robson 's claim as " outrageous and pathetic " .
In May 2014 , a second man , Jimmy Safechuck , filed a lawsuit against the Jackson estate alleging that Jackson had sexually abused him between the ages of " 10 to about 15 " . Jackson had met Safechuck in 1987 and Safechuck , then 10 , was featured in the commercial of Jackson 's Pepsi ad advertising his upcoming Bad World Tour at the time .
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= Westholme House =
Westholme House is a historic building in the English market town of Sleaford in Lincolnshire , set in 32 acres of parkland and school grounds . Built around 1849 in the style of a French Gothic mansion by Charles Kirk for his business partner Thomas Parry , it was privately owned until the 1940s , when Kesteven County Council acquired the house and its grounds . It subsequently served as the county library and part of Sleaford Secondary Modern School ( later St George 's Academy ) . The stone house follows an asymmetrical layout and incorporates a range of Gothic elements in its design . In 1974 , it was recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II listed building , recognising it as of " special interest " .
= = History = =
Prior to the enclosure of Sleaford in 1794 , the lands that later became the Westholme estate were mostly open fields . The largest was Puddingpan Race behind the houses on Westgate , thought to be named for the muddy puddles that formed there . That field was bounded to the north by Drove Lane , a track running to South Rauceby , and parts of the future estate also included " Millgatemere Furlong " to the north west and claypits to the north east . Following the enclosure , Drove Lane was straightened and moved northwards by a third of a mile ; the old open fields were reorganised within this new space , producing straight , geometric boundary lines . The future Westholme grounds were divided up between several land @-@ owners , including Lord Bristol and Benjamin Handley .
= = = Private ownership = = =
Thomas Parry ( 1818 − 1879 ) , an architect , builder and future Member of Parliament for Boston employed his business partner and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Charles Kirk the younger , to design Westholme House on the site for him ; their firm Kirk and Parry completed the mansion around 1849 . Parry moved in with his wife , mother and sister , and employed two servants ; by 1871 , two domestic workers had been added to his household . Parry died in 1879 followed by his wife , Henrietta , in 1882 .
Henry Peake ( 1821 – 1886 ) was occupying Westholme in 1885 , three years after the death of Parry 's wife . Peake was a solicitor who served as clerk to the county magistrates , and was a partner in the local law firm Peake , Snow and Peake , along with his son Henry Arthur Peake . The partnership had connections with Kirk and Parry , and Peake married Eliza , a daughter of Charles Kirk the elder . After his death , Peake 's sons , George Herbert and Henry Arthur , successively occupied the house in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . During the First World War , Henry Arthur and his wife , Alice Ann , lost three of their sons in battle . In 1923 , Henry Arthur died while staying at Hastings . He and his wife were planning to sell Westholme and move to Guildford before his death ; she did so and died there in 1933 . The businessman and Liberal politician Samuel Pattinson ( 1870 – 1942 ) lived at the house from at least 1924 . His wife , Betsy Sharpley Pattinson , also died in 1942 and their trustees auctioned off the furniture at Westholme two years later .
= = = Public ownership = = =
Westholme was occupied by the military during the Second World War . Kesteven County Council had acquired the land by 1945 and proposed to use it for educational purposes . The council wanted to convert the house into Kesteven County Library , but it had to wait for the War Department to agree to pay fees for " dilapidations " caused during its occupancy . The Department provisionally agreed on £ 1 @,@ 276 16s in 1947 and the library was operating at the house by 1949 . An Navy , Army and Air Force Institutes ( NAAFI ) canteen supplied school meals after the war ; and in 1947 the council bought a series of huts on the site from the War Department .
In 1957 , the council planned to open a new mixed secondary modern at Westholme and , by 1960 , Sleaford Secondary Modern School was operating there alongside its original buildings on Church Lane . In 1983 , an extension to the Westholme block opened , allowing the school to close the old site ; new teaching blocks were then built around the grounds . The school changed its name to St George 's School in 1984 , became a technology college in 1992 and converted to St George 's Academy in 2010 . The house continued to be used as a library into the 1980s , but by the next decade , had become the school 's sixth form base and an adult education centre . As a result of major rebuilding work at St George 's in 2011 – 12 , a new sixth form centre opened and Westholme House was converted into the school 's administrative centre .
= = Architecture = =
Charles Kirk and Thomas Parry were builders and architects in Sleaford ; their company prospered in the mid @-@ 19th century and was responsible for a number of civic , religious and corporate buildings in the town , including the gas works , Carre 's Grammar School and Carre 's Hospital . Westholme has been called their " most cheerfully inventive " building ; built in the style of a Gothic château , Pevsner described the mansion as " an ebullient essay in French [ 15th century ] domestic Gothic . "
The two @-@ storey house is built in coursed stone with steep , Welsh slate roofing . Its asymmetrical design incorporates an eclectic range of Gothic elements , including tall , polygonal chimney stacks , a four @-@ centred arch doorway , dragon motifs and carved pinnacles . The eastern façade includes two gables with a tall four @-@ centred arch window . To the right is a tower of three @-@ storeys with a pointed roof which connects to a projecting bay of two storeys . The bay incorporates a stack of three square windows topped with a Flamboyant arch , two hipped roofs with decorative spikes , and three chimneys . The rear is more simple ; the windows are mullioned and most are square , except for three bay windows . It has two wings laid out like half an " H " , which each have a gable and embattled parapets .
The site also houses a Gothic stable @-@ block , which Sir Nikolaus Pevsner considered " charming " , and two Tudor @-@ style lodges . A stretch of wall in the grounds is 100m long and made up of stone fragments , many Gothic , which were most likely taken from church restorations conducted by Kirk and Parry .
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= 1953 FA Charity Shield =
The 1953 Football Association Charity Shield was the 29th FA Charity Shield , an annual football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Football League First Division and FA Cup competitions . It was held at Highbury Stadium on 12 October 1953 . The game was played between Arsenal , champions of the 1952 – 53 Football League and Blackpool , who had beaten Bolton Wanderers to win the 1953 FA Cup Final . This was Blackpool 's first FA Charity Shield appearance to Arsenal 's ninth .
In the match , Blackpool started strongly and scored first with Stan Mortensen 's goal in the 30th minute . Against the run of play , however , Arsenal equalised through Tommy Lawton and in the second half they went ahead when Doug Lishman reacted first to a rebounded shot . Lishman scored his second of the match in the 80th minute , which sealed a seventh Charity Shield honour for Arsenal .
= = Background = =
The FA Charity Shield was founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield . It was a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , and then by 1913 teams of amateur and professional players . In 1921 , it was played by the Football League champions and FA Cup winners for the first time .
Arsenal qualified for the 1953 FA Charity Shield as champions of the 1952 – 53 Football League First Division . The other Charity Shield place went to Blackpool who won the 1952 – 53 FA Cup . The final of the competition , which pitted Blackpool against Bolton Wanderers , was best remembered for Stanley Matthews ' performance , and later associated by his name . The 1953 Shield marked Blackpool 's first appearance in the annual contest . By contrast , this was Arsenal 's ninth Charity Shield appearance ; prior to the game they had won six Shields ( 1930 , 1931 , 1933 , 1934 , 1938 and 1948 ) , and lost two ( 1935 and 1936 ) .
Arsenal announced their team two days before the match , recalling Cliff Holton who had recovered from injury . Blackpool refused to reveal their team until the evening of 12 October , but manager Joe Smith did confirm to the press that Matthews would start .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
On a foggy , floodlit night at Highbury , it was the visitors who dominated the early proceedings ; The Times football correspondent assessing that Blackpool 's forward line had " … flowed sweetly , the ball on the ground in the most lovely [ sic ] , sweeping movements . " Matthews was at the heart of their best moves and , in particular , one pass through the Arsenal defence sent Bill Perry clear on goal . He tripped over the incoming Arsenal goalkeeper Jack Kelsey , but quickly managed to get up . With Kelsey out of his line , Perry was presented with the chance to score , but his shot hit the post . Blackpool continued to create chances and went ahead after 30 minutes of play . Breaking forward with the ball from the half @-@ way line , Matthews combined with his team @-@ mate Ernie Taylor , which culminated in Stan Mortensen getting the better of his marker and shooting past Kelsey .
Despite Blackpool 's dominance , Arsenal managed to equalise seconds before half @-@ time . From the left wing , Holton got the better of his opponent Eddie Shimwell by taking the ball off him , and proceeded to cross ; the ball found Tommy Lawton who scored from the byline . Once play resumed in the second half , Blackpool struggled to reproduce the same kind of intensity that had merited their earlier lead . Arsenal dictated play the longer the match went on , and looked more assured in defence – The Times singled out Mercer ’ s growing influence , adding " … one noticed the improvement of [ Bill ] Dodgin at centre @-@ half , and the high promise of young [ Len ] Wills , playing only his second game at right back . "
Arsenal took the lead in the 65th minute when Jimmy Logie 's pass was collected by Holton . His shot at goal rebounded into the path of Doug Lishman , who was following up , and he scored . Ten minutes before the end , a cross by Don Roper into Blackpool ’ s penalty area was headed down by Lawton ; the ball reached Lishman who scored again to make sure of Arsenal 's win .
The Shield was presented to Arsenal by Lord Alexander of Tunis , the Minister of Defence . Gate receipts for the match totalled £ 6 @,@ 589 . In his assessment of the game , The Manchester Guardian 's football correspondent John Woodcock wrote : " The football was not the only thing that had been of a high order . The sportsmanship and spirit in which it was played had been in every way as fine . " Arsenal ended the season 12th in the First Division , and reached the fourth round of the FA Cup . Blackpool finished six positions higher in the league , but progressed no further than the fifth round of the cup competition .
= = = Details = = =
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= Thurstan =
This page is about Thurstan of Bayeux ( 1070 – 1140 ) who became Archbishop of York . Thurstan of Caen became the first Norman Abbot of Glastonbury in circa 1077 .
Thurstan or Turstin of Bayeux ( c . 1070 – 6 February 1140 ) was a medieval Archbishop of York , the son of a priest . He served kings William II and Henry I of England before his election to the see of York in 1114 . Once elected , his consecration was delayed for five years while he fought attempts by the Archbishop of Canterbury to assert primacy over York . Eventually , he was consecrated by the pope instead and allowed to return to England . While archbishop , he secured two new suffragan bishops for his province . When Henry I died , Thurstan supported Henry 's nephew Stephen of Blois as king . Thurstan also defended the northern part of England from invasion by the Scots , taking a leading part in organising the English forces at the Battle of the Standard ( 1138 ) . Shortly before his death , Thurstan resigned from his see and took the habit of a Cluniac monk .
= = Early life = =
Thurstan was the son of a canon of St Paul 's in London named Anger , Auger or Ansgar , who held the prebend of Cantlers . Another son of Anger , Audoen , was later Bishop of Évreux . Thurstan 's mother was named Popelina . Thurstan was born sometime about 1070 in Bayeux , in the Bessin region of Normandy . Before 1104 the father was given the prebend of Cantlers by Maurice , Bishop of London , and the family moved to England .
Early in his career , Thurstan held the prebendary of Consumpta per mare in the diocese of London , and served both William Rufus and Henry I as a royal clerk . At some point in Thurstan 's early career , he visited Cluny , where he vowed to become a Cluniac monk later in his life . Thurstan also served Henry as almoner , and it was Henry who obtained Thurstan 's election as Archbishop of York in August 1114 . He was ordained a deacon in December 1114 and ordained a priest on 6 June 1115 by Ranulf Flambard , who was Bishop of Durham .
= = Controversy and exile = =
The Archbishop of Canterbury , Ralph d 'Escures , refused to consecrate Thurstan unless the archbishop @-@ elect made a profession of obedience to the southern see . This was part of the long @-@ running Canterbury @-@ York dispute , which started in 1070 . Thurstan refused to make such a profession , and asked the king for permission to go to Rome to consult Pope Paschal II . Henry I refused to allow him to make the journey , but even without a personal appeal from Thurstan , Paschal decided against Canterbury . At the Council of Salisbury in 1116 the English king ordered Thurstan to submit to Canterbury , but instead Thurstan publicly resigned the archibishopric . On his way to the Council , Thurstan had received letters from Paschal II that supported York and commanded that he should be consecrated without a profession . Similar letters had gone to Ralph d 'Escures from the pope , ordering Ralph , as Archbishop of Canterbury , to consecrate Thurstan . After the news of the letters became public , Thurstan 's resignation was ignored , and he continued to be considered the archbishop @-@ elect .
Over the next three years , the new popes , Gelasius II and Calixtus II , championed Thurstan 's case , and on 19 October 1119 he was consecrated by Calixtus at Reims . Calixtus had earlier promised Henry that he would not consecrate Thurstan without the king 's permission , which had still not been granted . Enraged at this , the king refused to allow the newly consecrated archbishop to enter England , and Thurstan remained for some time on the continent in the company of the pope . While he was traveling with the pope , he also visited Adela of Blois , King Henry 's sister , who was also Thurstan 's spiritual daughter . At about this same time , Calixtus issued two bulls in Thurstan 's favor : one released York from Canterbury 's supremacy forever , and the other demanded the king allow Thurstan to return to York . The pope threatened an interdict on England as a punishment if the papal bull was not obeyed . At length , Thurstan 's friends , including Adela , succeeded in reconciling him with Henry , and he rejoined the king in Normandy . At Easter 1120 , he escorted Adela to the monastery of Marcigny , where she retired from active secular affairs . He was recalled to England in early 1121 .
= = Archbishop = =
One of the main weaknesses of the see of York was its lack of suffragan bishops . Thurstan managed to secure the resurrection of the Diocese of Galloway , or Whithorn , in 1125 . It is possible that he compromised with Fergus of Galloway , who was the lord or sub @-@ king of Galloway , in what is now Scotland . In this Thurstan secured another suffragan , and Fergus gained a bishop in his lordship , where previously ecclesiastical matters in his subkingdom had been handled by Scottish bishops . The first bishop was the native Galwegian – Gilla Aldan . This provoked the wrath of Wimund , Bishop of the Isles , who had previously had jurisdiction over Galloway ; but the new bishopric survived , and York had a new suffragan , an important step in the battle between York and Canterbury over the primacy , which was mainly a battle over the prestige of their respective sees . The number of bishops subject to either archbishop was an important factor in the reputation of each . In 1133 , Thurstan , who had received papal permission to found an entirely new diocese , consecrated Æthelwold as the first bishop of the new see of Carlisle .
Thurstan refused to accept that the new Archbishop of Canterbury , William de Corbeil , was his superior , and did not help with William 's consecration . The dispute between the two continued , and both archbishops carried their complaints in person to Rome twice . In 1126 , Pope Honorius II ruled in favour of York . The pope based his decision on the fact that Canterbury 's supporting documents had been forged .
Thurstan supported King Stephen after Henry I 's death in 1135 , and appeared at Stephen 's first court at Easter held at Westminster . Thurstan negotiated a truce at Roxburgh in 1138 between England and Scotland . It was Thurstan who mustered the army which defeated the Scots at the Battle of the Standard on 22 August 1138 near Northallerton , Yorkshire . Thurstan did not take direct part in the battle . , but he created the standard that gave the battle its name , by putting a ship 's mast in a cart and hanging the banners of Saint Peter of York , Saint John of Beverley , and Saint Wilfrid of Ripon on the mast . The Scots had invaded attempting to aid the Empress Matilda , the daughter of Henry I and Stephen 's rival for the throne . On 21 January 1140 Thurstan resigned his see and entered the order of the Cluniacs at Pontefract and he died there on 6 February 1140 . He was buried in the church at Pontefract .
= = Legacy = =
Thurstan gave land to many of the churches of his diocese and founded several religious houses . He founded the first nunnery in Yorkshire when he founded St Clement 's between 1125 and 1133 . He obtained for Whitby Abbey a papal privilege of protection as well as giving his own privilege to the abbey . He also helped found the Cistercian Abbey of Fountains , by giving the site to monks who had been expelled from the Abbey of St. Mary 's , York . Thurstan helped the hermitess Christina of Markyate at several points in her career , and tried to persuade her to become the first prioress of his foundation of St. Clement 's . He was a patron to the Augustinian Hexham Priory , founded by his predecessor at York , as well as helping the foundation of Bridlington Priory , another Augustinian house . He was a sincere reformer , and opposed to the election of unfit men to the episcopacy . When Pope Innocent II asked Thurstan 's opinion on the elevation of Anselm of St Saba , who was Abbot of Bury St. Edmunds , to become Bishop of London , Thurstan replied " If we consider his life and reputation , it would be much more fitting to remove him from his abbacy than to promote him to be bishop of London . " Anselm was not confirmed as bishop .
Thurstan 's nephew was Osbert de Bayeux , who became an archdeacon at York , and in 1154 was accused of the murder of William of York , one of Thurstan 's successors at York .
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= Planescape : Torment =
Planescape : Torment is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Black Isle Studios and published by Interplay Entertainment for Microsoft Windows . Released on December 12 , 1999 , the game takes place in locations from the multiverse of Planescape , a Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) fantasy campaign setting . The game 's engine is a modified version of the Infinity Engine , which was used for BioWare 's Baldur 's Gate , a previous D & D game set in the Forgotten Realms .
Planescape : Torment is primarily story @-@ driven and combat is not prominent . The protagonist , known as The Nameless One , is an immortal who has lived many lives but has forgotten all about them , even forgetting his own name . The game focuses on his journey through the city of Sigil and other planes to reclaim his memories of these previous lives . Several characters in the game may join The Nameless One on his journey , and most of these characters have encountered him in the past or have been influenced by his actions in some way .
The game was not a significant commercial success but received widespread critical praise and has since become a cult classic . It was lauded for its immersive dialogue , for the dark and relatively obscure Planescape setting , and for the protagonist 's unique persona , which shirked many characteristics of traditional role @-@ playing games . It was considered by video game journalists to be the best role @-@ playing game of 1999 , and continues to receive attention long after its release .
= = Gameplay = =
Planescape : Torment is built on BioWare 's Infinity Engine , which presents the player with a two @-@ dimensional world in which player characters are controlled . The game 's rules are based on those of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd Edition . The player takes the role of " The Nameless One " , an immortal being on a quest to learn why he cannot die . Exploration around the painted scenery is accomplished by clicking on the ground to move , or on objects and characters to interact with them . Items and spells may be employed through hotkeys , " quick slots " , or a radial menu . An alternative to armor is the use of magical tattoos , which can be applied to The Nameless One and certain other characters to enhance their abilities .
The game begins with character creation , where the player assigns attribute points ( such as strength , intelligence , charisma ) to The Nameless One . The Nameless One starts the game as a fighter , but the player may later change his character class to thief or wizard , with the option to also change back to fighter , after finding corresponding tutors . The player may recruit adventuring companions over the course of the game ; there are seven potential party members , but a maximum of five may accompany the player at any one time . Conversation is frequent among party members , occurring both randomly and during conversations with other non @-@ player characters .
Planescape : Torment 's gameplay often focuses on the resolution of quests through dialogue rather than combat , and many of the game 's combat encounters can be resolved or avoided through dialogue or stealth ; a review of the game in incite PC Gaming says that " The game is almost entirely story driven , and by asking the right questions you should only have to get violent a handful of times . " The Nameless One carries a journal , which helps the player keep track of the game 's numerous quests and subplots . Death of the player character usually imposes no penalty beyond respawning in a different location .
Alignment in D & D — which determines a character 's ethical and moral perspective on the independent axes of " good vs. evil " and " law vs. chaos " — is a static property , chosen by the player at the start of a game . In Planescape : Torment , the character begins as a " true neutral " character ( that is , neither good nor evil , and neither lawful nor chaotic ) and throughout the game , based on the character 's actions , this property is incrementally changed . Non @-@ player characters respond to The Nameless One differently , depending on his alignment . A review in NextGen reported that " the game caters to both the goody @-@ goody player who wants to be nice and lawful , and the evil bastards who just want to kill everything and take no guff from anyone " .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Planescape : Torment is set in the Planescape " multiverse " of D & D , a setting which consists of various planes of existence , the creatures which live in them ( such as devils , modrons , and even deities ) , and the properties of the magic that infuses each plane . In a March 2000 article for Game Studies , Diane Carr called the setting " a freak show , a long story , a zoo , and a cabinet of talkative curiosities " and described the creatures and monsters in the game as " grotesque rather than scary " . Planescape : Torment is the first video game to be set in the Planescape universe .
The first part of Planescape : Torment takes place in Sigil , a city located atop an infinitely tall spire at the center of the multiverse , that connects the planes with each other via a series of portals . The city is overseen by the powerful Lady of Pain , while fifteen factions control different functions of the city related to each group 's world view . Every faction strives for further control of the city . The Nameless One can even join several of these factions during the game . The story eventually moves on to other planes , such as Baator and Carceri , where The Nameless One continues to discover more about his past .
= = = Characters = = =
Planescape : Torment 's protagonist is " The Nameless One , " an immortal being who , if killed , will wake up later , sometimes with complete amnesia . Each time The Nameless One dies , another person in the multiverse dies to fuel his resurrection . These dead turn into ghosts that seek revenge on him . When the game starts , The Nameless One wakes in a mortuary with no memories , as a result of his latest death . He sets out on a quest to regain his lost memories and discover why he is immortal . He slowly learns about the personalities of his previous incarnations , and the influence they have had on the world and people that surround him .
Over the course of the game , The Nameless One meets seven characters who can join him on his quest : Morte , Annah @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Shadows , Dak 'kon , Ignus , Nordom , Fall @-@ From @-@ Grace , and Vhailor . These playable characters can also interact with the Nameless One to further the game 's plot . Morte is a cynical floating skull originally from the Pillar of Skulls in Baator . He is introduced at the game 's beginning in the mortuary . Morte loyally follows The Nameless One , partly out of guilt for having caused the deaths of some of his previous incarnations . The Nameless One meets Annah @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Shadows , a young and brash tiefling ( a human with fiendish ancestry ) rogue , outside the mortuary , but she does not join the group until a later point in the game . Dak 'kon is a githzerai , who once made an oath to follow The Nameless One until the latter died , not knowing of The Nameless One 's immortality ; this bound him to The Nameless One for eternity . Ignus is a pyromaniacal mage who was the apprentice of one of The Nameless One 's past selves . In the Rubikon Dungeon Construct , the Nameless One can find Nordom , a modron disconnected from its species ' hive mind . Fall @-@ From @-@ Grace is a succubus who acts as proprietress of the Brothel of Slaking Intellectual Lusts in Sigil ; unlike other succubi , she is not interested in seducing mortals . Vhailor , found below the city of Curst on the plane of the Outlands , is essentially an animated suit of armor dedicated to serving merciless justice .
= = = Plot = = =
The game 's story begins when The Nameless One wakes up in a mortuary . He is immediately approached by a floating skull , Morte , who offers advice on how to escape . Morte also reads the tattoos written on The Nameless One 's back , which were inked there as reminders to himself , that contain instructions to find a man named Pharod . After a conversation with the ghost of his former lover , Deionarra , and passing by various undead , The Nameless One leaves the mortuary to explore the slums of Sigil . He finds Pharod , who is the chief of an underground village of scavengers , and retrieves a magical bronze sphere for him . In return , Pharod gives him further hints to piece together his forgotten past . Later on , The Nameless One learns from a powerful sorcerer named Lothar that the night hag Ravel Puzzlewell caused his immortality , but the hag is currently imprisoned in a magical maze by the Lady of Pain . The Nameless One finds a portal to Ravel 's maze , but realizes that it requires a piece of Ravel to activate it ; for this , he locates Ravel 's daughter and takes drops of her blood .
Once in the maze , The Nameless One converses with Ravel , who asks him , " What can change the nature of a man ? " — a question that plays a prominent role throughout the game . Ravel is pleased with The Nameless One 's answer because he offers his own thoughts ; she claims she has killed many men in the past who , instead of giving their own answers , tried to guess what her answer might be . As the conversation progresses , Ravel explains that , in a past life , The Nameless One had asked her to make him immortal ; however , the ritual she performed was flawed , causing him to lose his memory each time he died . She reveals that the mortality she separated from him was not destroyed , and that as long as he was alive , his mortality must still be intact . She does not know where his mortality is , but suggests that the fallen deva Trias might .
Ravel then attempts to keep The Nameless One there by force . After the Nameless One and his party leave the maze , Ravel gets up , having actually survived the encounter . The Transcendent One appears , and , after a short conversation , kills Ravel . Following this , The Nameless One travels to the city of Curst , a gate town on the border of the Outlands and Carceri , to meet and free Trias . Through a tip from Trias , who claims not to know where The Nameless One 's mortality lies , The Nameless One then visits the Outlands and Baator , where he learns that his mortality lies in the Fortress of Regrets and that only Trias knows how to access this place . Meanwhile , however , the city of Curst has " slid " from the border of the Outlands to the neighboring chaotic plane Carceri due to the chaos unleashed by Trias after The Nameless One freed him . After a fight , Trias tells The Nameless One that the portal to the Fortress of Regrets is located in Sigil 's mortuary , in the very room where the game began .
In the Fortress of Regrets , The Nameless One encounters three of his past incarnations : one practical , one good , and one paranoid . The Nameless One learns that the " good " incarnation is the original , who was made immortal by Ravel . The Nameless One had committed immeasurably terrible deeds in his lifetime , and when he realized there would be retribution on his soul when he died , he sought to postpone death as long as possible in order to atone . After meeting his past incarnations , The Nameless One confronts his mortality , which is embodied as a powerful being called The Transcendent One . The Transcendent One reveals that since being separated from The Nameless One , he has enjoyed his freedom and has been attempting to erase clues that might lead The Nameless One to discover the truth . Depending on the player 's choice , The Nameless One either slays his mortality or convinces it to rejoin with him ; either option finally ends his immortality and allows him to die . In the game 's final scene , The Nameless One awakens near a battleground of the eternal Blood War between demons and devils ; he picks up a mace and walks toward the conflict .
= = Development = =
In 1997 , the game 's designers produced a 47 @-@ page document that outlined the game 's premise and vision statement , and was used to pitch the idea to management at Interplay . Initially , the game was to be called Last Rites , and they described the game as " avant @-@ garde " fantasy to distinguish it from high fantasy . The document also contained concept artwork for characters and areas of the game .
From the outset , Planescape : Torment 's designers intended to challenge traditional role @-@ playing game conventions : the game features no dragons , elves , goblins , or other common fantasy races ; there are only three swords ; the rats faced in the game can be quite challenging to defeat ; and the undead sometimes prove more sympathetic than humans . The designers explained that most RPGs tend to have a " correct " approach to solving problems , which is almost always the morally good approach . They called this " predictable and stupid " and wished to make a game with greater moral flexibility , where a particular problem might have " two wrongs or two rights " . The main quest is not about saving the world , but about understanding The Nameless One and his immortality . Death ( of the protagonist or his companions ) is often just a minor hindrance , and even necessary at times .
According to lead designer Chris Avellone , Planescape : Torment was inspired by books , comics , and games , including Archie Comics , The Chronicles of Amber , The Elementals and Shadowrun . The game 's 1997 outline also makes references to The Lord of the Rings to describe some characters . While working on Planescape : Torment , Avellone was simultaneously working on Fallout 2 . In an interview from 2007 , he says that Fallout 2 helped him rethink the possibilities of dialogue in Planescape : Torment ( and in later games he was involved with , including Neverwinter Nights 2 ) . Avellone remarked that many of the ideas in the game " could only have been communicated through text , simply because no one would have the budget or resources to fully realise many of these fantasy works through TV or movies " . Ultimately , Avellone has expressed some regret about the game 's heavy focus on dialogue , as he feels this interfered with the overall game mechanics , particularly the combat system . The game 's script contains around 800 @,@ 000 words , after early previews had indicated that the game would be only about 20 hours long .
In several interviews the producer of the game , Guido Henkel , stated that he was increasingly frustrated by the pressure the management of Interplay put on the development team after Interplay 's initial public offering . Although only a few additional subplots and characters had to be discarded to meet the planned release date , he accused the Interplay management of disregarding the development team regarding things like package design and marketing . Henkel said that it was his main goal to prevent the game from being " crippled " before leaving Interplay when the game reached beta status . He also made the claim that his overall influence on the game was greater than that of Chris Avellone , Eric Campanella , or Dave Maldonaldo , but since a producer often has to make unpopular decisions his role was later downplayed .
The game used the Infinity Engine , a game engine initially developed by BioWare for Baldur 's Gate . However , Planescape : Torment was being developed using the Infinity Engine before Baldur 's Gate had been released , leaving the engine 's acceptance in the market still unknown . Black Isle made modifications to the engine to suit the game . For example , playable characters were able to run , and both the character sprites and backgrounds were larger and more detailed . The greater size and detail was achieved by bringing the perspective closer to the ground . Magic was also an important part of the game 's design , and a team of four designers worked solely on the visuals and mechanics of spells .
In addition to official localizations , for example the one by CD Projekt for the Polish market , fan communities developed Spanish , Hungarian , and Italian fan translations of the game . When Interplay dropped support for Planescape : Torment after the official 1 @.@ 1 patch , several not yet fixed bugs were corrected by fan created unofficial patches . Other mods add back items and quests omitted from the final version of the game or new features such as widescreen support .
The game was re @-@ released on DVD in 2009 , and for purchase on GOG.com in September 2010 .
Interplay initially hired dark ambient musician Lustmord to create the musical score for Planescape : Torment , although this score was ultimately not used . His music was pulled from the game by the producer so that the game 's music could be taken in a different direction , and Mark Morgan created the game 's final music . The game 's cast of voice actors included Michael T. Weiss , Sheena Easton , Rob Paulsen , Mitch Pileggi , Dan Castellaneta , and Tony Jay .
After the game 's release , a reviewer for Game Revolution praised its sound , saying that " When you 're in a crowded city , it sounds like a crowded city . Walk past a bar , and you 'll hear the noise of the drunken patrons inside . Wander near a slave auction , and you 'll hear the auctioneer calling . Go to a party in the festival hall , and it sounds just like a party " . The same reviewer also stated " Planescape has just about the best sound I 've ever heard in a game . " IGN gave the sound 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 and noted that " The game has fantastic speech and sound effects , but what 's more impressive is the way they fade in and out depending on how close you 're standing to them . "
= = Adaptations = =
A book by the same name was written by Ray and Valerie Vallese and released by Wizards of the Coast in 1999 . The book 's plot follows the game 's only loosely ; for example , in the game , the main character 's lack of a name is a sign of his incomplete state and a source of protection in being anonymous . In the book , the protagonist chooses a proper name . For the game 's re @-@ release on GOG.com a second , more accurate , novelization produced by Rhyss Hess was bundled with the game , based on the game script by Chris Avellone and Colin McComb .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Planescape : Torment received widespread critical acclaim upon its release , but only made a small profit . GameSpot 's reviewer stated " It 's clearly the best traditional computer role @-@ playing game of the year " , a comment which the website would later expand to " one of the greatest ever " . Allen Rausch , writing for GameSpy 's 2004 retrospective " A History of D & D Video Games " , commented that Black Isle Studios " went way over the top for this one , crafting an utterly unique experience that has yet to be equaled by any RPG since " . The gameplay was often compared to Baldur 's Gate , another Interplay game that used the same engine as Planescape : Torment .
The game 's premise and writing were warmly received ; a review in the New York Times noted " The game 's level of detail and its emotional impact have prompted some players to cast about for literary peers . " Reviewers were pleased with the ability to shape their character 's journey as they wished . In 2005 , GameSpot stated " Planescape : Torment has quite possibly the best implementation of role @-@ playing an evil character ever to appear in a computer or video game to date " . The heavily tattooed , egocentric and potentially selfish Nameless One was welcomed as a change of pace from the conventional RPG hero , who was considered a predictable do @-@ gooder . Reviewers also approved of the protagonist 's ability to gain new powers by " remembering " past lives . The dark and diversified representation of the D & D setting of Planescape was lauded as a fresh departure from the traditional high fantasy of computer role @-@ playing games . A review in NextGen praised the game , saying that " Torment offers the best RPG gameplay anyone can find on store shelves , hands down . " Uros Jojic of Actiontrip commented that " Planescape : Torment proves that it is possible to make an inventive , fun and refreshing game in this " sea of clones " . Creating a computer edition of Planescape system is another triumph for Black Isle Studios . "
[ Planescape Torment 's ] limits are elusive . [ ... ] Even small choices have multiple and unpredictable results , leading players to incidents , to confrontations or to nothing much . The game resists resolution or even comprehension . A rambling text like Planescape Torment bounces when you try and nail it down , it resists totalisation . It has its moments of " rush " and of confrontation , but it wants to be savoured , wandered through , in the company of armed companions .
The technical aspects of the game were also praised . Although by the time of its release in late 1999 , Planescape : Torment 's default 640x480 resolution was not considered particularly advanced , reviewers were pleased with the art design and color of the environments . The game 's sound and music were described as " well above the norm " and " superb " , and one reviewer stated that his only complaint about the music was that " there wasn 't enough of it " . Another reviewer stated that Planescape : Torment had " just about the best sound " they had heard in a video game . GamePro stated , " ... the characters talk with the talent of real professional voice actors during crucial bits of dialog " . The game 's graphics were moderately well received , with incite PC Gaming saying that " [ the graphics ] can be a little lackluster , although some of the spell effects certainly look very good " , a statement echoed in NextGen which stated that " mind @-@ blowing spell effects ... will remind you of a two @-@ dimensional Final Fantasy game . "
The game 's interface received positive remarks . The US edition of PC Gamer commented on the automap , which automatically marked important locations and allowed the user to add custom notes , and on the journal , which separated completed quests from unfinished quests . PC Gamer also praised the fine @-@ tuning of the Infinity Engine , such as the use of a radial menu , which allowed the player to stay focused on the game instead of managing multiple screens and " messing with windows and buttons " .
... we were swept away by Planescape : Torment . It wasn 't the effective engine , demented characters , or lavish lands that won us . It was the rich storyline . This tale is more a reflection of your true self than any game ever made .
Criticism of the game was minimal and problems were generally described as minor , but included complaints about long load times on computers of the day , or the game slowing down during combat . Bugs were responsible for slowing down the game when a high level of graphical assets were on @-@ screen at the same time , but it was reported that a fix was released that solved the problem . Allgame 's Derek Williams considered the game 's combat simplistic ( with a comparison to Diablo ) , which made the game too easy . The most negative major review came from Eurogamer , who gave the game seven out of ten ( and later increased it to eight when the game was patched ) . Their reviewer expressed distaste at the immortality of the player character , saying that it made the lives of characters " cheap and meaningless " , although other reviews welcomed this aspect , saying it was " implemented perfectly " and did not make the game easier . Eurogamer also disapproved of the amount of experience that was awarded for certain dialogues later in the game . However , other reviews cited this as one of the main things that elevated Planescape : Torment above the standard RPG format . Some reviewers also criticized the game 's pathfinding AI as being " less than impressive " .
= = = Awards = = =
Planescape : Torment was given several Editor 's Choice awards , was named RPG of the Year for 1999 by both GameSpot and Computer Gaming World , and won the Vault Network 's Game of the Year for 1999 . PC Gamer US named Planescape : Torment " Game of the Month " in their March 2000 issue ( the issue in which the game 's review appeared ) . It has since attracted a cult following , and continues to garner respect long after its release — in 2004 , GameSpy added it to their Hall of Fame , and in 2005 GameSpot declared it one of its greatest games of all time . In 2007 , IGN named it 71st on their list of the Top 100 Games of All Time , stating that many have " had their ideas of what an RPG is completely revamped after playing this one " . In 2008 , the UK edition of PC Gamer rated it ninth on its own Top 100 list .
In 2006 , The A.V. Club included Planescape : Torment in their list of " 11 of Video Gaming 's Strangest Moments " , due to the game 's use of death as a means to advance the plot . In 2006 , Gamasutra polled video game industry professionals with the question : " Which role playing game over the entire history of the genre do you think has made the biggest ' quantum leap ' , and why ? " . Planescape : Torment was ranked second overall after Fallout , earning it a " Quantum Leap Award " . The game also received an honorable mention for the same awards in the " Storytelling " category . In December 2008 , IGN listed it as 8th out of 10 in a list of " Franchises We Want Resurrected " and praised the game as having " some of the best writing and characterization seen in gaming " .
In 2009 , Bit @-@ tech included Planescape : Torment on their list of " 30 PC Games to Play Before You Die " . Chris Avellone was awarded Eurogamer 's " Gaming Globe " award for Best Designer in 2000 for his work on Planescape : Torment , and The Nameless One was considered to be the Best Male Lead Character . In 2009 , Game Informer put the game 188th on their list of " The Top 200 Games of All Time " , saying that it " allowed players to ... influence the plot to an unheard @-@ of degree for 1999 " . In 2010 , UGO ranked it as # 5 on the list of games needing a sequel . A 2011 update of PC Gamer magazine 's top 100 PC games of all @-@ time ranked Planescape : Torment as the 19th greatest PC game .
= = Legacy = =
Following the announcement of Baldur 's Gate : Enhanced Edition , Overhaul Games announced their intention to make overhauls of more games set in the Dungeons & Dragons universes , at first naming only Planescape : Torment . They said that such a release would depend on the success of Baldur 's Gate : Enhanced Edition .
In November 2012 , Penny Arcade Report wrote that Brian Fargo , the head of inXile Entertainment , had acquired the rights to Torment . In January 2013 , Brian Fargo announced that the spiritual successor to Planescape : Torment , titled Torment : Tides of Numenera , was in production and would be set in the Numenera RPG universe created by Monte Cook .
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= Melbourne Storm =
Melbourne Storm is an Australian professional rugby league team based in Melbourne , Victoria that participates in the National Rugby League . The first fully professional rugby league team based in the state , they entered the competition in 1998 . Melbourne Storm was originally a Super League initiative and created in 1997 during the Super League war . The club plays its home games at AAMI Park . The Storm has won two premierships since its inception , in 1999 and 2012 , and has contested several more grand finals . A salary cap breach discovered in 2010 saw the club stripped of two titles by the NRL . Melbourne Storm also competes in the NRL 's Under @-@ 20s competition and has done since the inception of the competition in 2008 .
= = History = =
= = = 1990s = = =
By 1994 , due to the high attendances at recent State of Origin series matches ( including a then Australian rugby league record crowd of 87 @,@ 161 in 1994 at the Melbourne Cricket Ground ) the Australian Rugby League ( ARL ) had planned to establish a Melbourne @-@ based team in the Premiership by 1998 . However , the disruption caused by the Super League war caused great change to the game in Australia . By May 1997 , Super League boss John Ribot pushed for a Melbourne @-@ based club for his competition , which was the rival of the ARL . Former Brisbane Broncos centre Chris Johns became the CEO of the club and Ribot stepped down from the head of Super League to set up the club . In September 1997 , Melbourne announced that Chris Anderson would be their foundation coach , and then Super League announced that the new team would be named the Melbourne Storm .
The Melbourne club then went forward with signing players , mainly from folding Super League clubs Perth Reds and Hunter Mariners . Some of these players included Robbie Ross , Glenn Lazarus , Brett Kimmorley and Scott Hill . With the Super League and ARL joining into one competition for the 1998 season , the Melbourne team became part of the National Rugby League ( NRL ) . The Melbourne Storm club was unveiled at a function in the Hyatt in February 1998 .
In their first game , they defeated the Illawarra Steelers , with Glenn Lazarus as their inaugural captain . Melbourne , in a complete shock to the rest of the competition , won their first four games , before losing to the Auckland Warriors . They went on to make the finals , but were defeated by the eventual premiers , the Brisbane Broncos .
In January 1999 , CEO John Ribot negotiated a deal that saw Melbourne Storm games televised in China every weekend . The club won eight of their first eleven games of the 1999 NRL season , and went on to make the finals in third position on the Premiership ladder . The team was beaten convincingly 34 – 10 in the quarter final by St. George Illawarra . After narrow victories against the Canterbury Bulldogs and the Parramatta Eels however Melbourne once more faced St. George Illawarra , this time winning 20 – 18 and securing their first Premiership .
= = = 2000s = = =
Melbourne 's Premiership defence began relatively slowly losing their first four games of the 2000 NRL season , the club went on to make the finals ( finishing 6th ) , but were eventually knocked out by Newcastle Knights in the quarter @-@ finals . Between 2001 and 2002 , the club 's on field performances waned , resulting in a 10th @-@ placed finish in 2002 . Cracks were starting to appear between John Ribot and Anderson throughout the period , with Anderson quitting as coach after round 7 , 2001 . He was replaced by Mark Murray . The Melbourne club failed to make the finals in 2001 . Johns left the club as CEO at the end of 2002 and coach Murray was sacked due to Melbourne 's poor form , with the club missing the finals for the second year in a row . Wayne Bennett 's assistant coach at the Brisbane Broncos , Craig Bellamy was announced as the new coach of Melbourne for 2003 . In addition to a new captain in Kiwi international skipper Stephen Kearney , Bellamy 's strict coaching would see the Melbourne Storm get back on track from the previous lean years .
Between 2003 and 2005 , Melbourne consistently made the finals , but lost games in the semi finals that prevented them from reaching the grand final . On 17 July 2004 , during round 19 of the 2004 NRL season , Danny Williams king @-@ hit Wests Tigers ' player Mark O 'Neill .
Williams defended the incident , using four medical experts to argue on his behalf that he was suffering post @-@ traumatic amnesia when the incident occurred , which he claims was the result of a high tackle by O 'Neill just prior to the incident . Despite Williams ' claim , he was suspended for 18 weeks by the NRL judiciary . After the decision , Williams stated that he was " obviously disappointed with the outcome " . It was the longest suspension in Australian rugby league since Steve Linnane was suspended for twenty weeks for eye @-@ gouging in 1987 .
In 2005 , Storm coach Craig Bellamy , in his third season as an NRL coach , gained representative honours when he was selected to start coaching the Country Origin team .
Season 2006 saw the retirement of captain Robbie Kearns , the emergence of talented rookie halfback Cooper Cronk , taking the reins from Matt Orford , and the recruitment of hard @-@ man Michael Crocker . Contrary to expectation , 2006 was a standout year for the Melbourne team , winning their first Minor Premiership . Melbourne only lost four games in the season , making them outright leaders by four wins . They went on to win their two finals matches , and were favourites in the 2006 NRL Grand Final , but lost 15 – 8 to the Brisbane Broncos , in a match where controversial refereeing decisions against Melbourne caused much media coverage .
In 2007 , the Storm finished the season Minor Premiers by finishing on top of the table again . They progressed through the finals series with wins over Brisbane , 40 – 0 , and then Parramatta 26 – 10 , in the Preliminary final . This secured a berth in the 2007 NRL Grand Final against the Manly Sea Eagles which they won 34 – 8 , with Greg Inglis winning the Clive Churchill Medal for best on ground .
In 2008 , foundation player Matt Geyer became the first player to play 250 games for the club . Melbourne finished on top of the ladder after the 26 rounds of regular competition and despite becoming the first minor premiers since the McIntyre Final Eight System was introduced to lose their opening finals game ( 15 – 18 to the New Zealand Warriors ) , they then defeated the Brisbane Broncos 16 – 14 , scoring in the last minute of their semi final . Cameron Smith was suspended for two matches for a grapple tackle on Brisbane 's Sam Thaiday in the match , seeing him miss the rest of the finals , and Craig Bellamy was fined $ 50 @,@ 000 for making scathing remarks against the judiciary 's decision . Melbourne convincingly beat the Cronulla Sharks 28 – 0 to qualify for the Grand Final , but suffered the heaviest Grand Final defeat in league history , beaten 40 – 0 by Manly . Greg Inglis , Billy Slater , Cameron Smith and Israel Folau all won awards at the Dally M Awards , and Slater and Smith finished equal second for the Dally M Medal . Billy Slater was awarded the international player of the year Golden Boot award for 2008 , following on from Cameron Smith in 2007 .
In the 2009 season , Melbourne finished 4th on the ladder ; they defeated Manly 40 – 12 in the first week of the finals and Brisbane 40 – 10 in the preliminary finals to qualify for a fourth straight grand final ( the first since Parramatta from 1981 – 1984 ) . Against Parramatta , who had finished eighth in the home @-@ and @-@ away season but had won ten of its last eleven matches , the Storm led at one stage by 16 points , before finishing 23 – 16 winners . Slater won the Clive Churchill Medal , and they were named as the NRL Team of the Decade for the 2000s .
In the late 2000s the Melbourne Storm were still running at a loss of up to $ 6M per season . However , they were voted the state of Victoria 's most popular sports team by a national Roy Morgan Poll in October 2009 .
= = = 2010s = = =
On 11 January 2010 , it was announced that Brian Waldron resigned his position as CEO to take up the same position at the Melbourne Rebels Super Rugby team . He was replaced by Matt Hanson who was the Chief Operating Officer , however following the Salary cap revelations Matt Hanson was then stood down and Ron Gauci appointed .
The Storm 's first match of the season was the 2010 World Club Challenge against equally dominant English side , the Leeds Rhinos , in very cold and wet conditions the Storm prevailed 18 – 10 . For the 2010 NRL season , they played their first three home games at Etihad Stadium before unveiling their new purpose built permanent home ground , AAMI Park .
On 22 April 2010 the club admitted that it had committed serious and systematic breaches of the salary cap for the last five years by running a well @-@ organized dual contract and bookkeeping system which left the NRL ignorant of $ 3 @.@ 17 million in payments made to players outside of the salary cap , including $ 550 @,@ 000 in 2007 , $ 965 @,@ 000 in 2009 and $ 1 @.@ 03 million in 2010 . As a result , NRL Chief Executive David Gallop stripped the Melbourne Storm of their 2007 and 2009 Premierships and their 2006 , 2007 and 2008 minor Premierships ( all of which were withheld , rather than awarded to the runners @-@ up ) , fined them a then Australian sporting record $ 1 @,@ 689 @,@ 000 , deducted all eight Premiership points they had already received in the 2010 season , and barred them from receiving Premiership points for the rest of the season . The club had won enough matches to make the finals , but automatically finished in last place due to the penalties . The penalty did not have an effect on the players , who remained eligible for Test and State of Origin selection as well as Dally M contention ; ultimately , Melbourne did not figure prominently in the latter awards .
The Storm 's 2011 season saw a return to the top of the NRL ladder , winning what after the salary cap penalties was considered the club 's first Minor Premiership . The season included a club record twelve consecutive wins . However , Melbourne did not reach the Grand Final , losing the preliminary final against New Zealand . Billy Slater won the Dally M Medal , and Craig Bellamy and Cameron Smith also won awards on Dally M Medal night .
The Storm 's 2012 season started very strongly with nine consecutive wins , the club 's best start to a season up to that time . A five @-@ game losing streak between Rounds 16 and 21 , ( the club 's second worst losing streak to that time ) saw them fall from the top of the ladder . However , from Round 22 forward they recovered their winning form and finished the regular season with five straight wins , ending the regular season in second place on the table . Storm began their finals campaign with a 24 @-@ 6 win over South Sydney Rabbitohs . Storm played its fifth Preliminary Final in six years , this time defeating Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles 40 @-@ 12 at AAMI Park , following this they then went on to claim their second official Premiership defeating the Canterbury Bulldogs 14 - 4 in the Grand Final .
The Storm began its 2013 season when they defeated Leeds Rhinos 18 @-@ 14 in the World Club Challenge , to be crowned World Champions for 2013 . In round 5 , they won their 5th consecutive game for the season and their 13th consecutive overall . Setting a new club record , the streak ended at 15 games with a loss in Round 8 .
On 21 May 2013 the Storm announced that , effective immediately , News Limited had sold the club to Holding M.S. Australia Pty Limited , an organisation made up of internationally experienced and successful businessmen . This change included replacement of the News Ltd Board and Executive , which included the replacement of Chairman Stephen Rue with Bart Campbell and CEO Ron Gauci with Mark Evans . News Limited had owned the Storm since its inception in 1997 . On 9 June 2013 Captain Cameron Smith played his 250th game for the club .
The Storm managed to finish 3rd in 2013 , however successive losses to the South Sydney Rabbitohs and Newcastle Knights in the finals saw the Storm miss the Preliminary Finals for the first time since 2005 ( excluding 2010 ) .
On 15 March 2014 Billy Slater reached his 250th game milestone , a feat matched by Cooper Cronk on 30 August 2014 . Craig Bellamy passed 300 games as coach on 16 May 2014 . In mid 2014 the Storm also announced a new feeder partnership with the Sunshine Coast Falcons this would complement their existing relation ship with Brisbane Easts with a view to establishing a permanent footprint in the Sunshine Coast Area . The 2015 season began successfully for the Storm with the club finding itself on top of the ladder following Round 7 . In April Storm CEO Mark Evans announced that he will return to England and complete his tenure as CEO in late June , the club is now in the process of searching for his replacement . An expanded Representative weekend over the 2 – 3 May saw fifteen Storm players selected to play in the various matches . In June 2015 the Club announced that Dave Donaghy will be taking over as CEO from Mark Evans . In Round 19 of the 2015 season Cameron smith played his 300th game becoming only the 24th player in history to do so . In August 2015 the storm formally announce that they would create an Academy on the sunshine Coast to develop and nurture developing talent in the region with a view to progressing through the Storm ranks . Part of the establishment of this Academy meant that the Melbourne Storm Under 20s Team would play all of its home games at the new facility from 2016 onward .
The 2016 season began well for the Storm finding themselves in Third place on the ladder after 10 rounds . In Round 5 they scored their 300th NRL win and in Round 9 , Craig Bellamy coached his 350th NRL game . On 23 May the Melbourne Storm announced that it had been one of three successful bidders and the only NRL club to gain a licence to field a Netball side in a new expanded Australian Netball League to commence in 2017 . The Storm were nominated by Netball Australia as a preferred bidder for one of three new team licences under their expansion plans . “ Melbourne Storm have partnered with the University of the Sunshine Coast for this project and we ’ re both very proud and excited to have reached the preferred bidder stage for a license in the new national netball league , ” Smith said at the announcement press conference on Thursday . The Team will be based on the Sunshine Coast at the Storm sports Academy and in effect be a second Queensland Team . The announcement is to establish the Storm as not just a Rugby League club but a sporting and community club .
= = Season summaries = =
= = Emblem and colours = =
Originally , the club favoured the name Melbourne Mavericks with a gunslinger logo holding a fistful of dollars . The club officials were all set to go with this until News Limited 's Lachlan Murdoch told them to go with something else because the Mavericks sounded too American . Trams and Flying Foxes were also some ideas that came up . However co @-@ CEOs Chris Johns and John Ribot decided to go with the themes lightning , power and storm . The club then became known as the Melbourne Storm .
The Storm was always going to go with the colours of their state , Victoria ( Navy blue with a white ' V ' ) , but club consultant at the time , Peter McWhirter of the JAG fashion house , suggested that they should also have purple and gold to make their merchandise more attractive . These colours appear in the logo , however , on the home jersey they have varied . Between 1998 and 2004 these four colours also appeared but between 2005 and 2009 , gold was completely removed and silver introduced . Between 2010 - 2012 , gold returned and silver was omitted , purple also became the dominant colour in the jersey . For 2013 a new design was announced featuring a deeper V , with more navy blue in the jersey , gold disappeared along with most of the white , the lightning bolts were also changed to purple . During 2015 the jersey changed again for the first time not featuring a V at all , but the V returned somewhat along with the Lightening bolts in 2016 with a manufacturer change . Over the years and in all variations of the Jersey , Navy Blue and Purple always remain the main colours .
Between 1998 – 2001 , Melbourne was the only club to display player names on the back of jerseys . This was because there was no major sponsor for the Storm to display on the chest or back at the time and in addition it helped supporters new to the game identify the players . In 2001 , Melbourne gained its first major sponsor in Adecco , and was displayed on the jersey chest , while maintaining the players names on the back until the end of 2001 . In 2002 , the Storm removed the player 's names and displayed Adecco 's logo on the back . Since then the Storm have had varying sponsors adorning the Jersey .
= = Club Song = =
The Melbourne Storm 's club song , written by Jon Mol and Phil Wall , is called " We Are the Storm " . The song is played over the public address system following each home victory .
= = Rivalries = =
St. George Illawarra Dragons
The Storm narrowly beat them in their first grand final in 1999 , with a late penalty try putting the Storm in front . The following year Anthony Mundine declared that the Storm were not " worthy premiers " in the run up to their round 5 rematch . The Storm responded by beating the Dragons 70 – 10 . In Round 18 the Dragons added to the rivalry by defeating the Storm 50 – 4 . In 2006 the Storm defeated St. George Illawarra in the Preliminary Final . On 21 July 2008 , the Storm won at Olympic Park 26 – 0 , in a match that was highlighted by several ugly brawls . In 2009 , the Storm beat them in the Round 1 home game 17 – 16 with a field goal in Golden Point .
Brisbane Broncos
The Melbourne Storm has a strong rivalry with Brisbane , built in large part on the large number of finals games played between the teams , including one final in each year from 2004 to 2009 ; the Storm winning all but one of them . The move of Brisbane assistant coach Craig Bellamy to Melbourne has also been attributed to fueling the rivalry , as well as the wide spread of Queensland Origin players across their squads in the better part of the past decade .
" When Bellamy left here and went to Melbourne , the rivalry with them went up a notch then ... their record is good against us . "
Every year since Brisbane 's victory over Melbourne in the 2006 Grand Final , Melbourne have ended the Broncos ' season by knocking them out of the finals . Melbourne captain Cameron Smith commented on the rivalry prior to their 2009 Preliminary Final at Etihad Stadium .
" A lot of people talk about us and Manly , but I think all the boys for whatever reason would say we take more satisfaction out of beating the Broncos ... we love playing them ... there is always plenty of feeling and intensity in the games ... it probably wouldn 't feel like September if we weren 't playing them at some stage . "
The Brisbane Broncos defeated the Storm 15 – 8 in the 2006 NRL Grand Final . The Storm sought revenge through a 40 – 0 thrashing in the 2007 Qualifying Final at Olympic Park Stadium . The 2008 Semi @-@ Final at Suncorp Stadium ended with Melbourne dramatically winning 16 – 14 with a try on the final play of the game . In 2009 Brisbane were again beaten by eventual premiers Melbourne , this time 40 – 10 at Etihad Stadium , catapulting the Storm to their 4th consecutive Grand Final Appearance .
Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles
The Storm defeated Manly 34 – 8 in the 2007 Grand Final but lost to in the 2008 re @-@ match in a history @-@ making 0 – 40 loss . To add to the rivalry , Melbourne beat Manly 40 – 12 in the opening final of the 2009 finals series , ending their bid to be back @-@ to @-@ back premiers . In September 21 , 2012 , Storm and Manly played each other in the preliminary final for the first time . Storm again thrashed Manly 40 @-@ 12 , again ending their chances of winning back @-@ to @-@ back titles .
I haven 't been a part of the matches previous to this year which built that rivalry but you certainly get a sense that interest in the game and the level of excitement and enthusiasm from the players goes up , "
As of the 2015 NRL season , the NRL have replaced the Storm 's tradition ANZAC Day game with the New Zealand Warriors with a clash against the Sea Eagles .
New Zealand Warriors
More of a traditional rivalry due to the large amount of Kiwi internationals Melbourne has fielded in their history . Matches between the two clubs are normally close and low scoring , with the overall head to head ( as of 2016 ) slightly in Melbourne 's favour ( 37 clashes , Storm 19 @-@ Warriors 16 & 2 draws ) . These two sides played an annual ANZAC Day clash each year between 2009 - 2014 . For 2015 it will was played earlier in April before moving back to ANZAC Day for 2016 .
= = Stadium and attendances = =
Melbourne 's home ground since 2010 has been AAMI Park . Their highest season average attendance for home games was 16 @,@ 302 in 2013 . Their highest regular season attendance of 28 @,@ 716 was set on 25 April 2014 for the ANZAC Day match against New Zealand Warriors at AAMI Park . A home finals attendance record of 33 @,@ 427 was set in 2007 for the Preliminary Final against Parramatta , at the Docklands Stadium .
Melbourne previously played the vast majority of their home matches at the city 's Olympic Park Stadium , affectionately coined " The Graveyard " by fans due to the incredible 77 @.@ 2 % winning percentage there . It was there that the club played their inaugural home match in the fourth round of the 1998 season on 3 April 1998 , having come off the back of three successive away victories . The team recorded a 26 – 16 victory over the North Sydney Bears , and the crowd of 20 @,@ 522 was the largest attendance for the club at Olympic Park .
The team remained at the ground until the end of the 2000 season . In the 2000 season they attracted an average home attendance of 14 @,@ 622 , which remained their largest average attendance ever until the 2010 season which drew an average on 14 @,@ 670 . They played at Melbourne Cricket Ground for two games in 2000 , and they won both times including the 70 – 10 thrashing of St George Illawarra Dragons in the Grand Final rematch from the previous year . Following steady attendance increases over the three years , it was decided to move home games to the 56 @,@ 347 capacity Docklands Stadium for the following year . Docklands is an oval shaped venue primarily built for use by the Australian Football League ( AFL ) . However , with the team ending up missing the finals , crowd numbers declined and it was decided to move the team back to Olympic Park . Due to the high costs involved , as well as Docklands stadium management ( which included the AFL ) citing damage to the playing surface , the Storm only used the movable seating once in their time at the venue . This came in their Round 21 win over the Brisbane Broncos in 2001 . It also saw the Storm 's largest home attendance of the 2001 season with 15 @,@ 470 fans attending the game .
The Storm had their lowest crowd average of 8 @,@ 886 per home game in 2004 , but crowds steadily rose over the following years , breaking the previous record average in 2010 , and then up to an peak of 16 @,@ 302 for the 2013 season , their highest yearly average to date .
The Storm played their last game at Olympic Park in round 25 , 29 August 2009 , with a 36 – 4 thrashing of the Sydney Roosters .
For the 2010 NRL Premiership season , the Storm 's first three home games ( rounds four , six and seven ) were played at Docklands Stadium , before moving into their new home ground , AAMI Park in round nine ( 9 May 2010 ) against the Brisbane Broncos . The club had anticipated playing its first game at the new ground in round four against the St George Illawarra Dragons , however , a delay in construction required the opening to be pushed back several weeks . Since then all Storm home games , regular season and finals , have been played at AAMI Park .
= = Statistics and records = =
As of the end of Round 18 of the 2016 NRL season , the Storm have won two legitimate NRL Premierships in 1999 and 2012 and one Minor Premiership in 2011 . Their current wins percentage of 63 @.@ 72 % is the best in the league . The clubs most capped player is Cameron Smith with 325 appearances thus far , Smith is also the clubs highest point scorer with 1916 career points . Fullback Billy Slater is the club 's most prolific try scorer with 173 tries scored so far . Melbourne also has three Dally M medal winners in Cameron Smith ( 2006 ) , Billy Slater ( 2011 ) and most recently Cooper Cronk in 2013 and in addition , the Storm have so far had three Golden Boot award winners ( Smith 2007 , Slater 2008 and Greg Inglis 2009 ) .
Melbourne Storm 's current winning streak record for the most consecutive matches won stands at 15 matches , completed between Round 22 of the 2012 NRL season and Round 7 of the 2013 NRL season , this included winning the 2012 NRL Premiership . The club 's all @-@ time highest score is 70 points scored against St. George Illawarra on 3 March 2000 but the highest winning margin is 64 points achieved in a 64 @-@ 0 win over West Tigers in 2001 and equaled in a 68 @-@ 4 win over Canberra Raiders in 2013 .
= = Players = =
also
= = = Current Squad = = =
= = = Team of the decade = = =
As part of their 10 @-@ year celebrations in 2007 , Melbourne Storm released a team of the decade . The 17 man team was selected by former assistant coach Greg Brentnall , foundation CEO John Ribot , and then board member Frank Stanton ( all 3 were members of the 1982 Kangaroo tour " Invincibles " , Brentnall and Ribot as players with Stanton the coach ) . The trio were joined by The Daily Telegraph ( Sydney ) journalist Steve Mascord .
= = Supporters = =
The Melbourne Storm 's supporter base grew from almost 500 @,@ 000 in 2004 to almost 800 @,@ 000 in 2009 , making them the fourth most popular rugby team . The club 's supporter group , the " Graveyard Crew " , make an Aussie @-@ rules- ( AFL ) style banner for the team to run through in important matches .
= = = Notable Supporters = = =
= = Feeder clubs = =
In 1998 , the Storm established an affiliation with Queensland Cup side the Norths Devils and used the club as a feeder for their first grade team . The relationship would prove to be a fruitful one as 13 of the 17 players to compete for the Storm in the 2006 NRL Grand Final had played for the Devils in previous years . In 2005 , the Storm also established an affiliation with the North Sydney Bears in the New South Wales Cup . Melbourne severed ties with both the Bears and the Devils in 2007 and aligned themselves with the Central Coast Storm in the New South Wales Cup . The affiliation lasted three seasons before the Storm decided to establish their own team in the NSW Cup in 2010 which would share its namesake . An unsuccessful venture saw the Storm revert to the Queensland Cup in 2011 when it established a feeder relationship with the Easts Tigers . Melbourne established a second feeder relationship with the Sunshine Coast Falcons in 2014 , also from the Queensland Cup . The Storm further committed to the area in 2015 when it was announced their National Youth Competition U20 side would be based out of the Sunshine Coast from 2016 . The Storm justified the decision by stating most of their talent is fostered in Queensland anyway .
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= The Confessions Tour ( album ) =
The Confessions Tour is the second live album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released on January 26 , 2007 by Warner Bros. Records . Directed by Jonas Åkerlund , the album chronicles Madonna 's 2006 Confessions Tour . It was recorded at Wembley Arena during the London dates of the tour , and was released in both CD and DVD format . The DVD contains the entire concert and the CD includes thirteen live songs only . The album became the first release from Semtex Films , a production company founded by Madonna in 2006 .
The Confessions Tour received generally positive reviews from contemporary critics and won the Best Long Form Music Video category at the 50th Grammy Awards . After its release , the release reached number one on the official charts in Australia , Belgium , Czech Republic , Hungary , Italy , Portugal and Spain . It received moderate success in her native country , peaking at number fifteen on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart . The Confessions Tour has sold more than 1 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide .
= = Background = =
Following the 2006 live release I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret , Madonna released her second live album , The Confessions Tour . The album was recorded at Wembley Arena on August 15 and 16 , 2006 , during the London stop of her 2006 Confessions Tour , which was promoting her 2005 studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor . It was the first release from her new production company , Semtex Films and was released in both DVD and CD formats , capturing the tour as directed by Jonas Åkerlund . The DVD release consists of the full twenty @-@ one song set list of the tour , while the CD captures thirteen highlights from the same . The tour was first shown on NBC during the Thanksgiving of 2006 . This broadcast was edited , cutting the likes of " Paradise ( Not For Me ) " . Madonna 's performance of " Live to Tell " , while hanging from a glass embellished crucifix , faced strong reaction from the media and religious groups . " Live to Tell " was followed by the performance of " Forbidden Love " from the Confessions on a Dance Floor album , where Madonna took off a crown made of thorns from her head . Asian media and services company Fridae reported that the album was banned in Singapore , Malaysia and parts of East Asia , because of the inclusion of the performances in the DVD .
= = Critical response = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic felt that the CD version of the album was " not all that much fun to hear , even if the reinterpretations of the 20 @-@ year @-@ old hits are interesting . The DVD doesn 't feel as cold thanks entirely to the pizzazz of the visuals and the determined efficiency of the show , but even so , this is primarily of interest to the diehards who don 't mind purchasing another live CD / DVD set just a year after the first . " Ed Gonzalez from Slant Magazine felt that the concert finale in the album " is a reminder that Madonna 's music need not be motivated by sex or politics to be good as long as it displays a smidgen of heart and soul . " Thomas Inskeep from Stylus Magazine also complimented the finale of the tour . According to him , " [ The Confessions Tour ] is almost exclusively up @-@ tempo , staged within an inch of its life yet more vivacious than anything she 's done in years . Its CD companion is a pared @-@ down 13 tracks taken from the live show , and good God it smokes . " However , he felt that the disc loses its momentum during the " Confessions " part , which demonstrates a trio of individuals confessing about their sufferings in life .
Tom Young from BBC Music said that he did not see the actual performances on the tour and felt that " some of the magnitude of the performance is lost and the track / scene changes appear needlessly long @-@ winded . [ ... ] As far as live albums go , this is a job well done . " Stephen M. Deusner from Pitchfork Media gave a negative review for the album , stating " Madonna herself is mostly to blame . On stage , she draws from a deep well of amazing pop songs and has the money and power to reinvent this sort of traveling circus . So why not try to break down the wall between performance and audience and hold a gigantic rave ? [ ... ] Åkerlund gives you everything you don 't want from a concert film : incessant quick cuts that you give you no sense of space or stage , overdubbed music and vocals that give you no sense of performance , and only a few shots of the audience to gauge their excitement . " Mini Anthikad @-@ Chhibber The Hindu commented that " Madonna pulls out all stops in this effort turn the world into a dance floor and one just has to doff one 's hat to her energy . " At the 50th Grammy Awards held on February 10 , 2008 at Staples Center in Los Angeles , The Confessions Tour won in the category of Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video .
= = Commercial reception = =
In the United States , the album debuted at number 15 on the Billboard 200 chart with first week sales of 40 @,@ 000 according to Nielsen Soundscan . In Canada , it debuted at number two on the Canadian Albums Chart . The Confessions Tour was not able to enter the official ARIA Albums Chart , but debuted at number @-@ one on the Australian Top 40 DVD chart , on the issue dated February 12 , 2007 . At the year end Australian chart for 2007 , The Confessions Tour became the 27th best selling DVD in Australia . The album was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipment of 10 @,@ 000 copies in DVD units .
In the United Kingdom , it debuted at number seven on the UK Albums Chart . In Japan , the album reached a peak of number ten on the Oricon weekly albums chart and was present on the chart for twelve weeks . In Hong Kong , it was awarded a Gold Disc Award by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry for becoming one of ten biggest @-@ selling international album for 2007 .
Across Europe The Confessions Tour reached the top of the charts in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Italy , Portugal and Spain , while reaching the top ten of the rest of the European nations . In Mexico , New Zealand and Norway , the album just missed the top ten of the charts . The commercial success in Europe enabled the album to debut at position two on Billboard 's European Top 100 Albums chart , behind Norah Jones ' studio album Not Too Late . The DVD of The Confessions Tour has sold more than 1 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Formats = = =
CD / DVD – double disc digipak edition containing the live DVD and the live CD .
DVD – DVD keep case packed with the DVD .
Digital download – The live performances and the live song with 2 bonus tracks : " Ray of Light " and " Get Together " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Director – Jonas Åkerlund
Production company – Semtex Films , Semtex TV Productions
Producer – Sara Martin
Executive producers – Madonna , Angela Becker , Guy Oseary and John Payne
Photography – Eric Broms
Film editing – Jonas Åkerlund , Philip Richardson , Johan Söderberg and Danny Tull
Costume designer – Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier and Arianne Phillips
Credits adapted from The Confessions Tour CD liner notes :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Lauren Conrad =
Lauren Katherine Tell ( née Conrad ; born February 1 , 1986 ) is an American television personality , fashion designer , and author . Born and raised in Laguna Beach , California , she attended Laguna Beach High School . In September 2004 , at the age of 18 , Conrad came to prominence after being cast in the reality television series Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County , which documented her life and those of her friends .
After moving to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the fashion industry in May 2006 , Conrad was commissioned to star in her own spin @-@ off series The Hills , which chronicled the personal and professional lives of her and friends Heidi Montag , Audrina Patridge , and Whitney Port . During its production , she attended the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising and held positions with Teen Vogue and Kelly Cutrone 's PR firm People 's Revolution . As the series progressed , a widely publicized feud developed between Conrad , Montag and Montag 's boyfriend Spencer Pratt . Consequently , the conflict became the central focus of the series , and was carried through each subsequent season in which Conrad appeared .
In May 2009 , Conrad left The Hills after five seasons , and was replaced by former Laguna Beach cast member Kristin Cavallari . She filmed an alternate ending for the series finale in July 2010 , which was broadcast in August 2013 . Conrad launched the fashion lines LC Lauren Conrad and Paper Crown in 2009 and 2011 , respectively . She released the L.A. Candy book trilogy in 2010 and the spin @-@ off The Fame Game series in 2012 . Conrad married former musician and law school graduate William Tell in September 2014 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1986 – 2005 : Early life and Laguna Beach = = =
Conrad was born in Laguna Beach , California on February 1 , 1986 , to parents Jim , an architect , and Kathy ( née Lawrence ) . She has two younger siblings , a sister named Breanna , also a television personality , and a brother , Brandon . Conrad first expressed an interest in a career in the fashion industry when she was in the sixth grade . Her father added that Conrad " wasn 't a great student [ and ] wasn 't that interested " during her childhood , although noted that " we figured out along the way that she was an artist and her real love was fashion . "
Alongside eventual castmates Lo Bosworth , Kristin Cavallari , and Stephen Colletti , Conrad was educated at Laguna Beach High School . In 2004 , they starred in Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County , an MTV reality television series which documented their lives during high school . During its production , she was often referred to by the initialism " L.C. " , although she has since expressed her distaste for the nickname . The series proved successful for the network ; she described the lifestyle it imposed on her as being " definitely a different way to grow up " . The first season notably focused on the love triangle between Conrad , Cavallari , and Colletti , and the subsequent feud between the former two . Upon the conclusion of the first season , Conrad appeared on an episode of MTV Cribs .
After graduating high school in 2004 , Conrad attended the Academy of Art University in San Francisco for one semester , where she met Heidi Montag . Conrad left the series after the second season , during which period she moved back home and transferred to the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising in Los Angeles . After her sister Breanna became a primary cast member , Conrad made a guest appearance on the series during the third season in 2006 .
= = = 2006 – 2009 : The Hills = = =
After moving to Los Angeles in May 2006 , the spin @-@ off series The Hills was developed to chronicle the lives of Conrad , her housemate Montag , and their friends Audrina Patridge and Whitney Port . During production of the first season , Conrad and Port held internships with Teen Vogue under the direction of West Coast Vogue editor Lisa Love ; she stated that they had to interview successfully for the positions , " regardless of what the cameras wanted " . By the second season , their friendship had deteriorated after Montag began dating Spencer Pratt . After Montag moved in with Pratt , Patridge and Lo Bosworth later became roommates with Conrad .
During the third season , Conrad ended her friendship with Montag after she suspected that Montag and Pratt were responsible for rumors of a sex tape involving herself and her former boyfriend Jason Wahler ; the ensuing feud carried through each subsequent season in which Conrad appeared . Conrad briefly dated fellow castmate Brody Jenner , which she commented had been subject to " editing to drag it out " during the series . In January 2007 , Conrad was announced as the inaugural spokeswoman of Avon Products 's " mark . " line , marketed towards young women ; she was succeeded by actress Ashley Greene in June 2010 . Later in 2007 , Conrad appeared as a satirical version of herself in the comedy film Epic Movie . In 2008 , Conrad and Port began employment with Kelly Cutrone 's PR firm , People 's Revolution . Conrad later made a cameo appearance in an episode of Greek and provided her voice for a cartoon version of herself in an episode of Family Guy . In March , she premiered her first fashion line The Lauren Conrad Collection . After underwhelming sales figures , Conrad ended the line the following year to further familiarize herself with the industry .
In 2008 , Conrad began dating actor Kyle Howard . Howard expressed concern that appearing on reality television would interfere with his acting career ; consequently , their relationship was not documented on The Hills . ( After three years together , Conrad and Howard ended their relationship in 2011 . ) Upon the conclusion of the fourth season of the series that December , Conrad wished to leave the series to pursue other career opportunities . However , per the producers ' requests , she filmed ten episodes for the following season , in which she closed her storylines . Conrad made her final appearance on the series in May 2009 , attending Montag and Pratt 's wedding after much deliberation during the mid @-@ season finale of the fifth season . However , in the July 2009 issue of Cosmopolitan , she stated that producers had pressured her into a reconciliation with Montag throughout the season , adding that she was displeased when they would not allow otherwise . Conrad was replaced by former Laguna Beach castmate Kristin Cavallari until the series ' conclusion in July 2010 .
= = = 2009 – 12 : Expansion into fashion and retail industries = = =
Conrad 's first novel L.A. Candy was released in June 2009 , and became a bestseller on The New York Times . It was inspired by her life , focusing on a woman named Jane Roberts who moves to Los Angeles . It was followed by sequels Sweet Little Lies and Sugar and Spice in 2010 . Conrad also released the fashion guide Lauren Conrad Style in 2010 . She later made appearances on the syndicated game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire , playing for her charity " m.powerment by mark " and Kathy Griffin : My Life on the D @-@ List , and also served as a guest judge on the thirteenth cycle of America 's Next Top Model . In fall 2009 , Conrad collaborated with Kohl 's to launch her second fashion line LC Lauren Conrad , and was later expanded to include a bedding collection .
In September 2010 , Conrad was to star in an MTV series that would have focused on her career endeavors , though the network chose not to pick up the program after Conrad preferred not to film her private life . In April 2011 , Conrad launched The Beauty Department with her hairstylist , Kristin Ess , and her makeup artist , Amy Nadine ; she later announced plans to expand the brand to include a line of cosmetics . Looking to target a more upscale audience , Conrad released her third fashion line Paper Crown that August ; Conrad released her fourth novel The Fame Game as a spin @-@ off to the L.A. Candy series in April 2012 @.@ she has since established an account with Nordstrom for the line . In July , she collaborated with BlueAvocado to launch XO ( eco ) , an environmentally @-@ friendly collection of bags . In October 2012 , Conrad released The Fame Game continuation novel Starstruck and the style guide Lauren Conrad Beauty . The final novel Infamous was released in June 2013 .
= = = 2013 – present : Marriage and continued career = = =
In September 2010 , Conrad revealed that she had filmed an alternate ending for The Hills with Jenner . Upon the conclusion of their month @-@ long morning marathon of the series , titled " RetroMTV Brunch " , MTV aired the footage in August 2013 . The scene depicts Jenner returning to his apartment after seeing Cavallari 's limousine off to Europe . Conrad is revealed to be sitting on his couch , and comforts him that " it 's hard to say goodbye " to a " friend of [ his ] " , before the camera focuses on a smiling Conrad . That month , she also expressed interest in participating in a potential reunion film . In December 2013 , Montag stated that she and Conrad have " talked a few times " since the series ' conclusion , elaborating that " it 's unfortunate things happened the way that it did , but we 're both different people now , older and more mature . "
Having begun dating in February 2012 , Conrad and law student and former Something Corporate guitarist William Tell , moved into a shared residence in Westwood , Los Angeles in September 2013 , and announced their engagement the following month . That October , Conrad and her friend Hannah Skvarla opened the online store The Little Market , which distributes handmade pieces from women of varying cultural backgrounds . Conrad and Tell got married on September 13 , 2014 in California .
Conrad respectively released limited @-@ run Cinderella , Minnie Mouse , and Bambi @-@ inspired collections for LC Lauren Conrad in February , May , and October 2015 . She also introduced an upscale runway collection for the line during New York Fashion Week that September .
= = Public image = =
Since appearing on Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County , Conrad has been recognized as being among the first individuals to benefit from the popularity of reality television in the early 2000s . In 2009 , Thomas Rogers from Salon described her as " one of the dullest major characters in reality television history " , but opined that her normalcy compared to her co @-@ stars on The Hills made her " vaguely likable " . An editor from People stated that Conrad " became a full @-@ blown TV phenom " during its third season , which notably introduced the conflict with Montag and Pratt , in addition to controversy regarding scripting allegations .
In 2013 , Misty White Sidell from The Daily Beast noted that Conrad established a following based on her respectability instead of " bitch @-@ slaps and drunken sex @-@ capades " , further commenting that her more relatable image made her an " anomaly " among television personalities . Conrad herself commented that The Hills was intended to be an " aspirational " program despite being " laced with scandal and catfights " , stating that the storyline differed from the " shock value " emphasized in recent programming . Conrad has additionally been recognized for originating several now @-@ famous quotes on The Hills , including " He 's a sucky person ! " when criticizing Spencer Pratt during the second season , and " You know what you did ! " when arguing with Heidi Montag over her alleged involvement with sex tape rumors involving herself in the third season .
Conrad has been featured on the covers of several magazine 's best @-@ selling issues , including those of People StyleWatch and Cosmopolitan . She appeared on the May 2012 issue of Glamour , which sold approximately 500 @,@ 000 copies and became the magazine 's strongest @-@ selling issue of the year , and was featured on the covers of the second highest @-@ selling issues of Lucky and Marie Claire in 2013 . Lauren Sherman from Fashionista credited Conrad 's success to " her knack for entrepreneurship , her easy style , and her friendliness " . Jim Higgins from Milwaukee Journal Sentinel complimented her pursuit of several different career endeavors , and compared her to a " young Martha Stewart " . However , in August 2012 , Conrad was criticized for destroying a collection of A Series of Unfortunate Events novels for a crafting tutorial posted to YouTube .
During its production , Conrad was the highest @-@ paid cast member on The Hills , earning an annual salary of $ 2 @.@ 5 million . In 2008 , her endeavors earned her an additional $ 1 @.@ 5 million . In 2010 , Conrad was named the second highest @-@ paid reality television personality , ranking behind Kim Kardashian . Conrad is a registered member of the Republican Party . She has stated that she has " done several things to [ ... ] encourage people to vote " , but respects the private ballot and " [ doesn 't ] want to ever influence someone 's vote or have [ her ] vote change someone 's opinion of [ her ] " . Conrad collaborated with Seventeen magazine to film a public service announcement for Declare Yourself , a campaign which encouraged young adults to register themselves to vote during the 2008 presidential election . She has additionally expressed her support for same @-@ sex marriage , and on one occasion left a Mexican restaurant after learning of its disapproval of marriage equality .
= = Filmography = =
= = Published works = =
L.A. Candy ( 2009 )
Sweet Little Lies ( 2010 )
Sugar and Spice ( 2010 )
Lauren Conrad Style ( 2010 )
The Fame Game ( 2012 )
Lauren Conrad Beauty ( 2012 )
Starstruck ( 2012 )
Infamous ( 2013 )
Lauren Conrad Celebrate ( 2016 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Soeara Berbisa =
Soeara Berbisa ( [ suˈara bərˈbisa ] ; Perfected Spelling : Suara Berbisa ; Indonesian for Venomous Voice ) is a 1941 film from the Dutch East Indies . Produced by Ang Hock Liem for Union Films and directed by R Hu , this black @-@ and @-@ white film starred Raden Soekarno , Ratna Djoewita , Oedjang , and Soehaena . The story , written by Djojopranoto , follows two young men who compete for the affections of a woman before learning that they are long @-@ lost brothers .
Completed between September and October 1941 , Soeara Berbisa featured keroncong music and was shot partly in western Java . It was released to coincide with the Eid al @-@ Fitr holiday , and rated for all ages . Advertisements emphasised the film 's appeal to both Native and Dutch audiences , and a review in De Indische Courant was positive . Although the film – Union 's penultimate production – was screened as late as 1949 , it is now likely lost .
= = Plot = =
The young athlete Mitra and his sweetheart Neng Mardinah are to be wed . However , a young man named Mardjohan has fallen in love with Mardinah , and to win her heart he spreads rumours about Mitra being the son of a convicted criminal . In the backlash over the rumours , Mitra abandons the city and his beloved , hoping to find peace in the countryside .
There , Mitra finds work at a factory which is , coincidentally , owned by Mardjohan . Refusing the romantic advances of a worker there , he leaves the factory . One day , he comes across Mardjohan , gravely injured following an accident . Mitra saves the man , then takes him for treatment . Mardjohan 's mother , seeing Mitra , believes that he is her son who went missing when he was aged three . She finds several witnesses who testify of the resemblance , and is ultimately able to prove her suspicions . Meanwhile , Mitra 's name is cleared , and he is reunited with Mardinah .
= = Production = =
The sixth production of Union Films , Soeara Berbisa was produced by Ang Hock Liem and directed by R Hu , an ethnic Chinese director who had worked for the company since 1940 ; the sound technician Boen Kin Nam served as assistant director . The screenplay was written by Djojopranoto , who replaced Union 's former screenwriter Saeroen after the latter left for rival company Star Film following Wanita dan Satria ( 1941 ) . The film began production by September 1941 , and by October it was nearly complete .
Soeara Berbisa starred Raden Soekarno and Ratna Djoewita , and featured the acting talents of Oedjang and Soehaena . Soekarno and Soehana were new hires , whereas Oedjang and Djoewita had previously done work for Union ; the former had been acting for Union since its first production , Kedok Ketawa , in 1940 , and the latter had held a role in Wanita dan Satria . This black @-@ and @-@ white film included several keroncong songs , and was partly shot in the Preanger region of west Java .
= = Release and reception = =
Union announced that Soeara Berbisa would be released to coincide with the Eid al @-@ Fitr holiday , which began on 22 October 1941 , and advertisements for screenings in Medan , in northern Sumatra , date to early November 1941 . A review in the Surabaya edition of De Indische Courant , however , indicates that the film had only premiered in the east Javan city on 14 January 1942 . That newspaper gave a positive review , describing Soeara Berbisa as a tense film with humorous moments and beautiful scenery . Its review ended with a recommendation that young people and their parents see the film .
Soeara Berbisa was open to audiences of all ages . To reach educated audiences , Union claimed to have " paid attention to dialogue , arranged it as best as possible in accordance with the wants of the Indonesian people " . In Dutch @-@ language newspapers , the film was advertised as " an interesting and fascinating tale of two young men in the world of indigenous sports " , which nonetheless was produced in a " civilised " manner such that it could be appreciated by European audiences .
= = Legacy = =
Union 's final production , Mega Mendoeng , was directed by Boen and released in early 1942 . It again starred Soekarno , though this time alongside the new find Sofiati . The company was closed after the Japanese occupied the Indies in March 1942 , and most of its employees never returned to the film industry . Soekarno was an exception ; he continued to act until the 1970s , though he was generally credited as Rendra Karno .
Soeara Berbisa was screened as late as February 1949 . The film is likely lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . As such , American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider suggests that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= The Long , Hot Summer =
The Long , Hot Summer is a 1958 film directed by Martin Ritt . The screenplay was written by Irving Ravetch and Harriet Frank , Jr . , based in part on three works by William Faulkner : the 1931 novella " Spotted Horses " , the 1939 short story " Barn Burning " , and the 1940 novel The Hamlet . The title is taken from The Hamlet , as Book Three is called " The Long Summer " . Some characters , as well as tone , were inspired by Tennessee Williams ' 1955 play , Cat on a Hot Tin Roof , a film adaptation of which - also starring Paul Newman - was released five months after the release of The Long , Hot Summer .
The plot follows the conflicts of the Varner family after ambitious drifter Ben Quick ( Newman ) arrives in their small Mississippi town . Will Varner ( Orson Welles ) , the family 's patriarch and the owner of most of the town , has doubts about the abilities of his only son , Jody ( Anthony Franciosa ) , and sees Ben as a better choice to inherit his position . Will therefore tries to push Ben and his daughter Clara ( Joanne Woodward ) into marriage . Clara is initially reluctant to court Ben , and Jody senses that Ben threatens his position .
Filmed in Clinton , Louisiana , the film 's cast was composed mostly of former Actors Studio students , whom Ritt met while he was an assistant teacher to Elia Kazan . For the leading role , Warner Brothers loaned Paul Newman to 20th Century Fox . The production was marked by conflicts between Welles and Ritt , which drew media attention . The music score was composed by Alex North , and the title song , " The Long Hot Summer " , written by North and Sammy Cahn , was performed by Jimmie Rodgers .
The film was well received by critics but did not score significant results at the box office . Its critical success revitalized the career of Martin Ritt , who had been blacklisted during most of the 1950s , and also earned national fame for Paul Newman , who won the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival .
= = Plot = =
Ben Quick is on trial , suspected of barn @-@ burning , but when no solid evidence is found , the peace judge expels him from town . Ben then hitches a ride to Frenchman 's Bend , Mississippi , with two young women in a convertible , Clara Varner and her sister @-@ in @-@ law Eula ( Lee Remick ) . Clara 's father , Will Varner , is the domineering owner of most of the town .
Ben goes to the Varner plantation . Will is away , but Jody , Will 's only son , agrees to let him become a sharecropper on a vacant farm . When Will returns from a stay in the hospital , he begins to see in Ben a younger version of himself and comes to admire his ruthlessness and ambition , qualities that Jody lacks . Will is also disappointed with the man that his 23 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Clara , has been seeing for five or six years : Alan Stewart ( Richard Anderson ) , a genteel Southern " blue blood " and a mama 's boy . Will therefore schemes to push his daughter and Ben together , to try to bring fresh , virile blood into the family . However , she is openly hostile to the crude , if magnetic , upstart . Will is determined to have his bloodline go on , so he offers Ben much wealth to marry Clara . Ben is interested , but eventually comes to see something more in Clara . Meanwhile , Minnie Littlejohn ( Angela Lansbury ) , Will 's long @-@ time mistress , is dissatisfied with the arrangement and wants to marry him . Will , a widower , is strongly against the idea .
Jody becomes increasingly alarmed and frustrated when he sees his position in the family undermined by Ben . After Ben manages to sell some wild horses , Will offers him the position of clerk in the general store , alongside Jody . Later , Will invites him to live in the family mansion .
This is the final straw for Jody . When he finds Ben alone , he pulls a gun on him and threatens to kill him . Ben talks his way out by telling Jody about buried Civil War @-@ era treasure he has supposedly found on a property that Will gave him , a down payment to seal their bargain over Clara . Ben and Jody head to the property , where they start digging . When the two men find a bag of coins , Jody is elated , thinking he might finally get free of his father 's domination ; he buys the land from Ben . Late that night , Will finds his son , still digging . After examining one of the coins , Will notices that it was minted in 1910 . Jody is shattered .
Meanwhile , Ben aggressively pursues Clara . She finally asks Alan his intentions , and does not like what she hears . The following day , a crushed and frustrated Jody finds his father alone in their barn . Jody bolts the entrance and sets the barn on fire , but he cannot go through with it and releases Will . The incident leads to a reconciliation between Jody and Will . Meanwhile , some of the men assume Ben is the culprit and start toward him . Clara persuades a defiant Ben to drive away in her car . Will later claims responsibility for accidentally starting the fire by dropping his cigar .
The smell of fire brings back bad memories for Ben , who confesses to Clara that his father was a real barn @-@ burner . He tells her how , at the age of ten , he had to warn a farmer that his father was about to set another fire . Ben 's father got away , but Ben never saw him again . Grateful that she saved his life , he tells her he is leaving town . However , Clara makes it clear she has fallen in love with him , so he stays . An elated Will confides to Minnie that life is so good , he may have to live forever .
= = Cast = =
Paul Newman as Ben Quick . Newman met director Martin Ritt as a student at the Actors Studio , where Ritt was a teacher @-@ assistant for Elia Kazan . Newman , who was under a contract with Warner Brothers , was loaned to 20th Century Fox for a fee of US $ 75 @,@ 000 . Meanwhile , his contract earned him US $ 17 @,@ 500 for each ten @-@ week shot . He travelled to Clinton , Louisiana , before the start of filming to study the mannerisms , accent and speech of the Southern men in order to create a proper characterization .
Orson Welles as Will Varner . The character was inspired by Big Daddy Pollitt from Tennessee Williams ' play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof . Welles ' presence on the film was marked by multiple conflicts with director Martin Ritt . He agreed to take the role due to a tax debt of US $ 150 @,@ 000 ; he stated years later , " I hated making Long Hot Summer . I 've seldom been as unhappy in a picture " .
Director Martin Ritt met the three cast members listed below while they were students at the Actors Studio .
Joanne Woodward as Clara Varner
Anthony Franciosa as Jody Varner
Lee Remick as Eula Varner . Remick later admitted that during the shooting she was intimidated by Orson Welles on the set because of his " icon " status .
The supporting roles were played by :
Angela Lansbury as Minnie Littlejohn
Richard Anderson as Alan Stewart
Sarah Marshall as Agnes Stewart
Mabel Albertson as Elizabeth Stewart
J. Pat O 'Malley as Ratliff
William " Bill " Walker as Lucius
= = Production notes = =
Producer Jerry Wald hired former co @-@ worker and Warner Brothers director Martin Ritt to shoot the adaptation of two William Faulkner novels based on a recommendation by script writer Irving Ravetch . Wald convinced the studio executives to pay US $ 50 @,@ 000 for the rights for the novels The Sound and the Fury and The Hamlet . The first to be produced , The Hamlet , was renamed The Long Hot Summer to avoid confusion with William Shakespeare 's play Hamlet . Ravetch and Harriet Frank , Jr. wrote the script , also adding fragments from Faulkner 's short stories " Barn Burning " and " Spotted Horses " . In the new script , the book 's main character , Flem Snopes , and the rest of the Snopes family were removed . The plot was recentered on a minor character , Ben Quick , and the reconciliation of the Varner family . On their first important screenplay , Ravetch and Frank implemented their signature style , using the names of characters and a few details of the plot but significantly modifying the details of the story . The final product was heavily influenced by Tennessee Williams ' play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof , resulting in an " erotically charged " story .
The film was shot in Clinton and Baton Rouge , Louisiana , in CinemaScope color , with a budget of US $ 1 @,@ 645 @,@ 000 . A Southern Gothic story , Ritt decided to shoot it on location to capture the characteristics of the area , emphasizing the regional details . Ritt met leading actor Paul Newman while teaching at the Actors Studio . The rest of the main cast also consisted of former Actors Studio alumni , including Joanne Woodward , Anthony Franciosa and Lee Remick .
The film attracted attention for the appearance of Orson Welles as Will Varner , the patriarch of the family . 20th Century Fox wanted to avoid the casting of Welles due to his temperament , but the studio was persuaded by Ritt , who considered him the right actor for the role . The director and the actor had several marked differences during the shooting of the movie , which included problems with the interpretation of the lines , costume design and the position of Welles while shooting the scenes . At one point during the production , Welles informed Ritt that he did not want to memorize his lines , requesting instead that they be dubbed afterwards . Part of the cast was intimidated by Welles ' temperamental attitude .
The conflicts between Welles and Ritt attracted media attention . Immediately after filming was completed , during an interview with Life , Welles explained that the cause of his behavior was that he did not know what kind of " monkeyshines " his co @-@ stars would be or the " caprices " they would receive from him . He also stated that they overcame the differences and completed the film . Welles later wrote a letter to Ritt praising his work and apologizing for his interference during the making of the movie . Ritt replied , expounding his admiration for Welles . Despite the mutual apologies , during an interview in 1965 , Ritt recalled an incident on the set . While the film was being shot , it was often stopped by bad weather . During a day suitable for shooting , he found Welles not ready for the scene , instead reading a newspaper in Spanish . Ritt decided to skip Welles ' scene and shoot the next one . He attributed Welles ' later cooperation to the incident , which Welles had found humiliating . Ritt thus earned the nickname " the Orson Tamer " throughout the Hollywood community .
= = Soundtrack = =
Alex North composed the film 's score , which leaned toward a jazz style . " The Long Hot Summer " was the only song written by North to be used as the title track of a film . Composed in a AABA form , it was characterized by its lyricisms and its " tense dissonant " jazz @-@ figures . The lyrics of the song were written by Sammy Cahn , while instrumental variations of the melody were used throughout the film , underlining the progression of the relationship between Ben and Clara . Recorded by Jimmie Rodgers , it was released by Roulette Records , reaching number 77 on Billboard 's Top 100 Sides in June 1958 . The orchestra was conducted by Lionel Newman .
Billboard described the soundtrack as " a model of music use in a dramatic film " . On another review , Billboard favored the album , stating that it " makes for good listening out of the cinematic context " and that the financial success of the soundtrack may have been propelled by Jimmie Rodgers ' " smooth vocal treatment " . The publication praised North 's musical understanding of the deep South , and particularly praised the song " Eula " , describing it as a " pure gem of sex @-@ on @-@ wax " .
= = Release and reception = =
The movie opened to good reviews but did not score a significant profit at the box office , grossing US $ 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . Billboard commended the acting as " first @-@ rate " and " robust " , with particular praise for Woodward , and also praised Ritt 's direction . Meanwhile , The Reporter highlighted the film 's similarities to the play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and described the cast as " an impressive one " but remarked that the actors and characters " never seem to get together " . The review called Welles ' " great " and " gusty " but described Woodward 's participation in the movie as a " poker bluff " .
Time described Newman 's performance as " mean and keen as a cackle @-@ edge scythe " . The publication also praised Woodward , valorating her acting delivered with " fire and grace not often seen in a movie queen " , but decried Welles ' acting as " scarcely an improvement " on his performance in his previous role , in Moby Dick . Variety praised the scriptwriters for the successful merging of the three Faulkner stories that inspired the film . The review also praised Martin Ritt , the camerawork by Joseph LaShelle , and the film 's musical score . Cosmopolitan called the movie a " gutsy melodrama " .
= = = Legacy = = =
The film reestablished the career of Martin Ritt , who had been on the blacklist for most of the decade for alleged associations with communists . Paul Newman 's performance as Ben Quick brought him national fame , as well as the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival . During the production , Newman married co @-@ star Joanne Woodward .
The film was remade as a television series of the same name , airing between 1965 and 1966 , featuring Dan O 'Herlihy , Roy Thinnes , Nancy Malone , Lana Wood , Ruth Roman , and Edmond O 'Brien . It was remade again for television in 1985 , featuring Jason Robards , Don Johnson , and Cybill Shepherd . This rendition received two Emmy nominations , for Outstanding Miniseries and Outstanding Art Direction for a Miniseries or a Special .
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= Regina Elena @-@ class battleship =
The Regina Elena class was a group of four pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Italian Regia Marina between 1901 and 1908 . The class comprised four ships : Regina Elena , the lead ship , Vittorio Emanuele , Roma , and Napoli . Designed by Vittorio Cuniberti , they were armed with a main battery of two 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and twelve 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns , and were capable of a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . They were the fastest battleships in the world at the time of their commissioning , faster even than the British turbine @-@ powered HMS Dreadnought .
The ships saw service during the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 1912 with the Ottoman Empire . They frequently supported Italian ground forces during the campaigns in North Africa and the islands of the eastern Mediterranean Sea . They served during World War I , in which Italy participated from 1915 to 1918 , but they saw no combat as a result of the cautious policies adopted by the Italian and Austro @-@ Hungarian navies . All four ships were discarded between 1923 and 1926 and broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Starting in 1899 , Vittorio Cuniberti began design work on a warship armed with a uniform battery of twelve 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns , armored with 6 in ( 150 mm ) thick belt armor , and capable of a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) , on a displacement of 8 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 900 long tons ; 8 @,@ 800 short tons ) . This proved to be the genesis of Cuniberti 's later designs , which culminated in the British all @-@ big @-@ gun HMS Dreadnought . When the 1899 design project was not accepted , Cuniberti turned his attention to a new design requirement for a 13 @,@ 000 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 13 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 14 @,@ 000 @-@ short @-@ ton ) battleship faster than all British and French battleships and stronger than the armored cruisers fielded by both navies . This resulted in a modified version of his earlier design , what came to be the Regina Elena class .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Regina Elena class were 132 @.@ 6 meters ( 435 ft ) long at the waterline and 144 @.@ 6 m ( 474 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 22 @.@ 4 m ( 73 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 91 to 8 @.@ 58 m ( 26 @.@ 0 to 28 @.@ 1 ft ) . They displaced 12 @,@ 550 to 12 @,@ 658 long tons ( 12 @,@ 751 to 12 @,@ 861 t ) at normal loading and up to 13 @,@ 771 to 13 @,@ 914 long tons ( 13 @,@ 992 to 14 @,@ 137 t ) at full combat load . The ships had a crew of 742 – 764 officers and enlisted men . The ships were initially fitted with two masts , but after refits early in their careers , Regina Elena 's and Napoli 's foremasts were removed .
The battleships ' propulsion system consisted of two vertical four @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines rated at 19 @,@ 299 to 21 @,@ 968 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 391 to 16 @,@ 382 kW ) . Steam for the engines was provided by twenty @-@ eight coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers in the first two ships , and 28 Babcock & Wilcox boilers in the last two , split between three boiler rooms . The boilers were trunked into three tall funnels . The ships ' propulsion system provided a top speed in excess of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) ; Napoli , the fastest member of the class , reached 22 @.@ 15 knots ( 41 @.@ 02 km / h ; 25 @.@ 49 mph ) on her speed trials . The ships had a range of approximately 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . At the time of their completion , they were the fastest battleships in the world , faster even than the steam turbine @-@ powered HMS Dreadnought .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The Regina Elenas were armed with two 12 in ( 305 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns placed in two single gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The turrets were placed well clear of the superstructure , giving them a wide arc of fire , close to 300 degrees of rotation . Electric power was used for training and elevation of the turrets and ammunition handling . The lighter main battery , compared to other pre @-@ dreadnought type battleships that typically carried twice as many heavy guns , was criticized by some observers , but Dr. Philip Alger writing in Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute noted that " it should be borne in mind that a pair of guns in a turret do not make twice as good shooting as a single gun , " and that given the limited displacement of the design , it " was the wisest choice that could be made . " Fire control for the guns was provided by Barr and Stroud rangefinders mounted on the conning tower . The ammunition magazines were fitted with refrigeration systems to minimize the risk of accidental explosions .
The ships were also equipped with twelve 8 in ( 203 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in six twin turrets amidships , which also used electrical operation . The central turrets were placed a deck higher than the others to permit them firing directly ahead and astern . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of sixteen 3 in ( 76 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns , though Roma and Napoli both had an additional eight guns of this caliber . All four ships were also equipped with two 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes placed in the hull below the waterline .
The ships was protected with Krupp cemented steel manufactured in Terni . The main belt was 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) thick amidships , reduced to 6 in ( 152 mm ) abreast of the main battery turrets , and 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick at the bow and stern . The deck was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick . The conning tower was protected by 10 in ( 254 mm ) of armor plating . The main battery guns had 8 in ( 203 mm ) thick plating , and the 8 @-@ inch gun turrets had 6 in thick sides .
= = Ships of the class = =
= = Service histories = =
The four ships of the Regina Elena class served in the active duty squadron after their commissioning through 1911 and participated in the peacetime routine of fleet training . On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire , starting the Italo @-@ Turkish War . The four ships saw action during the war in the 1st Division of the 1st Squadron . They participated in the operations off North Africa in the first months of the war , including escorting the crossing of the Italian expeditionary army sent to conquer Cyrenaica . Later in the war , they took part in the seizure of Rhodes and the Dodecanese .
Italy initially remained neutral during World War I , but by 1915 , had been convinced by the Triple Entente to enter the war against Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary . Both the Italians and Austro @-@ Hungarians adopted a cautious fleet policy in the confined waters of the Adriatic Sea , and so the four Regina Elena @-@ class battleships did not see action . They spent the war rotating between the naval bases at Taranto , Brindisi , and Valona . After the end of the war , the ships of the class were included amongst the battleships that Italy could keep in service ( by the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty ) , but they were retained only for a few years . Between February 1923 and September 1926 , all four ships were stricken from the naval register and broken up for scrap .
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= Stanisław Staszic =
Stanisław Wawrzyniec Staszic [ staˈɲiswaf ˈstaʂit ͡ s ] ( 6 November 1755 – 20 January 1826 ) was a leading figure in the Polish Enlightenment : a Catholic priest , philosopher , geologist , writer , poet , translator and statesman . A physiocrat , monist , pan @-@ Slavist ( after 1815 ) and laissez @-@ fairist , he supported many reforms in Poland . He is particularly remembered for his political writings during the " Great ( Four @-@ Year ) Sejm " ( 1788 – 92 ) and for his support of the Constitution of 3 May 1791 , adopted by that Sejm .
He co @-@ founded the Warsaw Society of Friends of Learning ( precursor to the Polish Academy of Sciences ) , of which he became president . He served as a member of the State Council of the Duchy of Warsaw and as minister of trade and industry in Congress Poland . Staszic is seen as the father of Polish geology , statistics , sociology , Tatra Mountains studies and exploration , mining and industry .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life = = =
Stanisław Staszic was born into a burgher family in the town of Piła on 6 November 1755 , the youngest of four siblings . His father , Wawrzyniec Staszic , was mayor of Piła and a royal secretary .
Staszic attended secondary school at Wałcz . He studied theology and graduated from a Jesuit school at Poznań in 1778 and was ordained a Catholic priest ( he took lesser Holy Orders in 1774 , and higher orders about 1778 – 79 ) . Between 1779 and 1781 he continued his studies in France at the Collège de France , where he took classes in physics and natural history .
On returning to Poland in 1781 , he accepted a position as tutor in the house of Grand Crown Chancellor Andrzej Zamoyski . In 1782 he received a doctorate from the Zamojski Academy . He translated several works from French into Polish and briefly worked at the Academy as a teacher of French language .
= = = Reformer = = =
His Remarks upon the Life of Jan Zamoyski ( Uwagi nad życiem Jana Zamoyskiego , 1787 ) , published anonymously on the eve of the Great Sejm , transformed the little @-@ known tutor into one of the chief political thinkers of the late 18th @-@ century Commonwealth . It became a model for other similar works and began a flood of political books and pamphlets unprecedented in the Commonwealth 's history . It was reprinted numerous times , including in unauthorized editions .
Within his Remarks , Staszic did not portray the life of Jan Zamoyski ( 1542 – 1605 , one of the most prominent statesmen in Polish history ) ; rather , he argued that reforms are needed , and that Zamoyski had already proposed or supported many of them two centuries before . Staszic was a strong partisan of reforms and an ardent advocate for the interests of the lower classes . He advocated the abolition of the serfdom and improvements of the peasants ' fate ( by granting them land and private rights ) . He criticised the szlachta ( Polish nobility ) for inefficient governance , and argued that it showed itself too inept to be allowed to govern alone . He argued for a slight increase in taxes , which should allow the Commonwealth to create an army of 100 @,@ 000 that would at least stand a chance against the still @-@ larger armies of its neighbours . Although he preferred republicanism in theory , in the Commonwealth context he agreed that a strengthening of the central ( royal ) power was the most practical solution for reforming the country , in line with the similar developments elsewhere in Europe . In Remarks he even supported the introduction of an absolute monarchy in Poland .
Staszic was a keen observer of the proceedings of the Great Sejm , spending much time in Warsaw since the Sejm began its deliberations in 1788 . He continued publishing new books and pamphlets . His Warnings for Poland , coming from the current European politics and natural laws , by the writer of the remarks upon the life of Jan Zamoyski ( Przestrogi dla Polski z teraźniejszych politycznych Europy związków i z praw natury wypadające przez pisarza uwag nad życiem Jana Zamoyskiego , 1790 ) , together with his previous Remarks , are considered among the most influential works of the Polish Enlightenment . In Warnings , he criticised the magnates of Poland and Lithuania , monastic orders and serfdom , and supported the enfranchisement of the townsfolk . Although he was not a participant of the Sejm , he was an influential onlooker , and through his widely read and discussed writings of the time is recognized as one of the founding fathers of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 .
During 1790 – 1791 he accompanied Zamoyski 's family on a trip abroad , and continued to serve as an adviser to the family , although his relations with the sons ( Aleksander August Zamoyski , Stanisław Kostka Zamoyski ) had become strained ; he would eventually align himself with the daughter of the family , Anna Zamoyska ( Anna Jadwiga Sapieżyna ) . He supported the 1794 Kościuszko Uprising , a failed attempt to liberate Commonwealth from foreign influence following the events of the 1793 Second Partition of Poland , donating money to the insurgents ' cause . Upon the defeat of the Uprising , he accompanied the family on their trip to Vienna . He also made some successful financial investments , including in the stock market . He then served as an economic adviser for the Zamoyski and the Sapieha families , invested in their estates , and lent them money .
= = = Late life = = =
After the partitions of Poland , in which Russia , Prussia , and Austria seized all of the Commonwealth 's territory , Staszic was active in many scientific and scholarly initiatives . He studied the geology of the Carpathian Mountains . In 1800 he co @-@ founded the Warsaw Society of Friends of Learning ; from 1802 he was one of its most active members . In 1804 he went to France , where he observed the changes wrought by Napoleon . On return to Poland in 1805 , he spent some time in the Tatra Mountains , where he continued his geological studies and conducted ethnographic ones . He worked with Jan Chrystian Hoffmann on a geological map of Poland . In the Duchy of Warsaw he worked with the Ministry of Education ( Izba Edukacyjna Księstwa Warszawskiego ) and was involved in numerous educational reforms and initiatives . He also briefly worked with the Ministry of Treasury .
From 1808 he was president of the Society of Friends of Learning ( Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Nauk , or TPN ) , forerunner to the Polish Academy of Sciences ( Polska Akademia Nauk ) ; he would be elected repeatedly as the society 's president until his death . In 1808 he also became referendary to the State Council ( Rada Stanu ) of the Duchy ; in 1810 he became a full member . In the Council , he was active in regard to questions of education and the economy . As TPN president he was active in many initiatives which supported and popularized science in Poland . He oversaw the construction of a headquarters for the TPN , which came to be known as the " Staszic Palace " .
From 1814 he supported the Russian Empire , seen as a Pan @-@ Slavist ally of Poland , and favored the idea of a great Slavic monarchy . After the fall of the Duchy of Warsaw in 1815 , he became a member of the government of the newly created small state of Congress Poland ( in personal union with Russia ) , initially in the new Ministry of Education and Religion , in 1816 serving as deputy minister . In 1815 he was decorated with the Order of Saint Stanislaus . In 1819 he endorsed a controversial censorship law , damaging his reputation .
His 1815 Polish translation of Homer 's Iliad met with a negative reception . In 1816 – 20 he published many of his writings in a 9 @-@ volume Works ( Dzieła ) . Volumes 7 – 9 comprised his Humankind : A Didactic Poem ( Ród Ludzki . Poema Dydaktyczne ) , a gigantic philosophical essay and poem that is regarded as an important contribution to the history of Polish philosophy . However , the work ran afoul of the new censorship law and was not distributed , much of the edition eventually being destroyed .
He also carried out studies on education and on human behavior , in a social @-@ science tradition . Some of his views and theories made him a precursor of evolutionism in the natural and social sciences . In his essays on human nature , he declared for the primacy of science and was relatively critical of the influence of religion . These views gained him some critics , as he was seen as a priest who had abandoned religion .
From 1816 he was involved in mining research and projects . He also actively supported industrial development in Poland . He was one of the first to see the importance of coal , and supported the development of metallurgy @-@ related projects , from mines to zinc and steel mills . He was also involved in the development of ceramic and textile industries , and improving the transport infrastructure ( roads , canals ) . He discovered coal deposits in Dąbrowa Górnicza , where he initiated the building of a coal mine . Between 1816 and 1824 he was the de facto minister of industry of the Congress Poland ( styled officially the " director of the Department of Trade , Crafts and Industry " ) and initiated construction of the Old Polish Industrial Area ( Staropolski Okręg Przemysłowy ) . As his projects did not result in quick returns , he incurred increasing criticism , and eventually resigned from his position in 1824 .
In 1816 he founded the Hrubieszowskie Towarzystwo Rolnicze ( Hrubieszów Agricultural Society ) , seen by some as the first Polish cooperative .
He died in Warsaw on 20 January 1826 , most likely due to a stroke . His funeral gathered 20 @,@ 000 people , including the viceroy of the Congress Poland , Józef Zajączek . He was buried in the cemetery of the Camaldolese Hermit Monastery in Kraków . His testament left his property at Hrubieszów to its tenants , and much of his wealth went to various philanthropic initiatives .
= = Private life = =
Staszic was remembered by his contemporaries as a loner and not a person who was quick to make friends . He has been described as somewhat miserly ; despite acquiring significant wealth , he was said to wear old clothes and use an old carriage . He was nonetheless widely respected by his contemporaries . He was seen as stern but honest , and had a tendency to speak in a fashion that some found amusing .
= = Remembrance = =
He is seen as one of the chief representatives of the political activists and writers of the Polish Enlightenment . He is also seen as the father of Polish geology , statistics , sociology , Tatra Mountains studies and exploration , mining and industry . He is one of the figures immortalised in Jan Matejko 's 1891 painting " Constitution of May 3 , 1791 " . He was also the protagonist of the Charles Dickens ' novella " Judge Not " ( 1851 ) , and of Hanna Muszyńska @-@ Hoffmanowa 's novel " Pucharek ze srebra " ( Little chalice of silver ) . Wacław Berent published a biography of Staszic , but it is now lost . In 1926 , on the 100th anniversary of his death , he was celebrated in the Second Polish Republic with several studies , articles and publications .
In April 1951 , he was honoured on a postage stamp of the People 's Republic of Poland as part of the set issued for the First Congress of Polish Science . His figure was popular among the Marxist scholars of the People 's Republic , who stressed his materialist , determinist and anti @-@ clerical views . The 150th anniversary of his death in 1976 was also celebrated , with many works dedicated to him , including poems by Jan Czeczot and Jan Lohmann . He has been made a patron of over 200 schools , including the AGH University of Science and Technology in Kraków . There are statues of Stanisław Staszic in Łódź , Kielce , Hrubieszów and Dąbrowa Górnicza . Several geographical landmarks , minerals and a bacterium bear his name as well . In Piła , there is a Museum of Stanisław Staszic , which has gathered various artifacts related to him , and publishes a journal , " Zeszyty Staszicowskie " ( Staszic Notebooks ) .
= = Awards = =
Order of Saint Stanislaus
Knight of the Order of the White Eagle
= = Works = =
His best @-@ known works include the following :
" Remarks upon the Life of Jan Zamoyski " ( Uwagi nad życiem Jana Zamoyskiego , 1787 )
" Warnings for Poland " ( or Warnings to Poland , Przestrogi dla Polski , 1790 )
" On the Origin of Mountains in Former Sarmatia and Later Poland " ( O ziemorództwie gór dawnej Sarmacji , potem Polski , 1815 )
" On the Reasons of Jewish Noxiousness " ( O przyczynach szkodliwości Żydów , 1818 )
" Humankind " ( Ród Ludzki , 1820 )
A Polish translation of Homer 's Iliad ( 1815 ) .
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= Sound film =
A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound , or sound technologically coupled to image , as opposed to a silent film . The first known public exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900 , but decades passed before sound motion pictures were made commercially practical . Reliable synchronization was difficult to achieve with the early sound @-@ on @-@ disc systems , and amplification and recording quality were also inadequate . Innovations in sound @-@ on @-@ film led to the first commercial screening of short motion pictures using the technology , which took place in 1923 .
The primary steps in the commercialization of sound cinema were taken in the mid- to late 1920s . At first , the sound films incorporating synchronized dialogue — known as " talking pictures " , or " talkies " — were exclusively shorts ; the earliest feature @-@ length movies with recorded sound included only music and effects . The first feature film originally presented as a talkie was The Jazz Singer , released in October 1927 . A major hit , it was made with Vitaphone , which was at the time the leading brand of sound @-@ on @-@ disc technology . Sound @-@ on @-@ film , however , would soon become the standard for talking pictures .
By the early 1930s , the talkies were a global phenomenon . In the United States , they helped secure Hollywood 's position as one of the world 's most powerful cultural / commercial systems ( see Cinema of the United States ) . In Europe ( and , to a lesser degree , elsewhere ) , the new development was treated with suspicion by many filmmakers and critics , who worried that a focus on dialogue would subvert the unique aesthetic virtues of soundless cinema . In Japan , where the popular film tradition integrated silent movie and live vocal performance , talking pictures were slow to take root . In India , sound was the transformative element that led to the rapid expansion of the nation 's film industry .
= = History = =
= = = Early steps = = =
The idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself . On February 27 , 1888 , a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison , the two inventors privately met . Muybridge later claimed that on this occasion , six years before the first commercial motion picture exhibition , he proposed a scheme for sound cinema that would combine his image @-@ casting zoopraxiscope with Edison 's recorded @-@ sound technology . No agreement was reached , but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope , essentially a " peep @-@ show " system , as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph . The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895 , but individual , cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection . In 1899 , a projected sound @-@ film system known as Cinemacrophonograph or Phonorama , based primarily on the work of Swiss @-@ born inventor François Dussaud , was exhibited in Paris ; similar to the Kinetophone , the system required individual use of earphones . An improved cylinder @-@ based system , Phono @-@ Cinéma @-@ Théâtre , was developed by Clément @-@ Maurice Gratioulet and Henri Lioret of France , allowing short films of theater , opera , and ballet excerpts to be presented at the Paris Exposition in 1900 . These appear to be the first publicly exhibited films with projection of both image and recorded sound . Phonorama and yet another sound @-@ film system — Théâtroscope — were also presented at the Exposition .
Three major problems persisted , leading to motion pictures and sound recording largely taking separate paths for a generation . The primary issue was synchronization : pictures and sound were recorded and played back by separate devices , which were difficult to start and maintain in tandem . Sufficient playback volume was also hard to achieve . While motion picture projectors soon allowed film to be shown to large theater audiences , audio technology before the development of electric amplification could not project satisfactorily to fill large spaces . Finally , there was the challenge of recording fidelity . The primitive systems of the era produced sound of very low quality unless the performers were stationed directly in front of the cumbersome recording devices ( acoustical horns , for the most part ) , imposing severe limits on the sort of films that could be created with live @-@ recorded sound .
Cinematic innovators attempted to cope with the fundamental synchronization problem in a variety of ways . An increasing number of motion picture systems relied on gramophone records — known as sound @-@ on @-@ disc technology ; the records themselves were often referred to as " Berliner discs " , after one of the primary inventors in the field , German @-@ American Emile Berliner . In 1902 , Léon Gaumont demonstrated his sound @-@ on @-@ disc Chronophone , involving an electrical connection he had recently patented , to the French Photographic Society . Four years later , Gaumont introduced the Elgéphone , a compressed @-@ air amplification system based on the Auxetophone , developed by British inventors Horace Short and Charles Parsons . Despite high expectations , Gaumont 's sound innovations had only limited commercial success — though improvements , they still did not satisfactorily address the three basic issues with sound film and were expensive as well . For some years , American inventor E. E. Norton 's Cameraphone was the primary competitor to the Gaumont system ( sources differ on whether the Cameraphone was disc- or cylinder @-@ based ) ; it ultimately failed for many of the same reasons that held back the Chronophone .
In 1913 , Edison introduced a new cylinder @-@ based synch @-@ sound apparatus known , just like his 1895 system , as the Kinetophone ; instead of films being shown to individual viewers in the Kinetoscope cabinet , they were now projected onto a screen . The phonograph was connected by an intricate arrangement of pulleys to the film projector , allowing — under ideal conditions — for synchronization . However , conditions were rarely ideal , and the new , improved Kinetophone was retired after little more than a year . By the mid @-@ 1910s , the groundswell in commercial sound motion picture exhibition had subsided . Beginning in 1914 , The Photo @-@ Drama of Creation , promoting Jehovah 's Witnesses ' conception of mankind 's genesis , was screened around the United States : eight hours worth of projected visuals involving both slides and live action were synchronized with separately recorded lectures and musical performances played back on phonograph .
Meanwhile , innovations continued on another significant front . In 1907 , French @-@ born , London @-@ based Eugene Lauste — who had worked at Edison 's lab between 1886 and 1892 — was awarded the first patent for sound @-@ on @-@ film technology , involving the transformation of sound into light waves that are photographically recorded direct onto celluloid . As described by historian Scott Eyman ,
It was a double system , that is , the sound was on a different piece of film from the picture .... In essence , the sound was captured by a microphone and translated into light waves via a light valve , a thin ribbon of sensitive metal over a tiny slit . The sound reaching this ribbon would be converted into light by the shivering of the diaphragm , focusing the resulting light waves through the slit , where it would be photographed on the side of the film , on a strip about a tenth of an inch wide .
Though sound @-@ on @-@ film would eventually become the universal standard for synchronized sound cinema , Lauste never successfully exploited his innovations , which came to an effective dead end . In 1914 , Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt was granted German patent 309 @,@ 536 for his sound @-@ on @-@ film work ; that same year , he apparently demonstrated a film made with the process to an audience of scientists in Berlin . Hungarian engineer Denes Mihaly submitted his sound @-@ on @-@ film Projectofon concept to the Royal Hungarian Patent Court in 1918 ; the patent award was published four years later . Whether sound was captured on cylinder , disc , or film , none of the available technology was adequate for big @-@ league commercial purposes , and for many years the heads of the major Hollywood film studios saw little benefit in producing sound motion pictures .
= = Crucial innovations = =
A number of technological developments contributed to making sound cinema commercially viable by the late 1920s . Two involved contrasting approaches to synchronized sound reproduction , or playback :
= = = Advanced sound @-@ on @-@ film = = =
In 1919 , American inventor Lee De Forest was awarded several patents that would lead to the first optical sound @-@ on @-@ film technology with commercial application . In De Forest 's system , the sound track was photographically recorded onto the side of the strip of motion picture film to create a composite , or " married " , print . If proper synchronization of sound and picture was achieved in recording , it could be absolutely counted on in playback . Over the next four years , he improved his system with the help of equipment and patents licensed from another American inventor in the field , Theodore Case .
At the University of Illinois , Polish @-@ born research engineer Joseph Tykociński @-@ Tykociner was working independently on a similar process . On June 9 , 1922 , he gave the first reported U.S. demonstration of a sound @-@ on @-@ film motion picture to members of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers . As with Lauste and Tigerstedt , Tykociner 's system would never be taken advantage of commercially ; however , De Forest 's soon would .
On April 15 , 1923 , at New York City 's Rivoli Theater , came the first commercial screening of motion pictures with sound @-@ on @-@ film , the future standard : a set of shorts under the banner of De Forest Phonofilms , accompanying a silent feature . That June , De Forest entered into an extended legal battle with an employee , Freeman Harrison Owens , for title to one of the crucial Phonofilm patents . Although De Forest ultimately won the case in the courts , Owens is today recognized as a central innovator in the field . The following year , De Forest 's studio released the first commercial dramatic film shot as a talking picture — the two @-@ reeler Love 's Old Sweet Song , directed by J. Searle Dawley and featuring Una Merkel . However , phonofilm 's stock in trade was not original dramas but celebrity documentaries , popular music acts , and comedy performances . President Calvin Coolidge , opera singer Abbie Mitchell , and vaudeville stars such as Phil Baker , Ben Bernie , Eddie Cantor and Oscar Levant appeared in the firm 's pictures . Hollywood remained suspicious , even fearful , of the new technology . As Photoplay editor James Quirk put it in March 1924 , " Talking pictures are perfected , says Dr. Lee De Forest . So is castor oil . " De Forest 's process continued to be used through 1927 in the United States for dozens of short Phonofilms ; in the UK it was employed a few years longer for both shorts and features by British Sound Film Productions , a subsidiary of British Talking Pictures , which purchased the primary Phonofilm assets . By the end of 1930 , the Phonofilm business would be liquidated .
In Europe , others were also working on the development of sound @-@ on @-@ film . In 1919 , the same year that DeForest received his first patents in the field , three German inventors patented the Tri @-@ Ergon sound system . On September 17 , 1922 , the Tri @-@ Ergon group gave a public screening of sound @-@ on @-@ film productions — including a dramatic talkie , Der Brandstifter ( The Arsonist ) — before an invited audience at the Alhambra Kino in Berlin . By the end of the decade , Tri @-@ Ergon would be the dominant European sound system . In 1923 , two Danish engineers , Axel Petersen and Arnold Poulsen , patented a system that recorded sound on a separate filmstrip running parallel with the image reel . Gaumont licensed the technology and briefly put it to commercial use under the name Cinéphone .
Domestic competition , however , eclipsed Phonofilm . By September 1925 , De Forest and Case 's working arrangement had fallen through . The following July , Case joined Fox Film , Hollywood 's third largest studio , to found the Fox @-@ Case Corporation . The system developed by Case and his assistant , Earl Sponable , given the name Movietone , thus became the first viable sound @-@ on @-@ film technology controlled by a Hollywood movie studio . The following year , Fox purchased the North American rights to the Tri @-@ Ergon system , though the company found it inferior to Movietone and virtually impossible to integrate the two different systems to advantage . In 1927 , as well , Fox retained the services of Freeman Owens , who had particular expertise in constructing cameras for synch @-@ sound film .
= = = Advanced sound @-@ on @-@ disc = = =
Parallel with improvements in sound @-@ on @-@ film technology , a number of companies were making progress with systems that recorded movie sound on phonograph discs . In sound @-@ on @-@ disc technology from the era , a phonograph turntable is connected by a mechanical interlock to a specially modified film projector , allowing for synchronization . In 1921 , the Photokinema sound @-@ on @-@ disc system developed by Orlando Kellum was employed to add synchronized sound sequences to D. W. Griffith 's failed silent film Dream Street . A love song , performed by star Ralph Graves , was recorded , as was a sequence of live vocal effects . Apparently , dialogue scenes were also recorded , but the results were unsatisfactory and the film was never publicly screened incorporating them . On May 1 , 1921 , Dream Street was re @-@ released , with love song added , at New York City 's Town Hall theater , qualifying it — however haphazardly — as the first feature @-@ length film with a live @-@ recorded vocal sequence . There would be no others for more than six years .
In 1925 , Sam Warner of Warner Bros. , then a small Hollywood studio with big ambitions , saw a demonstration of the Western Electric sound @-@ on @-@ disc system and was sufficiently impressed to persuade his brothers to agree to experiment with using this system at New York 's Vitagraph Studios , which they had recently purchased . The tests were convincing to the Warner Brothers , if not to the executives of some other picture companies who witnessed them . Consequently , in April 1926 the Western Electric Company entered into a contract with Warner Brothers and W. J. Rich , a financier , giving them an exclusive license for recording and reproducing sound pictures under the Western Electric system . To exploit this license the Vitaphone Corporation was organized with Samuel L. Warner as its president . Vitaphone , as this system was now called , was publicly introduced on August 6 , 1926 , with the premiere of the nearly three @-@ hour @-@ long Don Juan ; the first feature @-@ length movie to employ a synchronized sound system of any type throughout , its soundtrack contained a musical score and added sound effects , but no recorded dialogue — in other words , it had been staged and shot as a silent film . Accompanying Don Juan , however , were eight shorts of musical performances , mostly classical , as well as a four @-@ minute filmed introduction by Will H. Hays , president of the Motion Picture Association of America , all with live @-@ recorded sound . These were the first true sound films exhibited by a Hollywood studio . Warner Bros. ' The Better ' Ole , technically similar to Don Juan , followed in October .
Sound @-@ on @-@ film would ultimately win out over sound @-@ on @-@ disc because of a number of fundamental technical advantages :
Synchronization : no interlock system was completely reliable , and sound could fall out of synch due to disc skipping or minute changes in film speed , requiring constant supervision and frequent manual adjustment
Editing : discs could not be directly edited , severely limiting the ability to make alterations in their accompanying films after the original release cut
Distribution : phonograph discs added expense and complication to film distribution
Wear and tear : the physical process of playing the discs degraded them , requiring their replacement after approximately twenty screenings
Nonetheless , in the early years , sound @-@ on @-@ disc had the edge over sound @-@ on @-@ film in two substantial ways :
Production and capital cost : it was generally less expensive to record sound onto disc than onto film and the exhibition systems — turntable / interlock / projector — were cheaper to manufacture than the complex image @-@ and @-@ audio @-@ pattern @-@ reading projectors required by sound @-@ on @-@ film
Audio quality : phonograph discs , Vitaphone 's in particular , had superior dynamic range to most sound @-@ on @-@ film processes of the day , at least during the first few playings ; while sound @-@ on @-@ film tended to have better frequency response , this was outweighed by greater distortion and noise
As sound @-@ on @-@ film technology improved , both of these disadvantages were overcome .
The third crucial set of innovations marked a major step forward in both the live recording of sound and its effective playback :
= = = Fidelity electronic recording and amplification = = =
In 1913 , Western Electric , the manufacturing division of AT & T , acquired the rights to the de Forest audion , the forerunner of the triode vacuum tube . Over the next few years they developed it into a predictable and reliable device that made electronic amplification possible for the first time . Western Electric then branched @-@ out into developing uses for the vacuum tube including public address systems and an electrical recording system for the recording industry . Beginning in 1922 , the research branch of Western Electric began working intensively on recording technology for both sound @-@ on @-@ disc and sound @-@ on film synchronised sound systems for motion @-@ pictures .
The engineers working on the sound @-@ on @-@ disc system were able to draw on expertise that Western Electric already had in electrical disc recording and were thus able to make faster initial progress . The main change required was to increase the playing time of the disc so that it could match that of a standard 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) reel of 35 mm film . The chosen design used a disc measuring 16 inches ( 410 mm ) rotating at 33 1 / 3 rpm . This could play for 11 minutes , the running time of 1000 ft of film at 90 ft / min ( 24 frames / s ) . Because of the larger diameter the minimum groove velocity of 70 ft / min ( 14 inches or 356 mm / s ) was only slightly less than that of a standard 10 @-@ inch 78 rpm commercial disc . In 1925 , the company publicly introduced a greatly improved system of electronic audio , including sensitive condenser microphones and rubber @-@ line recorders ( named after the use of a rubber damping band for recording with better frequency response onto a wax master disk ) . That May , the company licensed entrepreneur Walter J. Rich to exploit the system for commercial motion pictures ; he founded Vitagraph , in which Warner Bros. acquired a half interest , just one month later . In April 1926 , Warners signed a contract with AT & T for exclusive use of its film sound technology for the redubbed Vitaphone operation , leading to the production of Don Juan and its accompanying shorts over the following months . During the period when Vitaphone had exclusive access to the patents , the fidelity of recordings made for Warners films was markedly superior to those made for the company 's sound @-@ on @-@ film competitors . Meanwhile , Bell Labs — the new name for the AT & T research operation — was working at a furious pace on sophisticated sound amplification technology that would allow recordings to be played back over loudspeakers at theater @-@ filling volume . The new moving @-@ coil speaker system was installed in New York 's Warners Theatre at the end of July and its patent submission , for what Western Electric called the No. 555 Receiver , was filed on August 4 , just two days before the premiere of Don Juan .
Late in the year , AT & T / Western Electric created a licensing division , Electrical Research Products Inc . ( ERPI ) , to handle rights to the company 's film @-@ related audio technology . Vitaphone still had legal exclusivity , but having lapsed in its royalty payments , effective control of the rights was in ERPI 's hands . On December 31 , 1926 , Warners granted Fox @-@ Case a sublicense for the use of the Western Electric system ; in exchange for the sublicense , both Warners and ERPI received a share of Fox 's related revenues . The patents of all three concerns were cross @-@ licensed . Superior recording and amplification technology was now available to two Hollywood studios , pursuing two very different methods of sound reproduction . The new year would finally see the emergence of sound cinema as a significant commercial medium .
= = Triumph of the " talkies " = =
In February 1927 , an agreement was signed by five leading Hollywood movie companies : Famous Players Lasky ( soon to be part of Paramount ) , Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , Universal , First National , and Cecil B. DeMille 's small but prestigious Producers Distributing Corporation ( PDC ) . The five studios agreed to collectively select just one provider for sound conversion . The alliance then sat back and waited to see what sort of results the forerunners came up with . In May , Warner Bros. sold back its exclusivity rights to ERPI ( along with the Fox @-@ Case sublicense ) and signed a new royalty contract similar to Fox 's for use of Western Electric technology . As Fox and Warners pressed forward with sound cinema in different directions , both technologically and commercially — Fox with newsreels and then scored dramas , Warners with talking features — so did ERPI , which sought to corner the market by signing up the five allied studios .
The big sound film sensations of the year all took advantage of preexisting celebrity . On May 20 , 1927 , at New York 's Roxy Theater , Fox Movietone presented a sound film of the takeoff of Charles Lindbergh 's celebrated flight to Paris , recorded earlier that day . In June , a Fox sound newsreel depicting his return welcomes in New York and Washington , D.C. , was shown . These were the two most acclaimed sound motion pictures to date . In May , as well , Fox had released the first Hollywood fiction film with synchronized dialogue : the short They 're Coming to Get Me , starring comedian Chic Sale . After rereleasing a few silent feature hits , such as Seventh Heaven , with recorded music , Fox came out with its first original Movietone feature on September 23 : Sunrise , by acclaimed German director F. W. Murnau . As with Don Juan , the film 's soundtrack consisted of a musical score and sound effects ( including , in a couple of crowd scenes , " wild " , nonspecific vocals ) .
Then , on October 6 , 1927 , Warner Bros. ' The Jazz Singer premiered . It was a smash box office success for the mid @-@ level studio , earning a total of $ 2 @.@ 625 million in the United States and abroad , almost a million dollars more than the previous record for a Warners film . Produced with the Vitaphone system , most of the film does not contain live @-@ recorded audio , relying , like Sunrise and Don Juan , on a score and effects . When the movie 's star , Al Jolson , sings , however , the film shifts to sound recorded on the set , including both his musical performances and two scenes with ad @-@ libbed speech — one of Jolson 's character , Jakie Rabinowitz ( Jack Robin ) , addressing a cabaret audience ; the other an exchange between him and his mother . The " natural " sounds of the settings were also audible . Though the success of The Jazz Singer was due largely to Jolson , already established as one of America 's biggest music stars , and its limited use of synchronized sound hardly qualified it as an innovative sound film ( let alone the " first " ) , the movie 's profits were proof enough to the industry that the technology was worth investing in .
The development of commercial sound cinema had proceeded in fits and starts before The Jazz Singer , and the film 's success did not change things overnight . Not until May 1928 did the group of four big studios ( PDC had dropped out of the alliance ) , along with United Artists and others , sign with ERPI for conversion of production facilities and theaters for sound film . Initially , all ERPI @-@ wired theaters were made Vitaphone @-@ compatible ; most were equipped to project Movietone reels as well . However , even with access to both technologies , most of the Hollywood companies remained slow to produce talking features of their own . No studio besides Warner Bros. released even a part @-@ talking feature until the low @-@ budget @-@ oriented Film Booking Offices of America ( FBO ) premiered The Perfect Crime on June 17 , 1928 , eight months after The Jazz Singer . FBO had come under the effective control of a Western Electric competitor , General Electric 's RCA division , which was looking to market its new sound @-@ on @-@ film system , Photophone . Unlike Fox @-@ Case 's Movietone and De Forest 's Phonofilm , which were variable @-@ density systems , Photophone was a variable @-@ area system — a refinement in the way the audio signal was inscribed on film that would ultimately become the standard . ( In both sorts of systems , a specially @-@ designed lamp , whose exposure to the film is determined by the audio input , is used to record sound photographically as a series of minuscule lines . In a variable @-@ density process , the lines are of varying darkness ; in a variable @-@ area process , the lines are of varying width . ) By October , the FBO @-@ RCA alliance would lead to the creation of Hollywood 's newest major studio , RKO Pictures .
Meanwhile , Warner Bros. had released three more talkies , all profitable , if not at the level of The Jazz Singer : In March , Tenderloin appeared ; it was billed by Warners as the first feature in which characters spoke their parts , though only 15 of its 88 minutes had dialogue . Glorious Betsy followed in April , and The Lion and the Mouse ( 31 minutes of dialogue ) in May . On July 6 , 1928 , the first all @-@ talking feature , Lights of New York , premiered . The film cost Warner Bros. only $ 23 @,@ 000 to produce , but grossed $ 1 @.@ 252 million , a record rate of return surpassing 5 @,@ 000 % . In September , the studio released another Al Jolson part @-@ talking picture , The Singing Fool , which more than doubled The Jazz Singer 's earnings record for a Warners movie . This second Jolson screen smash demonstrated the movie musical 's ability to turn a song into a national hit : inside of nine months , the Jolson number " Sonny Boy " had racked up 2 million record and 1 @.@ 25 million sheet music sales . September 1928 also saw the release of Paul Terry 's Dinner Time , among the first animated cartoons produced with synchronized sound . Soon after he saw it , Walt Disney released his first sound picture , the Mickey Mouse short Steamboat Willie .
Over the course of 1928 , as Warner Bros. began to rake in huge profits due to the popularity of its sound films , the other studios quickened the pace of their conversion to the new technology . Paramount , the industry leader , put out its first talkie in late September , Beggars of Life ; though it had just a few lines of dialogue , it demonstrated the studio 's recognition of the new medium 's power . Interference , Paramount 's first all @-@ talker , debuted in November . The process known as " goat glanding " briefly became widespread : soundtracks , sometimes including a smatter of post @-@ dubbed dialogue or song , were added to movies that had been shot , and in some cases released , as silents . A few minutes of singing could qualify such a newly endowed film as a " musical . " ( Griffith 's Dream Street had essentially been a " goat gland . " ) Expectations swiftly changed , and the sound " fad " of 1927 became standard procedure by 1929 . In February 1929 , sixteen months after The Jazz Singer 's debut , Columbia Pictures became the last of the eight studios that would be known as " majors " during Hollywood 's Golden Age to release its first part @-@ talking feature , Lone Wolf 's Daughter . In late May , the first all @-@ color , all @-@ talking feature , Warner Bros. ' On with the Show ! , premiered .
Yet most American movie theaters , especially outside of urban areas , were still not equipped for sound : while the number of sound cinemas grew from 100 to 800 between 1928 and 1929 , they were still vastly outnumbered by silent theaters , which had actually grown in number as well , from 22 @,@ 204 to 22 @,@ 544 . The studios , in parallel , were still not entirely convinced of the talkies ' universal appeal — through mid @-@ 1930 , the majority of Hollywood movies were produced in dual versions , silent as well as talking . Though few in the industry predicted it , silent film as a viable commercial medium in the United States would soon be little more than a memory . Points West , a Hoot Gibson Western released by Universal Pictures in August 1929 , was the last purely silent mainstream feature put out by a major Hollywood studio .
= = = Transition : Europe = = =
The Jazz Singer had its European sound premiere at the Piccadilly Theatre in London on September 27 , 1928 . According to film historian Rachael Low , " Many in the industry realized at once that a change to sound production was inevitable . " On January 16 , 1929 , the first European feature film with a synchronized vocal performance and recorded score premiered : the German production Ich küsse Ihre Hand , Madame ( I Kiss Your Hand , Madame ) . Dialogueless , it contains only a few songs performed by Richard Tauber . The movie was made with the sound @-@ on @-@ film system controlled by the German @-@ Dutch firm Tobis , corporate heirs to the Tri @-@ Ergon concern . With an eye toward commanding the emerging European market for sound film , Tobis entered into a compact with its chief competitor , Klangfilm , a joint subsidiary of Germany 's two leading electrical manufacturers . Early in 1929 , Tobis and Klangfilm began comarketing their recording and playback technologies . As ERPI began to wire theaters around Europe , Tobis @-@ Klangfilm claimed that the Western Electric system infringed on the Tri @-@ Ergon patents , stalling the introduction of American technology in many places . Just as RCA had entered the movie business to maximize its recording system 's value , Tobis also established its own production operations .
During 1929 , most of the major European filmmaking countries began joining Hollywood in the changeover to sound . Many of the trend @-@ setting European talkies were shot abroad as production companies leased studios while their own were being converted or as they deliberately targeted markets speaking different languages . One of Europe 's first two feature @-@ length dramatic talkies was created in still a different sort of twist on multinational moviemaking : The Crimson Circle was a coproduction between director Friedrich Zelnik 's Efzet @-@ Film company and British Sound Film Productions ( BSFP ) . In 1928 , the film had been released as the silent Der Rote Kreis in Germany , where it was shot ; English dialogue was apparently dubbed in much later using the De Forest Phonofilm process controlled by BSFP 's corporate parent . It was given a British trade screening in March 1929 , as was a part @-@ talking film made entirely in the UK : The Clue of the New Pin , a British Lion production using the sound @-@ on @-@ disc British Photophone system . In May , Black Waters , a British and Dominions Film Corporation promoted as the first UK all @-@ talker , received its initial trade screening ; it had been shot completely in Hollywood with a Western Electric sound @-@ on @-@ film system . None of these pictures made much impact .
The first successful European dramatic talkie was the all @-@ British Blackmail . Directed by twenty @-@ nine @-@ year @-@ old Alfred Hitchcock , the movie had its London debut June 21 , 1929 . Originally shot as a silent , Blackmail was restaged to include dialogue sequences , along with a score and sound effects , before its premiere . A British International Pictures ( BIP ) production , it was recorded on RCA Photophone , General Electric having bought a share of AEG so they could access the Tobis @-@ Klangfilm markets . Blackmail was a substantial hit ; critical response was also positive — notorious curmudgeon Hugh Castle , for example , called it " perhaps the most intelligent mixture of sound and silence we have yet seen . "
On August 23 , the modest @-@ sized Austrian film industry came out with a talkie : G ’ schichten aus der Steiermark ( Stories from Styria ) , an Eagle Film – Ottoton Film production . On September 30 , the first entirely German @-@ made feature @-@ length dramatic talkie , Das Land ohne Frauen ( Land Without Women ) , premiered . A Tobis Filmkunst production , about one @-@ quarter of the movie contained dialogue , which was strictly segregated from the special effects and music . The response was underwhelming . Sweden 's first talkie , Konstgjorda Svensson ( Artificial Svensson ) , premiered on October 14 . Eight days later , Aubert Franco @-@ Film came out with Le Collier de la reine ( The Queen 's Necklace ) , shot at the Épinay studio near Paris . Conceived as a silent film , it was given a Tobis @-@ recorded score and a single talking sequence — the first dialogue scene in a French feature . On October 31 , Les Trois masques debuted ; a Pathé @-@ Natan film , it is generally regarded as the initial French feature talkie , though it was shot , like Blackmail , at the Elstree studio , just outside London . The production company had contracted with RCA Photophone and Britain then had the nearest facility with the system . The Braunberger @-@ Richebé talkie La Route est belle , also shot at Elstree , followed a few weeks later .
Before the Paris studios were fully sound @-@ equipped — a process that stretched well into 1930 — a number of other early French talkies were shot in Germany . The first all @-@ talking German feature , Atlantik , had premiered in Berlin on October 28 . Yet another Elstree @-@ made movie , it was rather less German at heart than Les Trois masques and La Route est belle were French ; a BIP production with a British scenarist and German director , it was also shot in English as Atlantic . The entirely German Aafa @-@ Film production It 's You I Have Loved ( Dich hab ich geliebt ) opened three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks later . It was not " Germany 's First Talking Film " , as the marketing had it , but it was the first to be released in the United States .
In 1930 , the first Polish talkies premiered , using sound @-@ on @-@ disc systems : Moralność pani Dulskiej ( The Morality of Mrs. Dulska ) in March and the all @-@ talking Niebezpieczny romans ( Dangerous Love Affair ) in October . In Italy , whose once vibrant film industry had become moribund by the late 1920s , the first talkie , La Canzone dell 'amore ( The Song of Love ) , also came out in October ; within two years , Italian cinema would be enjoying a revival . The first movie spoken in Czech debuted in 1930 as well , Tonka Šibenice ( Tonka of the Gallows ) . Several European nations with minor positions in the field also produced their first talking pictures — Belgium ( in French ) , Denmark , Greece , and Romania . The Soviet Union 's robust film industry came out with its first sound features in December 1930 : Dziga Vertov 's nonfiction Entuziazm had an experimental , dialogueless soundtrack ; Abram Room 's documentary Plan velikikh rabot ( The Plan of the Great Works ) had music and spoken voiceovers . Both were made with locally developed sound @-@ on @-@ film systems , two of the two hundred or so movie sound systems then available somewhere in the world . In June 1931 , the Nikolai Ekk drama Putevka v zhizn ( The Road to Life or A Start in Life ) , premiered as the Soviet Union 's first true talking picture .
Throughout much of Europe , conversion of exhibition venues lagged well behind production capacity , requiring talkies to be produced in parallel silent versions or simply shown without sound in many places . While the pace of conversion was relatively swift in Britain — with over 60 percent of theaters equipped for sound by the end of 1930 , similar to the U.S. figure — in France , by contrast , more than half of theaters nationwide were still projecting in silence by late 1932 . According to scholar Colin G. Crisp , " Anxiety about resuscitating the flow of silent films was frequently expressed in the [ French ] industrial press , and a large section of the industry still saw the silent as a viable artistic and commercial prospect till about 1935 . " The situation was particularly acute in the Soviet Union ; as of May 1933 , fewer than one out of every hundred film projectors in the country was as yet equipped for sound .
= = = Transition : Asia = = =
During the 1920s and 1930s , Japan was one of the world 's two largest producers of motion pictures , along with the United States . Though the country 's film industry was among the first to produce both sound and talking features , the full changeover to sound proceeded much more slowly than in the West . It appears that the first Japanese sound film , Reimai ( Dawn ) , was made in 1926 with the De Forest Phonofilm system . Using the sound @-@ on @-@ disc Minatoki system , the leading Nikkatsu studio produced a pair of talkies in 1929 : Taii no musume ( The Captain 's Daughter ) and Furusato ( Hometown ) , the latter directed by Kenji Mizoguchi . The rival Shochiku studio began the successful production of sound @-@ on @-@ film talkies in 1931 using a variable @-@ density process called Tsuchibashi . Two years later , however , more than 80 percent of movies made in the country were still silents . Two of the country 's leading directors , Mikio Naruse and Yasujiro Ozu , did not make their first sound films until 1935 and 1936 , respectively . As late as 1938 , over a third of all movies produced in Japan were shot without dialogue .
The enduring popularity of the silent medium in Japanese cinema owed in great part to the tradition of the benshi , a live narrator who performed as accompaniment to a film screening . As director Akira Kurosawa later described , the benshi " not only recounted the plot of the films , they enhanced the emotional content by performing the voices and sound effects and providing evocative descriptions of events and images on the screen .... The most popular narrators were stars in their own right , solely responsible for the patronage of a particular theatre . " Film historian Mariann Lewinsky argues ,
The end of silent film in the West and in Japan was imposed by the industry and the market , not by any inner need or natural evolution .... Silent cinema was a highly pleasurable and fully mature form . It didn 't lack anything , least in Japan , where there was always the human voice doing the dialogues and the commentary . Sound films were not better , just more economical . As a cinema owner you didn 't have to pay the wages of musicians and benshi any more . And a good benshi was a star demanding star payment .
By the same token , the viability of the benshi system facilitated a gradual transition to sound — allowing the studios to spread out the capital costs of conversion and their directors and technical crews time to become familiar with the new technology .
The Mandarin @-@ language Gēnǚ hóng mǔdān ( 歌女紅牡丹 , Singsong Girl Red Peony ) , starring Butterfly Wu , premiered as China 's first feature talkie in 1930 . By February of that year , production was apparently completed on a sound version of The Devil 's Playground , arguably qualifying it as the first Australian talking motion picture ; however , the May press screening of Commonwealth Film Contest prizewinner Fellers is the first verifiable public exhibition of an Australian talkie . In September 1930 , a song performed by Indian star Sulochana , excerpted from the silent feature Madhuri ( 1928 ) , was released as a synchronized @-@ sound short , the country 's first . The following year , Ardeshir Irani directed the first Indian talking feature , the Hindi @-@ Urdu Alam Ara , and produced Kalidas , primarily in Tamil with some Telugu . Nineteen @-@ thirty @-@ one also saw the first Bengali @-@ language film , Jamai Sasthi , and the first movie fully spoken in Telugu , Bhakta Prahlada . In 1932 , Ayodhyecha Raja became the first movie in which Marathi was spoken to be released ( though Sant Tukaram was the first to go through the official censorship process ) ; the first Gujarati @-@ language film , Narsimha Mehta , and all @-@ Tamil talkie , Kalava , debuted as well . The next year , Ardeshir Irani produced the first Persian @-@ language talkie , Dukhtar @-@ e @-@ loor . Also in 1933 , the first Cantonese @-@ language films were produced in Hong Kong — Sha zai dongfang ( The Idiot 's Wedding Night ) and Liang xing ( Conscience ) ; within two years , the local film industry had fully converted to sound . Korea , where pyonsa ( or byun @-@ sa ) held a role and status similar to that of the Japanese benshi , in 1935 became the last country with a significant film industry to produce its first talking picture : Chunhyangjeon ( 春香傳 / 춘향전 ) is based on the seventeenth @-@ century pansori folktale " Chunhyangga " , of which as many as fifteen film versions have been made through 2009 .
= = Consequences = =
= = = Technology = = =
In the short term , the introduction of live sound recording caused major difficulties in production . Cameras were noisy , so a soundproofed cabinet was used in many of the earliest talkies to isolate the loud equipment from the actors , at the expense of a drastic reduction in the ability to move the camera . For a time , multiple @-@ camera shooting was used to compensate for the loss of mobility and innovative studio technicians could often find ways to liberate the camera for particular shots . The necessity of staying within range of still microphones meant that actors also often had to limit their movements unnaturally . Show Girl in Hollywood ( 1930 ) , from First National Pictures ( which Warner Bros. had taken control of thanks to its profitable adventure into sound ) , gives a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look at some of the techniques involved in shooting early talkies . Several of the fundamental problems caused by the transition to sound were soon solved with new camera casings , known as " blimps " , designed to suppress noise and boom microphones that could be held just out of frame and moved with the actors . In 1931 , a major improvement in playback fidelity was introduced : three @-@ way speaker systems in which sound was separated into low , medium , and high frequencies and sent respectively to a large bass " woofer " , a midrange driver , and a treble " tweeter . "
There were consequences , as well , for other technological aspects of the cinema . Proper recording and playback of sound required exact standardization of camera and projector speed . Before sound , 16 frames per second ( fps ) was the supposed norm , but practice varied widely . Cameras were often undercranked or overcranked to improve exposures or for dramatic effect . Projectors were commonly run too fast to shorten running time and squeeze in extra shows . Variable frame rate , however , made sound unlistenable , and a new , strict standard of 24 fps was soon established . Sound also forced the abandonment of the noisy arc lights used for filming in studio interiors . The switch to quiet incandescent illumination in turn required a switch to more expensive film stock . The sensitivity of the new panchromatic film delivered superior image tonal quality and gave directors the freedom to shoot scenes at lower light levels than was previously practical .
As David Bordwell describes , technological improvements continued at a swift pace : " Between 1932 and 1935 , [ Western Electric and RCA ] created directional microphones , increased the frequency range of film recording , reduced ground noise ... and extended the volume range . " These technical advances often meant new aesthetic opportunities : " Increasing the fidelity of recording ... heightened the dramatic possibilities of vocal timbre , pitch , and loudness . " Another basic problem — famously spoofed in the 1952 film Singin ' in the Rain — was that some silent @-@ era actors simply did not have attractive voices ; though this issue was frequently overstated , there were related concerns about general vocal quality and the casting of performers for their dramatic skills in roles also requiring singing talent beyond their own . By 1935 , rerecording of vocals by the original or different actors in postproduction , a process known as " looping " , had become practical . The ultraviolet recording system introduced by RCA in 1936 improved the reproduction of sibilants and high notes .
With Hollywood 's wholesale adoption of the talkies , the competition between the two fundamental approaches to sound @-@ film production was soon resolved . Over the course of 1930 – 31 , the only major players using sound @-@ on @-@ disc , Warner Bros. and First National , changed over to sound @-@ on @-@ film recording . Vitaphone 's dominating presence in sound @-@ equipped theaters , however , meant that for years to come all of the Hollywood studios pressed and distributed sound @-@ on @-@ disc versions of their films alongside the sound @-@ on @-@ film prints . Fox Movietone soon followed Vitaphone into disuse as a recording and reproduction method , leaving two major American systems : the variable @-@ area RCA Photophone and Western Electric 's own variable @-@ density process , a substantial improvement on the cross @-@ licensed Movietone . Under RCA 's instigation , the two parent companies made their projection equipment compatible , meaning films shot with one system could be screened in theaters equipped for the other . This left one big issue — the Tobis @-@ Klangfilm challenge . In May 1930 , Western Electric won an Austrian lawsuit that voided protection for certain Tri @-@ Ergon patents , helping bring Tobis @-@ Klangfilm to the negotiating table . The following month an accord was reached on patent cross @-@ licensing , full playback compatibility , and the division of the world into three parts for the provision of equipment . As a contemporary report describes :
Tobis @-@ Klangfilm has the exclusive rights to provide equipment for : Germany , Danzig , Austria , Hungary , Switzerland , Czechoslovakia , Holland , the Dutch Indies , Denmark , Sweden , Norway , Bulgaria , Romania , Yugoslavia , and Finland . The Americans have the exclusive rights for the United States , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , India , and Russia . All other countries , among them Italy , France , and England , are open to both parties .
The agreement did not resolve all the patent disputes , and further negotiations were undertaken and concords signed over the course of the 1930s . During these years , as well , the American studios began abandoning the Western Electric system for RCA Photophone 's variable @-@ area approach — by the end of 1936 , only Paramount , MGM , and United Artists still had contracts with ERPI .
= = = Labor = = =
While the introduction of sound led to a boom in the motion picture industry , it had an adverse effect on the employability of a host of Hollywood actors of the time . Suddenly those without stage experience were regarded as suspect by the studios ; as suggested above , those whose heavy accents or otherwise discordant voices had previously been concealed were particularly at risk . The career of major silent star Norma Talmadge effectively came to an end in this way . The celebrated German actor Emil Jannings returned to Europe . Moviegoers found John Gilbert 's voice an awkward match with his swashbuckling persona , and his star also faded . Audiences now seemed to perceive certain silent @-@ era stars as old @-@ fashioned , even those who had the talent to succeed in the sound era . The career of Harold Lloyd , one of the top screen comedians of the 1920s , declined precipitously . Lillian Gish departed , back to the stage , and other leading figures soon left acting entirely : Colleen Moore , Gloria Swanson , and Hollywood 's most famous performing couple , Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford . As actress Louise Brooks suggested , there were other issues as well :
Studio heads , now forced into unprecedented decisions , decided to begin with the actors , the least palatable , the most vulnerable part of movie production . It was such a splendid opportunity , anyhow , for breaking contracts , cutting salaries , and taming the stars .... Me , they gave the salary treatment . I could stay on without the raise my contract called for , or quit , [ Paramount studio chief B. P. ] Schulberg said , using the questionable dodge of whether I 'd be good for the talkies . Questionable , I say , because I spoke decent English in a decent voice and came from the theater . So without hesitation I quit .
Similarly , Clara Bow 's speaking voice was sometimes blamed for the demise of her Hollywood career , though the real issues involved her clashes with studio executives and what film historian David Thomson describes as the " backlash of bourgeois hypocrisy " against a lifestyle that would have been unremarkable for a male star . Buster Keaton was eager to explore the new medium , but when his studio , MGM , made the changeover to sound , he was quickly stripped of creative control . Though a number of Keaton 's early talkies made impressive profits , they were artistically dismal .
Several of the new medium 's biggest attractions came from vaudeville and the musical theater , where performers such as Jolson , Eddie Cantor , Jeanette MacDonald , and the Marx Brothers were accustomed to the demands of both dialogue and song . James Cagney and Joan Blondell , who had teamed on Broadway , were brought west together by Warner Bros. in 1930 . A few actors were major stars during both the silent and the sound eras : Richard Barthelmess , Clive Brook , Bebe Daniels , Norma Shearer , the comedy team of Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy , and the incomparable Charlie Chaplin , whose City Lights ( 1931 ) and Modern Times ( 1936 ) employed sound almost exclusively for music and effects . Janet Gaynor became a top star with the synch @-@ sound but dialogueless Seventh Heaven and Sunrise , as did Joan Crawford with the technologically similar Our Dancing Daughters ( 1928 ) . Greta Garbo was the one non – native English speaker to retain Hollywood stardom on both sides of the great sound divide . The new emphasis on speech also caused producers to hire many novelists , journalists , and playwrights with experience writing good dialogue . Among those who became Hollywood scriptwriters during the 1930s were Nathanael West , William Faulkner , Robert Sherwood , Aldous Huxley , and Dorothy Parker .
As talking pictures emerged , with their prerecorded musical tracks , an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work . More than just their position as film accompanists was usurped ; according to historian Preston J. Hubbard , " During the 1920s live musical performances at first @-@ run theaters became an exceedingly important aspect of the American cinema . " With the coming of the talkies , those featured performances — usually staged as preludes — were largely eliminated as well . The American Federation of Musicians took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices . One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can labeled " Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever " and reads in part :
Canned Music on Trial
This is the case of Art vs. Mechanical Music in theatres . The defendant stands accused in front of the American people of attempted corruption of musical appreciation and discouragement of musical education . Theatres in many cities are offering synchronised mechanical music as a substitute for Real Music . If the theatre @-@ going public accepts this vitiation of its entertainment program a deplorable decline in the Art of Music is inevitable . Musical authorities know that the soul of the Art is lost in mechanisation . It cannot be otherwise because the quality of music is dependent on the mood of the artist , upon the human contact , without which the essence of intellectual stimulation and emotional rapture is lost .
By the following year , a reported 22 @,@ 000 U.S. moviehouse musicians had lost their jobs .
= = = Commerce = = =
In September 1926 , Jack L. Warner , head of Warner Bros. , was quoted to the effect that talking pictures would never be viable : " They fail to take into account the international language of the silent pictures , and the unconscious share of each onlooker in creating the play , the action , the plot , and the imagined dialogue for himself . " Much to his company 's benefit , he would be proven very wrong — between the 1927 – 28 and 1928 – 29 fiscal years , Warners ' profits surged from $ 2 million to $ 14 million . Sound film , in fact , was a clear boon to all the major players in the industry . During that same twelve @-@ month span , Paramount 's profits rose by $ 7 million , Fox 's by $ 3 @.@ 5 million , and Loew 's / MGM 's by $ 3 million . RKO , which hadn 't even existed in September 1928 and whose parent production company , FBO , was in the Hollywood minor leagues , by the end of 1929 was established as one of America 's leading entertainment businesses . Fueling the boom was the emergence of an important new cinematic genre made possible by sound : the musical . Over sixty Hollywood musicals were released in 1929 , and more than eighty the following year .
Even as the Wall Street crash of October 1929 helped plunge the United States and ultimately the global economy into depression , the popularity of the talkies at first seemed to keep Hollywood immune . The 1929 – 30 exhibition season was even better for the motion picture industry than the previous , with ticket sales and overall profits hitting new highs . Reality finally struck later in 1930 , but sound had clearly secured Hollywood 's position as one of the most important industrial fields , both commercially and culturally , in the United States . In 1929 , film box @-@ office receipts comprised 16 @.@ 6 percent of total spending by Americans on recreation ; by 1931 , the figure had reached 21 @.@ 8 percent . The motion picture business would command similar figures for the next decade and a half . Hollywood ruled on the larger stage , as well . The American movie industry — already the world 's most powerful — set an export record in 1929 that , by the applied measure of total feet of exposed film , was 27 percent higher than the year before . Concerns that language differences would hamper U.S. film exports turned out to be largely unfounded . In fact , the expense of sound conversion was a major obstacle to many overseas producers , relatively undercapitalized by Hollywood standards . The production of multiple versions of export @-@ bound talkies in different languages ( known as " Foreign Language Version " ) , as well as the production of the cheaper " International Sound Version " , a common approach at first , largely ceased by mid @-@ 1931 , replaced by post @-@ dubbing and subtitling . Despite trade restrictions imposed in most foreign markets , by 1937 , American films commanded about 70 percent of screen time around the globe .
Just as the leading Hollywood studios gained from sound in relation to their foreign competitors , they did the same at home . As historian Richard B. Jewell describes , " The sound revolution crushed many small film companies and producers who were unable to meet the financial demands of sound conversion . " The combination of sound and the Great Depression led to a wholesale shakeout in the business , resulting in the hierarchy of the Big Five integrated companies ( MGM , Paramount , Fox , Warners , RKO ) and the three smaller studios also called " majors " ( Columbia , Universal , United Artists ) that would predominate through the 1950s . Historian Thomas Schatz describes the ancillary effects :
Because the studios were forced to streamline operations and rely on their own resources , their individual house styles and corporate personalities came into much sharper focus . Thus the watershed period from the coming of sound into the early Depression saw the studio system finally coalesce , with the individual studios coming to terms with their own identities and their respective positions within the industry .
The other country in which sound cinema had an immediate major commercial impact was India . As one distributor of the period said , " With the coming of the talkies , the Indian motion picture came into its own as a definite and distinctive piece of creation . This was achieved by music . " From its earliest days , Indian sound cinema has been defined by the musical — Alam Ara featured seven songs ; a year later , Indrasabha would feature seventy . While the European film industries fought an endless battle against the popularity and economic muscle of Hollywood , ten years after the debut of Alam Ara , over 90 percent of the films showing on Indian screens were made within the country .
Most of India 's early talkies were shot in Bombay , which remains the leading production center , but sound filmmaking soon spread across the multilingual nation . Within just a few weeks of Alam Ara 's March 1931 premiere , the Calcutta @-@ based Madan Pictures had released both the Hindi Shirin Farhad and the Bengali Jamai Sasthi . The Hindustani Heer Ranjha was produced in Lahore , Punjab , the following year . In 1934 , Sati Sulochana , the first Kannada talking picture to be released , was shot in Kolhapur , Maharashtra ; Srinivasa Kalyanam became the first Tamil talkie actually shot in Tamil Nadu . Once the first talkie features appeared , the conversion to full sound production happened as rapidly in India as it did in the United States . Already by 1932 , the majority of feature productions were in sound ; two years later , 164 of the 172 Indian feature films were talking pictures . Since 1934 , with the sole exception of 1952 , India has been among the top three movie @-@ producing countries in the world every single year .
= = = Aesthetic quality = = =
In the first , 1930 edition of his global survey The Film Till Now , British cinema pundit Paul Rotha declared , " A film in which the speech and sound effects are perfectly synchronised and coincide with their visual image on the screen is absolutely contrary to the aims of cinema . It is a degenerate and misguided attempt to destroy the real use of the film and cannot be accepted as coming within the true boundaries of the cinema . " Such opinions were not rare among those who cared about cinema as an art form ; Alfred Hitchcock , though he directed the first commercially successful talkie produced in Europe , held that " the silent pictures were the purest form of cinema " and scoffed at many early sound films as delivering little beside " photographs of people talking " . In Germany , Max Reinhardt , stage producer and movie director , expressed the belief that the talkies , " bringing to the screen stage plays ... tend to make this independent art a subsidiary of the theater and really make it only a substitute for the theater instead of an art in itself ... like reproductions of paintings . "
In the opinion of many film historians and aficionados , both at the time and subsequently , silent film had reached an aesthetic peak by the late 1920s and the early years of sound cinema delivered little that was comparable to the best of the silents . For instance , despite fading into relative obscurity once its era had passed , silent cinema is represented by eleven films in Time Out 's Centenary of Cinema Top One Hundred poll , held in 1995 . The first year in which sound film production predominated over silent film — not only in the United States , but also in the West as a whole — was 1929 ; yet the years 1929 through 1933 are represented by three dialogueless pictures ( Pandora 's Box [ 1929 ] , Zemlya [ 1930 ] , City Lights [ 1931 ] ) and zero talkies in the Time Out poll . ( City Lights , like Sunrise , was released with a recorded score and sound effects , but is now customarily referred to by historians and industry professionals as a " silent " — spoken dialogue regarded as the crucial distinguishing factor between silent and sound dramatic cinema . ) The earliest sound film to place is the French L 'Atalante ( 1934 ) , directed by Jean Vigo ; the earliest Hollywood sound film to qualify is Bringing Up Baby ( 1938 ) , directed by Howard Hawks .
The first sound feature film to receive near @-@ universal critical approbation was Der Blaue Engel ( The Blue Angel ) ; premiering on April 1 , 1930 , it was directed by Josef von Sternberg in both German and English versions for Berlin 's UFA studio . The first American talkie to be widely honored was All Quiet on the Western Front , directed by Lewis Milestone , which premiered April 21 . The other internationally acclaimed sound drama of the year was Westfront 1918 , directed by G. W. Pabst for Nero @-@ Film of Berlin . Historian Anton Kaes points to it as an example of " the new verisimilitude [ that ] rendered silent cinema 's former emphasis on the hypnotic gaze and the symbolism of light and shadow , as well as its preference for allegorical characters , anachronistic . " Cultural historians consider the French L 'Âge d 'Or , directed by Luis Buñuel , which appeared late in 1930 , to be of great aesthetic import ; at the time , its erotic , blasphemous , anti @-@ bourgeois content caused a scandal . Swiftly banned by Paris police chief Jean Chiappe , it was unavailable for fifty years . The earliest sound movie now acknowledged by most film historians as a masterpiece is Nero @-@ Film 's M , directed by Fritz Lang , which premiered May 11 , 1931 . As described by Roger Ebert , " Many early talkies felt they had to talk all the time , but Lang allows his camera to prowl through the streets and dives , providing a rat 's @-@ eye view . "
= = = Cinematic form = = =
" Talking film is as little needed as a singing book . " Such was the blunt proclamation of critic Viktor Shklovsky , one of the leaders of the Russian formalist movement , in 1927 . While some regarded sound as irreconcilable with film art , others saw it as opening a new field of creative opportunity . The following year , a group of Soviet filmmakers , including Sergei Eisenstein , proclaimed that the use of image and sound in juxtaposition , the so @-@ called contrapuntal method , would raise the cinema to " ... unprecedented power and cultural height . Such a method for constructing the sound @-@ film will not confine it to a national market , as must happen with the photographing of plays , but will give a greater possibility than ever before for the circulation throughout the world of a filmically expressed idea . " So far as one segment of the audience was concerned , however , the introduction of sound brought a virtual end to such circulation : Elizabeth C. Hamilton writes , " Silent films offered people who were deaf a rare opportunity to participate in a public discourse , cinema , on equal terms with hearing people . The emergence of sound film effectively separated deaf from hearing audience members once again . "
On March 12 , 1929 , the first feature @-@ length talking picture made in Germany had its premiere . The inaugural Tobis Filmkunst production , it was not a drama , but a documentary sponsored by a shipping line : Melodie der Welt ( Melody of the World ) , directed by Walter Ruttmann . This was also perhaps the first feature film anywhere to significantly explore the artistic possibilities of joining the motion picture with recorded sound . As described by scholar William Moritz , the movie is " intricate , dynamic , fast @-@ paced ... juxtapos [ ing ] similar cultural habits from countries around the world , with a superb orchestral score ... and many synchronized sound effects . " Composer Lou Lichtveld was among a number of contemporary artists struck by the film : " Melodie der Welt became the first important sound documentary , the first in which musical and unmusical sounds were composed into a single unit and in which image and sound are controlled by one and the same impulse . " Melodie der Welt was a direct influence on the industrial film Philips Radio ( 1931 ) , directed by Dutch avant @-@ garde filmmaker Joris Ivens and scored by Lichtveld , who described its audiovisual aims :
To render the half @-@ musical impressions of factory sounds in a complex audio world that moved from absolute music to the purely documentary noises of nature . In this film every intermediate stage can be found : such as the movement of the machine interpreted by the music , the noises of the machine dominating the musical background , the music itself is the documentary , and those scenes where the pure sound of the machine goes solo .
Many similar experiments were pursued by Dziga Vertov in his 1931 Entuziazm and by Chaplin in Modern Times , a half @-@ decade later .
A few innovative commercial directors immediately saw the ways in which sound could be employed as an integral part of cinematic storytelling , beyond the obvious function of recording speech . In Blackmail , Hitchcock manipulated the reproduction of a character 's monologue so the word " knife " would leap out from a blurry stream of sound , reflecting the subjective impression of the protagonist , who is desperate to conceal her involvement in a fatal stabbing . In his first film , the Paramount Applause ( 1929 ) , Rouben Mamoulian created the illusion of acoustic depth by varying the volume of ambient sound in proportion to the distance of shots . At a certain point , Mamoulian wanted the audience to hear one character singing at the same time as another prays ; according to the director , " They said we couldn 't record the two things — the song and the prayer — on one mike and one channel . So I said to the sound man , ' Why not use two mikes and two channels and combine the two tracks in printing ? ' " Such methods would eventually become standard procedure in popular filmmaking .
One of the first commercial films to take full advantage of the new opportunities provided by recorded sound was Le Million , directed by René Clair and produced by Tobis 's French division . Premiering in Paris in April 1931 and New York a month later , the picture was both a critical and popular success . A musical comedy with a barebones plot , it is memorable for its formal accomplishments , in particular , its emphatically artificial treatment of sound . As described by scholar Donald Crafton ,
Le Million never lets us forget that the acoustic component is as much a construction as the whitewashed sets . [ It ] replaced dialogue with actors singing and talking in rhyming couplets . Clair created teasing confusions between on- and off @-@ screen sound . He also experimented with asynchronous audio tricks , as in the famous scene in which a chase after a coat is synched to the cheers of an invisible football ( or rugby ) crowd .
These and similar techniques became part of the vocabulary of the sound comedy film , though as special effects and " color " , not as the basis for the kind of comprehensive , non @-@ naturalistic design achieved by Clair . Outside of the comedic field , the sort of bold play with sound exemplified by Melodie der Welt and Le Million would be pursued very rarely in commercial production . Hollywood , in particular , incorporated sound into a reliable system of genre @-@ based moviemaking , in which the formal possibilities of the new medium were subordinated to the traditional goals of star affirmation and straightforward storytelling . As accurately predicted in 1928 by Frank Woods , secretary of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences , " The talking pictures of the future will follow the general line of treatment heretofore developed by the silent drama .... The talking scenes will require different handling , but the general construction of the story will be much the same . "
= = = Historical writings = = =
" Asynchronism as a Principle of Sound Film " 1934 essay by filmmaker and theorist Vsevolod Pudovkin
" Dialogue and Sound " essay by film historian and critic Siegfried Kracauer ; first published in his book Theory of Film : The Redemption of Physical Reality ( 1960 )
" The Film to Come " essay by producer and composer Guido Bagier ; first published in Film @-@ Kurier , January 7 , 1928
Handbook for Projectionists technical manual covering all major U.S. systems ; issued by RCA Photophone , 1930
" Historical Development of Sound Films " chronology by sound @-@ film pioneer E. I. Sponable ; first published in Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers , April / May 1947
" Madam , Will You Talk ? " article on the history of Bell Laboratories ' early research into sound film , by Stanley Watkins , Western Electric engineer ; first published in Bell Laboratories Record , August 1946
" Merger of the Sound Film Industry — The Founding Agenda of Tobis " corporate manifesto first published in Film @-@ Kurier , July 20 , 1928
" The Official Communiqué : Foundations of the Sound @-@ Film Accord Sales Prospects for the German Electronics Industry " article first published in Film @-@ Kurier , July 23 , 1930
Operating Instructions for Synchronous Reproducing Equipment technical manual for Western Electric theatrical sound projector system ; issued by ERPI , December 1928
" Outcome of Paris : Accord Signed / Total Interchangeability — Globe Divided into Three Patent Zones — Patent Exchange " article first published in Film @-@ Kurier , July 22 , 1930
" The Singing Fool " review by film theorist and critic Rudolf Arnheim , ca . 1929
" Sound @-@ Film Confusion " 1929 essay by Rudolf Arnheim
" Sound Here and There " essay by composer Paul Dessau ; first published in Der Film , August 1 , 1929
" Sound in Films " essay by director Alberto Cavalcanti ; first published in Films , November 1939
" Theory of the Film : Sound " 1945 essay by film theorist and critic Béla Balázs
" What Radio Has Meant to Talking Movies " prescient essay by Universal sound engineer Charles Feldstead ; first published in Radio News , April 1931
= = = Historical films = = =
Ben Bernie and All the Lads excerpts from ca . 1924 Phonofilm sound film ; on The Red Hot Jazz Archive website
A Few Minutes with Eddie Cantor 1924 Phonofilm sound film ; on Archive.org
Gus Visser and His Singing Duck 1925 Theodore Case sound film ; on YouTube
President Coolidge , Taken on the White House Lawn 1924 Phonofilm sound film ; on Archive.org
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= Georg Cantor =
Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor ( / ˈkæntɔːr / KAN @-@ tor ; German : [ ˈɡeɔʁk ˈfɛʁdinant ˈluːtvɪç ˈfɪlɪp ˈkantɔʁ ] ; March 3 [ O.S. February 19 ] 1845 – January 6 , 1918 ) was a German mathematician . He invented set theory , which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics . Cantor established the importance of one @-@ to @-@ one correspondence between the members of two sets , defined infinite and well @-@ ordered sets , and proved that the real numbers are more numerous than the natural numbers . In fact , Cantor 's method of proof of this theorem implies the existence of an " infinity of infinities " . He defined the cardinal and ordinal numbers and their arithmetic . Cantor 's work is of great philosophical interest , a fact of which he was well aware .
Cantor 's theory of transfinite numbers was originally regarded as so counter @-@ intuitive – even shocking – that it encountered resistance from mathematical contemporaries such as Leopold Kronecker and Henri Poincaré and later from Hermann Weyl and L. E. J. Brouwer , while Ludwig Wittgenstein raised philosophical objections . Cantor , a devout Lutheran , believed the theory had been communicated to him by God . Some Christian theologians ( particularly neo @-@ Scholastics ) saw Cantor 's work as a challenge to the uniqueness of the absolute infinity in the nature of God – on one occasion equating the theory of transfinite numbers with pantheism – a proposition that Cantor vigorously rejected .
The objections to Cantor 's work were occasionally fierce : Henri Poincaré referred to his ideas as a " grave disease " infecting the discipline of mathematics , and Leopold Kronecker 's public opposition and personal attacks included describing Cantor as a " scientific charlatan " , a " renegade " and a " corrupter of youth . " Kronecker objected to Cantor 's proofs that the algebraic numbers are countable , and that the transcendental numbers are uncountable , results now included in a standard mathematics curriculum . Writing decades after Cantor 's death , Wittgenstein lamented that mathematics is " ridden through and through with the pernicious idioms of set theory , " which he dismissed as " utter nonsense " that is " laughable " and " wrong " . Cantor 's recurring bouts of depression from 1884 to the end of his life have been blamed on the hostile attitude of many of his contemporaries , though some have explained these episodes as probable manifestations of a bipolar disorder .
The harsh criticism has been matched by later accolades . In 1904 , the Royal Society awarded Cantor its Sylvester Medal , the highest honor it can confer for work in mathematics . David Hilbert defended it from its critics by declaring :
From his paradise that Cantor with us unfolded , we hold our breath in awe ; knowing , we shall not be expelled .
= = Life of Georg Cantor = =
= = = Youth and studies = = =
Georg Cantor was born in the western merchant colony in Saint Petersburg , Russia , and brought up in the city until he was eleven . Georg , the oldest of six children , was regarded as an outstanding violinist . His grandfather Franz Böhm ( 1788 – 1846 ) ( the violinist Joseph Böhm 's brother ) was a well @-@ known musician and soloist in a Russian imperial orchestra . Cantor 's father had been a member of the Saint Petersburg stock exchange ; when he became ill , the family moved to Germany in 1856 , first to Wiesbaden then to Frankfurt , seeking winters milder than those of Saint Petersburg . In 1860 , Cantor graduated with distinction from the Realschule in Darmstadt ; his exceptional skills in mathematics , trigonometry in particular , were noted . In 1862 , Cantor entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic . After receiving a substantial inheritance upon his father 's death in 1863 , Cantor shifted his studies to the University of Berlin , attending lectures by Leopold Kronecker , Karl Weierstrass and Ernst Kummer . He spent the summer of 1866 at the University of Göttingen , then and later a center for mathematical research .
= = = Teacher and researcher = = =
Cantor submitted his dissertation on number theory at the University of Berlin in 1867 . After teaching briefly in a Berlin girls ' school , Cantor took up a position at the University of Halle , where he spent his entire career . He was awarded the requisite habilitation for his thesis , also on number theory , which he presented in 1869 upon his appointment at Halle .
In 1874 , Cantor married Vally Guttmann . They had six children , the last ( Rudolph ) born in 1886 . Cantor was able to support a family despite modest academic pay , thanks to his inheritance from his father . During his honeymoon in the Harz mountains , Cantor spent much time in mathematical discussions with Richard Dedekind , whom he had met two years earlier while on Swiss holiday .
Cantor was promoted to Extraordinary Professor in 1872 and made full Professor in 1879 . To attain the latter rank at the age of 34 was a notable accomplishment , but Cantor desired a chair at a more prestigious university , in particular at Berlin , at that time the leading German university . However , his work encountered too much opposition for that to be possible . Kronecker , who headed mathematics at Berlin until his death in 1891 , became increasingly uncomfortable with the prospect of having Cantor as a colleague , perceiving him as a " corrupter of youth " for teaching his ideas to a younger generation of mathematicians . Worse yet , Kronecker , a well @-@ established figure within the mathematical community and Cantor 's former professor , disagreed fundamentally with the thrust of Cantor 's work . Kronecker , now seen as one of the founders of the constructive viewpoint in mathematics , disliked much of Cantor 's set theory because it asserted the existence of sets satisfying certain properties , without giving specific examples of sets whose members did indeed satisfy those properties . Cantor came to believe that Kronecker 's stance would make it impossible for him ever to leave Halle .
In 1881 , Cantor 's Halle colleague Eduard Heine died , creating a vacant chair . Halle accepted Cantor 's suggestion that it be offered to Dedekind , Heinrich M. Weber and Franz Mertens , in that order , but each declined the chair after being offered it . Friedrich Wangerin was eventually appointed , but he was never close to Cantor .
In 1882 , the mathematical correspondence between Cantor and Richard Dedekind came to an end , apparently as a result of Dedekind 's declining the chair at Halle . Cantor also began another important correspondence , with Gösta Mittag @-@ Leffler in Sweden , and soon began to publish in Mittag @-@ Leffler 's journal Acta Mathematica . But in 1885 , Mittag @-@ Leffler was concerned about the philosophical nature and new terminology in a paper Cantor had submitted to Acta . He asked Cantor to withdraw the paper from Acta while it was in proof , writing that it was " ... about one hundred years too soon . " Cantor complied , but then curtailed his relationship and correspondence with Mittag @-@ Leffler , writing to a third party :
Had Mittag @-@ Leffler had his way , I should have to wait until the year 1984 , which to me seemed too great a demand ! ... But of course I never want to know anything again about Acta Mathematica .
Cantor suffered his first known bout of depression in 1884 . Criticism of his work weighed on his mind : every one of the fifty @-@ two letters he wrote to Mittag @-@ Leffler in 1884 mentioned Kronecker . A passage from one of these letters is revealing of the damage to Cantor 's self @-@ confidence :
... I don 't know when I shall return to the continuation of my scientific work . At the moment I can do absolutely nothing with it , and limit myself to the most necessary duty of my lectures ; how much happier I would be to be scientifically active , if only I had the necessary mental freshness .
This crisis led him to apply to lecture on philosophy rather than mathematics . He also began an intense study of Elizabethan literature thinking there might be evidence that Francis Bacon wrote the plays attributed to Shakespeare ( see Shakespearean authorship question ) ; this ultimately resulted in two pamphlets , published in 1896 and 1897 .
Cantor recovered soon thereafter , and subsequently made further important contributions , including his diagonal argument and theorem . However , he never again attained the high level of his remarkable papers of 1874 – 84 . He eventually sought , and achieved , a reconciliation with Kronecker . Nevertheless , the philosophical disagreements and difficulties dividing them persisted .
In 1890 , Cantor was instrumental in founding the Deutsche Mathematiker @-@ Vereinigung and chaired its first meeting in Halle in 1891 , where he first introduced his diagonal argument ; his reputation was strong enough , despite Kronecker 's opposition to his work , to ensure he was elected as the first president of this society . Setting aside the animosity Kronecker had displayed towards him , Cantor invited him to address the meeting , but Kronecker was unable to do so because his wife was dying from injuries sustained in a skiing accident at the time .
= = = Late years = = =
After Cantor 's 1884 hospitalization , there is no record that he was in any sanatorium again until 1899 . Soon after that second hospitalization , Cantor 's youngest son Rudolph died suddenly ( while Cantor was delivering a lecture on his views on Baconian theory and William Shakespeare ) , and this tragedy drained Cantor of much of his passion for mathematics . Cantor was again hospitalized in 1903 . One year later , he was outraged and agitated by a paper presented by Julius König at the Third International Congress of Mathematicians . The paper attempted to prove that the basic tenets of transfinite set theory were false . Since the paper had been read in front of his daughters and colleagues , Cantor perceived himself as having been publicly humiliated . Although Ernst Zermelo demonstrated less than a day later that König 's proof had failed , Cantor remained shaken , and momentarily questioning God . Cantor suffered from chronic depression for the rest of his life , for which he was excused from teaching on several occasions and repeatedly confined in various sanatoria . The events of 1904 preceded a series of hospitalizations at intervals of two or three years . He did not abandon mathematics completely , however , lecturing on the paradoxes of set theory ( Burali @-@ Forti paradox , Cantor 's paradox , and Russell 's paradox ) to a meeting of the Deutsche Mathematiker – Vereinigung in 1903 , and attending the International Congress of Mathematicians at Heidelberg in 1904 .
In 1911 , Cantor was one of the distinguished foreign scholars invited to attend the 500th anniversary of the founding of the University of St. Andrews in Scotland . Cantor attended , hoping to meet Bertrand Russell , whose newly published Principia Mathematica repeatedly cited Cantor 's work , but this did not come about . The following year , St. Andrews awarded Cantor an honorary doctorate , but illness precluded his receiving the degree in person .
Cantor retired in 1913 , living in poverty and suffering from malnourishment during World War I. The public celebration of his 70th birthday was canceled because of the war . He died on January 6 , 1918 in the sanatorium where he had spent the final year of his life .
= = Mathematical work = =
Cantor 's work between 1874 and 1884 is the origin of set theory . Prior to this work , the concept of a set was a rather elementary one that had been used implicitly since the beginning of mathematics , dating back to the ideas of Aristotle . No one had realized that set theory had any nontrivial content . Before Cantor , there were only finite sets ( which are easy to understand ) and " the infinite " ( which was considered a topic for philosophical , rather than mathematical , discussion ) . By proving that there are ( infinitely ) many possible sizes for infinite sets , Cantor established that set theory was not trivial , and it needed to be studied . Set theory has come to play the role of a foundational theory in modern mathematics , in the sense that it interprets propositions about mathematical objects ( for example , numbers and functions ) from all the traditional areas of mathematics ( such as algebra , analysis and topology ) in a single theory , and provides a standard set of axioms to prove or disprove them . The basic concepts of set theory are now used throughout mathematics .
In one of his earliest papers , Cantor proved that the set of real numbers is " more numerous " than the set of natural numbers ; this showed , for the first time , that there exist infinite sets of different sizes . He was also the first to appreciate the importance of one @-@ to @-@ one correspondences ( hereinafter denoted " 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence " ) in set theory . He used this concept to define finite and infinite sets , subdividing the latter into denumerable ( or countably infinite ) sets and uncountable sets ( nondenumerable infinite sets ) .
Cantor developed important concepts in topology and their relation to cardinality . For example , he showed that the Cantor set is nowhere dense , but has the same cardinality as the set of all real numbers , whereas the rationals are everywhere dense , but countable .
Cantor introduced fundamental constructions in set theory , such as the power set of a set A , which is the set of all possible subsets of A. He later proved that the size of the power set of A is strictly larger than the size of A , even when A is an infinite set ; this result soon became known as Cantor 's theorem . Cantor developed an entire theory and arithmetic of infinite sets , called cardinals and ordinals , which extended the arithmetic of the natural numbers . His notation for the cardinal numbers was the Hebrew letter <formula> ( aleph ) with a natural number subscript ; for the ordinals he employed the Greek letter ω ( omega ) . This notation is still in use today .
The Continuum hypothesis , introduced by Cantor , was presented by David Hilbert as the first of his twenty @-@ three open problems in his address at the 1900 International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris . Cantor 's work also attracted favorable notice beyond Hilbert 's celebrated encomium . The US philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce praised Cantor 's set theory , and , following public lectures delivered by Cantor at the first International Congress of Mathematicians , held in Zurich in 1897 , Hurwitz and Hadamard also both expressed their admiration . At that Congress , Cantor renewed his friendship and correspondence with Dedekind . From 1905 , Cantor corresponded with his British admirer and translator Philip Jourdain on the history of set theory and on Cantor 's religious ideas . This was later published , as were several of his expository works .
= = = Number theory , trigonometric series and ordinals = = =
Cantor 's first ten papers were on number theory , his thesis topic . At the suggestion of Eduard Heine , the Professor at Halle , Cantor turned to analysis . Heine proposed that Cantor solve an open problem that had eluded Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet , Rudolf Lipschitz , Bernhard Riemann , and Heine himself : the uniqueness of the representation of a function by trigonometric series . Cantor solved this difficult problem in 1869 . It was while working on this problem that he discovered transfinite ordinals , which occurred as indices n in the nth derived set Sn of a set S of zeros of a trigonometric series . Given a trigonometric series f ( x ) with S as its set of zeros , Cantor had discovered a procedure that produced another trigonometric series that had S1 as its set of zeros , where S1 is the set of limit points of S. If Sk + 1 is the set of limit points of Sk , then he could construct a trigonometric series whose zeros are Sk + 1 . Because the sets Sk were closed , they contained their Limit points , and the intersection of the infinite decreasing sequence of sets S , S1 , S2 , S3 , ... formed a limit set , which we would now call Sω , and then he noticed that Sω would also have to have a set of limit points Sω + 1 , and so on . He had examples that went on forever , and so here was a naturally occurring infinite sequence of infinite numbers ω , ω + 1 , ω + 2 , ...
Between 1870 and 1872 , Cantor published more papers on trigonometric series , and also a paper defining irrational numbers as convergent sequences of rational numbers . Dedekind , whom Cantor befriended in 1872 , cited this paper later that year , in the paper where he first set out his celebrated definition of real numbers by Dedekind cuts . While extending the notion of number by means of his revolutionary concept of infinite cardinality , Cantor was paradoxically opposed to theories of infinitesimals of his contemporaries Otto Stolz and Paul du Bois @-@ Reymond , describing them as both " an abomination " and " a cholera bacillus of mathematics " . Cantor also published an erroneous " proof " of the inconsistency of infinitesimals .
= = = Set theory = = =
The beginning of set theory as a branch of mathematics is often marked by the publication of Cantor 's 1874 article , " Über eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller reellen algebraischen Zahlen " ( " On a Property of the Collection of All Real Algebraic Numbers " ) . This article was the first to provide a rigorous proof that there was more than one kind of infinity . Previously , all infinite collections had been implicitly assumed to be equinumerous ( that is , of " the same size " or having the same number of elements ) . Cantor proved that the collection of real numbers and the collection of positive integers are not equinumerous . In other words , the real numbers are not countable . His proof differs from diagonal argument that he gave in 1891 . Cantor 's article also contains a new method of constructing transcendental numbers . Transcendental numbers were first constructed by Joseph Liouville in 1844 .
Cantor established these results using two constructions . His first construction shows how to write the real algebraic numbers as a sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , .... In other words , the real algebraic numbers are countable . Cantor starts his second construction with any sequence of real numbers . Using this sequence , he constructs nested intervals whose intersection contains a real number not in the sequence . Since every sequence of real numbers can be used to construct a real not in the sequence , the real numbers cannot be written as a sequence – that is , the real numbers are not countable . By applying his construction to the sequence of real algebraic numbers , Cantor produces a transcendental number . Cantor points out that his constructions prove more – namely , they provide a new proof of Liouville 's theorem : Every interval contains infinitely many transcendental numbers . Cantor 's next article contains a construction that proves the set of transcendental numbers has the same " power " ( see below ) as the set of real numbers .
Between 1879 and 1884 , Cantor published a series of six articles in Mathematische Annalen that together formed an introduction to his set theory . At the same time , there was growing opposition to Cantor 's ideas , led by Kronecker , who admitted mathematical concepts only if they could be constructed in a finite number of steps from the natural numbers , which he took as intuitively given . For Kronecker , Cantor 's hierarchy of infinities was inadmissible , since accepting the concept of actual infinity would open the door to paradoxes which would challenge the validity of mathematics as a whole . Cantor also introduced the Cantor set during this period .
The fifth paper in this series , " Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre " ( " Foundations of a General Theory of Aggregates " ) , published in 1883 , was the most important of the six and was also published as a separate monograph . It contained Cantor 's reply to his critics and showed how the transfinite numbers were a systematic extension of the natural numbers . It begins by defining well @-@ ordered sets . Ordinal numbers are then introduced as the order types of well @-@ ordered sets . Cantor then defines the addition and multiplication of the cardinal and ordinal numbers . In 1885 , Cantor extended his theory of order types so that the ordinal numbers simply became a special case of order types .
In 1891 , he published a paper containing his elegant " diagonal argument " for the existence of an uncountable set . He applied the same idea to prove Cantor 's theorem : the cardinality of the power set of a set A is strictly larger than the cardinality of A. This established the richness of the hierarchy of infinite sets , and of the cardinal and ordinal arithmetic that Cantor had defined . His argument is fundamental in the solution of the Halting problem and the proof of Gödel 's first incompleteness theorem . Cantor wrote on the Goldbach conjecture in 1894 .
In 1895 and 1897 , Cantor published a two @-@ part paper in Mathematische Annalen under Felix Klein 's editorship ; these were his last significant papers on set theory . The first paper begins by defining set , subset , etc . , in ways that would be largely acceptable now . The cardinal and ordinal arithmetic are reviewed . Cantor wanted the second paper to include a proof of the continuum hypothesis , but had to settle for expositing his theory of well @-@ ordered sets and ordinal numbers . Cantor attempts to prove that if A and B are sets with A equivalent to a subset of B and B equivalent to a subset of A , then A and B are equivalent . Ernst Schröder had stated this theorem a bit earlier , but his proof , as well as Cantor 's , was flawed . Felix Bernstein supplied a correct proof in his 1898 PhD thesis ; hence the name Cantor – Bernstein – Schröder theorem .
= = = = One @-@ to @-@ one correspondence = = = =
Cantor 's 1874 Crelle paper was the first to invoke the notion of a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence , though he did not use that phrase . He then began looking for a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence between the points of the unit square and the points of a unit line segment . In an 1877 letter to Richard Dedekind , Cantor proved a far stronger result : for any positive integer n , there exists a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence between the points on the unit line segment and all of the points in an n @-@ dimensional space . About this discovery Cantor wrote to Dedekind : " Je le vois , mais je ne le crois pas ! " ( " I see it , but I don 't believe it ! " ) The result that he found so astonishing has implications for geometry and the notion of dimension .
In 1878 , Cantor submitted another paper to Crelle 's Journal , in which he defined precisely the concept of a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence , and introduced the notion of " power " ( a term he took from Jakob Steiner ) or " equivalence " of sets : two sets are equivalent ( have the same power ) if there exists a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence between them . Cantor defined countable sets ( or denumerable sets ) as sets which can be put into a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence with the natural numbers , and proved that the rational numbers are denumerable . He also proved that n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space Rn has the same power as the real numbers R , as does a countably infinite product of copies of R. While he made free use of countability as a concept , he did not write the word " countable " until 1883 . Cantor also discussed his thinking about dimension , stressing that his mapping between the unit interval and the unit square was not a continuous one .
This paper displeased Kronecker , and Cantor wanted to withdraw it ; however , Dedekind persuaded him not to do so and Weierstrass supported its publication . Nevertheless , Cantor never again submitted anything to Crelle .
= = = = Continuum hypothesis = = = =
Cantor was the first to formulate what later came to be known as the continuum hypothesis or CH : there exists no set whose power is greater than that of the naturals and less than that of the reals ( or equivalently , the cardinality of the reals is exactly aleph @-@ one , rather than just at least aleph @-@ one ) . Cantor believed the continuum hypothesis to be true and tried for many years to prove it , in vain . His inability to prove the continuum hypothesis caused him considerable anxiety .
The difficulty Cantor had in proving the continuum hypothesis has been underscored by later developments in the field of mathematics : a 1940 result by Gödel and a 1963 one by Paul Cohen together imply that the continuum hypothesis can neither be proved nor disproved using standard Zermelo – Fraenkel set theory plus the axiom of choice ( the combination referred to as " ZFC " ) .
= = = = Paradoxes of set theory = = = =
Discussions of set @-@ theoretic paradoxes began to appear around the end of the nineteenth century . Some of these implied fundamental problems with Cantor 's set theory program . In an 1897 paper on an unrelated topic , Cesare Burali @-@ Forti set out the first such paradox , the Burali @-@ Forti paradox : the ordinal number of the set of all ordinals must be an ordinal and this leads to a contradiction . Cantor discovered this paradox in 1895 , and described it in an 1896 letter to Hilbert . Criticism mounted to the point where Cantor launched counter @-@ arguments in 1903 , intended to defend the basic tenets of his set theory .
In 1899 , Cantor discovered his eponymous paradox : what is the cardinal number of the set of all sets ? Clearly it must be the greatest possible cardinal . Yet for any set A , the cardinal number of the power set of A is strictly larger than the cardinal number of A ( this fact is now known as Cantor 's theorem ) . This paradox , together with Burali @-@ Forti paradox , led Cantor to formulate a concept called limitation of size , according to which the collection of all ordinals , or of all sets , was an " inconsistent multiplicity " that was " too large " to be a set . Such collections later became known as proper classes .
One common view among mathematicians is that these paradoxes , together with Russell 's paradox , demonstrate that it is not possible to take a " naive " , or non @-@ axiomatic , approach to set theory without risking contradiction , and it is certain that they were among the motivations for Zermelo and others to produce axiomatizations of set theory . Others note , however , that the paradoxes do not obtain in an informal view motivated by the iterative hierarchy , which can be seen as explaining the idea of limitation of size . Some also question whether the Fregean formulation of naive set theory ( which was the system directly refuted by the Russell paradox ) is really a faithful interpretation of the Cantorian conception .
= = Philosophy , religion and Cantor 's mathematics = =
The concept of the existence of an actual infinity was an important shared concern within the realms of mathematics , philosophy and religion . Preserving the orthodoxy of the relationship between God and mathematics , although not in the same form as held by his critics , was long a concern of Cantor 's . He directly addressed this intersection between these disciplines in the introduction to his Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre , where he stressed the connection between his view of the infinite and the philosophical one . To Cantor , his mathematical views were intrinsically linked to their philosophical and theological implications – he identified the Absolute Infinite with God , and he considered his work on transfinite numbers to have been directly communicated to him by God , who had chosen Cantor to reveal them to the world .
Debate among mathematicians grew out of opposing views in the philosophy of mathematics regarding the nature of actual infinity . Some held to the view that infinity was an abstraction which was not mathematically legitimate , and denied its existence . Mathematicians from three major schools of thought ( constructivism and its two offshoots , intuitionism and finitism ) opposed Cantor 's theories in this matter . For constructivists such as Kronecker , this rejection of actual infinity stems from fundamental disagreement with the idea that nonconstructive proofs such as Cantor 's diagonal argument are sufficient proof that something exists , holding instead that constructive proofs are required . Intuitionism also rejects the idea that actual infinity is an expression of any sort of reality , but arrive at the decision via a different route than constructivism . Firstly , Cantor 's argument rests on logic to prove the existence of transfinite numbers as an actual mathematical entity , whereas intuitionists hold that mathematical entities cannot be reduced to logical propositions , originating instead in the intuitions of the mind . Secondly , the notion of infinity as an expression of reality is itself disallowed in intuitionism , since the human mind cannot intuitively construct an infinite set . Mathematicians such as Brouwer and especially Poincaré adopted an intuitionist stance against Cantor 's work . Citing the paradoxes of set theory as an example of its fundamentally flawed nature , Poincaré held that " most of the ideas of Cantorian set theory should be banished from mathematics once and for all . " Finally , Wittgenstein 's attacks were finitist : he believed that Cantor 's diagonal argument conflated the intension of a set of cardinal or real numbers with its extension , thus conflating the concept of rules for generating a set with an actual set .
Some Christian theologians saw Cantor 's work as a challenge to the uniqueness of the absolute infinity in the nature of God . In particular , Neo @-@ Thomist thinkers saw the existence of an actual infinity that consisted of something other than God as jeopardizing " God 's exclusive claim to supreme infinity " . Cantor strongly believed that this view was a misinterpretation of infinity , and was convinced that set theory could help correct this mistake :
... the transfinite species are just as much at the disposal of the intentions of the Creator and His absolute boundless will as are the finite numbers .
Cantor also believed that his theory of transfinite numbers ran counter to both materialism and determinism – and was shocked when he realized that he was the only faculty member at Halle who did not hold to deterministic philosophical beliefs .
In 1888 , Cantor published his correspondence with several philosophers on the philosophical implications of his set theory . In an extensive attempt to persuade other Christian thinkers and authorities to adopt his views , Cantor had corresponded with Christian philosophers such as Tilman Pesch and Joseph Hontheim , as well as theologians such as Cardinal Johannes Franzelin , who once replied by equating the theory of transfinite numbers with pantheism . Cantor even sent one letter directly to Pope Leo XIII himself , and addressed several pamphlets to him .
Cantor 's philosophy on the nature of numbers led him to affirm a belief in the freedom of mathematics to posit and prove concepts apart from the realm of physical phenomena , as expressions within an internal reality . The only restrictions on this metaphysical system are that all mathematical concepts must be devoid of internal contradiction , and that they follow from existing definitions , axioms , and theorems . This belief is summarized in his assertion that " the essence of mathematics is its freedom . " These ideas parallel those of Edmund Husserl , whom Cantor had met in Halle .
Meanwhile , Cantor himself was fiercely opposed to infinitesimals , describing them as both an " abomination " and " the cholera bacillus of mathematics " .
Cantor 's 1883 paper reveals that he was well aware of the opposition his ideas were encountering :
... I realize that in this undertaking I place myself in a certain opposition to views widely held concerning the mathematical infinite and to opinions frequently defended on the nature of numbers .
Hence he devotes much space to justifying his earlier work , asserting that mathematical concepts may be freely introduced as long as they are free of contradiction and defined in terms of previously accepted concepts . He also cites Aristotle , Descartes , Berkeley , Leibniz , and Bolzano on infinity .
= = Cantor 's ancestry = =
Cantor 's paternal grandparents were from Copenhagen , and fled to Russia from the disruption of the Napoleonic Wars . There is very little direct information on his grandparents . Cantor was sometimes called Jewish in his lifetime , but has also variously been called Russian , German , and Danish as well .
Jakob Cantor , Cantor 's grandfather , gave his children Christian saints ' names . Further , several of his grandmother 's relatives were in the Czarist civil service , which would not welcome Jews , unless they converted to Christianity . Cantor 's father , Georg Waldemar Cantor , was educated in the Lutheran mission in Saint Petersburg , and his correspondence with his son shows both of them as devout Lutherans . Very little is known for sure about George Woldemar 's origin or education . His mother , Maria Anna Böhm , was an Austro @-@ Hungarian born in Saint Petersburg and baptized Roman Catholic ; she converted to Protestantism upon marriage . However , there is a letter from Cantor 's brother Louis to their mother , stating :
Mögen wir zehnmal von Juden abstammen und ich im Princip noch so sehr für Gleichberechtigung der Hebräer sein , im socialen Leben sind mir Christen lieber ...
( " Even if we were descended from Jews ten times over , and even though I may be , in principle , completely in favour of equal rights for Hebrews , in social life I prefer Christians ... " ) which could be read to imply that she was of Jewish ancestry .
There were documented statements , during the 1930s , that called this Jewish ancestry into question :
More often [ i.e. , than the ancestry of the mother ] the question has been discussed of whether Georg Cantor was of Jewish origin . About this it is reported in a notice of the Danish genealogical Institute in Copenhagen from the year 1937 concerning his father : " It is hereby testified that Georg Woldemar Cantor , born 1809 or 1814 , is not present in the registers of the Jewish community , and that he completely without doubt was not a Jew ... "
It is also later said in the same document :
Also efforts for a long time by the librarian Josef Fischer , one of the best experts on Jewish genealogy in Denmark , charged with identifying Jewish professors , that Georg Cantor was of Jewish descent , finished without result . [ Something seems to be wrong with this sentence , but the meaning seems clear enough . ] In Cantor 's published works and also in his Nachlass there are no statements by himself which relate to a Jewish origin of his ancestors . There is to be sure in the Nachlass a copy of a letter of his brother Ludwig from 18 November 1869 to their mother with some unpleasant antisemitic statements , in which it is said among other things : ...
( the rest of the quote is finished by the very first quote above ) . In Men of Mathematics , Eric Temple Bell described Cantor as being " of pure Jewish descent on both sides , " although both parents were baptized . In a 1971 article entitled " Towards a Biography of Georg Cantor , " the British historian of mathematics Ivor Grattan @-@ Guinness mentions ( Annals of Science 27 , pp. 345 – 391 , 1971 ) that he was unable to find evidence of Jewish ancestry . ( He also states that Cantor 's wife , Vally Guttmann , was Jewish ) .
In a letter written by Georg Cantor to Paul Tannery in 1896 ( Paul Tannery , Memoires Scientifique 13 Correspondence , Gauthier @-@ Villars , Paris , 1934 , p . 306 ) , Cantor states that his paternal grandparents were members of the Sephardic Jewish community of Copenhagen . Specifically , Cantor states in describing his father : " Er ist aber in Kopenhagen geboren , von israelitischen Eltern , die der dortigen portugisischen Judengemeinde ... " ( " He was born in Copenhagen of Jewish ( lit : " Israelite " ) parents from the local Portuguese @-@ Jewish community . " )
In addition , Cantor 's maternal great uncle , a Hungarian violinist Josef Böhm , has been described as Jewish , which may imply that Cantor 's mother was at least partly descended from the Hungarian Jewish community .
In a letter to Bertrand Russell , Cantor described his ancestry and self @-@ perception as follows :
Neither my father nor my mother were of German blood , the first being a Dane , borne in Kopenhagen , my mother of Austrian Hungar descension . You must know , Sir , that I am not a regular just Germain , for I am born 3 March 1845 at Saint Peterborough , Capital of Russia , but I went with my father and mother and brothers and sister , eleven years old in the year 1856 , into Germany .
= = Historiography = =
Until the 1970s , the chief academic publications on Cantor were two short monographs by Schönflies ( 1927 ) – largely the correspondence with Mittag @-@ Leffler – and Fraenkel ( 1930 ) . Both were at second and third hand ; neither had much on his personal life . The gap was largely filled by Eric Temple Bell 's Men of Mathematics ( 1937 ) , which one of Cantor 's modern biographers describes as " perhaps the most widely read modern book on the history of mathematics " ; and as " one of the worst " . Bell presents Cantor 's relationship with his father as Oedipal , Cantor 's differences with Kronecker as a quarrel between two Jews , and Cantor 's madness as Romantic despair over his failure to win acceptance for his mathematics , and fills the picture with stereotypes . Grattan @-@ Guinness ( 1971 ) found that none of these claims were true , but they may be found in many books of the intervening period , owing to the absence of any other narrative . There are other legends , independent of Bell – including one that labels Cantor 's father a foundling , shipped to Saint Petersburg by unknown parents . A critique of Bell 's book is contained in Joseph Dauben 's biography . Writes Dauben :
Cantor devoted some of his most vituperative correspondence , as well as a portion of the Beiträge , to attacking what he described at one point as the ' infinitesimal Cholera bacillus of mathematics ' , which had spread from Germany through the work of Thomae , du Bois Reymond and Stolz , to infect Italian mathematics ... Any acceptance of infinitesimals necessarily meant that his own theory of number was incomplete . Thus to accept the work of Thomae , du Bois @-@ Reymond , Stolz and Veronese was to deny the perfection of Cantor 's own creation . Understandably , Cantor launched a thorough campaign to discredit Veronese 's work in every way possible .
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= Bottlenose dolphin =
Bottlenose dolphins , the genus Tursiops , are the most common and well @-@ known members of the family Delphinidae , the family of oceanic dolphin . Recent molecular studies show the genus contains two species , the common bottlenose dolphin ( Tursiops truncatus ) and the Indo @-@ Pacific bottlenose dolphin ( Tursiops aduncus ) , instead of one . Research in 2011 revealed a third species , the Burrunan dolphin ( Tursiops australis ) . Bottlenose dolphins inhabit warm and temperate seas worldwide .
Bottlenose dolphins live in groups typically of 10 – 30 members , called pods , but group size varies from single individuals up to more than 1 @,@ 000 . Their diets consist mainly of forage fish . Dolphins often work as a team to harvest fish schools , but they also hunt individually . Dolphins search for prey primarily using echolocation , which is similar to sonar . They emit clicking sounds and listen for the return echos to determine the location and shape of nearby items , including potential prey . Bottlenose dolphins also use sound for communication , including squeaks and whistles emitted from the blowhole and sounds emitted through body language , such as leaping from the water and slapping their tails on the water surface .
Numerous investigations of bottlenose dolphin intelligence have been conducted , examining mimicry , use of artificial language , object categorization , and self @-@ recognition . They can use tools ( sponging ) and transmit cultural knowledge across generations , and their considerable intelligence has driven interaction with humans . Bottlenose dolphins are popular from aquarium shows and television programs such as Flipper . They have also been trained by militaries to locate sea mines or detect and mark enemy divers . In some areas , they cooperate with local fishermen by driving fish into their nets and eating the fish that escape . Some encounters with humans are harmful to the dolphins : people hunt them for food , and dolphins are killed inadvertently as a bycatch of tuna fishing and by getting caught in crab traps .
Bottlenose dolphins have the second largest encephalization levels of any mammal on Earth ( humans have the largest ) , sharing close ratios with those of humans and other great apes , which more than likely attributes to their incredibly high intelligence and emotional intelligence .
= = Taxonomy = =
Scientists were long aware that Tursiops dolphins might consist of more than one species . Molecular genetics allowed much greater insight into this previously intractable problem . The IUCN acknowledges two species , although a third distinct species was described in 2011 : the common bottlenose dolphin ( T. truncatus ) is found in most tropical to temperate oceans , and it has a grey color , with the shade of grey varying among populations , but it can be bluish @-@ grey , brownish @-@ grey , or even nearly black , and is often darker on the back from the rostrum to behind the dorsal fin ; the Black Sea bottlenose dolphin ( T. t. ponticus ) , a subspecies of T. truncatus lives in the Black Sea ; The Pacific bottlenose dolphin ( T. gillii or T. t. gillii ) , another subspecies of T. truncatus , lives in the Pacific , and has a black line from the eye to the forehead ; the Indo @-@ Pacific bottlenose dolphin ( T. aduncus ) lives in the waters around India , northern Australia , South China , the Red Sea , and the eastern coast of Africa , with the back being dark @-@ grey and the belly being lighter grey or nearly white with grey spots ; the Burrunan dolphin ( T. australis ) , found in the Port Phillip and Gippsland Lakes areas of Victoria , Australia , was described in September 2011 after research showed it was distinct from T. truncatus and T. aduncus , but is not considered a separate species by the IUCN .
The two ecotypes of the common bottlenose dolphin within the western North Atlantic are represented by the shallower water or coastal ecotype and the more offshore ecotype . Their ranges overlap , but they have been shown to be genetically distinct . They are not currently described , however , as separate species or subspecies . In general , genetic variation between populations is significant , even among nearby populations . As a result of this genetic variation , other distinct species currently considered to be populations of common bottlenose dolphin are possible .
Old scientific data do not distinguish between the two species , making it useless for determining structural differences between them . The IUCN lists both species as data deficient on their Red List of endangered species because of this issue .
Some recent genetic evidence suggests the Indo @-@ Pacific bottlenose belongs in the genus Stenella , since it is more like the Atlantic spotted dolphin ( Stenella frontalis ) than the common bottlenose .
= = = Hybrids = = =
Bottlenose dolphins have been known to hybridize with other dolphin species . Hybrids with Risso 's dolphin occur both in the wild and in captivity . The best known is the wolphin , a false killer whale @-@ bottlenose dolphin hybrid . The wolphin is fertile , and two currently live at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii . The first was born in 1985 to a female bottlenose . Wolphins also exist in the wild . In captivity , a bottlenose dolphin and a rough @-@ toothed dolphin hybridized . A common dolphin @-@ bottlenose dolphin hybrid born in captivity lives at SeaWorld California . Other hybrids live in captivity around the world and in the wild , such as a bottlenose dolphin @-@ Atlantic spotted dolphin hybrid .
= = Description = =
Bottlenose dolphins are grey , varying from dark grey at the top near the dorsal fin to very light grey and almost white at the underside . This countershading makes them hard to see , both from above and below , when swimming . Adults range from 2 to 4 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) , and 150 to 650 kilograms ( 330 to 1 @,@ 430 lb ) . Males are , on average , slightly longer and considerably heavier than females . In most parts of the world , the adults are about 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , and 200 to 300 kilograms ( 440 to 660 lb ) . Their size varies considerably with habitat . Except in the eastern Pacific , dolphins in warmer , shallower waters tend to be smaller than those in cooler , pelagic waters .
Bottlenose dolphins can live for more than 40 years .
= = Anatomy = =
Their elongated upper and lower jaws form what is called a rostrum , or snout , which gives the animal its common name . The real , functional nose is the blowhole on top of its head ; the nasal septum is visible when the blowhole is open .
Bottlenose dolphins have 18 to 28 conical teeth on each side of each jaw .
The flukes ( lobes of the tail ) and dorsal fin are formed of dense connective tissue and do not contain bone or muscle . The animal propels itself by moving the flukes up and down . The pectoral flippers ( at the sides of the body ) are for steering ; they contain bones homologous to the forelimbs of land mammals . A bottlenose dolphin discovered in Japan has two additional pectoral fins , or " hind legs " , at the tail , about the size of a human 's pair of hands . Scientists believe a mutation caused the ancient trait to reassert itself as a form of atavism .
= = Physiology and senses = =
In colder waters , they have more body fat and blood , and are more suited to deeper diving . Typically , 18 % – 20 % of their bodyweight is blubber . Most research in this area has been restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean . Bottlenose dolphins typically swim at 5 to 11 km / h ( 1 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 1 m / s ) , but are capable of bursts of up to 29 to 35 km / h ( 8 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 7 m / s ) . The higher speeds can only be sustained for a short time .
= = = Senses = = =
The dolphin 's search for food is aided by a form of sonar known as echolocation : it locates objects by producing sounds and listening for the echos . A broadband burst pulse of clicking sounds is emitted in a focused beam in front of the dolphin . To hear the returning echo , they have two small ear openings behind the eyes , but most sound waves are transmitted to the inner ear through the lower jaw . As the object of interest is approached , the echo grows louder , and the dolphins adjust by decreasing the intensity of the emitted sounds . ( This contrasts with bats and sonar , which reduce sensitivity of the sound receptor . ) The interclick interval also decreases as the animal nears the target . Evidently , the dolphin waits for each click 's echo before clicking again . Echolocation details , such as signal strength , spectral qualities , and discrimination , are well @-@ understood by researchers . Bottlenose dolphins are also able to extract shape information , suggesting they are able to form an " echoic image " or sound picture of their targets .
Dolphins have sharp eyesight . The eyes are located at the sides of the head and have a tapetum lucidum , or reflecting membrane , at the back of the retina , which aids vision in dim light . Their horseshoe @-@ shaped , double @-@ slit pupils enable dolphins to have good vision both in air and underwater , despite the different indices of refraction of these media . When under water , the eyeball 's lens serves to focus light , whereas in the in @-@ air environment , the typically bright light serves to contract the specialized pupil , resulting in sharpness from a smaller aperture ( similar to a pinhole camera ) .
By contrast , a bottlenose 's sense of smell is poor , because its blowhole , the analogue to the nose , is closed when underwater and it opens only for breathing . It has no olfactory nerves or olfactory lobe in the brain . Bottlenose dolphins are able to detect salty , sweet , bitter ( quinine sulphate ) , and sour ( citric acid ) tastes , but this has not been well @-@ studied . Anecdotally , some individuals in captivity have been noted to have preferences for food fish types , although it is not clear if taste mediates this preference .
= = = Communication = = =
Bottlenose dolphins communicate through burst pulsed sounds , whistles , and body language . Examples of body language include leaping out of the water , snapping jaws , slapping the tail on the surface and butting heads . Sounds and gestures help keep track of other dolphins in the group , and alert other dolphins to danger and nearby food . Lacking vocal cords , they produce sounds using six air sacs near their blow hole . Each animal has a uniquely identifying , frequency @-@ modulated narrow @-@ band signature vocalization ( signature whistle ) .
Researchers from the Bottlenose Dolphin Research Institute ( BDRI ) , based in Sardinia ( Italy ) have now shown whistles and burst pulsed sounds are vital to the animals ' social life and mirror their behaviors .
The tonal whistle sounds ( the most melodious ones ) allow dolphins to stay in contact with each other ( above all , mothers and offspring ) , and to coordinate hunting strategies . The burst @-@ pulsed sounds ( which are more complex and varied than the whistles ) are used " to avoid physical aggression in situations of high excitement " , such as when they are competing for the same piece of food , for example . The dolphins emit these strident sounds when in the presence of other individuals moving towards the same prey . The " least dominant " one soon moves away to avoid confrontation .
Other communication uses about 30 distinguishable sounds , and although famously proposed by John Lilly in the 1950s , no " dolphin language " has been found . However , Herman , Richards , and Wolz demonstrated comprehension of an artificial language by two bottlenose dolphins ( named Akeakamai and Phoenix ) in the period of skepticism toward animal language following Herbert Terrace 's critique .
= = Intelligence = =
= = = Cognition = = =
Cognitive abilities that have been investigated include concept formation , sensory skills , and mental representations . Such research has been ongoing since the 1970s . This includes : Acoustic and behavioral mimicry , Comprehension of novel sequences in an artificial language , Memory , Monitoring of self behavior , Discrimination and matching , Comprehension of symbols for various body parts , Comprehension of pointing gestures and gaze ( as made by dolphins or humans ) , Mirror self @-@ recognition , and Numerical values .
= = = Tool use and culture = = =
At least some wild bottlenose dolphins use tools . In Shark Bay , dolphins place a marine sponge on their rostrum , presumably to protect it when searching for food on the sandy sea bottom . This has only been observed in this bay ( first in 1997 ) , and is predominantly practiced by females . Sea otters are the only other known marine mammalian tool users . A 2005 study showed mothers most likely teach the behavior to their offspring , evincing culture ( behavior learned from other species members ) .
Mud plume feeding is a feeding technique performed by a small community of bottlenose dolphins over shallow seagrass beds ( less than 1 m ) in the Florida Keys in the United States . The behavior involves creation of a U @-@ shaped plume of mud in the water column and then rushing through the plume to capture fish .
Along the beaches and tidal marshes of South Carolina and Georgia in the United States , bottlenose dolphins cooperatively herd prey fish onto steep and sandy banks in a practice known as " strand feeding " . Groups of between two and six dolphins are regularly observed creating a bow wave to force the fish out of the water . The dolphins follow the fish , stranding themselves briefly , to eat their prey before twisting their bodies back and forth in order to slide back into the water .
Some Mauritanian dolphins cooperate with human fishermen . The dolphins drive a school of fish towards the shore , where humans await with nets . In the confusion of casting nets , the dolphins catch a large number of fish as well . Intraspecies cooperative foraging has also been observed . These behaviors may also be transmitted via teaching . Controversially , Rendell and Whitehead have proposed a structure for the study of cetacean culture . Similar cases have been observed in Laguna , Santa Catarina in Brazil since during 19th century as well .
Near Adelaide , in South Australia , three bottlenose dolphins ' tail @-@ walk ' , whereby they elevate the upper part of their bodies vertically out of the water , and propel themselves along the surface with powerful tail movements . Tail @-@ walking mostly arises via human training in dolphinaria . In the 1980s , a female from the local population was kept at a local dolphinarium for three weeks , and the scientist suggests she copied the tail @-@ walking behavior from other dolphins . Two other wild adult female dolphins have now copied it from her .
= = = Cortical neurons = = =
Some researchers theorize mammalian intelligence correlates to the number of nerve cells ( neurons ) in the cortex of the brain . The neocortical neuron number of the bottlenose dolphin is unknown . However , the species with the highest number of neocortical neurons known to date is the Long @-@ finned pilot whale .
= = Life history = =
= = = Respiration and sleep = = =
The bottlenose dolphin has a single blowhole located on the dorsal surface of the head consisting of a hole and a muscular flap . The flap is closed during muscle relaxation and opens during contraction . Dolphins are voluntary breathers , who must deliberately surface and open their blowholes to get air . They can store almost twice as much oxygen in proportion to their body weight as a human can : the dolphin can store 36 milliliters ( ml ) of oxygen per kg of body weight , compared with 20 ml per kg for humans . This is an adaptation to diving . The bottlenose dolphin typically rises to the surface to breathe through its blowhole two to three times per minute , although it can remain submerged for up to 20 minutes .
Dolphins can breathe while " half @-@ asleep " . During the sleeping cycle , one brain hemisphere remains active , while the other hemisphere shuts down . The active hemisphere handles surfacing and breathing behavior . The daily sleeping cycle lasts for about 8 hours , in increments of minutes to hours . During the sleeping cycle , they remain near the surface , swimming slowly or " logging " , and occasionally closing one eye .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Both sexes have genital slits on the underside of their bodies . The male can retract and conceal his penis through his slit . The female 's slit houses her vagina and anus . Females have two mammary slits , each housing one nipple , one on each side of the genital slit . The ability to stow their reproductive organs ( especially in males ) allows for maximum hydrodynamics . The breeding season produces significant physiological changes in males . At that time , the testes enlarge , enabling them to hold more sperm . Large amounts of sperm allow a male to wash away the previous suitor 's sperm , while leaving some of his own for fertilization . Also , sperm concentration markedly increases . Having less sperm for out @-@ of @-@ season social mating means it wastes less . This suggests sperm production is energetically expensive . Males have large testes in relation to their body size .
During the breeding season , males compete for access to females . Such competition can take the form of fighting other males or of herding females to prevent access by other males . In Shark Bay , male bottlenose dolphins have been observed working in pairs or larger groups to follow and / or restrict the movement of a female for weeks at a time , waiting for her to become sexually receptive . These coalitions , also known as male reproductive alliances , will fight with other coalitions for control of females .
Mating occurs belly to belly . Dolphins have been observed engaging in intercourse when the females are not in their estrous cycles and cannot produce young , suggesting they may mate for pleasure . The gestation period averages 12 months . Births can occur at any time of year , although peaks occur in warmer months . The young are born in shallow water , sometimes assisted by a ( possibly male ) " midwife " , and usually only a single calf is born . Twins are possible , but rare . Newborn bottlenose dolphins are 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 4 m ( 2 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 6 ft ) long and weigh 9 to 30 kg ( 20 to 66 lb ) , with Indo @-@ Pacific bottlenose dolphin infants being generally smaller than common bottlenose dolphin infants . To accelerate nursing , the mother can eject milk from her mammary glands . The calf suckles for 18 months to up to 8 years , and continues to closely associate with its mother for several years after weaning . Females sexually mature at ages 5 – 13 , males at ages 9 – 14 . Females reproduce every two to six years . Georgetown University professor Janet Mann argues the strong personal behavior among male calves is about bond formation and benefits the species in an evolutionary context . She cites studies showing these dolphins as adults are inseparable , and that early bonds aid protection , as well as in locating females .
= = = Social interaction = = =
Adult males live mostly alone or in groups of two to three , and join pods for short periods of time . Adult females and young dolphins normally live in groups of up to 15 animals . However , they live in fission @-@ fusion societies of varying group size , within which individuals change associations , often on a daily or hourly basis . Group compositions are usually determined by sex , age , reproductive condition , familial relations and affiliation histories . In a dolphin community near Sarasota , Florida , the most common group types are adults females with their recent offspring , older subadults of both sexes and adult males either alone or in bonded pairs . Smaller groups can join to form larger groups of 100 or more , and occasionally exceed 1 @,@ 000 . The social strategies of marine mammals such as bottlenose dolphins " provide interesting parallels " with the social strategies of elephants and chimpanzees .
Bottlenose dolphins studied by Bottlenose Dolphin Research Institute researchers off the island of Sardinia show random social behavior while feeding , and their social behavior does not depend on feeding activity . In Sardinia , the presence of a floating marine fin @-@ fish farm has been linked to a change in bottlenose dolphin distribution as a result of high fish density around the floating cages in the farming area .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Feeding = = =
A dolphin 's diet consists mainly of small fish , crustaceans , and squid . Although this varies by location , many populations share an appetite for fish from the mullet , the tuna and mackerel , and the drum and croaker families . Its cone @-@ like teeth serve to grasp , but do not chew food . When they encounter a shoal of fish , they work as a team to herd them towards the shore to maximize the harvest . They also hunt alone , often targeting bottom @-@ dwelling species . The bottlenose dolphin sometimes hits a fish with its fluke , sometimes knocking it out of the water , using a strategy called " fish whacking " . " Strand feeding " , is an inherited feeding technique used by bottlenose dolphins near and around coastal regions of Georgia and South Carolina . When a pod finds a school of fish , they will circle the school and trap the fish in a mini whirlpool . Then , the dolphins will charge at the school and push their bodies up onto a mud @-@ flat , forcing the fish on the mud @-@ flat , as well . The dolphins then crawl around on their sides , consuming the fish they washed up on shore .
One type of feeding behavior seen in bottlenose dolphins is mud ring feeding .
Bottlenose dolphins conflict with small @-@ scale coastal commercial fisheries in some Mediterranean areas . Common bottlenose dolphins are probably attracted to fishing nets because they offer a concentrated food source .
= = = Relations with other species = = =
Dolphins can exhibit altruistic behaviour toward other sea creatures . On Mahia Beach , New Zealand , on March 10 , 2008 , two pygmy sperm whales , a female and calf , stranded on the beach . Rescuers , including Department of Conservation officer Malcolm Smith , attempted to refloat them four times . Shortly , a playful bottlenose dolphin known to local residents as Moko arrived and , after apparently vocalizing at the whales , led them 200 m ( 660 ft ) along a sandbar to the open sea , saving them from imminent euthanasia .
The bottlenose dolphin can behave aggressively . Males fight for rank and access to females . During mating season , males compete vigorously with each other through displays of toughness and size , with a series of acts , such as head @-@ butting . They display aggression towards sharks and smaller dolphin species . At least one population , off Scotland , has practiced infanticide , and also has attacked and killed harbour porpoises . University of Aberdeen researchers say the dolphins do not eat their victims , but are simply competing for food . However , Dr. Read of Duke University , a porpoise expert researching similar cases of porpoise killings that had occurred in Virginia in 1996 and 1997 , holds a different view . He states dolphins and porpoises feed on different types of fish , thus food competition is an unlikely cause of the killings . Similar behaviour has been observed in Ireland . In the first half of July , 2014 , four attacks with three Porpoise fatalities were observed and caught on video by the Cardigan Bay Marine Wildlife Centre in the Cardigan Bay .
The bottlenose dolphin sometimes forms mixed species groups with other species from the dolphin family , particularly larger species , such as the short @-@ finned pilot whale , the false killer whale and Risso 's dolphin . They also interact with smaller species , such as the Atlantic spotted dolphin and the rough @-@ toothed dolphin . While interactions with smaller species are sometimes affiliative , they can also be hostile .
= = = Predators = = =
Some large shark species , such as the tiger shark , the dusky shark , the great white shark and the bull shark , prey on the bottlenose dolphin , especially calves . The bottlenose dolphin is capable of defending itself by charging the predator ; dolphin ' mobbing ' behavior of sharks can occasionally prove fatal for the shark . Targeting a single adult dolphin can be dangerous for a shark of similar size . Killer whale populations in New Zealand and Peru have been observed preying on bottlenose dolphins , but this seems rare , and other orcas may swim with dolphins . Swimming in pods allows dolphins to better defend themselves against predators . Bottlenose dolphins either use complex evasive strategies to outswim their predators , or mobbing techniques to batter the predator to death or force it to flee .
= = Relation to humans = =
= = = Interaction = = =
The species sometimes shows curiosity towards humans in or near water . Occasionally , they rescue injured divers by raising them to the surface . They also do this to help injured members of their own species . In November 2004 , a dramatic report of dolphin intervention came from New Zealand . Four lifeguards , swimming 100 m ( 330 ft ) off the coast near Whangarei , were approached by a shark ( reportedly a great white shark ) . Bottlenose dolphins herded the swimmers together and surrounded them for 40 minutes , preventing the shark from attacking , as they slowly swam to shore .
In coastal regions , dolphins run the risk of colliding with boats . Researchers of the Bottlenose Dolphin Research Institute first quantified data about solitary bottlenose dolphin diving behavior in the presence and absence of boats . Dolphins responded more to tourist than fishing vessels . Driving behavior , speed , engine type and separation distance all affect dolphin safety . However , dolphins in these areas can also coexist with humans . For example , in the town of Laguna in south Brazil , a pod of bottlenose dolphins drives fish towards fishermen who stand at the beach in shallow waters . One dolphin then rolls over , after which the fishermen throw out their nets . The dolphins feed on the escaping fish . The dolphins were not trained for this behavior ; the collaboration began before 1847 . Similar cooperative fisheries also exist in Mauritania , Africa .
Commercial ' dolphin encounter ' enterprises and tours operate in many countries . The documentary film " the Cove " documents how dolphins are captured and sold to these enterprises while the remaining pod is slaughtered . In addition to such endeavors , the individuals swim with and surface near surfers at the beach . Bottlenose dolphins perform in many aquaria , generating much controversy . Animal welfare activists and scientists have claimed that the dolphins do not have adequate space or receive adequate care or stimulation . However , others , notably SeaWorld , counter that the dolphins are properly cared for and enjoy interacting with humans .
Eight bottlenose dolphins that lived at the Marine Life Aquarium in Gulfport , Mississippi were swept away from their aquarium pool during Hurricane Katrina . They were later found and returned to captivity from the Gulf of Mexico .
The military of the United States and Russia train bottlenose dolphins as military dolphins for wartime tasks , such as locating sea mines and detecting enemy divers . The U.S. ' s program is the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program , located in San Diego .
= = = Cultural influence = = =
The popular television show Flipper , created by Ivan Tors , portrayed a bottlenose dolphin in a friendly relationship with two boys , Sandy and Bud . A seagoing Lassie , Flipper understood English and was a hero : " Go tell Dad we 're in trouble , Flipper ! Hurry ! " The show 's theme song contains the lyric " no one you see / is smarter than he " . The television show was based on a 1963 film , and was remade as a feature film in 1996 , starring Elijah Wood and Paul Hogan , as well as a second series running from 1995 to 2000 , starring Jessica Alba .
Other television appearances by bottlenose dolphins include Dolphin Cove , seaQuest DSV , and The Penguins of Madagascar , in which a dolphin , Doctor Blowhole , is a villain . In the HBO movie Zeus and Roxanne , a female bottlenose dolphin befriends a male dog , and in Bermuda Triangle , a girl named Annie ( played by Lisa Jakub ) swims with dolphins . Human and dolphin interaction segments shot on location in the Florida Keys with Dolphin Research Center as seen on a Halloween episode of The Simpsons , Treehouse of Horror XI .
Dolphin Tale , directed by Charles Martin Smith , starring Nathan Gamble , Ashley Judd , Harry Connick Jr . , Morgan Freeman , Cozi Zuehlsdorff and Kris Kristofferson , is based on the real @-@ life story of the dolphin Winter , who was rescued from a crab trap in December 2005 and lost her tail , but has learned to swim with a prosthetic one . Dolphin Tale 2 , a sequel to the 2011 film , featured another dolphin named Hope and an appearance by Bethany Hamilton . The sequel was released on September 12 , 2014 .
Bottlenose dolphins have appeared in novels . In The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy and one of its sequels , So Long , and Thanks For All the Fish , the dolphins try to warn humans of Earth 's impending destruction , but their behavior was misinterpreted as playful acrobatics . Bottlenose dolphins are central to David Brin 's series of Uplift Universe novels , particularly Startide Rising , where they are one of the four Earth species ( along with chimpanzees , gorillas , and dogs ) to have been ' uplifted ' to sentience . Bottlenose dolphins are primary characters in Anne McCaffrey 's Dragonriders of Pern series , especially The Dolphins of Pern . Bottlenose dolphins are incorporated into the science fiction video game series Ecco the Dolphin . Delphineus , a dolphin , is featured in the video game EcoQuest : The Search for Cetus , helping the boy , Adam , to find the sea king Cetus ( a sperm whale ) , as well as assisting in cleaning up the underwater environment where he lives .
T.D. , the Miami Dolphins ' mascot , uses the bottlenose dolphin as its mascot and team logo .
Factual descriptions of the dolphins date back into antiquity – the writings of Aristotle , Oppian and Pliny the Elder all mention the species .
= = = Threats = = =
Bottlenose dolphins are still captured or killed in dolphin drive hunts for their meat , to eliminate competition for fish and for capture for marine parks . Bottlenose dolphins ( and several other dolphin species ) often travel with tuna , and can get caught in tuna nets , which can kill the dolphins . Boycotts of tuna products led to the concept of " dolphin @-@ safe " labeling for fishing methods that avoid endangering dolphins .
The man @-@ made chemical perfluorooctanesulfonic acid ( PFOS ) may be compromising the immune system of bottlenose dolphins . PFOS affects the immune system of male mice at a concentration of 91 @.@ 5 ppb , while PFOS has been reported in bottlenose dolphins in excess of 1 ppm . High levels of metal contaminants have been measured in tissues in many areas of the globe . A recent study found high levels of cadmium and mercury in bottlenose dolphins from South Australia , levels which were later found to be associated with kidney malformations , indicating possible health effects of high heavy metal concentrations in dolphins .
= = = Conservation = = =
Bottlenose dolphins are not endangered . Their future is stable because of their abundance and adaptability . However , specific populations are threatened due to various environmental changes . The population in the Moray Firth in Scotland is estimated to consist of around 190 individuals , and are under threat from from harassment , traumatic injury , water pollution and reduction in food availability . Likewise , an isolated population in Doubtful Sound , New Zealand , is in decline due to calf loss coincident to an increase in warm freshwater discharge into the fjord . Less local climate change , such as increasing water temperature may also play a role but has never been shown to be the case . One of the largest coastal populations of bottlenose dolphins in Shark Bay , Western Australia was forecast to be stable with little variation in mortality over time ( Manlik et al . 2016 ) .
In US waters , hunting and harassing of marine mammals is forbidden in almost all circumstances , from the passing of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 .
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= 4 : The Remix =
4 : The Remix is an extended play ( EP ) by American R & B singer Beyoncé , released through Columbia Records on April 23 , 2012 . Prior to the release of the extended play , Beyoncé organised a remix competition for her then @-@ upcoming single " End of Time " . The remix was chosen by a judging panel and the winner of the competition was Radzimir " Jimek " Dębski .
4 : The Remix contains six remixes of the songs from Beyoncé 's fourth studio album , 4 , released in 2011 ; a Dave Audé remix of " Run the World ( Girls ) " , Isa Machine remix of " Countdown " , Lars B remix of " Best Thing I Never Had " , DJ Escape and Tony Coluccio remix of " Love on Top " and two remixes of " End of Time " by WAWA and JIMEK . After its release , the EP debuted on the UK R & B Albums Chart at number twenty @-@ eight . It also appeared on Billboard 's component charts , Dance / Electronic Albums and Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums at number eleven and number thirty respectively .
= = Background = =
On February 8 , 2012 , it was announced through Beyoncé 's website and a press release issued by Parkwood Entertainment and Columbia Records that " End of Time " would be released as the fifth single from her fourth studio album , 4 . Preceding its release , a remix competition for the song began in association with audio sharing site SoundCloud , which enabled public voting on the submission of remixes by participants . The contest was open to entrants in 25 countries from February 8 , 2012 to March 9 , 2012 ; it was announced that the remix winner would win a cash prize of US $ 4 @,@ 000 and that the remix would be included on her then @-@ unspecified upcoming release , which was later titled 4 : The Remix .
Over two thousand entries had been uploaded to SoundCloud by March 4 , 2012 , and the following day another press release was issued , announcing the members of the international judging panel who would choose the winner of the competition ; the panel consisted of Beyoncé , British musician Isabella Summers of Florence and the Machine , Dutch music producer and DJ Afrojack , the duo DJ and Polish producing team WAWA , New York premier DJ Jus @-@ Ske , and Oscar @-@ winning producer and composer Giorgio Moroder . The public was able to vote for entries and SoundCloud , and the top 50 ranked remixes were reviewed by the announced panel of judges ; the originality , creativity and musicality of these 50 remixes were taken into consideration when choosing the winner . On April 17 , Radzimir " Jimek " Dębski from Poland was announced as the winner in a press release .
= = Release and production = =
On April 17 , 2012 , the release of the remix extended play ( EP ) titled 4 : The Remix , along with its cover artwork and US release date of April 24 , 2012 , was announced . The EP was released in digital stores in France , Ireland , United Kingdom , Belgium , Finland , Denmark , Australia , New Zealand , Greece , Netherlands , Sweden , Poland , Malta , Argentina , Colombia , Brazil , Mexico , Canada , and United States on April 23 , 2012 and South Korea on April 27 , 2012 . The album consists of six remixes of songs from Beyoncé 's fourth studio album , 4 ( 2011 ) . It comprises a Dave Audé remix of " Run the World ( Girls ) " , an Isa Machine remix of " Countdown " , a Lars B remix of " Best Thing I Never Had " , a DJ Escape and Tony Coluccio remix of " Love on Top " and two remixes of " End of Time " — one by WAWA and the other by Jimek .
= = Chart performance = =
4 : The Remix debuted on the UK R & B Albums Chart at number twenty @-@ eight and number forty @-@ four on the UK Budget Albums for the week of May 5 , 2012 . For the issue of Billboard dated May 12 , 2012 , 4 : The Remix debuted at number eleven on the US Dance / Electronic Albums chart , and number thirty on the R & B / Hip Hop Albums chart .
= = Track listing = =
Writing credits for the songs are taken from the booklet of 4 .
( * ) Denotes co @-@ producer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for 4 : The Remix , taken from the liner notes of the EP .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= French cruiser Edgar Quinet =
Edgar Quinet was an armored cruiser of the French Navy , the lead ship of her class . She and her sister ship , Waldeck @-@ Rousseau , were the last class of armored cruiser to be built by the French Navy . Edgar Quinet was laid down in November 1905 , launched in September 1907 , and completed in January 1911 . Armed with a main battery of fourteen 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) guns , she was more powerful than most other armored cruisers , but she had entered service more than two years after the first battlecruiser — HMS Invincible — had rendered armored cruisers obsolescent .
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Edgar Quinet participated in the hunt for the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and then joined the blockade of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the Adriatic . She took part in the Battle of Antivari later in August , and the seizure of Corfu in January 1916 , but saw no further action during the war . In 1922 , she evacuated over a thousand civilians from Smyrna during the climax of the Greco @-@ Turkish War . Converted into a training ship in the mid @-@ 1920s , Edgar Quinet ran aground on a rock off the Algerian coast on 4 January 1930 and sank five days later .
= = Description = =
Edgar Quinet was 158 @.@ 9 meters ( 521 ft ) long overall , with a beam of 21 @.@ 51 m ( 70 @.@ 6 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 41 m ( 27 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 847 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 628 long tons ; 15 @,@ 264 short tons ) . Her power plant consisted of three triple @-@ expansion engines powered by forty coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers , which were trunked into six funnels in two groups of three . Her engines were rated at 36 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and produced a top speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . She had a crew of between 859 and 892 officers and enlisted men .
Edgar Quinet was armed with a main battery of fourteen 194 mm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) 50 @-@ caliber M1902 guns ; four were in twin gun turrets forward and aft , with three single gun turrets on either broadside . The last four guns were mounted in casemates abreast the main and aft conning towers . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of twenty 9 @-@ pounder guns in casemates in the ship 's hull . She was also equipped with two 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . She was protected with a armored belt that was 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships . The gun turrets had 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick plating , while the casemates had marginally thinner protection , at 194 mm . The main conning tower had 200 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Edgar Quinet was laid down at Brest in November 1905 and launched on 21 September 1907 . She was completed in January 1911 and commissioned into the French fleet . The ship was the most powerful armored cruiser completed by France , but she entered service two years after the British battlecruiser HMS Invincible , which rendered the armored cruiser obsolescent as a warship type .
In 1913 , Edgar Quinet participated in an international naval demonstration in the Ionian Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Ships from other navies included in the demonstration were the British pre @-@ dreadnought battleship HMS King Edward VII , the Austro @-@ Hungarian pre @-@ dreadnought SMS Zrínyi , the Italian pre @-@ dreadnought Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , and the German light cruiser SMS Breslau . The most important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the command of British Admiral Cecil Burney , was to blockade the Montenegrin coast . The goal of the blockade was to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at Scutari , where Montenegro had besieged a combined force of Albanians and Ottomans . Pressured by the international blockade , Serbia withdrew its army from Scutari , which was subsequently occupied by a joint Allied ground force .
= = = World War I = = =
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Edgar Quinet was anchored off Durazzo with the British cruiser HMS Defence and destroyer HMS Grampus and the German Breslau . The ships were moored there in a show of international support for a conference in Scutari over the status of Albania . Edgar Quinet and the armored cruisers Ernest Renan and Jules Michelet were mobilized as the First Light Division and tasked with hunting down the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and her consort Breslau . These ships , along with a flotilla of twelve destroyers , were to steam to Philippeville on 4 August , but the German cruisers had bombarded the port the previous day . This attack , coupled with reports that suggested the Germans would try to break out of the Mediterranean into the Atlantic , prompted the French high command to send Edgar Quinet and the First Light Division further west , to Algiers .
After the German ships escaped to Constantinople , rather than attack the French troop transports from North Africa as had been expected , Edgar Quinet joined the rest of the French fleet in its blockade of the Adriatic Sea , based out of Navarino . The fleet , commanded by Admiral Augustin Boué de Lapeyrère , had assembled by the night of 15 August ; the following morning , it conducted a sweep into the Adriatic and encountered the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta . In the ensuing Battle of Antivari , Zenta was sunk , with no losses on the French side . The French fleet then withdrew due to the threat of Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boats in the area .
On 8 January 1916 , Edgar Quinet , her sister Waldeck @-@ Rousseau , Ernest Renan and Jules Ferry embarked a contingent of Chasseurs Alpins ( mountain troops ) to seize the Greek island of Corfu . The cruisers sent the troops ashore on the night of 10 January ; the Greek officials on the island protested the move but offered no resistance .
= = = Later career = = =
Edgar Quinet continued her service in the eastern Mediterranean after the end of the war in 1918 . During the culmination of the Greco @-@ Turkish War that immediately followed World War I , Edgar Quinet rescued 1 @,@ 200 people from the Great Fire of Smyrna in 1922 . In 1925 , Edgar Quinet was converted into a training ship . The work lasted until 1927 , and included the reduction of her armament to ten of her 194 mm guns , the removal of two of her funnels , and a reconstruction of her bridge . Then @-@ Captain François Darlan commanded the ship in 1928 . In 1929 , Edgar Quinet underwent an overhaul ; during this modernization she was fitted with equipment to handle floatplanes for reconnaissance purposes . After returning to service , the ship was assigned as a training ship for cadets from the École Navale ( Naval Academy ) . On 4 January 1930 , Edgar Quinet ran aground off the coast of Algeria west of Oran and proved to be a total loss . She sank five days later .
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= Hammond organ =
The Hammond organ is an electric organ , invented by Laurens Hammond and John M. Hanert and first manufactured in 1935 . Various models have been produced , most of which use sliding drawbars to create a variety of sounds . Until 1975 , Hammond organs generated sound by creating an electric current from rotating a metal tonewheel near an electromagnetic pickup , and then strengthening the signal with an amplifier so that it can drive a speaker cabinet . Around two million Hammond organs have been manufactured , and it has been described as one of the most successful organs . The organ is commonly used with , and associated with , the Leslie speaker .
The organ was originally marketed and sold by the Hammond Organ Company to churches as a lower @-@ cost alternative to the wind @-@ driven pipe organ , or instead of a piano . It quickly became popular with professional jazz musicians in organ trios , a small group centred on the Hammond organ . Organ trios were hired by jazz club owners , who found that organ trios were a much cheaper alternative to hiring a big band . Jimmy Smith 's use of the Hammond B @-@ 3 , with its additional harmonic percussion feature , inspired a generation of organ players , and its use became more widespread in the 1960s and 1970s in rhythm and blues , rock and reggae , as well as being an important instrument in progressive rock .
The Hammond Organ Company struggled financially during the 1970s as they abandoned tonewheel organs and switched to manufacturing instruments using integrated circuits . These instruments were not as popular with musicians as the tonewheels had been , and the company went out of business in 1985 . The Hammond name was purchased by the Suzuki Musical Instrument Corporation , which proceeded to manufacture digital simulations of the most popular tonewheel organs . This culminated in the production of the " New B @-@ 3 " in 2002 , which provided an accurate recreation of the original B @-@ 3 organ using modern digital technology .
Hammond @-@ Suzuki continues to manufacture a variety of organs for both professional players and churches . Other companies , such as Korg , Roland and Clavia , have also achieved success in providing emulations of the original tonewheel organs . The sound of a tonewheel Hammond can also be emulated using modern software such as Native Instruments B4 .
= = Features = =
A number of distinctive Hammond organ features are not usually found on other keyboards like the piano or synthesizer . Some are similar to a pipe organ , but others are unique to the instrument .
= = = Keyboards and pedalboard = = =
Most Hammond organs have two 61 @-@ note ( 5 @-@ octave ) manuals . Each manual is laid out in a similar manner to a piano keyboard , except pressing a key results in the sound continuously playing until it is released . There is no difference in volume regardless of how heavily the key is pressed , so overall volume is controlled by a pedal ( also known as a " swell " or " expression " pedal ) . The keys on each manual have a lightweight action , which allows players to perform rapid passages more easily than on a piano . In contrast to piano and pipe organ keys , Hammond keys have a flat @-@ front profile , commonly referred to as " waterfall " style . Early Hammond console models had sharp edges , but starting with the B @-@ 2 these were rounded , as they were cheaper to manufacture . The M series of spinets also had waterfall keys ( which has subsequently made them ideal for spares on B @-@ 3s and C @-@ 3s ) , but later models had " diving board " style keys which resembled those found on a church organ . Modern Hammond @-@ Suzuki models use waterfall keys .
Hammond console organs come with a wooden pedalboard played with the feet , for bass notes . Most Hammond pedalboards have 25 notes , with the top note a middle C , because Hammond found that on traditional 32 @-@ note pedalboards used in churches , the top seven notes were seldom used . The Hammond Concert models E , RT , RT @-@ 2 , RT @-@ 3 and D @-@ 100 had 32 @-@ note American Guild of Organists ( AGO ) pedalboards going up to the G above middle C as the top note . The RT @-@ 2 , RT @-@ 3 and D @-@ 100 also contained a separate solo pedal system that had its own volume control and various other features . Spinet models had 12- or 13 @-@ note miniature pedalboards with stamped steel pedals .
= = = Drawbars = = =
The sound on a tonewheel Hammond organ is varied through the manipulation of drawbars . A drawbar is a metal slider that controls the volume of a particular sound component , in a similar way to a fader on an audio mixing board . As a drawbar is incrementally pulled out , it increases the volume of its sound . When pushed all the way in , the volume is decreased to zero .
The labeling of the drawbar derives from the stop system in pipe organs , in which the physical length of the pipe corresponds to the pitch produced . Most Hammonds contain nine drawbars per manual . The drawbar marked " 8 ' " generates the fundamental of the note being played , the drawbar marked " 16 ' " is an octave below , and the drawbars marked " 4 ' " , " 2 ' " and " 1 ' " are one , two and three octaves above respectively . The other drawbars generate various other harmonics and subharmonics of the note . While each individual drawbar generates a relatively pure sound similar to a flute or electronic oscillator , more complex sounds can be created by mixing the drawbars in varying amounts . Some spinet models do not include the two subharmonic drawbars on the lower manual .
Some drawbar settings have become well known and associated with certain musicians . A very popular setting is 888000000 ( i.e. , with the drawbars labelled " 16 ' " , " 51 / 3 ' " and " 8 ' " fully pulled out ) , and has been identified as the " classic " Jimmy Smith sound .
= = = Presets = = =
In addition to drawbars , many Hammond tonewheel organ models also include presets , which make predefined drawbar combinations available at the press of a button . Console organs have one octave of reverse colored keys ( naturals are black , sharps and flats are white ) to the left of each manual , with each key activating a preset ; the far left key ( C ) , also known as the cancel key , de @-@ activates all presets , and results in no sound coming from that manual . The two right @-@ most preset keys ( B and B ♭ ) activate the corresponding set of drawbars for that manual , while the other preset keys produce preselected drawbar settings that are internally wired into the preset panel . Presets can be changed by rerouting the associated color @-@ coded wires on the rear of the organ . Some spinet models have flip tabs for presets situated above the manuals .
= = = Vibrato and chorus = = =
Hammond organs have a built @-@ in vibrato effect that provides a small variation in pitch while a note is being played , and a chorus effect where a note 's sound is combined with another sound at a slightly different and varying pitch . The best known vibrato and chorus system consists of six settings , V1 , V2 , V3 , C1 , C2 and C3 ( i.e. , 3 vibrato and 3 chorus ) , which can be selected via a rotary switch . Vibrato / chorus can be selected for each manual independently .
= = = Harmonic Percussion = = =
The B @-@ 3 and C @-@ 3 models introduced the concept of " Harmonic Percussion " , which was designed to emulate the percussive sounds of the harp , xylophone and marimba . When selected , this feature plays a decaying second- or third @-@ harmonic overtone when a key is pressed . The selected percussion harmonic fades out , leaving the sustained tones the player selected with the drawbars . The volume of this percussive effect is selectable as either Normal or Soft . Harmonic Percussion retriggers only after all notes have been released , so legato passages sound the effect only on the very first note or chord , making Harmonic Percussion uniquely a " single @-@ trigger , polyphonic " effect
= = = Leslie speaker controls = = =
Hammond organs may have a console or pedal switch for controlling the rotation speed of a Leslie rotating speaker cabinet that is connected to the organ . The switch allows the player to toggle between fast ( tremolo ) and slow ( chorale ) rotation . The most distinctive effect occurs as the speaker rotation speed changes . The tasteful application of the different Leslie speed sound effects to Hammond organ playing is a distinctive part of the characteristic Hammond sound .
= = = Start and Run switches = = =
Before a Hammond organ can produce sound , the motor that drives the tonewheels must come up to speed . On most models , starting a Hammond organ involves two switches . The " Start " switch turns a dedicated starter motor , which must run for about 12 seconds . Then , the " Run " switch is turned on for about four seconds . The " Start " switch is then released , whereupon the organ is ready to generate sound . The H @-@ 100 and E @-@ series consoles and L @-@ 100 and T @-@ 100 spinet organs , however , had a self @-@ starting motor that required only a single " On " switch .
It is possible to create a pitch bend on the Hammond organ by turning the " Run " switch off and on again . This briefly cuts power to the generators , causing them to run at a slower pace and generate a lower pitch for a short time . Hammond 's New B3 contains similar switches to emulate this effect , though it is a digital instrument .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The Hammond organ 's technology derives from the Telharmonium , an instrument created in 1897 by Thaddeus Cahill . The telharmonium used revolving electric alternators which generated tones that could be transmitted over wires . The instrument was bulky , because the alternators had to be large enough to generate high voltage for a loud enough signal . The Hammond organ solved this problem by using an amplifier .
Laurens Hammond graduated from Cornell University with a mechanical engineering degree in 1916 . By the start of the 1920s he had designed a spring @-@ driven clock , which provided enough sales for him to start his own business , the Hammond Clock Company , in 1928 . As well as clocks , his early inventions included 3D glasses and an automatic bridge table shuffler . However , as the Great Depression continued into the 1930s , sales of the bridge table declined and he decided to look elsewhere for a commercially successful product . Hammond was inspired to create the tonewheel or " phonic wheel " by listening to the moving gears of his electric clocks and the tones produced by them . He gathered pieces from a second @-@ hand piano he had purchased for $ 15 and combined it with a tonewheel generator in a similar form to the telharmonium , albeit much shorter and more compact . Since Hammond was not a musician , he asked the company 's assistant treasurer , W. L. Lahey , to help him achieve the desired organ sound . To cut costs , Hammond made a pedalboard with only 25 notes , instead of the standard 32 on church organs , and it quickly became a de facto standard .
On April 24 , 1934 , Hammond filed U.S. Patent 1 @,@ 956 @,@ 350 for an " electrical musical instrument " , which was personally delivered to the patent office by Hanert , explaining that they could start production immediately and it would be good for local employment in Chicago . The invention was unveiled to the public in April 1935 and the first model , the Model A , was made available in June of that year . Over 1 @,@ 750 churches purchased a Hammond organ in the first three years of manufacturing , and by the end of the 1930s over 200 instruments were being made each month . For all its subsequent success with professional musicians , the original company did not target its products at that market , principally because Hammond did not think there was enough money in it . It has been estimated that the Hammond Organ Company produced about two million instruments in its lifetime ; these have been described as " probably the most successful electronic organs ever made " . In 1966 , it was estimated that about 50 @,@ 000 churches had installed a Hammond .
In 1936 , the Federal Trade Commission ( FTC ) filed a complaint claiming that the Hammond Company made " false and misleading " claims in advertisements for its organ , including that the Hammond could produce " the entire range of tone coloring of a pipe organ " . The complaint resulted in lengthy hearing proceedings , which featured a series of auditory tests that pitted a Hammond costing about $ 2600 against a $ 75 @,@ 000 Skinner pipe organ in the University of Chicago Rockefeller Chapel . During the auditory tests , sustained tones and excerpts from musical works were played on the electric and pipe organs while a group of musicians and laymen attempted to distinguish between the instruments . While attorneys for Hammond argued that the test listeners were wrong or guessed nearly half the time , witnesses for the FTC claimed that Hammond employees had unfairly manipulated the Skinner organ to sound more like the Hammond . In 1938 , the FTC ordered Hammond to " cease and desist " a number of advertising claims , including that its instrument was equivalent to a $ 10 @,@ 000 pipe organ . After the FTC 's decision , Hammond claimed that the hearings had vindicated his company 's assertions that the organ produced " real " , " fine " , and " beautiful " music , phrases which were each cited in the FTC 's original complaint but not included in the " cease and desist " order . Hammond also claimed that although the hearing was expensive for his company , the proceedings generated so much publicity that " as a result we sold enough extra organs to cover the expense . "
A key ingredient to the Hammond organ 's success was the use of dealerships and a sense of community . Several dedicated organ dealers set up business in the United States and there was a bi @-@ monthly newsletter , The Hammond Times , mailed out to subscribers . Advertisements tended to show families centered around the instrument , often with a child playing it , as an attempt to show the organ as a center @-@ point of home life and to encourage children to learn music .
= = = Tonewheel organs = = =
Hammond organs , as manufactured by the original company , can be divided into two main groups :
Console organs have two 61 @-@ note manuals and a pedalboard of at least two octaves . Most consoles do not have a built @-@ in power amplifier or speakers , so an external amplifier and speaker cabinet is required .
Spinet organs have two 44 @-@ note manuals and one octave of pedals , plus an internal power amplifier and set of speakers .
= = = = Console organs = = = =
The first model in production , in June 1935 , was the Model A. It contained most of the features that came to be standard on all console Hammonds , including two 61 @-@ key manuals , a 25 @-@ key pedalboard , an expression pedal , 12 reverse @-@ color preset keys , two sets of drawbars for each manual , and one for the pedals .
To address concerns that the sound of the Hammond was not rich enough to accurately mimic a pipe organ , the model BC was introduced in December 1936 . It included a chorus generator , in which a second tonewheel system added slightly sharp or flat tones to the overall sound of each note . The cabinet was made deeper to accommodate this . Production of the old Model A cases stopped , but the older model continued to be available as the AB until October 1938 .
Criticism that the Hammond organ was more aesthetically suitable to the home instead of the church led to the introduction of the model C in September 1939 . It contained the same internals as the AB or BC , but covered on the front and sides by " modesty panels " to allow for modesty while playing in a skirt , often a consideration when a church organ was placed in front of the congregation . The model C did not contain the chorus generator , but had space in the cabinet for it to be fitted . The concurrent model D was a model C with a pre @-@ fitted chorus . Development of the vibrato system took place during the early 1940s , and was put into production shortly after the end of World War II . The various models available were the BV and CV ( vibrato only ) and BCV and DV ( vibrato and chorus ) .
The B @-@ 2 and C @-@ 2 , introduced in 1949 , allowed vibrato to be enabled or disabled on each manual separately . In 1954 , the B @-@ 3 and C @-@ 3 models were introduced with the additional harmonic percussion feature . Despite several attempts by Hammond to replace them , these two models remained popular and stayed in continuous production through early 1975 .
To cater more specifically to the church market , Hammond introduced the Concert Model E in July 1937 , which included a full 32 @-@ note pedalboard and four electric switches known as toe pistons , allowing various sounds to be selected by the feet . The model E was replaced by the model RT in 1949 , which retained the full size pedalboard , but otherwise was internally identical to the B and C models . RT @-@ 2 and RT @-@ 3 models subsequently appeared in line with the B @-@ 2 / C @-@ 2 and B @-@ 3 / C @-@ 3 respectively .
In 1959 , Hammond introduced the A @-@ 100 series . It was effectively a self @-@ contained version of the B @-@ 3 / C @-@ 3 , with an internal power amplifier and speakers . The organ was manufactured in a variety of different chassis , with the last two digits of the specific model number determining the style and finish of the instrument . For example , A @-@ 105 was " Tudor styling in light oak or walnut , " while the A @-@ 143 was " warm cherry finish , Early American styling " . This model numbering scheme was used for several other series of console and spinet organs that subsequently appeared . The D @-@ 100 series , which provided a self @-@ contained version of the RT @-@ 3 , followed in 1963 .
The E @-@ 100 series was a cost @-@ reduced version of the A @-@ 100 introduced in 1965 , with only one set of drawbars per manual , a reduced number of presets , and a slightly different tone generator . This was followed by the H @-@ 100 series , with a redesigned tonewheel generator and various other additional features . Unfortunately , the organ was not particularly well made , and suffered a reputation for being unreliable . Hammond service engineer Harvey Olsen said " When they [ H @-@ 100s ] work , they sound pretty decent . But die @-@ hard enthusiasts won 't touch it . "
= = = = Spinet organs = = = =
Though the instrument had been originally designed for use in a church , Hammond realized that the amateur home market was a far more lucrative business , and started manufacturing spinet organs in the late 1940s . Outside of the United States , they were manufactured in greater numbers than the consoles , and hence were more widely used . Several different types of M series instruments were produced between 1948 and 1964 ; they contained two 44 @-@ note manuals with one set of drawbars each , and a 12 @-@ note pedalboard . The M model was produced from 1948 to 1951 , the M @-@ 2 from 1951 to 1955 , and the M @-@ 3 from 1955 to 1964 . The M series was replaced by the M @-@ 100 series in 1961 , which used a numbering system to identify the body style and finish as used on earlier console series . It included the same manuals as the M , but increased the pedalboard size to 13 notes , stretching a full octave , and included a number of presets .
The L @-@ 100 series entered production at the same time as the M @-@ 100 . It was an economy version , with various cost cutting changes so the organ could retail for under $ 1000 . The vibrato was a simpler circuit than on other consoles and spinets . Two variations of the vibrato were provided , plus a chorus that mixed various vibrato signals together . The expression pedal , based on a cheaper design , was not as sophisticated as on the other organs . The L @-@ 100 was particularly popular in the UK and sold well , with several notable British musicians using it instead of a B @-@ 3 or C @-@ 3 .
The T series , produced from 1968 to 1975 , was the last of the tonewheel spinet organs . Unlike all the earlier Hammond organs , which used vacuum tubes for pre @-@ amplification , amplification , Percussion and Chorus @-@ Vibrato control , the T series used all @-@ solid @-@ state , transistor circuitry , though , unlike the L @-@ 100 , it did include the scanner @-@ vibrato as seen on the B @-@ 3 . Other than the T @-@ 100 series models , all other T @-@ Series models included a built @-@ in rotating Leslie speaker and some included an analog drum machine , while the T @-@ 500 also included a built @-@ in cassette recorder . It was one of the last tonewheel Hammonds produced .
= = = Transistor organs = = =
In the 1960s , Hammond started making transistor organs . The first organ that bridged the gap between tonewheel and transistor was the X @-@ 66 , introduced in May 1967 . The X @-@ 66 contained just 12 tonewheels , and used electronics for frequency division . It contained separate " vibrato bass " and " vibrato treble " in an attempt to simulate a Leslie speaker . Hammond designed it as the company 's flagship product , in response to market competition and to replace the B @-@ 3 . However , it was considered expensive at $ 9 @,@ 795 and it sold poorly . It did not sound like a B @-@ 3 .
Hammond introduced their first integrated circuit ( IC ) model , the Concorde , in 1971 . The company had stopped manufacturing tonewheel organs entirely by 1975 , due to increased financial inefficiency , and switched to making IC models full @-@ time . Console models included the 8000 Aurora ( 1976 ) and 8000M Aurora ( 1977 ) , which contained drawbars and a built @-@ in rotating speaker . Spinet organs included the Romance series , manufactured between 1977 and 1983 . In 1979 , a Japanese offshoot , Nihon Hammond , introduced the X @-@ 5 , a portable solid @-@ state clone of the B @-@ 3 .
= = = Hammond @-@ Suzuki = = =
Laurens Hammond died in 1973 , and the company struggled to survive , proposing an acquiring of Roland in 1972 , which was turned down . Roland 's Ikutaro Kakehashi did not believe it was practical at that point to move the entire manufacturing operation from Chicago to Japan , and also viewed Hammond 's declining sales figures as a problem . Hammond went out of business in 1985 , though servicing and spares continued to be available after this under the name of The Organ Service Company . In early 1986 , the Hammond brand and rights were acquired by Hammond Organ Australia , run by Noel Crabbe .
The name was purchased by the Suzuki Musical Instrument Corporation in 1989 , who rebranded the company as Hammond @-@ Suzuki . Although nominally a Japanese company , founder Manji Suzuki was a fan of the instrument and retained several former Hammond Organ Company staff for research and development , and ensured that production would partially remain in the United States . The new company produced their own brand of portable organs , including the XB @-@ 2 , XB @-@ 3 and XB @-@ 5 . Sound on Sound 's Rod Spark , a longtime Hammond enthusiast , said these models were " a matter of taste , of course , but I don 't think they 're a patch on the old ones " .
In 2002 , Hammond @-@ Suzuki relaunched the B @-@ 3 as the ' New B @-@ 3 ' , a re @-@ creation of the original electromechanical instrument using contemporary electronics and a digital tonewheel simulator . The New B @-@ 3 is constructed to appear like the original B @-@ 3 , and the designers attempted to retain the subtle nuances of the familiar B @-@ 3 sound . Hammond @-@ Suzuki promotional material states that it would be difficult for even an experienced B @-@ 3 player to distinguish between the old and new B @-@ 3 organs . A review of the New B @-@ 3 by Hugh Robjohns called it " a true replica of an original B @-@ 3 ... in terms of the look and layout , and the actual sound . " The instrument project nearly stalled after a breakdown in negotiations between Japanese and United States staff , the latter of whom insisted on manufacturing the case in the United States and designing the organ to identical specifications to the original .
The company has since released the XK @-@ 3 , a single @-@ manual organ using the same digital tonewheel technology as the New B @-@ 3 . The XK @-@ 3 is part of a modular system that allows an integrated lower manual and pedals to be added . In response to some clones including a variety of vintage keyboards in a single package , Hammond released the SK series of organs , which include grand piano , Rhodes piano , Wurlitzer electronic piano , Hohner Clavinet and samples of wind and brass instruments alongside the standard drawbar and tonewheel emulation . Keyboard Magazine 's Stephen Fortner praised the single manual SK1 , indicated that it gave an accurate sound throughout the range of drawbar settings , and said the organ sound was " fat , warm , utterly authentic " . The XK @-@ 1c model was introduced in early 2014 , which is simply an organ @-@ only version of the SK1 .
In the US , Hammond manufactures a number of dedicated console organs , including the B @-@ 3mk2 and the C @-@ 3mk2 , and the A @-@ 405 , a Chapel Console Organ . The company has a dedicated Church Advisory Team that provides a consultancy so that churches can choose the most appropriate instrument .
= = Speakers = =
= = = Tone cabinet = = =
The authorized loudspeaker enclosure to use with a console organ was the Hammond Tone Cabinet , which housed an external amplifier and speaker in a box . The cabinet carried a balanced mono signal along with the necessary mains power directly from the organ , using a six @-@ pin cable . Spinet organs contained a built @-@ in power amplifier and loudspeakers , and so did not require a tone cabinet .
The tone cabinet was originally the only method of adding reverb to a Hammond organ ; reverb was not fitted to older organs . The most commercially successful tone cabinets were probably the PR series , particularly the 40 @-@ watt PR40 .
= = = Leslie speaker = = =
Many players prefer to play the Hammond through a rotating speaker cabinet known , after several name changes , as a Leslie speaker , after its inventor Donald J. Leslie . The Leslie system is an integrated speaker / amplifier combination in which sound is emitted by a rotating horn over a stationary treble compression driver , and a rotating baffle beneath a stationary bass woofer . This creates a characteristic sound because of the constantly changing pitch shifts that result from the Doppler effect created by the moving sound sources .
The Leslie was originally designed to mimic the complex tones and constantly shifting sources of sound emanating from a large group of ranks in a pipe organ . The effect varies depending on the speed of the rotors , which can be toggled between fast ( tremolo ) and slow ( chorale ) using a console or pedal switch , with the most distinctive effect occurring as the speaker rotation speed changes . The most popular Leslies were the 122 , which accepted a balanced signal suitable for console organs , and the 147 , which accepted an unbalanced signal and could be used for spinet organs with a suitable adapter . The Pro @-@ Line series of Leslies which were made to be portable for gigging bands using solid @-@ state amps were popular during the 1970s .
Leslie initially tried to sell his invention to Hammond , but Laurens Hammond was unimpressed and declined to purchase it . Hammond modified their interface connectors to be " Leslie @-@ proof " , but Leslie quickly engineered a workaround . The Leslie company was sold to CBS in 1965 and was finally bought by Hammond in 1980 . Hammond @-@ Suzuki acquired the rights to Leslie in 1992 ; the company currently markets a variety of speakers under this name . As well as faithful reissues of the original 122 speaker , the company announced in 2013 that they would start manufacturing a standalone Leslie simulator in a stomp box .
= = Tone generation = =
Although they are sometimes included in the category of electronic organs , the majority of Hammond organs are , strictly speaking , electric or electromechanical rather than electronic organs because the sound is produced by moving parts rather than electronic oscillators .
The basic component sound of a Hammond organ comes from a tonewheel . Each one rotates in front of an electromagnetic pickup . The variation in the magnetic field induces a small alternating current ( AC ) at a particular frequency , which represents a signal similar to a sine wave . When a key is pressed on the organ , it completes a circuit of nine electrical switches , which are linked to the drawbars . The position of the drawbars , combined with the switches selected by the key pressed , determines which tonewheels are allowed to sound . Every tonewheel is connected to a synchronous motor via a system of gears , which ensures that each note remains at a constant relative pitch to every other . The combined signal from all depressed keys and pedals is fed through to the vibrato system , which is driven by a metal scanner . As the scanner rotates around a set of pickups , it changes the pitch of the overall sound slightly . From here , the sound is sent to the main amplifier , and on to the audio speakers .
The Hammond organ makes technical compromises in the notes it generates . Rather than produce harmonics that are exact multiples of the fundamental as in equal temperament , it uses the nearest @-@ available frequencies generated by the tonewheels . The only guaranteed frequency for a Hammond 's tuning is concert A at 440 Hz .
Crosstalk or leakage occurs when the instrument 's magnetic pickups receive the signal from rotating metal tonewheels other than those selected by the organist . Hammond considered crosstalk a defect that required correcting , and in 1963 introduced a new level of resistor – capacitor ( R / C ) filtering to greatly reduce this crosstalk , along with 50 – 60 Hz mains hum . However , the sound of tonewheel crosstalk is now considered part of the signature of the Hammond organ , to the extent that modern digital clones explicitly emulate it .
Some Hammond organs have an audible pop or click when a key is pressed . Originally , key click was considered a design defect and Hammond worked to eliminate or at least reduce it with equalization filters . However , many performers liked the percussive effect , and it has been accepted as part of the classic sound . Hammond research and development engineer Alan Young said " the professionals who were playing popular music [ liked ] that the attack was so prominent . And they objected when it was eliminated . "
= = Clones and emulation devices = =
The original Hammond organ was never designed to be transported regularly . A Hammond B @-@ 3 organ , bench , and pedalboard weighs 425 pounds ( 193 kg ) . This weight , combined with that of a Leslie speaker , makes the instrument cumbersome and difficult to move between venues . Consequently , there has been a demand for a more portable , reliable way of generating the same sound . Electronic and digital keyboards that imitate the sound of the Hammond are often referred to as " clonewheel organs " .
The first attempts to electronically copy a Hammond appeared in the 1970s , including the Roland VK @-@ 1 and VK @-@ 9 , the Yamaha YP45D and the Crumar Organiser . The Korg CX @-@ 3 ( single manual ) and BX @-@ 3 ( dual manual ) were the first lightweight organs to produce a comparable sound to the original . Sound on Sound 's Gordon Reid said that the CX @-@ 3 " came close to emulating the true depth and passion of a vintage Hammond , " particularly when played through a Leslie speaker .
The Roland VK @-@ 7 , introduced in 1997 , attempted to emulate the sound of a Hammond using digital signal processing technology . An updated version , the VK @-@ 8 , which appeared in 2002 , also provided emulations of other vintage keyboards and provided a connector for a Leslie . Clavia introduced the Nord Electro in 2001 ; this used buttons to emulate the physical action of pulling or pushing a drawbar , with an LED graph indicating its current state . Clavia has released several updated versions of the Electro since then , and introduced the Nord Stage with the same technology . The Nord C2D was Clavia 's first organ with real drawbars . Diversi , founded by former Hammond @-@ Suzuki sales rep Tom Tuson in 2003 , has specialised in Hammond clones , and featured a notable endorsement from Joey DeFrancesco .
The Hammond organ has also been emulated in software . The most prominent emulator in this field has been the Native Instruments B4 series , which has been praised for its attention to detail and choice of features . Emagic ( now part of Apple ) has also produced a software emulation , the EVB3 . This has led to a Hammond organ module with all controls and features of the original instrument in the Logic Pro audio production suite .
= = Notable users = =
Early customers of the Hammond included Dr. Albert Schweitzer , Henry Ford , Eleanor Roosevelt and George Gershwin . The instrument was not initially favored by classical organ purists , because the tones of two notes an octave apart were in exact synchronization , as opposed to the slight variation present on a pipe organ . However , the instrument did gradually become popular with jazz players . One of the first performers to use the Hammond organ was Ethel Smith , who was known as the " first lady of the Hammond Organ " . Fats Waller and Count Basie also started using the Hammond . Organist John Medeski thinks the Hammond became " the poor man 's big band " , but because of that , it became more economical to book organ trios .
Jimmy Smith began to play Hammond regularly in the 1950s , particularly in his sessions for the Blue Note label between 1956 and 1963 . He eschewed a bass player , and played all the bass parts himself using the pedals , generally using a walking bassline on the pedals in combination with percussive left hand chords . His trio format , composed of organ , guitar and drums , became internationally famous following an appearance at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1957 . Medeski says musicians " were inspired when they heard Jimmy Smith 's records . " " Brother " Jack McDuff switched from piano to Hammond in 1959 , and toured regularly throughout the 1960s and 70s . Keith Emerson was inspired to take up the Hammond by hearing McDuff 's arrangement of " Rock Candy " .
Booker T Jones is cited as being the bridge from rhythm and blues to rock . British organist James Taylor said the Hammond " became popular [ in the UK ] when people such as Booker T & The MGs and artists on the Stax Records label came over to London and played gigs . " Matthew Fisher first encountered the Hammond in 1966 having heard the Small Faces ' Ian McLagan playing one . When Fisher asked if he could play it , McLagan told him " They 're yelling out for Hammond players ; why don 't you go out and buy one for yourself ? " Fisher went on to play the organ lines on Procol Harum 's A Whiter Shade Of Pale , which topped the UK charts in the summer of 1967 . Steve Winwood started his musical career with the Spencer Davis Group playing guitar and piano , but he switched to Hammond when he hired one to record " Gimme Some Lovin ' " .
Gregg Allman became interested in the Hammond after Mike Finnigan had introduced him to Jimmy Smith 's music , and started to write material with it . His brother Duane specifically requested he play the instrument when forming the Allman Brothers Band , and he was presented with a brand new B @-@ 3 and Leslie 122RV upon joining . Allman recalls the instrument was cumbersome to transport , particularly on flights of stairs , which often required the whole band 's assistance . Author Frank Moriarty considers Allman 's Hammond playing a vital ingredient of the band 's sound .
Deep Purple 's Jon Lord became inspired to play the Hammond after hearing Jimmy Smith 's " Walk on the Wild Side " . He modified his Hammond so it could be played through a Marshall stack to get a growling , overdriven sound , which became known as his trademark and he is strongly identified with it . This organ was later acquired by Joey DeFrancesco . Van der Graaf Generator 's Hugh Banton modified his Hammond E @-@ 100 extensively with customised electronics , including the ability to put effects such as distortion on one manual but not the other , and rewiring the motor . The modifications created , in Banton 's own words , " unimaginable sonic chaos . "
The Hammond was a key instrument in progressive rock music . Author Edward Macan thinks this is because of its versatility , allowing both chords and lead lines to be played , and a choice between quiet and clean , and what Emerson described as a " tacky , aggressive , almost distorted , angry sound . " Emerson first found commercial success with the Nice , with whom he used and abused an L @-@ 100 , putting knives in the instrument , setting fire to it , playing it upside down , or riding it across stage in the manner of a horse . He continued to play the instrument in this manner alongside other keyboards in Emerson , Lake and Palmer . Other prominent Hammond organists in progressive rock include the Zombies ' and Argent 's Rod Argent , Yes 's Tony Kaye and Rick Wakeman , Focus 's Thijs van Leer , Uriah Heep 's Ken Hensley , Pink Floyd 's Rick Wright , Kansas 's Steve Walsh , and Genesis 's Tony Banks . Banks later claimed he only used the Hammond because a piano was impractical to transport to gigs .
Ska and reggae music made frequent use of the Hammond throughout the 1960s and ' 70s . Junior Marvin started to play the instrument after hearing Booker T & The MGs ' " Green Onions " , although he complained about its weight . Winston Wright was regarded in the music scene of Jamaica as one of the best organ players , and used the Hammond when performing live with Toots and the Maytals , as well as playing it on sessions with Lee " Scratch " Perry , Jimmy Cliff and Gregory Isaacs . Tyrone Downie , best known as Bob Marley and the Wailers ' keyboard player , made prominent use of the Hammond on " No Woman , No Cry " , as recorded at the Lyceum Theatre , London , for the album Live !
The Hammond organ was perceived as outdated by the late 1970s , particularly in the UK , where it was often used to perform pop songs in social clubs . Punk and New Wave bands tended to prefer second @-@ hand combo organs from the 1960s , or use no keyboards at all . Other groups started taking advantage of cheaper and more portable synthesizers that were starting to come onto the market . The Stranglers ' Dave Greenfield was an exception to this , and used a Hammond onstage during the band 's early career . Andy Thompson , better known for being an aficionado of the Mellotron , stated that " the Hammond never really went away . There are a lot of studios that have had a B @-@ 3 or C @-@ 3 sitting away in there since the 70s . " The instrument underwent a brief renaissance in the 1980s with the mod revival movement . Taylor played the Hammond through the 1980s , first with the Prisoners and later with the James Taylor Quartet . The sound of the Hammond has appeared in hip @-@ hop music , albeit mostly via samples . A significant use is the Beastie Boys ' 1992 single " So What 'cha Want " , which features a Hammond mixed into the foreground ( the instrument was recorded live rather than being sampled ) .
Jazz musicians continued to use Hammond organs into the 21st century . Barbara Dennerlein has received critical acclaim for her performances on the Hammond , particularly her use of the bass pedals , and has modified the instrument to include samplers triggered by the pedals . Joey DeFrancesco embraced the instrument during the 1990s , and later collaborated with Jimmy Smith . He is positive about the future of the Hammond organ , saying " Everybody loves it . It makes you feel good ... I think it 's bigger now than ever . " Grammy @-@ winning jazz keyboardist Cory Henry learned to play the Hammond organ at age two and used it on 2016 's The Revival .
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= The Way We Was =
" The Way We Was " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 31 , 1991 . In the episode , Marge tells the story of how she and Homer first met and fell in love . Flashing back to 1974 , we see how Homer falls in love with Marge in high school and tries to get close to her by enlisting her as his French tutor . After several hours of verb conjugation , Marge falls for Homer too , only to become enraged when he admits that he is not a French student . Marge rejects Homer 's invitation to the prom and goes with Artie Ziff . Artie turns out to be a terrible date and Marge realizes that it is Homer she really wants .
The episode was written by Al Jean , Mike Reiss , and Sam Simon , and directed by David Silverman . It was the first flashback episode of The Simpsons . Jon Lovitz guest starred in it as Artie Ziff . The episode features cultural references to songs such as " The Joker " and " ( They Long to Be ) Close to You " , and the television series Siskel & Ebert & the Movies . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 6 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
When the Simpsons ' television breaks down , Marge tells her children how she and Homer first met . The year is 1974 and Homer and Marge are both in their senior year of high school . Unlike Homer , Marge is a responsible student , but after she burns a bra at a feminist rally , she is sent to detention . Homer is also sent to detention along with his best friend Barney for smoking in the restroom . When Homer sees Marge for the first time as she enters the detention room , he instantly falls in love . Despite his father Abraham 's warning that he is wasting his time , Homer is determined to win Marge 's heart .
To impress Marge , Homer joins the debate team , of which Marge is a member . At a debate , Homer finds out that Marge is more interested in the more articulate Artie Ziff . Therefore , Homer pretends to be a French student so that he can be tutored by Marge and when Homer asks Marge to the senior prom she accepts . However , when Homer confesses that he is not really a French student , Marge is furious at him for making her lose sleep for a debate tournament the next morning . She ultimately loses to Artie , who asks her to be his partner to the prom ; she agrees . Homer does not realize that Marge has changed her plans , and so he shows up at her house for prom night to pick her up . Moments later Artie shows up , causing confusion to Marge 's family , and a despondent Homer leaves . Undaunted , he decides to go to the prom alone .
At the prom , Artie and Marge are voted prom king and queen , and the two share the first dance . Meanwhile , Homer , heartbroken , leaves and cries in the hallway . After the prom , Artie tries to get romantic with Marge in the backseat of his car : after he pushes his luck too far , she slaps him and demands to be taken home . Meanwhile , Homer 's limousine time has run out , and without any money , he decides to walk home . Along the way Marge and Artie pass by Homer . After Artie drops Marge off at her house , she returns in her car to pick up Homer , realizing that he was the man for her all along . Homer manages to fix up the strap of Marge 's dress with the corsage that he got her after Artie ruined it from his earlier attempt .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Al Jean , Mike Reiss , and Sam Simon , and directed by David Silverman . Jon Lovitz guest starred as Artie . It was his first guest appearance on The Simpsons , but he has appeared many times since . Artie 's departing line to Marge after he drops her off was supposed to be " Good night . I 'm Artie Ziff ! " , but short on time , the editors shortened it to just " Good night ? " .
Characters making their first appearance on the show in this episode are Wiseguy , Artie , Rainier Wolfcastle ( as the fictional action hero McBain ) , Principal Dondelinger , and Marge ’ s father . Artie 's appearance and body language is based on a man Silverman went to high school with named Mark Eisenberg . Silverman said that when he directed the episode , he went through his high school yearbook for character ideas and designs , because Silverman went to high school in the period that the episode is parodying . Wolfcastle 's voice and design was based on actor Arnold Schwarzenegger . The writers actually invented Wolfcastle for the episode " Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " , before " The Way We Was " went into production , but since " The Way We Was " aired before it is still considered his first appearance . The character was originally named McBain , after the film franchise that he stars in . When the film McBain was released in 1991 , after the episode had aired , the films ' producers refused to allow the show to use the name in future episodes , so the name Rainier Wolfcastle , to represent the actor 's real name , was created to use instead . Later , the use of the name McBain returned to the show .
" The Way We Was " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 31 , 1991 . The episode was , together with " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " , selected for release in a video collection titled The Best of The Simpsons , that was released May 26 , 1998 . The episode was also included on The Simpsons season two DVD set , which was released on August 6 , 2002 . Jean , Reiss , Silverman , Matt Groening , and James L. Brooks participated in the DVD 's audio commentary . An action figure set based on the episode was released by Winning Moves . It featured the characters Homer , Marge , Artie , Barney , Grampa , Patty , and Selma , all in their flashback designs . In April 2002 , as part of an EB Games exclusive , action figures of Marge and Homer in their prom outfits were released by Playmates Toys . An action figure of Artie was also released in June 2004 as part of the wave sixteen release of the World of Springfield series of action figures by Playmates Toys .
= = Cultural references = =
The television show that the Simpson family watches at the beginning of the episode , in which the two reviewers discuss the latest McBain film , is a parody of the American television series Siskel & Ebert & the Movies . In the flashback sequence , Homer is seen singing along to the 1973 song " The Joker " by the Steve Miller Band while driving to school . Pink Floyd and Led Zeppelin posters hang on the wall of Homer 's 1974 bedroom . The 1970 song " ( They Long to Be ) Close to You " by The Carpenters is heard when Homer sees Marge for the first time . Homer eats a bucket of Shakespeare Fried Chicken when he reveals his feelings towards Marge to Grampa . At the debate , Homer disagrees about the idea of lowering the United States national speed limit to 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) , arguing that " Sure , it 'll save a few lives , but millions will be late ! " This is a reference to the National Maximum Speed Law provision of the 1974 Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act that prohibited speed limits higher than 55 mph . Barney asks a girl named Estelle if she wants to go to the prom with him , but she tells him that she would not go to the prom with him even if he were American actor Elliott Gould . Artie says he can think of a dozen highly cogent arguments to why Marge should accept his prom offer , one of which is from a Time magazine titled " America 's Love Affair with the Prom : Even wallflowers can look forward to one date a year , " a reference to the American magazine Time . Songs played in the episode include " The Streak " by Ray Stevens , " Goodbye Yellow Brick Road " by Elton John , " Colour My World " by Chicago , " Pick Up the Pieces " by Average White Band , and " The Hustle " by Van McCoy .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Way We Was " finished sixteenth in the ratings for the week of January 28 – February 3 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 6 , equivalent to 14 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " A superb episode . Some colorful background for Homer and Marge ( and a glimpse of Homer and Barney 's schooldays ) plus our introduction to the world of the McBain films . Excellent . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson thought the episode was a " fine program " , and added that Lovitz made Artie " amusingly annoying " . Jacobson thought the episode captured the " tone of the mid @-@ Seventies with warmth and insight " , and the courtship " seemed charming but not sappy , and the show worked well overall . " Jacobson 's favorite line of the episode was Grampa 's advice to Homer about Marge , " Oh , son , don ’ t overreach ! Go for the dented car , the dead @-@ end job , the less attractive girl ! " When Homer arrives at the Bouvier house to pick up Marge for the prom , Selma tells Patty " Marge 's dates get homelier all the time , " to which Patty replies " That 's what you get when you don 't put out . " Dawn Taylor of The DVD Journal thought these were the best lines of the episode . IGN ranked Lovitz as the eighth best guest star in the show 's history .
In his book Drawn to Television – Prime @-@ time Animation from the Flintstones to Family Guy , Keith Booker wrote : " The episode details in a rather sentimental fashion the early struggles of the irresponsible Homer to support his new family [ ... ] Such background episodes add an extra dimension to the portrayal of the animated Simpson family , making them seem oddly real and adding weight to their status as a family with a long history together . "
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= Apiary Laboratory =
The Apiary Laboratory , more often referred to as the Apiary , is a research laboratory at the University of Massachusetts Amherst . Originally built for the study of honey bees and apiculture , today it is primarily used to study native pollinator species and the chemicals and pathogens impacting their populations . This academic building is unique in that it is credited as being the first in the United States to be erected exclusively for the teaching of beekeeping .
Prior to the construction of the building , the Massachusetts Agricultural College had maintained a beekeeping program for a number of years as one of the first land @-@ grant agricultural colleges to teach the subject in the United States . In time , techniques in apiculture progressed , leaving beekeeping as no longer simply a hobby , but rather a viable agricultural business . The college 's program had remained limited to a single short @-@ course for a number of years but was expanded however , when in 1911 , a bill passed establishing the office of " state apiary inspector " . Dr. Burton N. Gates , the man first appointed to this position was also the college beekeeping lecturer at the time , and would oversee the expansion of the program as an asset to the college and a service to the state in the years to come . Construction began on the apiary in February 1911 and with its completion in June of the following year for a total cost of $ 3000 . At the time the building contained a laboratory , a wintering cellar , a wood workshop , an office with a comprehensive library of apicultural books , honey and wax extraction rooms and a two @-@ person apartment used by student tenants . It was also the first structure built in the college orchard , a section of campus now known as the Central housing area .
In the time that Gates was there , research focused mainly on honey production , brood diseases , wax extraction and horticultural pollination in the cucumber and cranberry industries . From 1913 to 1920 the laboratory was also operated by a superintendent , John L. Byard , hired on by Gates to maintain the facilities from day to day as well as perform wax extractions and other services to beekeepers from around the state . Following Gates ' resignation in 1918 , the school ceased to offer its summer beekeeping school , many of its state extension services , and the college went through several different professors before hiring Frank R. Shaw as the new professor of beekeeping in 1931 . With Shaw 's retirement in 1969 , the laboratory was rededicated to urban and medical entomology research , with the former beekeeping program falling into relative obscurity .
At the present time the apiary is used exclusively for research on native pollinator decline and ecology , with the last beekeeping classes taught at the university nearly a decade ago . The building is currently on the university 's " defer and do not reinvest list " , suggesting that it will ultimately be dismantled at some point in the near future .
= = History = =
= = = Origins of the beekeeping program = = =
Since the early days of its founding as the Massachusetts Agricultural College , UMass Amherst has maintained apiculture and ecological studies of bees throughout much of its history . In 1870 the first short courses on beekeeping were taught at the college by Alonzo Bradley Esq . , an expert on honeybee behavior and the president of the Massachusetts Beekeepers ' Association at the time . These lectures were given for several of the years that followed and appear to be " the first instruction in the subject given in any agricultural college in this country " as indicated by H.T. Fernald in his account of the college 's history . Only two decades earlier western Massachusetts had been home to Lorenzo Langstroth , a man considered to be the father of modern apiculture . Although he had spent much of his time developing his innovative hive ( now considered an international standard ) in Philadelphia , in 1852 he moved to Greenfield , Massachusetts to recover from illness and further his study of honeybee behavior . In the following year he published his widely acclaimed primer , The Hive and the Honey @-@ Bee at the Hopkins , Bridgman & Co. press of Northampton . ; this book , having gone through several editions since , has become a mainstay of American beekeeping literature . One of Langstroth 's own apprentices , James Fitts Wood , would go on to serve as the lecturer of beekeeping at the agricultural college for several years . During this time he continued to make significant contributions in queen @-@ rearing and became known in the apicultural community for developing a strain of notably docile Italian honeybees . Despite his success in academia and apiculture , Wood unfortunately would not live to see the establishment of the college apiary , he died after a period serious illness on February 15 , 1905 at the age of 44 .
= = = Construction of the apiary = = =
The idea of a campus apiary was first conceived for the sole purpose of pollinating the campus orchard . However , by the time the facilities had been built , President Kenyon L. Butterfield and his administration had seen and realized a much greater purpose and potential in it than was previously considered . Around this time beekeeping was considered a new business venture which had otherwise been thought of as a hobby or side business of farmers for many decades prior .
Just as much of the pioneer work in beekeeping originated in New England , Massachusetts was one of the first states to create a " State Inspector of Apiaries . " The man who first led UMass ’ s beekeeping program , a Dr. Burton N. Gates , was also the first to fill this position . As the apiary ’ s first professor , he was originally hired part @-@ time to give a series of lectures as a guest speaker during the spring semester of 1906 . This would continue until 1910 when the administration hired him as a permanent faculty member , and concurrently built the new apicultural laboratory , equipped with all modern amenities of its time . They saw the opportunity they had , to further research on the diseases and ecology of the honey bee , something that up to that point had never been pursued so thoroughly by a public organization of higher education .
In 1911 , ground was broken on the site of the " old creamery building " at the foot of Mount Pleasant for the new apiary building and yards , and by June of the following year the building had been completed for a total cost of $ 3000 . At the time of its completion , the grounds contained several species of native nectar @-@ yielding flowers and were home to fifty bee colonies of multiple races . The building itself contained wax and honey extraction rooms , a wintering cellar , an office with an extensive library of beekeeping books , a wood workshop , a laboratory and a two @-@ person apartment occupied by student caretakers .
As the apiary became a research laboratory , classroom and an extension service to the state , the demand increased for these services and thus it became necessary to maintain additional hives . It is for these reasons that , in 1913 , Dr. Gates hired John L. Byard as superintendent of the apiary . Some of Byard 's responsibilities included performing wax extractions , running the college 's apicultural exhibit at fairs and maintaining the hive yard from day to day .
He would continue to maintain the building , the equipment and the hives until his death in 1920 ; professors Henry T. Fernald and Arthur I. Bourne would continue his work until his successor arrived the following year . Gates had been promoted from an assistant to an associate professor in 1915 , and had continued to work both as a lecturer and as the apiarist of the experimental station . From 1913 to 1914 he was made president of the National Beekeepers ' Association , twice hosting conventions in Amherst concluding the college 's winter and spring sessions of the college beekeeping school . However , in 1918 he left Amherst for a professorship at the Ontario Agricultural College in Guelph , leaving his former position open for the two years that followed . Gates ' and Byard 's duties would be taken up by several different people in the next decade . From 1921 to 1923 all beekeeping and apiology work at the Experimental Station was taken up by Professor Norman Phillips , who soon resigned for a job at a commercial apiary . He was replaced by Professor Morton H. Cassidy , an alumnus of the college , who stayed for 3 more years but ultimately had to resign due to his severe asthma . In 1926 , a Mr. Clayton L. Farrar was made instructor of beekeeping . Farrar , a graduate of Kansas Agricultural College , also performed extensive work on several entomology projects as a research assistant before leaving in 1931 to work at a Federal laboratory .
= = = Contemporary history = = =
In the span of only a decade the apiary laboratory had been run by 4 different faculty members until finally , in 1931 , a new and more permanent apiology instructor , Frank R. Shaw , was hired . Shaw , a student at the time , had previously been hired on in 1930 as assistant entomologist to the college Experimental Station , but with the resignation of Farrar , his responsibilities would shift as he began to teach courses in beekeeping and pollinator ecology . In 1935 , he was made an " Instructor in Economic Entomology and Beekeeping " while concurrently finishing his Ph.D. of entomology at Cornell University . In 1944 , Shaw left to serve in the Second World War . Eventually , he would be promoted from being an instructor to an assistant professor in 1954 . UMass would continue to offer beekeeping courses and maintain a beekeeping section of the entomology department right up through the 1970s , however it appears there was never another superintendent hired to replace Byard and much of the extension work to state beekeepers seems to have ceased . Professor Shaw went on to coauthor a comprehensive beekeeping and ecology textbook with UC Davis apiologist John Eckert . This textbook , intended to replace the beekeeping text of the same name by renowned apiculturalist E. F. Phillips , would be published for a total of seven editions from 1960 through 1977 . Shaw retired in 1969 at the age of 61 , he would be the first and last " Professor of Beekeeping " to do so as the position was abolished immediately after . Following his retirement , a student scholarship fund for the department of entomology was set up by the department in Shaw 's name .
From the late 1970s through the mid @-@ 1990s the laboratory was rededicated to medical and urban entomology , with Professor John Edman running projects on mosquitos as vectors and Professor Ron Prokopy focusing on orchard pest control . In 1982 , the wintering cellar in the basement of the lab was converted into laboratories , and the workshop was relocated to the garage adjacent to the building that was constructed that same year .
Since 2005 , the Apiary has housed part of the Laboratory of Medical Zoology ( LMZ ) under direction of Dr. Stephen Rich . LMZ uses the lab space for studies of ticks and mosquito vectors of infectious disease .
= = Research = =
The department of entomology has done several studies in apiculture , chemical ecology , horticultural pollination , and the behavior of honeybee and bumblebee colonies . Although some research was done in the apiary yards , the majority of data had to be collected with higher numbers of colonies at different experimental stations . Today the laboratory is used to conduct research on native pollinator decline for the Managed Pollinator Coordinated Agricultural Project .
= = = Selected publications = = =
Gates , Burton Noble ( 1908 ) . Bee Diseases in Massachusetts . Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station . OCLC 632090550 .
Ferrar , Clayton Leon ( 1931 ) . A measure of some factors affecting the development of the bee colony . Massachusetts State College . OCLC 14982766 .
Shaw , Frank Robert ( 1938 ) . Bees for the beginner ( in Massachusetts ) . Amherst , MA : Massachusetts State College Extension Service . OCLC 18718351 .
Savos , Milton George ( 1954 ) . A study of some of the physical factors influencing the sugar concentration of nectar . Amherst , MA : University of Massachusetts . OCLC 15183228 .
Sutherland , Donald J. ( 1957 ) . The effect of certain modern pesticides on Apis mellifera L. and Bombus spp . Amherst , MA : University of Massachusetts . OCLC 15187508 .
Lupien , John R. ( 1960 ) . The effects of Sevin , alone and in fungicidal combinations , and DDT on the honey bee , Apis mellifera L. Amherst , MA : University of Massachusetts . OCLC 14960318 .
Grahame , Robert Edward ( 1967 ) . The comparative toxicity of selected organic phosphate and carbamate insecticides to the honey bee . Amherst , MA : University of Massachusetts . OCLC 15037242 .
Pan , Zhiliang ( 1997 ) . The culture of bee forage crops . Amherst , MA : University of Massachusetts Amherst . OCLC 39669471 .
= = Coursework = =
In the decade following the building 's construction , multiple courses were taught in apiculture and honeybee behavior . In 1911 , there were 20 college @-@ owned bee colonies as well as several lent by the faculty , and a five course program taught in the summer semester at the college . Within five years the college had assembled 50 hives and an extensive collection of apicultural books and equipment . In the year that followed , a summer beekeeping school was held , composed of five courses taught in previous years with the addition of a class in horticulture :
1 . Practical beekeeping . Lectures : laboratory practice in the general work of the beekeeper ; beekeeping equipment , practices in the preparation of materials , location of the apiary ; commencing with bees , handling of bees , practice in beeyard procedure ; spring manipulation , fall preparation , wintering ; extracted honey production ; bee diseases and their treatment , apiary sanitation ; making increase , elements of queen rearing , etc .
Burton N. Gates , Associate Professor of Beekeeping
John L. Byard , Superintendent of the Apiary
2 . Life of the honeybee . Lectures .
Henry T. Fernald , Professor of Entomology
3 . Special problems of the beekeeper . Lectures : demonstrations in requeening , the races of bees , the introduction of queens ; swarming and handling swarms , comb honey production , enemies of bees .
James B. Paige , Professor of Veterinary Science
4 . Crops foraged by bees . Lectures : field excursions .
William P. Brooks , Director of the Experiment Station
5 . The relation of bees to the pollination of plants , including coloration , odor , nectar secretion . Lectures : laboratory work in blossom structure and dissection .
A. Vincent Osmun , Associate Professor of Botany
6 . Bees in horticultural practices ; fruit production , market gardening , cranberry culture and greenhouse cucumber growing ; beekeeping as affected by spraying practices . Lectures : field work .
Walter W. Chenoweth , Associate Professor of Pomology
From the 1920s through the 1970s the laboratory was used mainly for faculty and graduate research , with two courses offered to undergraduate students in introductory and advanced beekeeping as well as a single course offered to the public in the summers . There was a brief time in the spring semesters of 2001 and 2002 that an introductory course in beekeeping was offered , however , with the reorganization of the department of entomology these classes have since ceased .
= = Architecture and landscape = =
Although now encompassed by trees and other academic buildings , the apiary was surrounded by fields and orchards at the time of its construction . Early photographs show the hive yard was originally 2 acres in size , extending several hundred feet south of the property 's present @-@ day boundaries in what has since been developed into a residential neighborhood . The building itself was built into the side of Mount Pleasant , with the entire east side of its basement completely covered by the ground . This " banked barn " design was likely used to allow pallets of beehives to be transported with ease from the yards to the wintering cellar , while alternatively making the temperature of the building more easily controlled for their storage .
The building currently has two dormers on opposite sides of the roof , but neither seems to be part of the original structure . Older photos as late as 1918 show the roof without any windows implying they were added at some later date . Being the building 's most prominent design feature , the Gambrel roof would later influence Louis Warren Ross , architect and an alumnus of the college , in his design of the Butterfield dormitory which , for a time , was the only other building on the hill . Since the Apiary and Butterfield Hall are the only two buildings on campus to exhibit this architectural motif , it seems likely that this was incorporated in the latter 's design to compliment the former .
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= Requiem for a Species =
Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010 non @-@ fiction book by Australian academic Clive Hamilton which explores climate change denial and its implications . It argues that climate change will bring about large @-@ scale , harmful consequences for habitability for life on Earth including humans , which it is too late to prevent . Hamilton explores why politicians , corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality . He invokes a variety of explanations , including wishful thinking , ideology , consumer culture and active lobbying by the fossil fuel industry . The book builds on the author 's fifteen @-@ year prior history of writing about these subjects , with previous books including Growth Fetish and Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change .
Requiem for a Species has been reviewed in Resurgence magazine , Socialist Review , Sydney Morning Herald , The Age , The Common Review , and Times Higher Education , which named it " Book of the Week " . Extracts of the book have appeared in The Guardian and Geographical magazine . The book won a 2010 Queensland Premier 's Literary Award .
= = Themes = =
Hamilton points out that there have been many reports and books over the years explaining the climate change problem and just how ominous the future looks for humanity . He says Requiem for a Species is primarily about why those warnings have been ignored .
Hamilton considers that sometimes an inconvenient truth may be too difficult to bear :
Sometimes facing up to the truth is just too hard . When the facts are distressing it is easier to reframe or ignore them . Around the world only a few have truly faced up to the facts about global warming ... It 's the same with our own deaths ; we all " accept " that we will die , but it is only when our death is imminent that we confront the true meaning of our mortality .
The most immediate reason for the failure to act on global warming is seen to be the " sustained and often ruthless exercise of political power by the corporations who stand to lose from a shift to low- and zero @-@ carbon energy systems " . Hamilton cites numerous journalists and authors who have documented the influence of large companies such as ExxonMobil , Rio Tinto Group and General Motors . Hamilton makes his argument in three stages :
Firstly , he reviews the evidence about how serious the situation is already and how much worse it will get . Secondly , he examines the roots of denial , both in terms of resistance to the evidence and in relation to the actors and agencies motivated to deny climate change . Lastly , he looks at some future scenarios and explains what people should do .
Hamilton suggests that the foundations of climate change denial lie in the reaction of American conservatism to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 . He argues that as the " red menace " receded , conservatives who had put energy into opposing communism sought other outlets . Hamilton contends that the conservative backlash against climate science was led by three prominent physicists -- Frederick Seitz , Robert Jastrow , and William Nierenberg . In 1984 Seitz , Jastrow and Nierenberg founded the George C. Marshall Institute , and in the 1990s the Marshall Institute 's main activity was attacking climate science .
When describing climate science , Hamilton says that official numbers published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) are highly cautious , and so the real effects of climate change will likely be even more severe . His conclusion is that it will not be possible to stabilise emissions :
... even with the most optimistic set of assumptions -- the ending of deforestation , a halving of emissions associated with food production , global emissions peaking in 2020 and then falling by 3 per cent a year for a few decades -- we have no chance of preventing emissions rising well above a number of critical tipping points that will spark uncontrollable climate change . The Earth 's climate would enter a chaotic era lasting thousands of years before natural processes eventually establish some sort of equilibrium . Whether human beings would still be a force on the planet , or even survive , is a moot point . One thing seems certain : there will be far fewer of us .
In terms of Australia , Hamilton says that " Australians in 2050 will be living in a nation transformed by a changing climate , with widespread doubt over whether we will make it to the end of the century in a land that is recognisably Australian " .
= = Reception = =
Michael Lynn in The Common Review says that Requiem for a Species explores the gulf between acknowledgment and acceptance of climate change . Lynn explains that the gulf has two main origins and no easy solution :
Hamilton ... argues that the gulf has two primary origins : the enormity of its consequences and the way it challenges how we as individuals and as societies have constructed our identities over the past three centuries . In doing so , he suggests that meeting the challenge of climate change requires far more than implementing the right policies and making minor adjustments in our lifestyles . Instead , it implies remaking our psyches and societies on a scale unseen since the dawn of the modern age .
The Times Higher Education listed Requiem for a Species as " Book of the week " for 3 June 2010 . Steven Yearley 's review calls it a " provocative and sobering book " . He says the heart of the book are the many explanations that Hamilton puts forward for the everyday , regular denial of the danger of changing climate . Yearley says this is also the most frustrating aspect of Requiem for a Species , because Hamilton proposes so many different explanations but does not make their relative significance clear .
David Shearman , in a review for Doctors for the Environment Australia , says that " Clive Hamilton is one of Australia 's most notable public intellectuals , his work is careful and balanced , he presents the facts as they are and has written a book which is uncomfortable for all " . According to Shearman , Hamilton 's treatment of the topic of denial is one of the best available .
Mike Hulme , in Resurgence magazine , agrees with the " consumption fetish " and " spiritual malaise " of humanity that Hamilton describes . But , according to Hulme , Hamilton has underestimated the " innovative and creative potential of collective humanity " and he has put too much faith in the infallibility of science 's predictions about future climate risks . Hulme believes that Hamilton " is placing too much weight on the foresight of science to provide his desired revolution , rather than calling for it more honestly and directly through political , psychological or spiritual engagement " .
Kelsey Munro reviewed the book in the Sydney Morning Herald and The Age , suggesting that it is pessimistic and does not present any false hope . But he says pessimism is not the same thing as fatalism , and Hamilton believes there is still an urgent need for government intervention to avoid worst @-@ case scenarios by reducing emissions . Munro also points out that some eminent climate scientists , like Princeton University 's Michael Oppenheimer , remain optimistic that humanity will act before it is too late .
Camilla Royle reviewed Requiem for a Species in Socialist Review and recommends it for those who want to get a clearer idea of climate change science . She says that Hamilton is understandably angry at the corporate lobbyists who have encouraged climate change denial . Royle suggests that Hamilton accepts that " we should at least try to do something about climate change " , but he " doesn 't give much idea of what that something is " .
There was a book launch for Requiem for a Species on 24 March 2010 at The University of Queensland and another on 29 March 2010 at the Australian National University ( ANU ) . An extract of the book appeared in The Guardian on 16 April 2010 . Geographical magazine published another extract in August 2010 . The book won the 2010 " Queensland Premier 's Literary Award for a work Advancing Public Debate " .
= = Author = =
At the time of publication , Clive Hamilton was Professor of Public Ethics at the Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics ( CAPPE ) at Australia . Before taking up his position at CAPPE , he was executive director and founder of The Australia Institute , a forward @-@ looking think tank .
= = Publishing information = =
Hamilton , Clive ( 2010 ) . Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change . Earthscan . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84971 @-@ 081 @-@ 7 .
The book is available as an eBook document as well as a paper publication .
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= The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe =
" The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " is an episode of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . First broadcast on BBC One on 25 December 2011 , it is the seventh Christmas special since the show 's revival in 2005 . It was written by Steven Moffat and directed by Farren Blackburn . Internationally , the special was shown on BBC America in the United States and on Space in Canada the same day as the British broadcast , with ABC1 in Australia showing it one day later .
In the special , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) is the caretaker of recently widowed Madge Arwell ( Claire Skinner ) and her children Lily ( Holly Earl ) and Cyril ( Maurice Cole ) during their holiday vacation away from the London Blitz . The Doctor plans to take them on a treat to a snowy planet through a portal in a present he has placed under the Christmas tree , but Cyril opens it before Christmas and wanders through . While looking for him , the others learn that the trees of the planet are about to be melted down with acid rain for energy .
" The Doctor , the Widow , and the Wardrobe " marked the end of Piers Wenger 's tenure as executive producer , and the debut of Caroline Skinner in the same position . Adapting elements of C.S. Lewis 's children 's novel The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , Moffat intended the episode to be the most " Christmassy " of the Doctor Who Christmas specials , while Blackburn felt there was " magic " in it . It was filmed in September and October 2011 , with some scenes taking place in an authentic Lancaster bomber . " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " was watched by 10 @.@ 77 million viewers in the United Kingdom , making it the third most @-@ watched programme on Christmas Day . Critical reception to the episode was mixed , and some felt that the high @-@ profile comedic guest stars Bill Bailey and Arabella Weir were underused .
= = Plot = =
= = = Prequel = = =
On 6 December 2011 , a prequel to the episode was released online . The Doctor ( Matt Smith ) is seen on a spaceship holding a red button which , when he lets go , will cause the space ship to explode . While holding the button , he has phoned the TARDIS to speak to Amy Pond asking her to rescue him , although he does not have his co @-@ ordinates , Amy cannot fly the TARDIS , and she is not on the TARDIS . The Doctor wishes Amy a Merry Christmas before letting go of the button , and the spaceship explodes .
= = = Synopsis = = =
During the Christmas season of 1938 , an alien spacecraft approaches Earth ready to destroy it when it suddenly explodes courtesy of the Doctor who escapes the ship and then falls to Earth by rapidly donning an impact space suit , though in his haste , the helmet is put on backwards . On crashing to Earth , he is found by Madge Arwell ( Claire Skinner ) , wife of Reg ( Alexander Amstrong ) and mother of two children , Lily ( Holly Earl ) and Cyril ( Maurice Cole ) . She helps the Doctor to his TARDIS , and the Doctor promises to repay her for her kindness . Three years later , during World War II , Reg is reported missing in action when the Lancaster bomber he was piloting disappeared over the English Channel . Madge is told this via telegram just before Christmas , but decides not to tell her children yet , hoping to keep their spirits up through the holiday . Madge and the children evacuate London to a relative 's house in Dorset , where they are greeted by the Doctor , calling himself " the Caretaker " ; Madge does not recognise him from their previous encounter , as his face had been hidden by the backwards helmet .
The Doctor has prepared the house specially for the children and the holiday ; though the children are pleased , Madge privately explains about Reg 's death to the Doctor and insists he not overindulge the children . During the first night , Cyril is lured into opening a large glowing present under the Christmas tree , revealing a time portal to a snow @-@ covered forest . The Doctor shortly discovers Cyril 's absence and follows him with Lily ; they eventually track Cyril to a strange lighthouse @-@ like structure . Madge , finding her children missing , soon follows them into the forest , but is met by three miners in space suits from the planet Androzani Major ( Bill Bailey , Paul Bazely , and Arabella Weir ) . She holds them at gunpoint and is taken back to their excavation walker and told that the forest of the planet they are on is scheduled to be melted by acid rain within minutes , killing anything within it . At the lighthouse , Cyril is met by a humanoid creature made of wood ; it places a simple band of metal around his head like a crown . Lily and the Doctor arrive , followed by another wood creature , but find the creatures have rejected Cyril as he is " weak " , as they do the Doctor . The Doctor concludes that the life forces of the trees in the forest are trying to escape through a living creature , the crown acting as an interface .
The miners are teleported away safely before the rain starts after helping Madge locate her missing children . Madge , using the limited flying skills taught to her by Reg , directs the walker to the lighthouse and safely reunites with her children as the acid rain starts . The wood creatures identify her as " strong " , and the Doctor realises they consider her the " mothership " , able to carry the life force safely . Donning the band , Madge absorbs the life force of the forest , allowing her to direct the top of the lighthouse as an escape pod away from the acid rain and into the time vortex . To get them home , the Doctor directs her to think of memories of home , allowing Madge to revisit her fond memories of Reg , shown on screens within the pod . The Doctor urges her to continue to show even Reg 's death , revealing to Lily and Cyril what happened to their father . Soon , the escape pod safely leaves the time vortex , landing just outside the house in Dorset , and the life force of the forest have converted themselves to ethereal beings within the time vortex . The Doctor steps outside while Madge starts to explain Reg 's death to Lily and Cyril , but he returns to interrupt her and to tell her to come outside . There stands Reg and his Lancaster ; he had followed the bright light of the escape pod into the time vortex and came out safely along with the pod at Dorset . The family has a tearful reunion as the Doctor watches .
As Madge and her family turns to celebrate Christmas , the Doctor attempts to slip away , but Madge catches him , and as she sees the TARDIS realises that he is the man in the space suit from three years before . She insists on his staying for Christmas dinner , but the Doctor reveals he has other friends who believe he is dead . Madge convinces him to go to see them . The Doctor offers Madge his help if she ever needs it again . Later , the Doctor arrives outside the home of Amy ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory ( Arthur Darvill ) , two years since he left them there ( " The God Complex " ) . They invite him to have Christmas dinner , as they had always set him a place at the dinner table . Unseen by them , the Doctor wipes away a tear of joy .
= = Production = =
" The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " was written by head writer and executive producer Steven Moffat , who wanted it to be " the most Christmassy Christmas special ever " . He stated that " nothing is more fun to write " than the Doctor at Christmas , as he considered it " his kind of day . Everything 's bright and shiny , everybody 's having a laugh , and nobody minds if you wear a really stupid hat " . The story is partly inspired by The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe ( from The Chronicles of Narnia ) by C. S. Lewis . Moffat said that Doctor Who and the Narnia stories " come from the same impulse that children have of escaping to another world . "
The scene in which the Doctor is showing the Arwells around the house originally included a scene in a " haunted coal cellar " . The characters of Ven @-@ Garr and Billis are named after outgoing executive producers Piers Wenger and Beth Willis , both of whom served with Moffat . The three tree harvesters are from Androzani Major in the year 5345 , a planet which features in the serial The Caves of Androzani ( 1984 ) . The Doctor mentions the Forest of Cheem , which appeared in the Ninth Doctor episode " The End of the World " . He mentions that one of them fancied him , and during that episode one sacrificed her life for him .
" The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " marks the debut of Caroline Skinner and sees the end of Wenger as executive producers . The two had previously worked together ; Moffat commented it " will be the smoothest hand @-@ over we 've done " . The special was directed by Farren Blackburn , who had previously worked with Skinner on The Fades . Blackburn stated that he was " daunted , thrilled and excited at the same time " about the job and that it was " tough " . Blackburn 's favorite sequences to direct was the opening sequence and the scenes set on the winter planet , where he " really felt like [ he ] was making a movie " . When asked about the tone he wished to create , Blackburn replied ,
I would say there is a kind of mix . It goes through several worlds . It 's most definitely a classic action @-@ adventure but I think it merges into the Edwardian children 's story and there 's a sort of Tim Burton @-@ esque magic about it as well . I think there 's a magic throughout the episode , but there is an underlying suspense and tension and darkness to it as well . So I think it merges those three things with an awful lot of Christmas about it .
The British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) announced in September 2011 that production had started for the special and filming was due to be complete by mid October 2011 . Filming was disrupted on 30 September due to a 24 @-@ hour protest at BBC Wales because of compulsory redundancies . The opening sequence set in the corridors of a spaceship was filmed on 20 September 2011 at Uskmouth Power Station . As the conditions were very noisy , the crew had to wear ear protectors . Filming of some scenes involving Alexander Armstrong took place in and around the Lancaster bomber Just Jane at the Lincolnshire Aviation Heritage Centre on 3 October 2011 . External footage of the lighthouse building took place in the Forest of Dean , Gloucestershire . Smith stated , " It was a really tough shoot . Out in a forest , at night , and because there were children involved , some shooting schedules had to change radically , we 'd often have to shoot through , no breaks – you get lunch at midnight or something . "
= = = Casting = = =
Alexander Armstrong was a regular on the Doctor Who spin @-@ off The Sarah Jane Adventures as the voice of alien computer Mr Smith . Mr Smith appeared in Doctor Who in the crossover episodes " The Stolen Earth " and " Journey 's End " . Paul Kasey is credited as the Wooden Queen ; Kasey has appeared in many Doctor Who episodes as various monsters , including Ood Sigma in The End of Time , Nephew in " The Doctor 's Wife " , and a Cyberman in " Closing Time " . Doctor Who Magazine , in its preview of the special , refers to as Madge , Cyril and Lily as companions , with nine @-@ year @-@ old Maurice Cole 's Cyril Arwell defined as the youngest companion in the history of the franchise .
Arabella Weir previously appeared as an alternate incarnation of the Third Doctor in the Doctor Who Unbound audio drama Exile . Weir was " genuinely surprised and completely thrilled " to be offered the part . Bill Bailey was pleased to be given a comedic human character , explaining , " The fact that I am almost playing a human means the expressions are easier to do . If I was an Ood , with a face full of tentacles , that would have been harder to bring the funny " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 25 December 2011 , Christmas Day , on BBC One and on the same date on BBC America in the United States , and Space in Canada . In Australia it was shown on 26 December on ABC1 . In the UK , overnight ratings showed that the special was watched by 8 @.@ 9 million , coming in fourth for Christmas Day . The final consolidated rating was 10 @.@ 77 million viewers , ranking Doctor Who third for both Christmas Day and the entire week . On BBC 's online iPlayer , " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " was watched 434 @,@ 000 times by 6 January 2012 . The special received an Appreciation Index of 84 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The special has received generally good reviews . Dan Martin of The Guardian noted that it was " the smallest – yet perhaps the most enchanting – Christmas special we 've had to date " . Noting that it featured a typical " doomed spaceship " , the threat was not to the universe but one family 's happiness , and the only enemies were " some misguided and underdeveloped polluters " , he concluded that " Any other time of year I would gnaw holes all over this , but it 's Christmas , and today it felt perfect " . He felt that Skinner held the episode together and the appearance of Amy " made Christmas all the more special " . However , his " major niggle " was that everything was the Doctor 's fault , as he left the present while knowing that most children would open their presents before Christmas . Michael Hogan , writing for The Telegraph , gave the special four and a half out of five stars . He thought that the cast of comedians were " rather under @-@ utilised " but thought that Skinner " excelled " and Smith was also " brilliant " .
Neela Debnath of The Independent described the episode as " the perfect recipe for a Christmas special " , particularly praising the touching moments . In the same paper 's DVD review , Ben Walsh gave " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " four out of five stars , calling it " best Doctor Who Christmas Special for some years " . He commented that " the eco @-@ message is a bit laboured , but the central tragedy that powers this scatty episode is a poignant one " . Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern was pleased , despite noting that he had low expectations for the special . He particularly praised Smith 's performance , although he noted that the " heart @-@ warming " scene with Amy and Rory called for a " companions shake @-@ up " next series . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " an A- , feeling that it could stand proudly beside " A Christmas Carol " , the previous Christmas special .
IGN 's Matt Risley rated the episode an 8 out of 10 , calling it more " classically , indulgently , infectiously Christmassy " than the previous Christmas specials . He praised the production design and special effects teams for " creating some dazzlingly memorable special effects , and a winter wonderland that was both recognisably , fuzzily Christmas incarnate and unerringly , tensely alien " but thought the supporting cast " triumphed above and beyond " the plot devices . Like Hogan , Risley commented that the comedian cast of Bailey and Weir as well as Armstrong " felt lacking " . However , the next year , Risley wrote that he " got a little carried away with the festive funtimes ... On reflection , the overwhelming Christmassyness of it all was overcompensating for a pretty flimsy , frivolous plot . " Nick Setchfield of SFX gave the special four out of five stars , praising Smith 's acting and Blackburn 's Doctor Who directing debut as well as the special effects . However , he thought that the lack of a villain was an " interesting experiment , but maybe not ideal for Christmas Day " and Bailey and Weir 's forest rangers " felt like bolt @-@ on comic relief " .
= = = DVD release = = =
The ten Christmas specials between " The Christmas Invasion " and " Last Christmas " inclusive were released in a boxset titled Doctor Who – The 10 Christmas Specials on 19 October 2015 .
= = Soundtrack = =
Selected pieces of score from " The Doctor , the Widow , and the Wardrobe " and the following Christmas special , as composed by Murray Gold , were included on a soundtrack released on 21 October 2013 by Silva Screen Records .
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= Stephen Báthory =
Stephen Báthory ( Hungarian : Báthory István ; Polish : Stefan Batory ; Belarusian : Sciapan Batura ; Lithuanian : Steponas Batoras ; Romanian : Ştefan Báthory ; 27 September 1533 – 12 December 1586 ) was Voivode of Transylvania ( 1571 – 76 ) , Prince of Transylvania ( 1576 – 86 ) , from 1576 Queen Anna Jagiellon 's husband and jure uxoris King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania ( 1576 @-@ 1586 ) .
The son of Stephen VIII Báthory and a member of the Hungarian Báthory noble family , Báthory was a ruler of Transylvania in the 1570s , defeating another challenger for that title , Gáspár Bekes . In 1576 Báthory became the third elected king of Poland . He worked closely with chancellor Jan Zamoyski . The first years of his reign were focused on establishing power , defeating a fellow claimant to the throne , Maximilian II , Holy Roman Emperor , and quelling rebellions , most notably , the Danzig rebellion . He reigned only a decade , but is considered one of the most successful kings in Polish history , particularly in the realm of military history . His signal achievement was his victorious campaign in Livonia against Russia in the middle part of his reign , in which he repulsed a Russian invasion of Commonwealth borderlands and secured a highly favorable treaty of peace ( the Peace of Jam Zapolski ) .
= = Life = =
Stephen Báthory was born on 27 September 1533 in the castle at Somlyó , also known as Szilágysomlyó ( today 's Şimleu Silvaniei ) . He was the son of Stephen VIII Báthory ( d . 1534 ) of the noble Hungarian Báthory family and his wife Catherine Telegdi . He had at least five siblings : two brothers and three sisters .
Little is known about his childhood . Around 1549 @-@ 1550 he briefly visited Italy and likely spent a few months attending lectures at the Padua University . Upon his return , he joined the army of Ferdinand I , Holy Roman Emperor , and took part in his military struggle against the Turks . Some time after 1553 Báthory was captured by the Turks , and after Ferdinand I refused to pay his ransom , Báthory joined the opposing side , supporting John II Sigismund Zápolya in his struggle for power in the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom . As Zápolya 's supporter , Báthory acted both as a feudal lord , military commander and a diplomat . During one of his trips to Vienna he was put under house arrest for two years . During this time Báthory fell out of favour at Zápolya 's court , and his position was largely assumed by another Hungarian noble , Gáspár Bekes . Báthory briefly retired from politics , but he still wielded considerable influence and was seen as a possible successor to Zápolya .
After Zápolya 's death in 1571 , the Transylvanian estates elected Báthory Voivode of Transylvania . Bekes , supported by the Habsburgs , disputed his election , but by 1573 Báthory emerged victorious in the resulting civil war and drove Bekes out of Transylvania . He subsequently attempted to play the Ottomans and the Holy Roman Empire against one another in an attempt to strengthen the Transylvania position .
= = Elected king = =
In 1572 , the throne of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , at the time the largest and one of the most populous states in Europe , was vacated when King Sigismund II of Poland died without heirs . The Sejm was given the power to elect a new king , and in the Polish – Lithuanian royal election , 1573 chose Henry of France ; Henry soon ascended the French throne and forfeited the Polish one by returning to France . Báthory decided to enter into the election ; in the meantime he had to defeat another attempt by Bekes to challenge his authority in Transylvania , which he did by defeating Bekes at the Battle of Sinpaul .
On 12 December 1575 , after an interregnum of roughly one and a half years , primate of Poland Jakub Uchański , representing a pro @-@ Habsburg faction , declared Emperor Maximilian II as the new monarch . However , chancellor Jan Zamoyski and others opponents of Habsburgs persuaded many of the lesser nobility to demand a Piast king , a Polish king . After a heated discussion , it was decided that Anna Jagiellon , sister of former King Sigismund II Augustus , should be elected King of Poland and marry Stephen Báthory . In January 1576 Báthory passed the mantle of Voivode of Transylvania to his brother Christopher Báthory and departed for Poland . On 1 May 1576 Báthory married Anna and was crowned King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania . After being chosen as king in the Polish – Lithuanian royal election , 1576 , Báthory also began using the title of the Prince of Transylvania .
= = Establishing power = =
Báthory 's position was at first extremely difficult , as there was still some opposition to Báthory 's election . Emperor Maximilian , insisting on his earlier election , fostered internal opposition and prepared to enforce his claim by military action . At first the representatives of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania refused to recognize Báthory as Grand Duke , and demanded concessions - that he return the estates of his wife Anne to the Lithuanian treasury , hold Sejm conventions in both Lithuania and Poland , and reserve the highest governmental official offices in Lithuania for Lithuanians . He accepted the conditions . In June Báthory was recognized as Grand Duke of Lithuania , Duke of Ruthenia and Samogitia .
With Lithuania secure , the other major region refusing to recognize his election was Prussia . Maximilian 's sudden death improved Báthory 's situation , but the city of Danzig ( Gdańsk ) still refused to recognize his election without significant concessions . The Hanseatic League city , bolstered by its immense wealth , fortifications , and the secret support of Maximilian , had supported the Emperor 's election and decided not to recognize Báthory as legitimate ruler . The resulting conflict was known as the Danzig rebellion . Most armed opposition collapsed when the prolonged Siege of Danzig by Báthory 's forces was lifted as an agreement was reached . The Danzig army was utterly defeated in a field battle on 17 April 1577 . However , since Báthory 's armies were unable to take the city by force , a compromise was reached . In exchange for some of Danzig 's demands being favorably reviewed , the city recognised Báthory as ruler of Poland and paid the sum of 200 @,@ 000 zlotys in gold as compensation . Tying up administration of the Commonwealth northern provinces , in February 1578 he acknowledged George Frederick as the ruler of Duchy of Prussia , receiving his feudal tribute .
= = Policies = =
After securing control over Commonwealth , Báthory had a chance to devote himself to strengthening his authority , in which he was supported by his chancellor Jan Zamoyski , who would soon become one of the king 's most trusted advisers . Báthory reorganised the judiciary by formation of legal tribunals ( the Crown Tribunal in 1578 and the Lithuanian Tribunal in 1581 ) . While this somewhat weakened the royal position , it was of little concern to Báthory , as the loss of power was not significant in the short term , and he was more concerned with the hereditary Hungarian throne . In exchange , the Sejm allowed him to raise taxes and push a number of reforms strengthening the military , including the establishment of the piechota wybraniecka , an infantry formation composed of peasants . Many of his projects aimed to modernize the Commonwealth army , reforming it in a model of Hungarian troops of Transylvania . He also founded the Academy of Vilna , the third university in the Commonwealth , transforming a prior Jesuit college into a major university . He founded several other Jesuit colleges , and was active in propagating Catholicism , while at the same time being respectful of the Commonwealth policy of religious tolerance , issuing a number of decrees offering protection to Polish Jews , and denouncing any religious violence .
In external relations , Báthory sought peace through strong alliances . Though Báthory remained distrustful of the Habsburgs , he maintained the tradition of good relations that the Commonwealth had with its Western neighbor and confirmed past treaties between the Commonwealth and Holy Roman Empire with diplomatic missions received by Maximilian 's successor , Rudolf II . The troublesome south @-@ eastern border with the Ottoman Empire was temporarily quelled by truces signed in July 1577 and April 1579 . The Sejm of January 1578 gathered in Warsaw was persuaded to grant Báthory subsidies for the inevitable war against Muscovy .
A number of his trusted advisers were Hungarian , and he remained interested in the Hungarian politics . He wished to recreate his native country into an independent , strong power , but the unfavorable international situation did not allow him to significantly advance any of his plans in that area . In addition to Hungarian , he was well versed in Latin , and spoke Italian and German ; he never learned the Polish language .
In his personal life , he was described as rather frugal in his personal expenditures , with hunting and reading as his favorite pastimes .
= = War with Muscovy = =
Before Báthory 's election to the throne of the Commonwealth , Ivan the Terrible of Russia had begun encroaching on its sphere of interest in the northeast , eventually invading the Commonwealth borderlands in Livonia ; the conflict would grow to involve a number of nearby powers ( outside Russia and Poland @-@ Lithuania , also Sweden , the Kingdom of Livonia and Denmark @-@ Norway ) . Each of them was vying for control of Livonia , and the resulting conflict , lasting for several years , became known as the Livonian War . By 1577 Ivan was in control of most of the disputed territory , but his conquest was short @-@ lived . In 1578 Commonwealth forces scored a number of victories in Liviona and begun pushing Ivan 's forces back ; this marked the turning point in the war . Báthory , together with his chancellor Zamoyski , led the army of the Commonwealth in a series of decisive campaigns taking Polotsk in 1579 and Velikiye Luki in 1580 .
In 1581 Stephen penetrated once again into Russia and , on 22 August , laid siege to the city of Pskov . While the city held , on 13 December 1581 Ivan the Terrible began negotiations that concluded with the Truce of Jam Zapolski on 15 January 1582 . The treaty was favorable to the Commonwealth , as Ivan ceded Polatsk , Veliz and most of the Duchy of Livonia in exchange for regaining Velikiye Luki and Nevel .
= = Final years = =
In 1584 Báthory allowed Zamoyski to execute Samuel Zborowski , whose death sentence for treason and murder had been pending for roughly a decade . This political conflict between Báthory and the Zborowski family , framed as the clash between the monarch and the nobility , would be a major recurring controversy in internal Polish politics for many years . In external politics , Báthory was considering another war with Russia , but his plans were delayed to the lack of support from the Sejm , which refused to pass requested tax raises .
Báthory 's health had been declining for several years . He died on 12 December 1586 . He had no legitimate children , though contemporary rumours suggested he might have had several illegitimate children . None of these rumours have been confirmed by modern historians . His death was followed by an interregnum of one year . Maximilian II 's son , Archduke Maximilian III , was elected king but was contested by the Swedish Sigismund III Vasa , who defeated Maximilian at the Byczyna and succeeded as ruler of the Commonwealth .
= = Remembrance = =
Báthory actively promoted his own legend , sponsoring a number of works about his life and achievements , from historical treatises to poetry . In his lifetime , he was featured in the works of Jan Kochanowski , Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński and many others . He became a recurring character in Polish poetry and literature and featured as a central figure in poems , novels and drama by Jakub Jasiński , Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz , Henryk Rzewuski and others . He has been a subject of numerous paintings , both during his life and posthumously . Among the painters who took him as a subject were Jan Matejko and Stanisław Wyspiański .
A statue of Báthory by Giovanni Ferrari was raised in 1789 in Padua , Italy , sponsored by the last king of the Commonwealth , Stanisław August Poniatowski . Other monuments to him include one in the Łazienki Palace ( 1795 by Andrzej Le Brun ) and one in Sniatyn ( 1904 , destroyed in 1939 ) . He was a patron of the Vilnius University ( then known as the Stefan Batory University ) and several units in the Polish Army from 1919 to 1939 . His name was borne by two 20th @-@ century passenger ships of the Polish Merchant Navy , the MS Batory and TSS Stefan Batory . In modern Poland , he is the namesake of the Batory Steelmill , a nongovernmental Stefan Batory Foundation , the Polish 9th Armored Cavalry Brigade , and numerous Polish streets and schools . One of the districts of the town of Chorzów is named after him .
Immediately after his death , he was not fondly remembered in the Commonwealth . Many nobles took his behavior in the Zborowski affair and his domestic policies as indicating an interest in curtailing the nobility 's Golden Freedoms and establishing an absolute monarchy . His contemporaries were also rankled by his favoritism toward Hungarians over nationals of the Commonwealth . He was also remembered , more trivially , for his Hungarian @-@ style cap and saber ( szabla batorówka ) .
His later resurgence in Polish memory and historiography can be traced to the 19th @-@ century era of partitions of Poland , when the Polish state lost its independence . He was remembered for his military triumphs and praised as an effective ruler by many , including John Baptist Albertrandi , Jerzy Samuel Bandtkie , Michał Bobrzyński , Józef Szujski and others . Though some historians like Tadeusz Korzon , Joachim Lelewel and Jędrzej Moraczewski remained more reserved , in 1887 Wincenty Zakrzewski noted that Báthory is " the darling of both the Polish public opinion and Polish historians " . During the interwar period in the Second Polish Republic he was a cult figure , often compared - with the government 's approval - to the contemporary dictator of Poland , Józef Piłsudski . After the Second World War , in the communist People 's Republic of Poland , he became more of a controversial figure , with historians more ready to question his internal politics and attachment to Hungary . Nonetheless his good image remained intact , reinforced by the positive views of a popular Polish historian of that period , Paweł Jasienica .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Stronger ( Britney Spears song ) =
" Stronger " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her second studio album , Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) . It was released on November 13 , 2000 , by JIVE Records as the third single of the album . After meeting with producers Max Martin and Rami in Sweden , the singer recorded several songs for the album , including " Stronger " . The teen pop and dance @-@ pop song has self @-@ empowerment lyrics about a girl who is tired of her cheating boyfriend and decides to live without him . It received acclaim from music critics , who described the song as both musically and lyrically innovative and considered it the best dance track from the album .
" Stronger " achieved commercial success worldwide , reaching the top five in Austria , Germany and Sweden , while reaching the top ten in Finland , Ireland , Switzerland and United Kingdom . " Stronger " peaked at number eleven in the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 , and was later certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for selling over 500 @,@ 000 units of the single . An accompanying music video was directed by Joseph Kahn , who considered it as a thematic departure from Spears ' previous music videos . The music video received a nomination on the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Pop Video .
Spears has performed " Stronger " in a number of live appearances , including at the Radio Music Awards of 2000 , American Music Awards of 2001 , a Fox special titled " Britney in Hawaii " , and in two of her concert tours . It was first performed on the Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour ( 2000 – 01 ) , as the first song from the show and at the Dream Within a Dream Tour ( 2001 – 02 ) . Also , in 2013 Spears performed the song for the first time in eleven years on her Las Vegas residency concert Britney : Piece of Me . In 2010 , " Stronger " was covered by actor Kevin McHale for an episode of TV series Glee titled " Britney / Brittany " . The cover received positive reviews from contemporary music critics .
= = Background and composition = =
In 1999 Spears began work on her second studio album Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) , in Sweden and Switzerland . After meeting with Max Martin and Rami Yacoub in Sweden , Spears recorded several songs for the album , including " Stronger " , which was co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Martin and Rami . Upon returning to the United States , the singer revealed in an interview with MTV News that : " I just got back from Sweden , and did half [ of ] the material [ for Oops ! ] over there . I was really , really happy with the material , but we had [ such ] limited time to get so much done . So I 've just really been in the studio nonstop , which is cool , though . " Spears recorded her vocals for the song in early November 1999 at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . " Stronger " was released on November 13 , 2000 as the third single from the album .
" Stronger " is a teen pop and dance @-@ pop song that features a heavy dance beat , and lasts 3 minutes and 23 seconds . According to the digital music sheet published at Musicnotes.com , the song is composed in the key of G @-@ sharp minor and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 108 beats per minute , while Spears vocal range spans from C ♯ 3 to C ♯ 5 . Music critics noticed the song as Spears ' declaration of independence , which is perceived in self @-@ empowerment lines such as " I 'm not your property " and " I don 't need nobody " . Its lyrics also quote Spears ' iconic debut hit " ... Baby One More Time " , which was also co @-@ written and produced for Spears by Martin and Yacoub and released two years earlier ; the latter 's famous chorus , " My loneliness is killing me " , is answered in " Stronger " with the lyric , " My loneliness ain 't killin ' me no more " . Despite not being written by the singer , it was speculated that the song is directed to the singer 's record label and her management . In a review for the album , David Browne of Entertainment Weekly noted that " Stronger " together with " Don 't Go Knockin ' on My Door " is reminiscent of Rolling Stones ' " The Last Time " ( 1965 ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Stronger " received widespread acclaim from music critics . Stephanie McGrath of Jam ! considered the song " the best dance track " of Oops ! , deeming the song " every bit as good as * Nsync 's ' Bye , Bye , Bye ' or The Backstreet Boys ' ' The One ' . " Tracy E. Hopkins of Barnes & Noble , while reviewing the album , said , " Spears shines on the tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek lead single , the triumphant ' Stronger ' ... " David Veitch of Calgary Sun considered " Stronger " to be as " another boom @-@ bastic upbeat track " , while saying the song is " notable for its foghorn synth , fabulous rhythm track and heavy effects applied to Britney 's voice . Why she 's panting at the end of the bridge is anybody 's guess . " A review by the NME staff compared " Stronger " to songs recorded by ABBA , saying , " there 's the deranged helium synth pop of ' Stronger ' with the huge ABBA chord change in the chorus that sounds scarier and more robotic than the Backstreet Boys . " Andy Battaglia from online magazine Salon said " Stronger " " could crush the entire self @-@ help industry with its melody alone . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , " Stronger " peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the date of January 27 , 2001 , after entering the top 40 at number 29 on December 30 , 2000 . It also peaked at number 17 on the Top 40 Mainstream chart . It was also certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . " Stronger " also peaked at number two on the Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales component chart , and number 37 on Rhythmic Top 40 . As of June 2012 , " Stronger " has sold 415 @,@ 000 physical units , with 270 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States . It is Spears ' third best @-@ selling physical single in the country .
" Stronger " also achieved commercial success worldwide , reaching number four in Austria and Sweden , six in Ireland and Switzerland , and eight in Finland , while reaching the top 20 in several European countries . On the week of December 16 , 2000 , " Stronger " debuted at number seven in The Official Charts Company from the United Kingdom , falling to number 11 in the following week . In Australia , the song peaked at number 13 , and was later certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipments of more than 70 @,@ 000 units of the single . In France , " Stronger " reached number 20 , making it the lowest chart position for the song worldwide . However , it was certified Silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , for selling over 125 @,@ 000 units of the single . In Germany , the song reached number four on the Media Control Charts , being certified Gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) for shipping over 250 @,@ 000 units of the single .
= = Music video = =
The music video for the song was directed by Joseph Kahn , who revealed that the concept for the music video was created by Spears herself , by saying " I would like to dance in a chair and drive in a car and break up with [ my ] boyfriend . [ ... ] Those are your three elements . " Kahn ended up creating , according to Jocelyn Vena of MTV , " a semi @-@ futuristic world in which Spears walks into a club , breaks up with her cheating boyfriend and triumphantly walks in the rain , knowing her life is better off without him . " Kahn also considered the music video as very sophisticated , saying that it is " definitely a departure from the sort of candy @-@ colored videos she was doing before , so I always thought this was the transition between Britney the teenage pop star and Britney the sort of diva she became . " An alternate footage of the video can be found on the DVD of Spears first compilation album Greatest Hits : My Prerogative .
Kahn revealed that Spears ' referenced Janet Jackson 's " The Pleasure Principle " and " Miss You Much " music videos for the video 's chair routine , saying her idea was inspired by " Janet Jackson 's ' Pleasure Principle ' — the iconic chair sequence in that " . A review of the video also commented " Ms. Spears gives us her best Janet Jackson impression ( “ Miss You Much “ ) with a dizzying chair @-@ dance routine . " Spears also referenced and draws inspiration from Janet in several other music videos , including " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " . " Overprotected ( Darkchild Remix ) " , " Circus " , and " Womanizer " .
The video begins with a closed caption that reads " Britney Spears – Stronger " , amidst the sound of a storm . It then cuts to a close up of Spears looking at her boyfriend , who is smiling with another woman holding him . She realizes she is better without him and walks away , after saying , " Whatever , " to the audience . There is a shot of the tower hotel they were in , in an apparent semi @-@ futuristic world , having a party in the restaurant in the hotel tower at the top , and then the hotel tower explodes and blows up . At the beginning of the first chorus , Spears starts dancing with an Emeco 1006 @-@ style chair in front of a black background . The second half of the video finds Spears driving away from the party in a classic Ford Mustang car during a thunderstorm ; however , before long , her car goes into a spin out , then stops on the very edge of the bridge . After recovering from the shock of it , she 's forced to continue walking on in the rain . Cuts of her dancing with a cane , transformed from the chair , are also included . The video ends with Spears walking across a bridge . Two versions of the video exist , one in which at the end of video , Spears stands in mid @-@ air above the spinning chair , and in the other a close up of her singing . Nuzhat Naoreen of MTV praised the music video , saying , " few performers can work an entire routine on and around a chair as well as Britney did in ' Stronger ' " . The music video received a nomination on the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Pop Video .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Spears first performed the song live on 2000s Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour . The show began with the video introduction " The Britney Spears Experience " , in which three images of Spears welcomed spectators to the show . Then , a giant metal orb was lowered onstage and lifted again to reveal Spears standing behind it . Wearing a glittery jeans and an orange halter top , she opened the show with a dance @-@ oriented performance of the song . " Stronger " was last performed on 2002 's Dream Within a Dream Tour . After a dance @-@ oriented performance of " Boys " , Spears performed the song , in which she wore a paint @-@ covered robe and in some shows a bowler hat . Spears also performed the song on several television appearances , including on the American Music Awards of 2001 , and on a MTV special titled " Total Britney Live " . A Fox special titled " Britney In Hawaii " , aired on June 8 , 2000 , included an exclusive performance of the song . A performance of " Stronger " live from Germany was broadcast on Radio Music Awards of 2000 , since Spears was on tour by the time of the awards . " Stronger " was not included on the set lists of any of Spears ' tours until it was included in her Las Vegas residency show Britney : Piece of Me .
" Stronger " was covered by Kevin McHale on TV series Glee , on an episode titled " Britney / Brittany " , that was dedicated to the singer . In the episode , McHale 's character Artie has a hallucination of himself singing " Stronger " during a dental visit . The cover received positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal enjoyed the cover version , appreciating the twist of having males sing a feminist empowerment song , while Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly deemed " Stronger " his favorite performance of the episode , as well as the best incorporation of Spears ' music , as the song served Artie 's storyline .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Britney Spears – lead vocals , background vocals
Max Martin – production , songwriting , audio mixing , keyboards , programming , background vocals
Rami Yacoub – production , songwriting , keyboards
Nana Hedin – background vocals
John Amatiello – Pro Tools engineering
Tom Coyne – audio mastering
Source :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Amphetamine =
Amphetamine ( contracted from alpha ‑ methylphenethylamine ) is a potent central nervous system ( CNS ) stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , narcolepsy , and obesity . Amphetamine was discovered in 1887 and exists as two enantiomers : levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine . Amphetamine properly refers to a specific chemical , the racemic free base , which is equal parts of the two enantiomers , levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine , in their pure amine forms . However , the term is frequently used informally to refer to any combination of the enantiomers , or to either of them alone . Historically , it has been used to treat nasal congestion and depression . Amphetamine is also used as an athletic performance enhancer and cognitive enhancer , and recreationally as an aphrodisiac and euphoriant . It is a prescription drug in many countries , and unauthorized possession and distribution of amphetamine are often tightly controlled due to the significant health risks associated with recreational use .
The first pharmaceutical amphetamine was Benzedrine , a brand which was used to treat a variety of conditions . Currently , pharmaceutical amphetamine is prescribed as racemic amphetamine , Adderall , dextroamphetamine , or the inactive prodrug lisdexamfetamine . Amphetamine , through activation of a trace amine receptor , increases monoamine and excitatory neurotransmitter activity in the brain , with its most pronounced effects targeting the catecholamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine .
At therapeutic doses , amphetamine causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria , change in desire for sex , increased wakefulness , and improved cognitive control . It induces physical effects such as decreased reaction time , fatigue resistance , and increased muscle strength . Larger doses of amphetamine may impair cognitive function and induce rapid muscle breakdown . Drug addiction is a serious risk with large recreational doses but is unlikely to arise from typical long @-@ term medical use at therapeutic doses . Very high doses can result in psychosis ( e.g. , delusions and paranoia ) which rarely occurs at therapeutic doses even during long @-@ term use . Recreational doses are generally much larger than prescribed therapeutic doses and carry a far greater risk of serious side effects .
Amphetamine belongs to the phenethylamine class . It is also the parent compound of its own structural class , the substituted amphetamines , which includes prominent substances such as bupropion , cathinone , MDMA ( ecstasy ) , and methamphetamine . As a member of the phenethylamine class , amphetamine is also chemically related to the naturally occurring trace amine neuromodulators , specifically phenethylamine and N @-@ methylphenethylamine , both of which are produced within the human body . Phenethylamine is the parent compound of amphetamine , while N @-@ methylphenethylamine is a constitutional isomer that differs only in the placement of the methyl group .
= = Uses = =
= = = Medical = = =
Amphetamine is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , narcolepsy ( a sleep disorder ) , and obesity , and is sometimes prescribed off @-@ label for its past medical indications , such as depression . Long @-@ term amphetamine exposure at sufficiently high doses in some animal species is known to produce abnormal dopamine system development or nerve damage , but , in humans with ADHD , pharmaceutical amphetamines appear to improve brain development and nerve growth . Reviews of magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) studies suggest that long @-@ term treatment with amphetamine decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD , and improves function in several parts of the brain , such as the right caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia .
Reviews of clinical stimulant research have established the safety and effectiveness of long @-@ term amphetamine use for ADHD . Controlled trials spanning two years have demonstrated treatment effectiveness and safety . One review highlighted a nine @-@ month randomized controlled trial in children with ADHD that found an average increase of 4 @.@ 5 IQ points , continued increases in attention , and continued decreases in disruptive behaviors and hyperactivity .
Current models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain 's neurotransmitter systems ; these functional impairments involve impaired dopamine neurotransmission in the mesocorticolimbic projection and norepinephrine neurotransmission in the locus coeruleus and prefrontal cortex . Psychostimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamine are effective in treating ADHD because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems . Approximately 80 % of those who use these stimulants see improvements in ADHD symptoms . Children with ADHD who use stimulant medications generally have better relationships with peers and family members , perform better in school , are less distractible and impulsive , and have longer attention spans . The Cochrane Collaboration 's reviews on the treatment of ADHD in children , adolescents , and adults with pharmaceutical amphetamines stated that while these drugs improve short @-@ term symptoms , they have higher discontinuation rates than non @-@ stimulant medications due to their adverse side effects . A Cochrane Collaboration review on the treatment of ADHD in children with tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome indicated that stimulants in general do not make tics worse , but high doses of dextroamphetamine could exacerbate tics in some individuals .
= = = Enhancing performance = = =
In 2015 , a systematic review and a meta @-@ analysis of high quality clinical trials found that , when used at low ( therapeutic ) doses , amphetamine produces modest , unambiguous improvements in cognition , including working memory , episodic memory , inhibitory control and some aspects of attention , in normal healthy adults ; the cognition @-@ enhancing effects of amphetamine are known to occur through its indirect activation of both dopamine receptor D1 and adrenoceptor α2 in the prefrontal cortex . A systematic review from 2014 noted that low doses of amphetamine also improve memory consolidation , in turn leading to improved recall of information . Therapeutic doses of amphetamine also enhance cortical network efficiency , an effect which mediates improvements in working memory in all individuals . Amphetamine and other ADHD stimulants also improve task saliency ( motivation to perform a task ) and increase arousal ( wakefulness ) , in turn promoting goal @-@ directed behavior . Stimulants such as amphetamine can improve performance on difficult and boring tasks and are used by some students as a study and test @-@ taking aid . Based upon studies of self @-@ reported illicit stimulant use , 5 – 35 % of college students use diverted ADHD stimulants , which are primarily used for performance enhancement rather than as recreational drugs . However , high amphetamine doses that are above the therapeutic range can interfere with working memory and other aspects of cognitive control .
Amphetamine is used by some athletes for its psychological and athletic performance @-@ enhancing effects , such as increased endurance and alertness ; however , non @-@ medical amphetamine use is prohibited at sporting events that are regulated by collegiate , national , and international anti @-@ doping agencies . In healthy people at oral therapeutic doses , amphetamine has been shown to increase muscle strength , acceleration , athletic performance in anaerobic conditions , and endurance ( i.e. , it delays the onset of fatigue ) , while improving reaction time . Amphetamine improves endurance and reaction time primarily through reuptake inhibition and effluxion of dopamine in the central nervous system . Amphetamine and other dopaminergic drugs also increase power output at fixed levels of perceived exertion by overriding a " safety switch " that allows the core temperature limit to increase in order to access a reserve capacity that is normally off @-@ limits . At therapeutic doses , the adverse effects of amphetamine do not impede athletic performance ; however , at much higher doses , amphetamine can induce effects that severely impair performance , such as rapid muscle breakdown and elevated body temperature .
= = Contraindications = =
According to the International Programme on Chemical Safety ( IPCS ) and United States Food and Drug Administration ( USFDA ) , amphetamine is contraindicated in people with a history of drug abuse , heart disease , severe agitation , or severe anxiety . It is also contraindicated in people currently experiencing arteriosclerosis ( hardening of the arteries ) , glaucoma ( increased eye pressure ) , hyperthyroidism ( excessive production of thyroid hormone ) , or moderate to severe hypertension . People who have experienced allergic reactions to other stimulants in the past or who are taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOIs ) are advised not to take amphetamine , although safe concurrent use of amphetamine and monoamine oxidase inhibitors has been documented . These agencies also state that anyone with anorexia nervosa , bipolar disorder , depression , hypertension , liver or kidney problems , mania , psychosis , Raynaud 's phenomenon , seizures , thyroid problems , tics , or Tourette syndrome should monitor their symptoms while taking amphetamine . Evidence from human studies indicates that therapeutic amphetamine use does not cause developmental abnormalities in the fetus or newborns ( i.e. , it is not a human teratogen ) , but amphetamine abuse does pose risks to the fetus . Amphetamine has also been shown to pass into breast milk , so the IPCS and USFDA advise mothers to avoid breastfeeding when using it . Due to the potential for reversible growth impairments , the USFDA advises monitoring the height and weight of children and adolescents prescribed an amphetamine pharmaceutical .
= = Side effects = =
The side effects of amphetamine are varied , and the amount of amphetamine used is the primary factor in determining the likelihood and severity of side effects . Amphetamine products such as Adderall , Dexedrine , and their generic equivalents are currently approved by the USFDA for long @-@ term therapeutic use . Recreational use of amphetamine generally involves much larger doses , which have a greater risk of serious side effects than dosages used for therapeutic reasons .
= = = Physical = = =
At normal therapeutic doses , the physical side effects of amphetamine vary widely by age and from person to person . Cardiovascular side effects can include hypertension or hypotension from a vasovagal response , Raynaud 's phenomenon ( reduced blood flow to extremities ) , and tachycardia ( increased heart rate ) . Sexual side effects in males may include erectile dysfunction , frequent erections , or prolonged erections . Abdominal side effects may include abdominal pain , appetite loss , nausea , and weight loss . Other potential side effects include blurred vision , dry mouth , excessive grinding of the teeth , nosebleed , profuse sweating , rhinitis medicamentosa ( drug @-@ induced nasal congestion ) , reduced seizure threshold , and tics ( a type of movement disorder ) . Dangerous physical side effects are rare at typical pharmaceutical doses .
Amphetamine stimulates the medullary respiratory centers , producing faster and deeper breaths . In a normal person at therapeutic doses , this effect is usually not noticeable , but when respiration is already compromised , it may be evident . Amphetamine also induces contraction in the urinary bladder sphincter , the muscle which controls urination , which can result in difficulty urinating . This effect can be useful in treating bed wetting and loss of bladder control . The effects of amphetamine on the gastrointestinal tract are unpredictable . If intestinal activity is high , amphetamine may reduce gastrointestinal motility ( the rate at which content moves through the digestive system ) ; however , amphetamine may increase motility when the smooth muscle of the tract is relaxed . Amphetamine also has a slight analgesic effect and can enhance the pain relieving effects of opioids .
USFDA @-@ commissioned studies from 2011 indicate that in children , young adults , and adults there is no association between serious adverse cardiovascular events ( sudden death , heart attack , and stroke ) and the medical use of amphetamine or other ADHD stimulants .
= = = Psychological = = =
Common psychological effects of therapeutic doses can include increased alertness , apprehension , concentration , decreased sense of fatigue , mood swings ( elated mood followed by mildly depressed mood ) , increased initiative , insomnia or wakefulness , self @-@ confidence , and sociability . Less common side effects include anxiety , change in libido , grandiosity , irritability , repetitive or obsessive behaviors , and restlessness ; these effects depend on the user 's personality and current mental state . Amphetamine psychosis ( e.g. , delusions and paranoia ) can occur in heavy users . Although very rare , this psychosis can also occur at therapeutic doses during long @-@ term therapy . According to the USFDA , " there is no systematic evidence " that stimulants produce aggressive behavior or hostility .
Amphetamine has also been shown to produce a conditioned place preference in humans taking therapeutic doses , meaning that individuals acquire a preference for spending time in places where they have previously used amphetamine .
= = Overdose = =
An amphetamine overdose can lead to many different symptoms , but is rarely fatal with appropriate care . The severity of overdose symptoms increases with dosage and decreases with drug tolerance to amphetamine . Tolerant individuals have been known to take as much as 5 grams of amphetamine in a day , which is roughly 100 times the maximum daily therapeutic dose . Symptoms of a moderate and extremely large overdose are listed below ; fatal amphetamine poisoning usually also involves convulsions and coma . In 2013 , overdose on amphetamine , methamphetamine , and other compounds implicated in an " amphetamine use disorder " resulted in an estimated 3 @,@ 788 deaths worldwide ( 3 @,@ 425 – 4 @,@ 145 deaths , 95 % confidence ) .
Pathological overactivation of the mesolimbic pathway , a dopamine pathway that connects the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens , plays a central role in amphetamine addiction . Individuals who frequently overdose on amphetamine during recreational use have a high risk of developing an amphetamine addiction , since repeated overdoses gradually increase the level of accumbal ΔFosB , a " molecular switch " and " master control protein " for addiction . Once nucleus accumbens ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed , it begins to increase the severity of addictive behavior ( i.e. , compulsive drug @-@ seeking ) with further increases in its expression . While there are currently no effective drugs for treating amphetamine addiction , regularly engaging in sustained aerobic exercise appears to reduce the risk of developing such an addiction . Sustained aerobic exercise on a regular basis also appears to be an effective treatment for amphetamine addiction ; exercise therapy improves clinical treatment outcomes and may be used as a combination therapy with cognitive behavioral therapy , which is currently the best clinical treatment available .
= = = Addiction = = =
Addiction is a serious risk with heavy recreational amphetamine use but is unlikely to arise from typical long @-@ term medical use at therapeutic doses . Drug tolerance develops rapidly in amphetamine abuse ( i.e. , a recreational amphetamine overdose ) , so periods of extended use require increasingly larger doses of the drug in order to achieve the same effect .
= = = = Biomolecular mechanisms = = = =
Current models of addiction from chronic drug use involve alterations in gene expression in certain parts of the brain , particularly the nucleus accumbens . The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ΔFosB , cAMP response element binding protein ( CREB ) , and nuclear factor kappa B ( NF @-@ κB ) . ΔFosB plays a crucial role in the development of drug addictions , since its overexpression in D1 @-@ type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is necessary and sufficient for most of the behavioral and neural adaptations that arise from addiction . Once ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed , it induces an addictive state that becomes increasingly more severe with further increases in ΔFosB expression . It has been implicated in addictions to alcohol , cannabinoids , cocaine , methylphenidate , nicotine , opioids , phencyclidine , propofol , and substituted amphetamines , among others .
ΔJunD , a transcription factor , and G9a , a histone methyltransferase enzyme , both directly oppose the induction of ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens ( i.e. , they oppose increases in its expression ) . Sufficiently overexpressing ΔJunD in the nucleus accumbens with viral vectors can completely block many of the neural and behavioral alterations seen in chronic drug abuse ( i.e. , the alterations mediated by ΔFosB ) . ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards , such as palatable food , sex , and exercise . Since both natural rewards and addictive drugs induce expression of ΔFosB ( i.e. , they cause the brain to produce more of it ) , chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological state of addiction . Consequently , ΔFosB is the most significant factor involved in both amphetamine addiction and amphetamine @-@ induced sex addictions , which are compulsive sexual behaviors that result from excessive sexual activity and amphetamine use . These sex addictions are associated with a dopamine dysregulation syndrome which occurs in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs .
The effects of amphetamine on gene regulation are both dose- and route @-@ dependent . Most of the research on gene regulation and addiction is based upon animal studies with intravenous amphetamine administration at very high doses . The few studies that have used equivalent ( weight @-@ adjusted ) human therapeutic doses and oral administration show that these changes , if they occur , are relatively minor . This suggests that medical use of amphetamine does not significantly affect gene regulation .
= = = = Pharmacological treatments = = = =
As of May 2014 , there is no effective pharmacotherapy for amphetamine addiction . Reviews from 2015 and 2016 indicated that TAAR1 @-@ selective agonists have significant therapeutic potential as a treatment for psychostimulant addictions ; however , as of February 2016 , the only compounds which are known to function as TAAR1 @-@ selective agonists are experimental drugs . Amphetamine addiction is largely mediated through increased activation of dopamine receptors and co @-@ localized NMDA receptors in the nucleus accumbens ; magnesium ions inhibit NMDA receptors by blocking the receptor calcium channel . One review suggested that , based upon animal testing , pathological ( addiction @-@ inducing ) psychostimulant use significantly reduces the level of intracellular magnesium throughout the brain . Supplemental magnesium treatment has been shown to reduce amphetamine self @-@ administration ( i.e. , doses given to oneself ) in humans , but it is not an effective monotherapy for amphetamine addiction .
= = = = Behavioral treatments = = = =
Cognitive behavioral therapy is currently the most effective clinical treatment for psychostimulant addictions . Additionally , research on the neurobiological effects of physical exercise suggests that daily aerobic exercise , especially endurance exercise ( e.g. , marathon running ) , prevents the development of drug addiction and is an effective adjunct therapy ( i.e. , a supplemental treatment ) for amphetamine addiction . Exercise leads to better treatment outcomes when used as an adjunct treatment , particularly for psychostimulant addictions . In particular , aerobic exercise decreases psychostimulant self @-@ administration , reduces the reinstatement ( i.e. , relapse ) of drug @-@ seeking , and induces increased dopamine receptor D2 ( DRD2 ) density in the striatum . This is the opposite of pathological stimulant use , which induces decreased striatal DRD2 density . One review noted that exercise may also prevent the development of a drug addiction by altering ΔFosB or c @-@ Fos immunoreactivity in the striatum or other parts of the reward system .
= = = Dependence and withdrawal = = =
According to another Cochrane Collaboration review on withdrawal in individuals who compulsively use amphetamine and methamphetamine , " when chronic heavy users abruptly discontinue amphetamine use , many report a time @-@ limited withdrawal syndrome that occurs within 24 hours of their last dose . " This review noted that withdrawal symptoms in chronic , high @-@ dose users are frequent , occurring in up to 87 @.@ 6 % of cases , and persist for three to four weeks with a marked " crash " phase occurring during the first week . Amphetamine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety , drug craving , depressed mood , fatigue , increased appetite , increased movement or decreased movement , lack of motivation , sleeplessness or sleepiness , and lucid dreams . The review indicated that withdrawal symptoms are associated with the degree of dependence , suggesting that therapeutic use would result in far milder discontinuation symptoms . Manufacturer prescribing information does not indicate the presence of withdrawal symptoms following discontinuation of amphetamine use after an extended period at therapeutic doses .
= = = Toxicity and psychosis = = =
In rodents and primates , sufficiently high doses of amphetamine cause dopaminergic neurotoxicity , or damage to dopamine neurons , which is characterized by reduced transporter and receptor function . There is no evidence that amphetamine is directly neurotoxic in humans . However , large doses of amphetamine may cause indirect neurotoxicity as a result of increased oxidative stress from reactive oxygen species and autoxidation of dopamine .
A severe amphetamine overdose can result in a stimulant psychosis that may involve a variety of symptoms , such as paranoia and delusions . A Cochrane Collaboration review on treatment for amphetamine , dextroamphetamine , and methamphetamine psychosis states that about 5 – 15 % of users fail to recover completely . According to the same review , there is at least one trial that shows antipsychotic medications effectively resolve the symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis . Psychosis very rarely arises from therapeutic use .
= = Interactions = =
Many types of substances are known to interact with amphetamine , resulting in altered drug action or metabolism of amphetamine , the interacting substance , or both . Inhibitors of the enzymes that metabolize amphetamine ( e.g. , CYP2D6 and flavin @-@ containing monooxygenase 3 ) will prolong its elimination half @-@ life , meaning that its effects will last longer . Amphetamine also interacts with MAOIs , particularly monoamine oxidase A inhibitors , since both MAOIs and amphetamine increase plasma catecholamines ( i.e. , norepinephrine and dopamine ) ; therefore , concurrent use of both is dangerous . Amphetamine modulates the activity of most psychoactive drugs . In particular , amphetamine may decrease the effects of sedatives and depressants and increase the effects of stimulants and antidepressants . Amphetamine may also decrease the effects of antihypertensives and antipsychotics due to its effects on blood pressure and dopamine respectively . In general , there is no significant interaction when consuming amphetamine with food , but the pH of gastrointestinal content and urine affects the absorption and excretion of amphetamine , respectively . Acidic substances reduce the absorption of amphetamine and increase urinary excretion , and alkaline substances do the opposite . Due to the effect pH has on absorption , amphetamine also interacts with gastric acid reducers such as proton pump inhibitors and H2 antihistamines , which increase gastrointestinal pH ( i.e. , make it less acidic ) .
= = Pharmacology = =
= = = Pharmacodynamics = = =
Amphetamine exerts its behavioral effects by altering the use of monoamines as neuronal signals in the brain , primarily in catecholamine neurons in the reward and executive function pathways of the brain . The concentrations of the main neurotransmitters involved in reward circuitry and executive functioning , dopamine and norepinephrine , increase dramatically in a dose @-@ dependent manner by amphetamine due to its effects on monoamine transporters . The reinforcing and task saliency effects of amphetamine are mostly due to enhanced dopaminergic activity in the mesolimbic pathway .
Amphetamine has been identified as a potent full agonist of trace amine @-@ associated receptor 1 ( TAAR1 ) , a Gs @-@ coupled and Gq @-@ coupled G protein @-@ coupled receptor ( GPCR ) discovered in 2001 , which is important for regulation of brain monoamines . Activation of TAAR1 increases cAMP production via adenylyl cyclase activation and inhibits monoamine transporter function . Monoamine autoreceptors ( e.g. , D2 short , presynaptic α2 , and presynaptic 5 @-@ HT1A ) have the opposite effect of TAAR1 , and together these receptors provide a regulatory system for monoamines . Notably , amphetamine and trace amines bind to TAAR1 , but not monoamine autoreceptors . Imaging studies indicate that monoamine reuptake inhibition by amphetamine and trace amines is site specific and depends upon the presence of TAAR1 co @-@ localization in the associated monoamine neurons . As of 2010 , co @-@ localization of TAAR1 and the dopamine transporter ( DAT ) has been visualized in rhesus monkeys , but co @-@ localization of TAAR1 with the norepinephrine transporter ( NET ) and the serotonin transporter ( SERT ) has only been evidenced by messenger RNA ( mRNA ) expression .
In addition to the neuronal monoamine transporters , amphetamine also inhibits both vesicular monoamine transporters , VMAT1 and VMAT2 , as well as SLC1A1 , SLC22A3 , and SLC22A5 . SLC1A1 is excitatory amino acid transporter 3 ( EAAT3 ) , a glutamate transporter located in neurons , SLC22A3 is an extraneuronal monoamine transporter that is present in astrocytes , and SLC22A5 is a high @-@ affinity carnitine transporter . Amphetamine is known to strongly induce cocaine- and amphetamine @-@ regulated transcript ( CART ) gene expression , a neuropeptide involved in feeding behavior , stress , and reward , which induces observable increases in neuronal development and survival in vitro . The CART receptor has yet to be identified , but there is significant evidence that CART binds to a unique Gi / Go @-@ coupled GPCR . Amphetamine also inhibits monoamine oxidase at very high doses , resulting in less dopamine and phenethylamine metabolism and consequently higher concentrations of synaptic monoamines . In humans , the only post @-@ synaptic receptor at which amphetamine is known to bind is the 5 @-@ HT1A receptor , where it acts as an agonist with micromolar affinity .
The full profile of amphetamine 's short @-@ term drug effects in humans is mostly derived through increased cellular communication or neurotransmission of dopamine , serotonin , norepinephrine , epinephrine , histamine , CART peptides , acetylcholine , endogenous opioids , adrenocorticotropic hormone , corticosteroids , and glutamate , which it effects through interactions with CART , 5 @-@ HT1A , EAAT3 , TAAR1 , VMAT1 , VMAT2 , and possibly other biological targets .
Dextroamphetamine is a more potent agonist of TAAR1 than levoamphetamine . Consequently , dextroamphetamine produces greater CNS stimulation than levoamphetamine , roughly three to four times more , but levoamphetamine has slightly stronger cardiovascular and peripheral effects .
= = = = Dopamine = = = =
In certain brain regions , amphetamine increases the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft . Amphetamine can enter the presynaptic neuron either through DAT or by diffusing across the neuronal membrane directly . As a consequence of DAT uptake , amphetamine produces competitive reuptake inhibition at the transporter . Upon entering the presynaptic neuron , amphetamine activates TAAR1 which , through protein kinase A ( PKA ) and protein kinase C ( PKC ) signaling , causes DAT phosphorylation . Phosphorylation by either protein kinase can result in DAT internalization ( non @-@ competitive reuptake inhibition ) , but PKC @-@ mediated phosphorylation alone induces reverse transporter function ( dopamine efflux ) . Amphetamine is also known to increase intracellular calcium , an effect which is associated with DAT phosphorylation through an unidentified Ca2 + / calmodulin @-@ dependent protein kinase ( CAMK ) -dependent pathway , in turn producing dopamine efflux . Through direct activation of G protein @-@ coupled inwardly @-@ rectifying potassium channels , TAAR1 reduces the firing rate of postsynaptic dopamine neurons , preventing a hyper @-@ dopaminergic state .
Amphetamine is also a substrate for the presynaptic vesicular monoamine transporter , VMAT2 . Following amphetamine uptake at VMAT2 , the synaptic vesicle releases dopamine molecules into the cytosol in exchange . Subsequently , the cytosolic dopamine molecules exit the presynaptic neuron via reverse transport at DAT .
= = = = Norepinephrine = = = =
Similar to dopamine , amphetamine dose @-@ dependently increases the level of synaptic norepinephrine , the direct precursor of epinephrine . Based upon neuronal TAAR1 mRNA expression , amphetamine is thought to affect norepinephrine analogously to dopamine . In other words , amphetamine induces TAAR1 @-@ mediated efflux and non @-@ competitive reuptake inhibition at phosphorylated NET , competitive NET reuptake inhibition , and norepinephrine release from VMAT2 .
= = = = Serotonin = = = =
Amphetamine exerts analogous , yet less pronounced , effects on serotonin as on dopamine and norepinephrine . Amphetamine affects serotonin via VMAT2 and , like norepinephrine , is thought to phosphorylate SERT via TAAR1 . Like dopamine , amphetamine has low , micromolar affinity at the human 5 @-@ HT1A receptor .
= = = = Other neurotransmitters , peptides , and hormones = = = =
Amphetamine has no direct effect on acetylcholine neurotransmission , but several studies have noted that acetylcholine release increases after its use . In lab animals , amphetamine increases acetylcholine levels in certain brain regions as a downstream effect . In humans , a similar phenomenon occurs via the ghrelin @-@ mediated cholinergic – dopaminergic reward link in the ventral tegmental area . Acute amphetamine administration in humans also increases endogenous opioid release in several brain structures in the reward system . Extracellular levels of glutamate , the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain , have been shown to increase upon exposure to amphetamine . This cotransmission effect was found in the mesolimbic pathway , an area of the brain implicated in reward , where amphetamine is known to affect dopamine neurotransmission .
Amphetamine also induces the selective release of histamine from mast cells and efflux from histaminergic neurons through VMAT2 . Acute amphetamine administration can also increase adrenocorticotropic hormone and corticosteroid levels in blood plasma by stimulating the hypothalamic – pituitary – adrenal axis .
= = = Pharmacokinetics = = =
The oral bioavailability of amphetamine varies with gastrointestinal pH ; it is well absorbed from the gut , and bioavailability is typically over 75 % for dextroamphetamine . Amphetamine is a weak base with a pKa of 9 – 10 ; consequently , when the pH is basic , more of the drug is in its lipid soluble free base form , and more is absorbed through the lipid @-@ rich cell membranes of the gut epithelium . Conversely , an acidic pH means the drug is predominantly in a water @-@ soluble cationic ( salt ) form , and less is absorbed . Approximately 15 – 40 % of amphetamine circulating in the bloodstream is bound to plasma proteins .
The half @-@ life of amphetamine enantiomers differ and vary with urine pH . At normal urine pH , the half @-@ lives of dextroamphetamine and levoamphetamine are 9 – 11 hours and 11 – 14 hours , respectively . An acidic diet will reduce the enantiomer half @-@ lives to 8 – 11 hours ; an alkaline diet will increase the range to 16 – 31 hours . The immediate @-@ release and extended release variants of salts of both isomers reach peak plasma concentrations at 3 hours and 7 hours post @-@ dose respectively . Amphetamine is eliminated via the kidneys , with 30 – 40 % of the drug being excreted unchanged at normal urinary pH . When the urinary pH is basic , amphetamine is in its free base form , so less is excreted . When urine pH is abnormal , the urinary recovery of amphetamine may range from a low of 1 % to a high of 75 % , depending mostly upon whether urine is too basic or acidic , respectively . Amphetamine is usually eliminated within two days of the last oral dose . Apparent half @-@ life and duration of effect increase with repeated use and accumulation of the drug .
The prodrug lisdexamfetamine is not as sensitive to pH as amphetamine when being absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract ; following absorption into the blood stream , it is converted by red blood cell @-@ associated enzymes to dextroamphetamine via hydrolysis . The elimination half @-@ life of lisdexamfetamine is generally less than one hour .
CYP2D6 , dopamine β @-@ hydroxylase , flavin @-@ containing monooxygenase 3 , butyrate @-@ CoA ligase , and glycine N @-@ acyltransferase are the enzymes known to metabolize amphetamine or its metabolites in humans . Amphetamine has a variety of excreted metabolic products , including 4 @-@ hydroxyamphetamine , 4 @-@ hydroxynorephedrine , 4 @-@ hydroxyphenylacetone , benzoic acid , hippuric acid , norephedrine , and phenylacetone . Among these metabolites , the active sympathomimetics are 4 ‑ hydroxyamphetamine , 4 ‑ hydroxynorephedrine , and norephedrine . The main metabolic pathways involve aromatic para @-@ hydroxylation , aliphatic alpha- and beta @-@ hydroxylation , N @-@ oxidation , N @-@ dealkylation , and deamination . The known pathways and detectable metabolites in humans include the following :
= = = Related endogenous compounds = = =
Amphetamine has a very similar structure and function to the endogenous trace amines , which are naturally occurring neurotransmitter molecules produced in the human body and brain . Among this group , the most closely related compounds are phenethylamine , the parent compound of amphetamine , and N @-@ methylphenethylamine , an isomer of amphetamine ( i.e. , it has an identical molecular formula ) . In humans , phenethylamine is produced directly from L @-@ phenylalanine by the aromatic amino acid decarboxylase ( AADC ) enzyme , which converts L @-@ DOPA into dopamine as well . In turn , N ‑ methylphenethylamine is metabolized from phenethylamine by phenylethanolamine N @-@ methyltransferase , the same enzyme that metabolizes norepinephrine into epinephrine . Like amphetamine , both phenethylamine and N ‑ methylphenethylamine regulate monoamine neurotransmission via TAAR1 ; unlike amphetamine , both of these substances are broken down by monoamine oxidase B , and therefore have a shorter half @-@ life than amphetamine .
= = Physical and chemical properties = =
Amphetamine is a methyl homolog of the mammalian neurotransmitter phenethylamine with the chemical formula C9H13N . The carbon atom adjacent to the primary amine is a stereogenic center , and amphetamine is composed of a racemic 1 : 1 mixture of two enantiomeric mirror images . This racemic mixture can be separated into its optical isomers : levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine . Physically , at room temperature , the pure free base of amphetamine is a mobile , colorless , and volatile liquid with a characteristically strong amine odor , and acrid , burning taste . Frequently prepared solid salts of amphetamine include amphetamine aspartate , hydrochloride , phosphate , saccharate , and sulfate , the last of which is the most common amphetamine salt . Amphetamine is also the parent compound of its own structural class , which includes a number of psychoactive derivatives . In organic chemistry , amphetamine is an excellent chiral ligand for the stereoselective synthesis of 1 @,@ 1 ' -bi @-@ 2 @-@ naphthol .
= = = Substituted derivatives = = =
The substituted derivatives of amphetamine , or " substituted amphetamines " , are a broad range of chemicals that contain amphetamine as a " backbone " ; specifically , this chemical class includes derivative compounds that are formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in the amphetamine core structure with substituents . The class includes amphetamine itself , stimulants like methamphetamine , serotonergic empathogens like MDMA , and decongestants like ephedrine , among other subgroups .
= = = Synthesis = = =
Since the first preparation was reported in 1887 , numerous synthetic routes to amphetamine have been developed . The most common route of both legal and illicit amphetamine synthesis employs a non @-@ metal reduction known as the Leuckart reaction ( method 1 ) . In the first step , a reaction between phenylacetone and formamide , either using additional formic acid or formamide itself as a reducing agent , yields N @-@ formylamphetamine . This intermediate is then hydrolyzed using hydrochloric acid , and subsequently basified , extracted with organic solvent , concentrated , and distilled to yield the free base . The free base is then dissolved in an organic solvent , sulfuric acid added , and amphetamine precipitates out as the sulfate salt .
A number of chiral resolutions have been developed to separate the two enantiomers of amphetamine . For example , racemic amphetamine can be treated with d @-@ tartaric acid to form a diastereoisomeric salt which is fractionally crystallized to yield dextroamphetamine . Chiral resolution remains the most economical method for obtaining optically pure amphetamine on a large scale . In addition , several enantioselective syntheses of amphetamine have been developed . In one example , optically pure ( R ) -1 @-@ phenyl @-@ ethanamine is condensed with phenylacetone to yield a chiral Schiff base . In the key step , this intermediate is reduced by catalytic hydrogenation with a transfer of chirality to the carbon atom alpha to the amino group . Cleavage of the benzylic amine bond by hydrogenation yields optically pure dextroamphetamine .
A large number of alternative synthetic routes to amphetamine have been developed based on classic organic reactions . One example is the Friedel – Crafts alkylation of chlorobenzene by allyl chloride to yield beta chloropropylbenzene which is then reacted with ammonia to produce racemic amphetamine ( method 2 ) . Another example employs the Ritter reaction ( method 3 ) . In this route , allylbenzene is reacted acetonitrile in sulfuric acid to yield an organosulfate which in turn is treated with sodium hydroxide to give amphetamine via an acetamide intermediate . A third route starts with ethyl 3 @-@ oxobutanoate which through a double alkylation with methyl iodide followed by benzyl chloride can be converted into 2 @-@ methyl @-@ 3 @-@ phenyl @-@ propanoic acid . This synthetic intermediate can be transformed into amphetamine using either a Hofmann or Curtius rearrangement ( method 4 ) .
A significant number of amphetamine syntheses feature a reduction of a nitro , imine , oxime or other nitrogen @-@ containing functional groups . In one such example , a Knoevenagel condensation of benzaldehyde with nitroethane yields phenyl @-@ 2 @-@ nitropropene . The double bond and nitro group of this intermediate is reduced using either catalytic hydrogenation or by treatment with lithium aluminium hydride ( method 5 ) . Another method is the reaction of phenylacetone with ammonia , producing an imine intermediate that is reduced to the primary amine using hydrogen over a palladium catalyst or lithium aluminum hydride ( method 6 ) .
= = = Detection in body fluids = = =
Amphetamine is frequently measured in urine or blood as part of a drug test for sports , employment , poisoning diagnostics , and forensics . Techniques such as immunoassay , which is the most common form of amphetamine test , may cross @-@ react with a number of sympathomimetic drugs . Chromatographic methods specific for amphetamine are employed to prevent false positive results . Chiral separation techniques may be employed to help distinguish the source of the drug , whether prescription amphetamine , prescription amphetamine prodrugs , ( e.g. , selegiline ) , over @-@ the @-@ counter drug products that contain levomethamphetamine , or illicitly obtained substituted amphetamines . Several prescription drugs produce amphetamine as a metabolite , including benzphetamine , clobenzorex , famprofazone , fenproporex , lisdexamfetamine , mesocarb , methamphetamine , prenylamine , and selegiline , among others . These compounds may produce positive results for amphetamine on drug tests . Amphetamine is generally only detectable by a standard drug test for approximately 24 hours , although a high dose may be detectable for two to four days .
For the assays , a study noted that an enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique ( EMIT ) assay for amphetamine and methamphetamine may produce more false positives than liquid chromatography – tandem mass spectrometry . Gas chromatography – mass spectrometry ( GC – MS ) of amphetamine and methamphetamine with the derivatizing agent ( S ) - ( − ) -trifluoroacetylprolyl chloride allows for the detection of methamphetamine in urine . GC – MS of amphetamine and methamphetamine with the chiral derivatizing agent Mosher 's acid chloride allows for the detection of both dextroamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine in urine . Hence , the latter method may be used on samples that test positive using other methods to help distinguish between the various sources of the drug .
= = History , society , and culture = =
Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 in Germany by Romanian chemist Lazăr Edeleanu who named it phenylisopropylamine ; its stimulant effects remained unknown until 1927 , when it was independently resynthesized by Gordon Alles and reported to have sympathomimetic properties . Amphetamine had no pharmacological use until 1934 , when Smith , Kline and French began selling it as an inhaler under the trade name Benzedrine as a decongestant . Benzedrine sulfate was introduced three years later and found a wide variety of medical applications , including narcolepsy . During World War II , amphetamine and methamphetamine were used extensively by both the Allied and Axis forces for their stimulant and performance @-@ enhancing effects . As the addictive properties of the drug became known , governments began to place strict controls on the sale of amphetamine . For example , during the early 1970s in the United States , amphetamine became a schedule II controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act . In spite of strict government controls , amphetamine has been used legally or illicitly by people from a variety of backgrounds , including authors , musicians , mathematicians , and athletes .
Amphetamine is still illegally synthesized today in clandestine labs and sold on the black market , primarily in European countries . Among European Union ( EU ) member states , 1 @.@ 2 million young adults used illicit amphetamine or methamphetamine in 2013 . During 2012 , approximately 5 @.@ 9 metric tons of illicit amphetamine were seized within EU member states ; the " street price " of illicit amphetamine within the EU ranged from € 6 – 38 per gram during the same period . Outside Europe , the illicit market for amphetamine is much smaller than the market for methamphetamine and MDMA .
= = = Legal status = = =
As a result of the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances , amphetamine became a schedule II controlled substance , as defined in the treaty , in all ( 183 ) state parties . Consequently , it is heavily regulated in most countries . Some countries , such as South Korea and Japan , have banned substituted amphetamines even for medical use . In other nations , such as Canada ( schedule I drug ) , the Netherlands ( List I drug ) , the United States ( schedule II drug ) , Australia ( schedule 8 ) , Thailand ( category 1 narcotic ) , and United Kingdom ( class B drug ) , amphetamine is in a restrictive national drug schedule that allows for its use as a medical treatment .
= = = Pharmaceutical products = = =
Several currently prescribed amphetamine formulations contain both enantiomers , including Adderall , Dyanavel XR , and Evekeo , the last of which is racemic amphetamine sulfate . Amphetamine is also prescribed in enantiopure and prodrug form as dextroamphetamine and lisdexamfetamine respectively . Lisdexamfetamine is structurally different from amphetamine , and is inactive until it metabolizes into dextroamphetamine . The free base of racemic amphetamine was previously available as Benzedrine , Psychedrine , and Sympatedrine . Levoamphetamine was previously available as Cydril . Many current amphetamine pharmaceuticals are salts due to the comparatively high volatility of the free base . However , oral suspension and orally disintegrating tablet ( ODT ) dosage forms composed of the free base were introduced in 2015 and 2016 . Some of the current brands and their generic equivalents are listed below .
= = Reference notes = =
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= Mikengreg =
Mikengreg is an independent video game development team of Mike Boxleiter and Greg Wohlwend . Their games include Solipskier , Gasketball , and TouchTone . The two met in a game development class at Iowa State University and later began to collaborate on the Adobe Flash game Dinowaurs . When the project was funded , they founded Intuition Games with other college friends in Ames , Iowa , where they worked on small Flash games such as Gray , Lifecraft , and Fig . 8 for Flash game sites such as Kongregate . Dinowaurs was one of the first games signed for the Kongregate platform . Their other games involved controlling the weather , influencing individuals in a riot , and riding a bicycle . Boxleiter and Wohlwend worked on several additional games that were put on hiatus .
They later became Mikengreg in 2010 and released Solipskier in August for both Flash and iOS later that year . Its success let them take a more experimental approach towards their next game , the free @-@ to @-@ play Gasketball . Mikengreg ran out of money during the game 's development and the two lived on friends ' couches . The game was reviewed favorably upon its August 2012 launch , but did not earn near the developers ' estimates . Their next game , TouchTone ( 2015 ) , spent two years in development .
= = Intuition Games = =
Boxleiter and Wohlwend met in an experimental video game development class at Iowa State University . Wohlwend had attempted to help Boxleiter with a project , but quit after drawing a few aliens . Boxleiter said he " didn 't like [ Wohlwend ] much after that " . They met again as coworkers at the university 's Virtual Reality Application Center during Boxleiter 's final year of college ( Wohlwend 's penultimate year ) . Upon discovering their close interests , they began to work on an Adobe Flash game named Dinowaurs while they completed college . Boxleiter graduated in 2007 with a degree in computer science , and Wohlwend a year later with a degree in graphic design . They concluded that they needed a company to make money while they worked on the game with collaborators , and around May 2007 , founded Intuition Games at the university 's Research Park . They decided to stay in Ames , Iowa due to its financial feasibility and local connections , but two other members of the team , Josh Larson and Ted Martens , lived in Des Moines and Chicago , respectively . The team met as students at Iowa State through work and game development circles . They saw Flash games as an easy entry point into full @-@ time self @-@ employment , but planned to eventually work on console platforms such as WiiWare . Before Dinowaurs , the team made a game about a destructive porpoise , which was abandoned when Dinowaurs received funding .
In their development process , Boxleiter and Wohlwend both proposed and worked on each other 's ideas , and would drop the ideas they found unexciting . The two also built games from keywords and brainstorming , and would flesh out the game mechanics through " heated " argument . Their labor as a team was divided in that Wohlwend always did the art and Boxleiter the programming , as reflective of their skills at the time . The pair agreed to an assessment of their partnership as " left @-@ brain right @-@ brain " , and agreed that " editing " — the process of iterating through revisions — was central to their joint work . As they worked , they always retained their prototypes . They both appreciated the " creative freedom " of being self @-@ employed , though they struggled with the business aspects , relative workplace " isolation " , low salaries , and lack of job stability . Both were motivated to do their own work instead of contracted tasks . They thought of themselves as artists and of their work as experimental . Boxleiter and Wohlwend worked long hours when making the Flash games , which they found exciting and unsustainable . At Intuition , they worked on games such as Dinowaurs , Gray , Fig . 8 , and Liferaft and participated in at least six game jams . As of April 2010 , they had created 10 games together .
= = = Dinowaurs = = =
Intuition 's first game , Dinowaurs , is a strategy and action game where two players compete as dinosaurs to seize the most cavemen settlements on a single screen . Captured settlements provide resources for upgrades to the players ' dinosaurs . The object of this arms race is to kill the other dinosaur . It features online matchmaking . The game was built from an unfinished Flash @-@ based multiplayer strategy game started by Boxleiter and an image of a stegosaurus with a jetpack drawn by Martens . The team combined the concepts for a strategy game about dinosaurs fighting for food . They struggled with long @-@ distance communication , but used a project management website and Skype to stay in touch . When looking for a platform , Intuition originally pitched the game with a clay dinosaur to Adult Swim — who was funding Flash games — but was declined for not being " edgy enough " . In June , they then tried then @-@ new Flash site Kongregate via a connection Larson had made with its CEO Jim Greer at the 2007 Game Developers Conference . He asked the team to wait for their new Director of Games to be hired , who ended up being Intuition 's contact at Adult Swim . The contact had liked the idea and thought the game worked better for Kongregate than did for Adult Swim , and so funded the game by November 2007 as one of the first five for the Kongregate platform . The package was a one @-@ year browser exclusivity agreement that let Intuition keep the intellectual property .
Dinowaurs was finished in two years for a 2009 release . Their later games would only take a few months apiece in comparison . They abandoned the use of design documents after Dinowaurs , and instead chose to refine and experiment in process . IndieGames.com reported mixed reviews from players and recommended the game as " good solid fun " for newcomers and veterans . The Escapist described the game as similar to Scorched Earth and " surprisingly complex " with its need for three tutorials . He complimented its " faux @-@ retro " soundtrack and aesthetics , which he felt outweighed the learning curve 's difficulty .
= = = Other games = = =
Intuition released Effing Hail and Gray around April 2009 . Players in action game Effing Hail control hail and wind to destroy the most buildings and midair objects within a time limit . The hail grows in size when the wind is used to suspend it in air . The game was published through Kongregate . As an example of their more experimental games , Intuition built Gray — a game about " political consciousness " — as a result of their frustrations during the 2008 U.S. presidential election . Players control a single character and try to end a riot by influencing other individuals in the crowd . The game was featured at IndieCade in 2009 .
Fig . 8 @.@ is based on one of Wohlwend 's college art projects . It went unused on their whiteboard for four months until they needed an idea , whereupon Boxleiter added game mechanics to the visuals . It took about ten hours to prototype the controls , and they tested a ten @-@ wheel bike before deciding on two . The scrolling camera was inspired by a game Boxleiter had been playing called String Theory , and they added the soundtrack last . Fig . 8 was funded by a sponsor . Boxleiter considers Gray and Fig . 8 to be " small games " . As projects , he considered them " more like vacations ... than actual work " .
Intuition attempted to fund their next game , Liferaft , via crowdfunding site Kickstarter . The game is set in a single day within an " abandoned testing facility ... in a post @-@ apocalyptic sci @-@ fi " world . The player @-@ character is a young woman named Goss who had been surviving off of lichen until a giant squid crashes into the room and allows her escape . Liferaft was built for release in three episodes : her escape , " revelation " , and " resolution " . The core gameplay revolves around a " Bionic Commando @-@ style grappling hook " . Intuition released a two @-@ level Flash demo where the game had 16 @-@ bit era graphics and music composed by Danny Baranowsky of Canabalt and Fathom . They expected development to take six months between November 2009 and February 2010 . They canceled the Kickstarter and put the project on hiatus in October 2009 for two small Flash games and an intern 's Unity project .
In March 2010 and under the moniker Mikengreg , Boxleiter and Wohlwend 's 4fourths was chosen among six games out of more than 150 submissions for inclusion in Kokoromi 's Gamma IV showcase . Submissions were based on the theme of " one button games " . The four @-@ player game is played with two teams each controlling spaceships on each side of the screen . One player on each team controls the ship 's vertical height and the other fires the guns , which aim towards the center of the screen . Since every player only has one button , the vertical height controls boost the ship vertically when the button is pressed and leaves the ship to slowly descend when unpressed . The teams work together to shoot at and destroy enemy boss ships that travel through the center of the screen . Teams can also shoot each other 's ships as friendly fire is activated . The game was displayed at Gamma IV in San Francisco and at the 2010 Game Developers Conference . 4fourths was Michael Rose of IndieGame.com 's favorite game of the Gamma IV selections . It was later chosen for Brandon Boyer 's Wild Rumpus London event in September 2011 .
Mikengreg announced Liferaft : Zero and Solipskier in November 2010 . The former is a " prequel teaser " to the Flash platform game Liferaft that they had announced the previous year , a game of trial @-@ based challenges with wall @-@ jumping and grappling wherein girl clones attempt to swing and jump around test chambers to reach and ring a bell . Wohlwend and Boxleiter made the shorter version to limit the scope creep of the overall project . IndieGames.com named the Flash game their third best browser platformer of the year . Their other game , 4fourths , was put on hiatus for lack of resources . They were interested in making games outside the Flash market .
= = Solipskier = =
Their first game as Mikengreg was Solipskier , where the player 's finger draws the ground for the on @-@ screen skier to pass through a level filled with gates , tunnels , and walls . It was designed as a Flash game , which set the limitations for its mechanics . The game concept came from a brainstorming session about parallax scrolling , and was revised in fits of creativity . They paired the parallax scrolling with speed and began to prototype . Boxleiter first understood its potential when publishers fought for the bid to the game . They then decided to develop for iOS in addition to Flash , and to release both versions simultaneously . It was released on August 29 , 2010 and became their first game to receive public appreciation . Solipskier for iOS made around $ 70 @,@ 000 in its first two months ( as compared to $ 15 @,@ 000 from the Flash release ) , which gave them enough stability to branch out into non @-@ Flash platforms .
Boxleiter spoke at the 2012 Game Developers Conference Indie Soapbox on how indie stars were made from hard work and not from the Independent Games Festival . He added that winning an award at the festival for Solipskier was an insignificant aspect of his career .
= = Gasketball = =
Riding the earnings from Solipskier , Mikengreg continued to pay themselves their same salary but now had the means to try new ideas . Wohlwend estimated that they discarded about six " fairly polished prototypes " over the development of their next game , Gasketball . They were able to live on $ 20 – 25 @,@ 000 a year each in Iowa for the next two years while working on the new game . Wohlwend made somewhat more income due to other collaborations , such as Puzzlejuice with Asher Vollmer , but shared his income with Boxleiter . Even though Solipskier was successful , the duo did not have a following comparable to indie developers like Team Meat and thus felt like their external pressure was low . Instead , their pressure was internal . Wohlwend said he worked 100 @-@ hour weeks with no weekends or vacations while living off of the Solipskier funds . In making Gasketball , Boxleiter and Wohlwend felt that their game quality had improved continually , but found the idea of a million @-@ person audience " daunting " and Wohlwend questioned whether he could even recreate Solipskier 's success . When they ran out of money , Boxleiter borrowed money from his parents , and eventually they both went homeless , living off of the couches of friends .
Gasketball was released for iPad on August 9 , 2012 . They had decided to release the game as what they deemed to be an ethically non @-@ coercive free @-@ to @-@ play game , with a free base game and in @-@ app purchases for the extended content . Not as many players paid for the content as expected . This was due , in part , to the players ' difficulty in finding the purchase function . The game had been downloaded 200 @,@ 000 times in its August 2012 launch week and was briefly ranked near the top of an iTunes top downloads ranking , though it did not break the top 200 grossing chart .
= = TouchTone = =
After Gasketball 's release , Boxleiter and Wohlwend planned a celebratory road trip to a game jam in Victoria , British Columbia . The game did not fare as expected , so Boxleiter wanted to use the jam to create " something new , ... something really small and perfect " . By the end of the two @-@ day jam , the core mirror reflection mechanics of TouchTone were in place , though it would take two years of sporadic work to finalize the remainder of the game . In TouchTone , the player monitors phone calls as part of a government surveillance program to find public threats . The story is told through a series of reflection puzzles wherein the player swipes the screen to reflect a beam around a room to its intended destination .
Mikengreg felt that their first theme of light , prisms , and audio signal too closely mimicked " a hacking minigame from a bigger AAA game like BioShock or System Shock " , but eventually paired the concept with a satirical Edward Snowden theme following the mid @-@ 2013 global surveillance disclosures . Their original efforts were jocular , but their concept became more serious as the story and " political message " grew deeper . Boxleiter wrote most of the script , which is over 20 @,@ 000 words . It was his first effort at professional writing , and it took him five months . He and Wohlwend would conference after each chapter for coherency . Boxleiter wanted the story to explore the " questions ... floating around the national consciousness " rather than be " heavy @-@ handed " and prescriptive . They playtested the game in public at the theater in Logan Square , Chicago , though they acknowledged difficulty in playtesting the story 's private experience . Mikengreg decided against including an option to skip puzzles , which they felt would spoil the game and the player 's capacity to adapt to increasing difficulty . They called this philosophy the " Derek Yu ( of Spelunky ) school of game design " . TouchTone was released on March 19 , 2015 for iOS . Review aggregator Metacritic characterized its reviews as generally favorable .
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= Agrippa ( A Book of the Dead ) =
Agrippa ( A Book of the Dead ) is a work of art created by science fiction novelist William Gibson , artist Dennis Ashbaugh and publisher Kevin Begos Jr. in 1992 . The work consists of a 300 @-@ line semi @-@ autobiographical electronic poem by Gibson , embedded in an artist 's book by Ashbaugh . Gibson 's text focused on the ethereal nature of memories ( the title is taken from a photo album ) . Its principal notoriety arose from the fact that the poem , stored on a 3 @.@ 5 " floppy disk , was programmed to encrypt itself after a single use ; similarly , the pages of the artist 's book were treated with photosensitive chemicals , effecting the gradual fading of the words and images from the book 's first exposure to light .
= = Origin and concept = =
The impetus for the initiation of the project was Kevin Begos Jr . , a publisher of museum @-@ quality manuscripts motivated by disregard for the commercialism of the art world , who suggested to abstract painter Dennis Ashbaugh that they " put out an art book on computer that vanishes " . Ashbaugh — who despite his " heavy art @-@ world resume " was bored with the abstract impressionist paintings he was doing — took the suggestion seriously , and developed it further .
A few years beforehand , Ashbaugh had written a fan letter to cyberpunk novelist William Gibson , whose oeuvre he had admired , and the pair had struck up a telephone friendship . Shortly after the project had germinated in the minds of Begos and Ashbaugh , they contacted and recruited Gibson . The project exemplified Gibson 's deep ambivalence towards technologically advanced futurity , and as The New York Times expressed it , was " designed to challenge conventional notions about books and art while extracting money from collectors of both " .
Some people have said that they think this is a scam or pure hype … [ m ] aybe fun , maybe interesting , but still a scam . But Gibson thinks of it as becoming a memory , which he believes is more real than anything you can actually see .
The project manifested as a poem written by Gibson incorporated into an artist 's book created by Ashbaugh ; as such it was as much a work of collaborative conceptual art as poetry . Gibson stated that Ashbaugh 's design " eventually included a supposedly self @-@ devouring floppy @-@ disk intended to display the text only once , then eat itself . " Ashbaugh was gleeful at the dilemma this would pose to librarians : in order to register the copyright of the book , he had to send two copies to the United States Library of Congress , who , in order to classify it had to read it , and in the process , necessarily had to destroy it . The creators had initially intended to infect the disks with a computer virus , but declined to after considering the potential damage to the computer systems of innocents .
= = Release and replication = =
OK , sit down and pay attention . We 're only going to say this once .
The work was premiered on December 9 , 1992 , at The Kitchen , an art space in Greenwich Village , New York City . The performance — known as " The Transmission " — consisted of the public incomplete reading of the poem by illusionist Penn Jillette , recorded and simultaneously transmitted to several other cities . The poem was inscribed on a sculptural magnetic disk which had been vacuum @-@ sealed until the event 's commencement , and was programmed to erase itself upon exposure to air . Contrary to numerous colourful reports , neither this disk nor the diskettes embedded in the artist 's book were ever actually hacked in any strict sense .
Academic researcher Matthew Kirschenbaum has reported that a pirated text of the poem was released the next day on MindVox , " an edgy New York City @-@ based electronic bulletin board " . Kirschenbaum considers Mindvox , an interface between the dark web and the global Internet , to have been " an ideal initial host " . The text spread rapidly from that point on , first on FTP servers and anonymous mailers and later via USENET and listserv email . Since Gibson did not use email at the time , fans sent copies of the pirated text to his fax machine .
The precise manner in which the text was obtained for MindVox is unclear , although the initial custodian of the text , known only as " Templar " attached to it an introductory note in which he claimed credit . Begos claimed that a troupe of New York University students representing themselves as documentarians attended The Transmission and made a videotape recording of the screen as it displayed the text as an accompaniment of Jillette 's reading . Kirschenbaum speculates that this group included the offline persona of Templar or one of his associates . According to this account , ostensibly endorsed by Templar in a post to Slashdot in February 2000 , the students then transcribed the poem from the tape and within hours had uploaded it to MindVox . However , according to a dissenting account by hacktivist and MindVox co @-@ founder Patrick K. Kroupa , subterfuge prior to The Transmission elicited a betrayal of trust which yielded the uploaders the text . Kirschenbaum declined to elaborate on the specifics of the Kroupa conjecture , which he declared himself " not at liberty to disclose " .
Agrippa owes its transmission and continuing availability to a complex network of individuals , communities , ideologies , markets , technologies , and motives . Only in the most heroic reading of the events … is Agrippa saved for posterity solely by virtue of the knight Templar . … Today , the 404 File Not Found messages that Web browsing readers of Agrippa inevitably encounter … are more than just false leads ; they are latent affirmations of the work 's original act of erasure that allow the text to stage anew all of its essential points about artifacts , memory , and technology . " Because the struggle for the text is the text . "
On December 9 , 2008 ( the sixteenth anniversary of the original Transmission ) , " The Agrippa Files " , working with a scholarly team at the University of Maryland , released an emulated run of the entire poem ( derived from an original diskette loaned by a collector ) and an hour 's worth of " bootleg " footage shot covertly at the Americas Society ( the source of the text that was posted on MindVox ) .
= = = Cryptography = = =
Since its debut in 1992 , the mystery of Agrippa remained hidden for 20 years . Although many had tried to hack the code and decrypt the program , the uncompiled source code was lost long ago . Alan Liu and his team at " The Agrippa Files " created an extensive website with tools and resources to crack the Agrippa Code . They collaborated with Matthew Kirschenbaum at the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities and the Digital Forensics Lab , and Quinn DuPont , a PhD student of cryptography from the University of Toronto , in calling for the aid of cryptographers to figure out how the program works by creating " Cracking the Agrippa Code : The Challenge " , which enlisted participants to solve the intentional scrambling of the poem in exchange for prizes . The code was successfully cracked by Robert Xiao in late July 2012 .
There is no encryption algorithm present in the Agrippa binary ; consequently , the visual encryption effect that displays when the poem has finished is a ruse . The visual effect is the result of running the decrypted ciphertext ( in memory ) through the re @-@ purposed bit @-@ scrambling decryption algorithm , and then abandoning the text in memory . Only the fake genetic code is written back to disk .
The encryption resembles the RSA algorithm . This algorithm encodes data in 3 @-@ byte blocks . First , the each byte is permuted through an 8 @-@ position permutation , then the bits are split into two 12 @-@ bit integers ( by taking the low 4 bits of the second byte and the 8 bits of the first byte as the first 12 @-@ bit integer , and the 8 bits of the third byte and the 4 high bits of the second integer as the second 12 @-@ bit integer ) . Each is individually encrypted by taking them to the 3491st power , mod 4097 ; the bits are then reassembled into 3 bytes . The encrypted text is then stored in a string variable as part of the program . To shroud the would be visible and noticeable text it is compressed with the simple Lzw before final storage . As the Macintosh Common Lisp compiler compresses the main program code into the executable , this was not that necessary .
In order to prevent a second running of the program it corrupts itself when run . The program simply overwrites itself with a 6000 byte long DNA @-@ like code at a certain position . Archival documents suggest that the original plan was to use a series of ASCII 1 's to corrupt the binary , but at some point in development a change was made to use fake genetic code , in keeping with the visual motifs in the book . The genetic code has a codon entropy of 5 @.@ 97 bits / codon , much higher than any natural DNA sequence known . However , the ciphertext was not overwritten .
= = = = Weakness = = = =
A memory dump of Mini vMac can be obtained with Linux ckpt or a similar tool after the Agrippa program has been loaded . The executable code could be reverse engineered .
The encryption itself due to the block cipher exhibited a regular pattern due to repeated text in the original plaintext .
The LZW compression itself does not hide the letter frequencies .
The scramble display has exactly the same letter frequencies as the underlying plaintext .
= = Content and editions = =
The book was published in 1992 in two limited editions — Deluxe and Small — by Kevin Begos Jr . Publishing , New York City . The deluxe edition came in a 16 by 21 ½ -inch ( 41 cm × 55 cm ) metal mesh case sheathed in Kevlar ( a polymer used to make bulletproof vests ) and designed to look like a buried relic . Inside is a book of 93 ragged and charred pages sewn by hand and bound in stained and singed linen by Karl Foulkes ; the book gives the impression of having survived a fire ; it was described by Peter Schwenger as " a black box recovered from some unspecified disaster . " The edition includes pages of DNA sequences set in double columns of 42 lines each like the Gutenberg Bible , and copperplate aquatint etchings by Ashbaugh editioned by Peter Pettingill on Fabriano Tiepolo paper . The monochromatic etchings depict stylised chromosomes , a hallmark of Ashbaugh 's work , accompanied by imagery of a pistol , camera or in some instances simple line drawings — all allusions to Gibson 's contribution .
The deluxe edition was set in Monotype Gill Sans at Golgonooza Letter Foundry , and printed on Rives heavyweight text by Begos and the Sun Hill Press . The final 60 pages of the book were then fused together , with a hollowed @-@ out section cut into the centre , containing the self @-@ erasing diskette on which the text of Gibson 's poem was encrypted . The encryption was the work of a pseudonymous computer programmer , " BRASH " , assisted by Electronic Frontier Foundation founders John Perry Barlow and John Gilmore . The deluxe edition was originally priced at US $ 1500 ( later $ 2000 ) , and each copy is unique to some degree because of handmade or hand @-@ finished elements .
The small edition was sold for $ 450 ; like the deluxe edition , it was set in Monotype Gill Sans , but in single columns . It was printed on Mohawk Superfine text by the Sun Hill Press , with the reproduction of the etchings printed on a Canon laser printer . The edition was then Smythe sewn at Spectrum Bindery and enclosed in a solander box . A bronze @-@ boxed collectors ' copy was also released , and retailed at $ 7 @,@ 500 .
Fewer than 95 deluxe editions of Agrippa are extant , although the exact number is unknown and is the source of considerable mystery . The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses a deluxe edition , numbered 4 of 10 . A publicly accessible copy of the deluxe edition is available at the Rare Books Division of the New York Public Library and a small copy resides at Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo , Michigan , while the Frances Mulhall Achilles Library at the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City hosts a promotional prospectus . The Victoria and Albert Museum 's copy was first exhibited in a display entitled The Book and Beyond , held in the Museum 's 20th Century Gallery from April to October 1995 . The same copy was subsequently also included in a V & A display entitled Digital Pioneers , from 2009 – 2010 . Another copy of the book was exhibited in the 2003 – 2004 exhibition Ninety from the Nineties at the New York Public Library . Gibson at one point claimed never to have seen a copy of the printed book , spurring speculation that no copies had actually been made . Many copies have since been documented , and Gibson 's signature was noted on the copy held by the New York Public Library . In 2011 , the Bodleian Library 's Special Collections Department at the University of Oxford acquired Kevin Begos ' copy of Agrippa , as well as the archive of Begos ' papers related to the work .
= = Poem = =
The construction of the book and the subject matter of the poem within it share a metaphorical connection in the decay of memory . In this light , critic Peter Schwenger asserts that Agrippa can be understood as organized by two ideas : the death of Gibson 's father , and the disappearance or absence of the book itself . In this sense , it instantiates the ephemeral nature of all text .
= = = Theme and form = = =
The poem is a detailed description of several objects , including a photo album and the camera that took the pictures in it , and is essentially about the nostalgia that the speaker , presumably Gibson himself , feels towards the details of his family 's history : the painstaking descriptions of the houses they lived in , the cars they drove , and even their pets .
It starts around 1919 and moves up to today , or possibly beyond . If it works , it makes the reader uncomfortably aware of how much we tend to accept the contemporary media version of the past . You can see it in Westerns , the way the ' mise @-@ en @-@ scene ' and the collars on cowboys change through time . It 's never really the past ; it 's always a version of your own time .
In its original form , the text of the poem was supposed to fade from the page and , in Gibson 's own words , " eat itself " off of the diskette enclosed with the book . The reader would , then , be left with only the memory of the text , much like the speaker is left with only the memory of his home town and his family after moving to Canada from South Carolina , in the course of the poem ( as Gibson himself did during the Vietnam War ) .
= = = " The mechanism " = = =
The poem contains a motif of " the mechanism " , described as " Forever / Dividing that from this " , and which can take the form of the camera or of the ancient gun that misfires in the speaker 's hands . Technology , " the mechanism " , is the agent of memory , which transforms subjective experience into allegedly objective records ( photography ) . It is also the agent of life and death , one moment dispensing lethal bullets , but also likened to the life @-@ giving qualities of sex . Shooting the gun is " [ l ] ike the first time you put your mouth / on a woman " .
The poem is , then , not merely about memory , but how memories are formed from subjective experience , and how those memories compare to mechanically @-@ reproduced recordings . In the poem , " the mechanism " is strongly associated with recording , which can replace subjective experience . Insomuch as memories constitute our identities , " the mechanism " thus represents the destruction of the self via recordings . Hence both cameras , as devices of recording , and guns , as instruments of destruction , are part of the same mechanism — dividing that ( memory , identity , life ) from this ( recordings , anonymity , death ) .
= = Critical reception and influence = =
Agrippa was extremely influential — as a sigil for the artistic community to appreciate the potential of electronic media — for the extent to which it entered public consciousness . It caused a fierce controversy in the art world , among museums and among libraries . It challenged established notions of permanence of art and literature , and , as Ashbaugh intended , raised significant problems for archivists seeking to preserve it for the benefit of future generations . Agrippa was also used as the key of a book cipher in the Cicada 3301 mystery .
Agrippa was particularly well received by critics , with digital media theorist Peter Lunenfeld describing it in 2001 as " one of the most evocative hypertexts published in the 1990s " . Professor of English literature John Johnson has claimed that the importance of Agrippa stems not only from its " foregrounding of mediality in an assemblage of texts " , but also from the fact that " media in this work are explicitly as passageways to the realm of the dead " . English Professor Raymond Malewitz argues that " the poem 's stanzas form a metaphorical DNA fingerprint that reveals Gibson 's life to be , paradoxically , a novel repetition of his father 's and grandfather 's lives . " The Cambridge History of Twentieth @-@ Century English Literature , which described the poem as " a mournful text " , praised Agrippa 's inventive use of digital format . However , academic Joseph Tabbi remarked in a 2008 paper that Agrippa was among those works that are " canonized before they have been read , resisted , and reconsidered among fellow authors within an institutional environment that persists in time and finds outlets in many media " .
In a lecture at the exhibition of Agrippa at the Center for Book Arts in New York City , semiotician Marshall Blonsky of New York University drew an allusion between the project and the work of two French literary figures — philosopher Maurice Blanchot ( author of " The Absence of the Book " ) , and poet Stéphane Mallarmé , a 19th @-@ century forerunner of semiotics and deconstruction . In response to Blonsky 's analysis that " [ t ] he collaborators in Agrippa are responding to a historical condition of language , a modern skepticism about it " , Gibson disparagingly commented " Honest to God , these academics who think it 's all some sort of big @-@ time French philosophy — that 's a scam . Those guys worship Jerry Lewis , they get our pop culture all wrong . "
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= Girl in Mirror =
Girl in Mirror ( sometimes Girl in the Mirror ) is a 1964 porcelain @-@ enamel @-@ on @-@ steel pop art painting by Roy Lichtenstein that is considered to exist in between eight and ten editions . One edition was part of a $ 14 million 2012 lawsuit regarding a 2009 sale , while another sold in 2010 for $ 4 @.@ 9 million . Although it uses Ben @-@ Day dots like many other Lichtenstein works , it was inspired by the New York City Subway rather than directly from a panel of a romance comics work .
= = Analysis = =
Girl in Mirror uses Ben @-@ Day dots like many of his other works , but it was inspired by the hard reflective finish of signs in the New York City Subway system and , in turn , they inspired his subsequent ceramic head works . Enamel facilitated a more mechanical appearance than even his paintings while remaining in two dimensions . After 1963 , Lichtenstein 's comics @-@ based women " ... look hard , crisp , brittle , and uniformly modish in appearance , as if they all came out of the same pot of makeup . " This particular example is one of several that is cropped so closely that the hair flows beyond the edges of the canvas .
= = Editions = =
One edition of this painting was the subject of a legal dispute involving 2009 sale without consent . Another edition of this work sold at auction at Christie 's ( New York , Rockefeller Plaza ) Post @-@ War and Contemporary Evening Sale for $ 4 @,@ 898 @,@ 500 ( premium ) on November 10 , 2010 although it was only expected to sell in the $ 3 – 4 million range . Girl in Mirror exists in eight editions according to most , however , " Clare Bell of the Roy Lichtenstein Foundation said that inventory records for the Leo Castelli Gallery , where Lichtenstein showed in the 1960s , say that there may be 10 versions of the work , some of them original proofs " . One edition exhibited at the Gagosian Gallery in New York in 2008 . There had been three previous auction sales of this work : May 5 , 1986 at Sotheby 's New York for $ 100 @,@ 000 USD ( hammer ) , May 4 , 1987 at Sotheby 's New York for $ 150 @,@ 000 USD ( hammer ) , and May 15 , 2007 Sotheby 's New York for $ 3 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 ( hammer ) / $ 4 @,@ 072 @,@ 000 ( premium ) .
= = 2012 lawsuit = =
On January 18 , 2012 , a suit was filed in Manhattan in New York State Court in a case related to two earlier federal cases . The suit alleges both lack of consent and fraudulent misrepresentation of the painting 's condition . The suit was for $ 14 million , including $ 10 million in punitive damages . 93 @-@ year @-@ old Jan Cowles claims that in 2008 her son , New York art dealer Charles Cowles , transferred a version of Girl in Mirror to Larry Gagosian for sale without her consent . The suit claims that Gagosian fraudulently claimed the painting was damaged and sold it between August and December 2009 for $ 2 million , while charging a $ 1 million commission , rather than sell at or above the $ 3 million low estimate for a negotiated commission of $ 500 @,@ 000 . As a result of the edition shown during the summer 2008 " Roy Lichtenstein : Girls " exhibition at the Gagosian Gallery , at one point the gallery was in possession of two editions of Girl in Mirror , one of which was damaged . The intake notes for the Cowles version indicate no damage and Gagosian 's international marketing of the work was consistent with the undamaged condition .
= = Reception = =
The New York Times notes that this was an example of Lichtenstein 's ability to " glorify the American woman by giving innocuous images of her generic concocted self and her roiling emotions such blazing formal power " . Framing a small fragment of the image in the mirror serves an artistic purpose . " Extraordinary sections like ... linking the falling hair to the semi @-@ reflected face of the girl in the mirror ( Girl in the mirror , 1964 ) ... which cut up , analyse , and unite , all have the one aim of intensifying the signifying fragment . "
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= Solo ( Gonzalo Rubalcaba album ) =
Solo is a studio album by Cuban jazz performer Gonzalo Rubalcaba . It was released by Blue Note Records on March 7 , 2006 , and peaked at number 22 in the Billboard Top Jazz Albums chart . The album is titled Solo since no additional performers were included on the recording as in Rubalcaba 's previous albums .
Also produced by Rubalcaba , Solo was released following his second collaborative work with Charlie Haden on the album Land of the Sun , which resulted in a Grammy Award for Haden . The album includes fifteen tracks and met with mostly positive reviews by critics , most commenting on the ability of the performer and the simplicity of the arrangements . The album was nominated for a Billboard Latin Music Award , and won the Latin Grammy for Best Latin Jazz Album .
= = Background and release = =
Cuban pianist Gonzalo Rubalcaba recorded Solo following his collaboration with Charlie Haden on Land of the Sun , an album featuring songs written by Mexican composer José Sabre Marroquin and arranged by Rubalcaba , a sequel to Nocturne ( 2001 ) , another collaboration between them . Haden and Rubalcaba were awarded the Grammy Award for Best Latin Jazz Album for both albums . Solo was the first solo album ( not featuring guest musicians ) released by the performer in twenty years . Rubalcaba described this album as an " aural diary , an album of secrets , letters and notes , and photos . " The album was released by Blue Note Records on March 7 , 2006 .
= = Content = =
Solo includes fifteen tracks , some previously released . Recording sessions took place from November 8 to 10 , 2005 , at The Hit Factory and Criteria Studios in Miami , Florida . There are four improvised tracks inspired by John Coltrane 's Giant Steps : " Paseo Iluminado " , " Paseo en Media Luz " , " Paseo Azul " , and " Paseo Morado " . " Iluminado ( Improv # 1 ) " , according to Roberto R. Calder of PopMatters , has " stock phrasing , but a pause in concentration before the sublime quality of a one @-@ minute lullaby worth waiting for " ; " Media Luz ( Improv # 2 ) " " hints at jazz with concert @-@ room sonorities and a striking ending " ; " Azul ( Improv # 3 ) " " proceeds with more consistent direction than its two predecessors " and becomes a hymn " ; and " Morado ( Improv # 4 ) " " develops into long linear passages for each hand . " " Faro " is a track with " a simple ostinato bass , a transition section and a loud climax . " The opening track , " Rezo " , is an interlude inspired by the work of French composer Claude Debussy and American performer Duke Ellington , and is " based on Afro @-@ Cuban melodies sung during Santería rites . " " Silencio " is a tribute to Cuban boleros . " Prologo ( Prologue to a Fantasy ) " features a " congenial intellectual playfulness alternating between something like Spanish piano music of a century ago , and the dance @-@ hall . " " Bésame Mucho " was first included on the 1991 album The Blessing , Rubalcaba 's first recording to be issued in the United States , and the version was named by Scott Yanow of Allmusic a " highlight " of the album , including accompaniment from Haden on bass guitar and drummer Jack DeJohnette . A reworked version is included on Solo , and is described as having an " intensely meditative character and slow deliberation , " and " a more complex higher level of communication " than the original version . " Here 's That Rainy Day " is a jazz ballad , recorded earlier for the album Inner Voyage , with an arrangement described as " breathtaking " by Ken Dryden of Allmusic . The first version of " Quasar " can be found on Paseo ( 2004 ) ; and the version included on Solo is described as " seven minutes of drama , " by Calder of PopMatters , with " a sprawling , improv @-@ heavy composition that runs Rubalcaba up and down the keyboard . "
= = Reception = =
Solo received mostly positive reviews from critics . Andrew Liengard of Jazz Houston stated that Rubalcaba played " at once a pyrotechnical and thunderous two @-@ handed assault , he also demonstrates a profound awareness of space and dynamics , " and finally called the album " stunning " . Joey Guerra of Amazon said that Solo " finds Rubalcaba soaring on the strength of his own talent " , creating a " unique experience . " Website Allmusic stated that the album is a spellbinding collection of improvisations with " remarkable stylistic display . " Harvey Siders of JazzTimes commented that the album did not need elaborate arrangements , being a " spontaneous inner dialogue from a brilliant inquisitive mind " and that on Solo " elegance trumps excitement . " PopMatters ' Robert R. Calder stated that the record was " a very remarkable solo piano recital . " David Miller of All About Jazz gave the album a mixed review , being critical of the entertainment value , stating that the performer " is more introspective than ever , frequently using silence as his means of expression . The only problem is , it doesn 't necessarily work . " Miller also suggested that " Rubalcaba should develop his ideas in more conventional settings . He still has time to become a great solo artist , and this writer has every confidence that he will . " In a separate review , Jim Santella , also of All About Jazz , praised Solo , commenting that Rubalcaba " finds space in his exploratory interpretation for dreamy soliloquies , but the excitement is all there , and it 's powerful . The pianist makes us wait for this moment , and it 's always worth the anticipation . Ultimately he lights an inspiring fire . " Mark Corroto , in a third review of the album by All About Jazz , compared Rubalcaba 's work to fellow Cuban artist Bebo Valdés , asseverating that both performers " blurred the lines between jazz , classical and folk , easily convincing you there need be no distinction . " Timothy Sprinkle of Jazz Review declared that the performer " carries the disc with a light , breezy ease that 's surprising , especially given all of the slow selections . "
Solo peaked at number 22 in the Billboard Top Jazz Albums chart and was nominated for " Latin Jazz Album of the Year " at the 18th Annual Billboard Latin Music Awards , losing to Around the City by Eliane Elias . Rubalcaba earned the Latin Grammy Award for Best Latin Jazz Album at the 7th Latin Grammy Awards for Solo .
= = Track listing = =
The track listing is from Allmusic . All tracks written and composed by Gonzalo Rubalcaba , except " Nightfall " by Charlie Haden ; " Bésame Mucho " by Consuelo Velázquez ; and " Here 's That Rainy Day " by Johnny Burke and James Van Heusen .
= = Personnel = =
This information is adapted from Allmusic .
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= Jean @-@ Joseph Ange d 'Hautpoul =
Jean @-@ Joseph Ange d 'Hautpoul ( 13 May 1754 – 14 February 1807 ) was a French cavalry general of the Napoleonic wars . He came from an old noble family of France whose military tradition extended for several centuries .
Efforts by the French Revolutionary government to remove him from his command failed when his soldiers refused to give him up . A big , loud @-@ voiced man , he led from the front of his troops . Although the failure of his cavalry to deploy at the Battle of Stockach ( 1799 ) resulted in a court martial , he was exonerated and went on to serve in the Swiss campaign in 1799 , at the Second Battle of Stockach , the Battle of Biberach , and later at Battle of Hohenlinden . He served under Michel Ney and Joachim Murat . He was killed in Murat 's massive cavalry charge of the Battle of Eylau in 1807 .
= = Early life = =
Born in an ancient noble family from the Languedoc , he entered the French royal army as a volunteer in 1769 . After having served in the Corsican legion , he transferred in 1771 to a Dragoon regiment . From 1777 , he served as an officer in the Dragoon Regiment of the Languedoc . By 1792 , he had become its colonel .
In 1802 , he married Alexandrine Daumy , and they had one child , born 29 May 1806 , named Alexandre Joseph Napoléon . His cousin , Alphonse Henri , comte d 'Hautpoul , also served in the Napoleonic Wars , as a lieutenant in the Iberian peninsula , and was taken prisoner at the Battle of Salamanca . He later became the 28th prime minister of France , from 1849 – 1851 .
= = Revolutionary Wars = =
By contemporary accounts , d 'Hautpoul was a big man , possibly taller than Joachim Murat , who was nearly six feet tall . Endowed with broad shoulders and a big voice . He spoke the language of the common soldier , and led from the front . Early in the French Revolution , commissioners visited the various regiments to weed out dangerous , and prospectively traitorous nobles ; generally , the commissioners cowed the army into submission , but d 'Hautpoul 's cavalry regiment refused to be intimidated . When the commissioners came for their colonel , a scion of impoverished nobility , his soldiers refused to give him up : " No d 'Hautpoul , no 6th Chasseurs . " Thus , despite his noble birth , at the exhortations of his soldiers he remained in the French Revolutionary Army .
d 'Hautpoul served in the 1794 – 1799 campaigns against the armies of the First and Second Coalitions . In April 1794 , d 'Hautpoul was promoted in the field to general of brigade and he commanded the brigade under both Jacques Desjardin and his successor , François Séverin Marceau @-@ Desgraviers . After the battle of Fleurus , his unit was transferred to the division of François Joseph Lefebvre . In June 1795 , his provisional rank of general of brigade was made permanent by the Committee of Public Safety . He distinguished himself in a fight at Blankenberge on 13 September 1795 . In June 1796 , d 'Hautpoul was promoted to general of division and inspector of the cavalry . At Altenkirchen , he was wounded in the shoulder by a musket ball .
After his recovery , d 'Hautpoul was given command of the heavy cavalry of the Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse under General Paul Grenier . After Neuwied , he was transferred to the Army of England under command of Lazare Hoche . When the French Directory abandoned the idea of an invasion of England , he was again deployed on the German front , this time as part of the Army of the Danube . After the French loss at the Battle of Ostrach , his Cavalry reserve protected the French retreat from Pfullendorf . A few days later , after failing to lead a timely charge at the Battle of Stockach , he was suspended on orders of the Army commander , Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan , who blamed d 'Hautpoul for the defeat . Acquitted by a court @-@ martial in Strasbourg , d 'Hautpoul resumed his duties at the end of July 1799 , having missed the critical actions at the First Battle of Zurich .
In 1799 , d 'Hautpoul commanded cavalry brigades under Ney , Lecourbe and Baraguey d 'Hilliers in rest of the campaign in northeastern Switzerland . In the German campaign of 1800 , he served under Moreau and distinguished himself at the battles of Biberach and Hohenlinden , during which his heavy cavalry was instrumental in disrupting the Austrian infantry defenses .
= = Napoleonic wars = =
In July 1801 , First Consul Bonaparte appointed d 'Hautpoul as inspector @-@ general of the cavalry and then awarded him command of the cavalry in the camps of Compiègne and Saint @-@ Omer . In August 1805 , d 'Hautpoul was given command of the 2nd division of cuirassiers under Joachim Murat . At Austerlitz , d 'Hautpoul distinguished himself by leading his heavy cavalry into the Russian center at the Pratzen heights , breaking the infantry squares . In 1804 , Napoleon made him a grand officer ( grand cordon ) of the Légion d 'honneur and a senator , which carried with it an annual income of 20 @,@ 000 francs .
In the War of the Fourth Coalition , d 'Hautpoul served at Jena and in the capture of Lübeck . Transferred to the Corps of Marshal Bessières in December 1806 , he again served under Murat in the maneuvers in East Prussia in the Winter of 1807 .
= = = Battle of Eylau = = =
When military activity resumed in the winter of 1807 , Napoleon hoped to overwhelm a Russian rear guard at Hof near Eylau , which was called " Preussisch Eylau " ( and is now within the borders of the Russian Kaliningrad Oblast ) . He ordered his dragoons to take a bridge ; they failed and suffered severe casualties . D 'Hautpoul and his cuirassiers — heavy cavalry of big men on big horses — thundered over the bridge and scattered the Russian rear guard . As the retreating infantry fled , d 'Hautpoul 's cuirassiers captured four guns and two standards . Napoleon was so pleased with d 'Hautpoul and his cuirassiers that he embraced the six @-@ foot man in front of his division the next day . In his own turn , d 'Hautpoul was so pleased that he announced first , to have such a compliment , he must be willing to die for his emperor , and second , to his troops : " The Emperor has embraced me on behalf of all of you . And I am so pleased with you that I kiss all your arses . "
The pursuit of the Russian troops continued . On 7 February 1807 , the French arrived outside the village of Eylau , as night was falling . In some confusion , the Imperial coach rumbled into the village , although the Emperor was setting up his camp a few kilometers away . The Russian patrol in the village chased off the coach driver and his men and plundered the Emperor 's belongings ; in turn , the Imperial escort chased them off . More and more men were sent into the engagement , and in the end the French took the village when the Russians withdrew . Both sides lost 4 @,@ 000 men in the contest for the village and the Emperor 's nightshirt . Settling for the night , they prepared to engage the next day .
The next morning , the two armies of unequal strength faced each other across frozen fields fissured by ice @-@ covered streams and ponds , which were in turn covered by snow and drifts . The snow and gloom meant that neither side was aware of the inequalities of men and artillery . Napoleon opened the engagement by sending Soult 's's corps , which successfully pushed the Russian right flank back , nearly turning the Russian force . To follow up on this success , he ordered Pierre Augereau 's force to attack the left center . No sooner had Augereau and VII Corps , plus St. Hilaire 's division , sallied out when a sudden snow storm engulfed the battle field . In white @-@ out conditions , Augereau 's entire corps disappeared in a flurry of whirling snow . When the snow cleared , friend and foe alike discovered that the first units onto the field had wandered off course . The line of march should have taken them directly to the Russian flank ; have no point of reference , they had instead followed the terrain and led the entire corps parallel to the Russian line , along a V @-@ shaped formation in which the left and center merged , and directly into the face of the Russian 70 – gun batteries . The artillery , although shocked to find a French Corps advancing straight toward them , immediately opened fire , as did the Russian infantry on both sides of Augereau 's corps .
The result was devastating . Five thousand French soldiers fell in a matter of minutes and the entire engagement stood on the brink of disaster . Not only did they face the Russian fire , but the French artillery pounded them as well . Augereau 's Corps melted under the withering fire , the bayonets of the Russians , and the onslaught of the cavalry ; as they retreated to their own lines , Napoleon was nearly captured at the Eylau churchyard , where he had established a lookout post , but his escort cavalry chased the Russians away .
= = = = Charge at Eylau = = = =
To fill the breach left by Augereau 's decimated corps , Napoleon ordered Murat 's cavalry reserve , 80 squadrons of 10 @,@ 700 cavalrymen , into action at 10 : 30 in the morning . They had to cover 2 @,@ 500 yards ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) of snow @-@ covered , obstacle @-@ filled ground , which they could not do at a gallop . Murat 's Reserve charged into the Russian squares in two columns : Grouchy 's cavalry , d 'Hautpoul 's cuirassiers and General Louis Lepic 's grenadiers — 24 squadrons in total — were flank to flank when they hit the Russian center . This was the occasion of Lepic 's famous comment , " Heads up , by God ! those are bullets , not turds ! " Grouchy , Lepic , and d 'Hautpoul 's horse broke the center , wheeled , and charged a second time . On the second charge , they broke the second formation of squares ; at this point , Grouchy 's men were forced back , but d 'Hautpoul 's cuirassiers pounded forward , reaching the Russian reserve .
At this point , the horses were nearly blown , but d 'Hautpoul 's cuirassiers charged the third line , which they also broke . The Russian cossacks , assembled in the reserve , entered the melee , but their light horses were no match for the French mounts , big horses confiscated from the Prussians the previous year . The Russian infantry had started to reform their squares behind d 'Hautpoul 's men . During this charge , d 'Hautpoul was struck by artillery grapeshot and badly wounded . Several of his men managed to carry or drag him back to French lines .
Napoleon 's valet recounted :
... I seem still to hear the brave d 'Hautpoul saying to His Majesty , just as he was galloping off to charge the enemy : " Sire , I am going to show you my big heels ; they will go into the enemies ' squares as if they were made of butter ! " An hour later he was dead . One of his regiments while fighting in an interval of the Russian army , was shot down and cut to pieces by the Cossacks ; only eighteen of them escaped . General d 'Hautpoul , three times forced to recoil with his division , thrice rallied them to the charge ; the third time , he again rushed on the enemy , crying in a loud voice : " Cuirassiers , forward , in the name of God ! forward , my brave cuirassiers ! " But grapeshot had mowed down too many of these heroes . Very few of them were in condition to follow their leader , who fell , covered with wounds , in the middle of a Russian square into which he had flung himself almost alone .
The Emperor ordered the best surgeons to attend to d 'Hautpoul . These disagreed on the method of treatment . Against the advice of military surgeon , Larrey , d 'Hautpoul refused to have his leg amputated and he died a few days later .
There is some disagreement in the records about his actual date of death : the original death record of the parish at Eylau indicates he died of wounds on 1 February 1807 , but this was before the battle , and it is possible that the pastor simply left off a digit in his record , or , more likely , that the record was transcribed incorrectly . Other records suggest that he died the day after the battle ( 8 February ) , on 11 February , or on 14 February . Originally buried at Worienen , His son , Alexandre Joseph Napoléon , brought his remains to France in 1840 to be buried in the family crypt at the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris . D 'Hautpoul 's heart is conserved in a vault in Les Invalides , and his name is inscribed on Column 16 of the Arc de Triomphe , among the first 384 names to be inscribed at the Arc .
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= Australia Day =
Australia Day is the official National Day of Australia . Celebrated annually on 26 January , it marks the anniversary of the 1788 arrival of the First Fleet of British Ships at Port Jackson , New South Wales , and the raising of the Flag of Great Britain at Sydney Cove by Governor Arthur Phillip . In present @-@ day Australia , celebrations reflect the diverse society and landscape of the nation , and are marked by community and family events , reflections on Australian history , official community awards , and citizenship ceremonies welcoming new immigrants into the Australian community .
The meaning and significance of Australia Day has evolved over time . Unofficially , or historically , the date has also been variously named " Anniversary Day " , " Foundation Day " , and " ANA Day " . 26 January 1788 marked the proclamation of British sovereignty over the eastern seaboard of Australia ( then known as New Holland ) . Although it was not known as Australia Day until over a century later , records of celebrations on 26 January date back to 1808 , with the first official celebration of the formation of New South Wales held in 1818 . On New Year 's Day 1901 , the British colonies of Australia formed a Federation , marking the birth of modern Australia . A national day of unity and celebration was looked for . It was not until 1935 that all Australian states and territories had adopted use of the term " Australia Day " to mark the date , and not until 1994 that the date was consistently marked by a public holiday on that day by all states and territories .
In contemporary Australia , the holiday is marked by the presentation of the Australian of the Year Awards on Australia Day Eve , announcement of the Australia Day Honours list and addresses from the Governor @-@ General and Prime Minister . It is an official public holiday in every state and territory of Australia , unless it falls on a weekend in which case the following Monday becomes a public holiday instead . With community festivals , concerts and citizenship ceremonies , the day is celebrated in large and small communities and cities around the nation . Australia Day has become the biggest annual civic event in Australia .
Since at least 1938 , Australia Day has also been marked by Indigenous Australians protesting the invasion of their land by Europeans and its celebration as a national holiday .
= = History = =
= = = Arrival of the First Fleet = = =
On 13 May 1787 a fleet of 11 ships , which came to be known as the First Fleet , was sent by the British Admiralty from England to Australia . Under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip , the fleet sought to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay on the coast of New South Wales , which had been explored and claimed by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770 . The settlement was seen as necessary because of the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North America . The Fleet arrived between 18 and 20 January 1788 , but it was immediately apparent that Botany Bay was unsuitable .
On 21 January , Phillip and a few officers travelled to Port Jackson , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) to the north , to see if it would be a better location for a settlement . They stayed there until 23 January ; Phillip named the site of their landing Sydney Cove , after the Home Secretary , Thomas Townshend , 1st Viscount Sydney . They also made contact with the local Aboriginal people .
They returned to Botany Bay on the evening of 23 January , when Phillip gave orders to move the fleet to Sydney Cove the next morning , 24 January . That day , there was a huge gale blowing , making it impossible to leave Botany Bay , so they decided to wait till the next day , 25 January . However , during 24 January , they spotted the ships Astrolabe and Boussole , flying the French flag , at the entrance to Botany Bay ; they were having as much trouble getting into the bay as the First Fleet was having getting out .
On 25 January the gale was still blowing ; the fleet tried to leave Botany Bay , but only HMS Supply made it out , carrying Arthur Phillip , Philip Gidley King , some marines and about 40 convicts ; they anchored in Sydney Cove in the afternoon . On 26 January , early in the morning , Phillip along with a few dozen marines , officers and oarsmen , rowed ashore and took possession of the land in the name of King George III . The remainder of the ship 's company and the convicts watched from on board Supply .
Meanwhile , back at Botany Bay , Captain John Hunter of HMS Sirius made contact with the French ships , and he and the commander , Captain de Clonard , exchanged greetings . Clonard advised Hunter that the fleet commander was Jean @-@ François de Galaup , comte de Lapérouse . Sirius successfully cleared Botany Bay , but the other ships were in great difficulty . Charlotte was blown dangerously close to rocks ; Friendship and Prince of Wales became entangled , both ships losing booms or sails ; Charlotte and the Friendship actually collided ; and Lady Penrhyn nearly ran aground . Despite these difficulties , all the remaining ships finally managed to clear Botany Bay and sail to Sydney Cove on 26 January . The last ship anchored there at about 3 pm .
The formal establishment of the Colony of New South Wales did not occur on 26 January as is commonly assumed . It did not occur until 7 February 1788 , when the formal proclamation of the colony and of Arthur Phillip 's governorship were read out . The vesting of all land in the reigning monarch King George III also dates from 7 February 1788 .
= = = First fifty years : 1788 to 1838 = = =
Although there was no official recognition of the colony 's anniversary , with the New South Wales Almanacks of 1806 and 1808 placing no special significance on 26 January , by 1808 the date was being used by the colony 's immigrants , especially the emancipated convicts , to " celebrate their love of the land they lived in " with " drinking and merriment " . The 1808 celebrations followed this pattern , beginning at sundown on 25 January , and lasted into the night , the chief toast of the occasion being Major George Johnston . Johnston had the honour of being the first officer ashore from the First Fleet , having been carried from the landing boat on the back of convict James Ruse . Despite suffering the ill @-@ effects of a fall from his gig on the way home to Annandale , Johnston led the officers of the New South Wales Corps in arresting Governor William Bligh on the following day , 26 January 1808 , in what became known as the " Rum Rebellion " .
In 1817 The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser reported on one of these unofficial gatherings at the home of Isaac Nichols :
On Monday the 27th ult. a dinner party met at the house of Mr. Isaac Nichols , for the purpose of celebrating the Anniversary of the Institution of this Colony under Governor Philip , which took place on 26 Jan. 1788 , but this year happening upon a Sunday , the commemoration dinner was reserved for the day following . The party assembled were select , and about 40 in number . At 5 in the afternoon dinner was on the table , and a more agreeable entertainment could not have been anticipated . After dinner a number of loyal toasts were drank , and a number of festive songs given ; and about 10 the company parted , well gratified with the pleasures that the meeting had afforded .
1818 was the 30th anniversary of the founding of the colony , and Governor Lachlan Macquarie chose to acknowledge the day with the first official celebration . The Governor declared that the day would be a holiday for all government workers , granting each an extra allowance of " one pound of fresh meat " , and ordered a 30 gun salute at Dawes Point – one for each year that the colony had existed . This began a tradition that was retained by the Governors that were to follow .
Foundation Day , as it was known at the time , continued to be officially celebrated in New South Wales , and in doing so became connected with sporting events . One of these became a tradition that is still continued today : in 1837 the first running of what would become the Australia Day regatta was held on Sydney Harbour . Five races were held for different classes of boats , from first class sailing vessels to watermen 's skiffs , and people viewed the festivities from both onshore and from the decks of boats on the harbour , including the steamboat Australian and Francis Freeling – the second of whom ran aground during the festivities and had to be refloated the next day . Happy with the success of the regatta , the organisers resolved to make in an annual event . However , some of the celebrations had gained an air of elitism , with the " United Australians " dinner being limited to those born in Australia . In describing the dinner , the Sydney Herald justified the decision , saying :
The parties who associated themselves under the title of " United Australians " have been censured for adopting a principle of exclusiveness . It is not fair so to censure them . If they invited emigrants to join them they would give offence to another class of persons – while if they invited all they would be subject to the presence of persons with whom they might not wish to associate . That was a good reason . The " Australians " had a perfect right to dine together if they wished it , and no one has a right to complain .
The following year , 1838 , was the 50th anniversary of the founding of the colony , and as part of the celebrations Australia 's first public holiday was declared . The regatta was held for a second time , and people crowded the foreshores to view the events , or joined the five steamers ( Maitland , Experiment , Australia , Rapid , and the miniature steamer Firefly ) to view the proceedings from the water . At midday 50 guns were fired from Dawes ' Battery as the Royal Standard was raised , and in the evening rockets and other fireworks lit the sky . The dinner was a smaller affair than the previous year , with only 40 in attendance compared to the 160 from 1837 , and the anniversary as a whole was described as a " day for everyone " .
= = = Centenary celebration : 1839 to 1888 = = =
Prior to 1888 , 26 January was very much a New South Wales affair , as each of the colonies had their own commemorations for their founding . In Tasmania , Regatta Day occurred in December , South Australia had Proclamation Day 28 December , and Western Australia had their own Foundation Day ( now Western Australia Day ) on 1 June .
In 1888 , all colonial capitals except Adelaide celebrated ' Anniversary Day ' . In 1910 , South Australia adopted Australia Day , followed by Victoria in 1931 . By 1935 , all states of Australia were celebrating 26 January as Australia Day ( although it was still known as Anniversary Day in New South Wales ) . The name ' Foundation Day ' persisted in local usage .
= = = Sesquicentenary = = =
The 150th anniversary of British settlement in Australia in 1938 was widely celebrated . Preparations began in 1936 with the formation of a Celebrations Council . In that year , New South Wales was the only state to abandon the traditional long weekend , and the annual Anniversary Day public holiday was held on the actual anniversary day – Wednesday 26 January . The Commonwealth and state governments agreed to unify the celebrations on 26 January as ' Australia Day ' in 1946 , although the public holiday was instead taken on the Monday closest to the actual anniversary .
= = = Bicentennial year = = =
In 1988 , the celebration of 200 years since the arrival of the First Fleet was organised on a large scale , with many significant events taking place in all major cities . Over 2 @.@ 5 million people attended the event in Sydney . These included street parties , concerts , including performances on the steps and forecourt of the Sydney Opera House and at many other public venues , art and literary competitions , historic re @-@ enactments , and the opening of the Powerhouse Museum at its new location . A re @-@ enactment of the arrival of the First Fleet took place in Sydney Harbour , with ships that had sailed from Portsmouth a year earlier taking part .
= = Contemporary celebrations = =
Since 1988 participation in Australia Day has increased and in 1994 all states and territories began to celebrate a unified public holiday on the actual day for the first time . Research conducted in 2007 reported that 27 @.@ 6 % of Australians polled attended an organised Australia Day event and a further 25 @.@ 6 % celebrated with family and friends making Australia Day the largest annual public event in the nation . This reflected the results of an earlier research project where 66 % of respondents anticipated that they would actively celebrate Australia Day 2005 .
Outdoor concerts , community barbecues , sports competitions , festivals and fireworks are some of the many events held in communities across Australia . These official events are presented by the National Australia Day Council , an official council or committee in each state and territory , and local committees .
In Sydney the harbour is a focus and boat races are held , such as a ferry race and the tall ships race . In Adelaide the key celebrations are ' Australia Day in the City ' which is a parade , concert and fireworks display held in Elder park and the traditional International Cricket match played at the Adelaide Oval . Featuring the People 's March and the Voyages Concert , Melbourne 's events focus strongly on the celebration of multiculturalism . Despite a drop in attendance in 2010 , but with audiences still estimated at 400 @,@ 000 , the Perth Skyworks is the largest single event presented each Australia Day .
Citizenship ceremonies are also commonly held with Australia Day now the largest occasion for the acquisition of Australian citizenship . On 26 January 2011 , more than 300 citizenship ceremonies took place and 13 @,@ 000 people from 143 countries took Australian citizenship . In recent years many citizenship ceremonies have included an affirmation by existing citizens . Research conducted in 2007 reported that 78 @.@ 6 % of respondents thought that citizenship ceremonies were an important feature of the day .
The official Australia Day Ambassador Program supports celebrations in communities across the nation by facilitating the participation of high @-@ achieving Australians in local community celebrations . In 2011 , 385 ambassadors participated in 384 local community celebrations . The Order of Australia awards are also a feature of the day . The Australia Day Achievement Medallion is awarded to citizens by local governments based on excellence in both government and non @-@ government organisations . The Governor @-@ General and Prime Minister both address the nation . On the eve of Australia Day each year , the Prime Minister announces the winner of the Australian of the Year award , presented to an Australian citizen who has shown a " significant contribution to the Australian community and nation " and is an " inspirational role model for the Australian community " . Subcategories of the award include Young Australian of the Year and Senior Australian of the Year , and an award for Australia 's Local Hero .
Various music festivals are held on Australia Day , such as the Big Day Out , the Triple J Hottest 100 , and the Australia Day Live Concert which is televised nationally . For many years an international cricket match has been held on Australia Day at the Adelaide Oval . These matches have included both Test matches and One Day Internationals .
Research in 2009 indicated that Australians reflect on history and future fairly equally on Australia Day . Of those polled , 43 % agreed that history is the most important thing to think about on Australia Day and 41 % said they look towards " our future " , while 13 % thought it was important to " think about the present at this time " and 3 % were unsure . Despite the date reflecting the arrival of the First Fleet , contemporary celebrations are not particularly historical in their theme . There are no large @-@ scale re @-@ enactments and the national leader 's participation is focused largely on events such as the Australian of the Year Awards announcement and Citizenship Ceremonies .
Possibly reflecting a shift in Australians ' understanding of the place of Indigenous Australians in their national identity , Newspoll research in November 2009 reported that ninety percent of Australians polled believed " it was important to recognise Australia 's indigenous people and culture " as part of Australia Day celebrations . A similar proportion ( 89 % ) agreed that " it is important to recognise the cultural diversity of the nation " . Despite the strong attendance at Australia Day events and a positive disposition towards the recognition of Indigenous Australians , the date of the celebrations remains a source of challenge and national discussion .
= = Criticism = =
For some Australians , particularly Indigenous Australians , Australia Day has become a symbol of the adverse impacts of British settlement on Australia 's Indigenous people . The celebrations in 1938 were accompanied by an Aboriginal Day of Mourning . A large gathering of Aboriginal people in Sydney in 1988 led an " Invasion Day " commemoration marking the loss of Indigenous culture . The anniversary is also known as " Survival Day " and marked by events such as the Survival Day concert first held in Sydney in 1992 , celebrating the fact that the Indigenous people and culture have not been completely wiped out .
In response , official celebrations have tried to include Indigenous people , holding ceremonies such as the Woggan @-@ ma @-@ gule ceremony , which was held in Sydney in 2006 and honoured the past and celebrated the present ; it involved Indigenous Australians and the Governor of New South Wales .
= = = Invasion Day = = =
Invasion Day is a term used by some Indigenous figures and their supporters to refer to 26 January , and protests occur almost every year , sometimes at Australia Day events .
In January 1988 , members of various Indigenous groups collectively made an effort to promote an awareness among other Australians of their presence , their needs and their desire that there should be communication , reconciliation and co @-@ operation over the land rights issues . To this purpose , during January they set up a highly visible Tent Embassy at a shoreside location at a point called Mrs Macquarie 's Chair , adjacent to the Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens . The embassy , consisting of several large marquees and smaller tents , was manned by a group of Aboriginal people from Eveleigh Street , Redfern , and was organised with the co @-@ operation of the local council 's department of parks and gardens . It became a gathering place for Aboriginal people from all over Sydney . One of the aims of the embassy was to be seen by the many thousands of Sydneysiders whom the organisers claimed did not know , and rarely even saw , any Aboriginal people .
= = Suggested changes to the date = =
Both prior to the establishment of Australia Day as the national day of Australia , and in the years subsequent to its creation , several dates have been proposed for its celebration and , at various times , the possibility of moving Australia Day to an alternative date has been mooted . While the reasons for such a move have been varied , concerns with the current arrangement have included :
The current date , celebrating the foundation of the Colony of New South Wales , can be seen as lacking national significance .
Australia Day falls during the school holidays , limiting the ability of schools to engage children in the event .
The date can be perceived as being intrinsically connected to Australia 's convict past , celebrating " Britain 's driving ashore of Australia 's first white citizens in chains " .
It fails to encompass all Australians , including members of the indigenous community and others who see it as commemorating the date of the invasion of their land . Connected to this is the suggestion that moving the date would be seen as a significant symbolic act .
Amongst those calling for change have been Tony Beddison , then chairman of the Australia Day Committee ( Victoria ) , who argued for change and requested debate on the issue in 1999 ; and Mick Dodson , who was Australian of the Year in 2009 , called for debate in regard to when Australia Day was held .
= = = Proposed alternative dates = = =
= = = = Federation of Australia , 1 January = = = =
As early as 1957 , 1 January was suggested as a possible alternative day , to commemorate the Federation of Australia . In 1902 , the year after Federation , 1 January was named " Commonwealth Day " . However , New Year 's Day was already a public holiday , and Commonwealth Day did not gather much support .
= = = = Day before British settlement , 25 January = = = =
The day before Arthur Phillip 's landing at Sydney Cove has been suggested as an alternative day , as it would commemorate the last date when the Australian continent was solely occupied by its indigenous peoples . Moving the holiday by only one day would also have the advantage of being in the summer months . Such a small change would also have little impact on retailers , and ensure public holidays remain distributed as they are currently .
= = = = Anzac Day , 25 April = = = =
There has been a degree of support in recent years for making Anzac Day , 25 April , Australia 's national day , although the suggestions have also encountered strong opposition . In 1999 , prompted by Tony Beddison 's call for the date to be changed , a merger with Anzac Day found support with Peter Hollingworth ( Anglican Archbishop of Brisbane , Queensland ) , and the Federal Leader of the Opposition , Kim Beazley .
The suggestion was raised again in 2001 , when the national president of the Returned and Services League of Australia ( RSL ) , Major @-@ General ( retired ) Peter Phillips , suggested that the merger may be possible in the future . Phillips was in the process of planning a major review into the future of Anzac Day , and the combination of the two caused considerable concern in the RSL . Although he subsequently stated that he was misrepresented , and that the review was not considering a merger of the two dates , the suggestion sparked controversy . The idea was strongly opposed , with both Prime Minister John Howard and Opposition Leader Kim Beazley speaking against the concept . ( Beazley clarified his earlier stance by stating that he did not support a merger , but that he nevertheless saw Anzac Day as the true national day of Australia . )
Counter arguments to merging the two holidays include the belief that many war veterans view Anzac Day as their day ; that Anzac Day is also a public holiday in New Zealand , Cook Islands , Niue , Samoa and Tonga ; and that a merger would detract from the core purpose of Anzac Day – to honour the war dead .
= = = = Opening of the first Federal Parliament , 9 May = = = =
The date 9 May is also sometimes suggested , being not only the date on which the first Federal Parliament was opened in Melbourne in 1901 , but also the date of the opening of the Provisional Parliament House in Canberra in 1927 , and the date of the opening of the New Parliament House in 1988 . The date has , at various times , won the support of Queensland Premier Peter Beattie , Tony Beddison , and Geoffrey Blainey . However , as with the Eureka Stockade , the date has been seen by some as being too closely connected with Victoria , and its location close to the start of winter has been described as an impediment .
= = = = Anniversary of the 1967 referendum , 27 May = = = =
The anniversary of the 1967 referendum to amend the constitutional status of Aborigines has also been suggested as an alternative . The day of the referendum was 27 May and the resulting amendments to the constitution were made on 10 August . The changes made enabled Aborigines to be accounted for under federal law , and to be included in the national census . The public vote in favour was 90 @.@ 77 % . The event was a milestone in the recognition of Indigenous rights in Australia .
= = = = Eureka Stockade , 3 December = = = =
The Eureka Stockade on 3 December has had a long history as an alternative choice for Australia Day , having been proposed by The Bulletin in the 1880s . The Eureka uprising occurred in 1854 during the Victorian gold rush , and saw a failed rebellion by the miners against the Victorian colonial government . Although the rebellion was crushed , it led to significant reforms , and has been described as being the birthplace of Australian democracy . Supporters of the date have included senator Don Chipp and Victorian Premier Steve Bracks . Nevertheless , the idea failed to gain traction in the 1880s , possibly due to the loyalty of the colonialists to Britain , for " even in Ballarat Eureka had to be forgotten . " The Eureka Stockade idea has opposed after being claimed by both " hard @-@ left unions " and " right @-@ wing nationalist groups " , and amongst some it is still seen as an essentially Victorian event .
= = = = Other recommended dates = = = =
Wattle Day on 1 September has been proposed as a unifying national patriotic holiday by the Wattle Day Association , and has been raised as an alternative date for Australia Day . There is a degree of historical precedent to the suggestion : Wattle Day was celebrated as Australia Day in South Australia for many years , though from 1915 to 1918 , Australia Day was celebrated there on 26 July .
Constitution Day , 9 July is also suggested as a possible alternative , commemorating the day in 1900 when Queen Victoria gave her assent to the Constitution of Australia .
The 3 March anniversary of the Australia Acts coming into force has been raised as an option , having been referred to as Australian Independence Day . These Acts removed the United Kingdom 's ability to legislate for the Australian States , the Queen 's ability to disallow or suspend State legislation , as well as severing the remaining appeal channels from the State Supreme Courts and the High Court of Australia to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom . Queen Elizabeth II signed a proclamation at Government House in Canberra on 2 March 1986 for the Acts to take effect 5 @.@ 00 am Greenwich Mean Time the next day .
= = = Opposition to change = = =
Any decision to change the date of Australia Day would have to be made by a combination of the Australian Federal and State Governments . In recent years such a move has lacked sufficient support , with both Prime Ministers and Leaders of the Opposition speaking against the idea . In 2001 the Prime Minister John Howard stated that he acknowledged Aboriginal concerns with the date , but that it was nevertheless a significant day in Australia 's history , and thus he was in favour of retaining the current date . He also noted that 1 January , which was being discussed in light of the Centenary of Federation , was inappropriate as it coincided with New Year 's Day . Prime Minister Kevin Rudd gave a " straightforward no " to a change of date , speaking in response to Mick Dodson 's suggestion to reopen the debate . The Leader of the Opposition , Malcolm Turnbull , echoed Rudd 's support of 26 January , but , along with Rudd , supported the right of Australians to raise the issue . In regard to State leaders , New South Wales Premier Nathan Rees stated that he was yet to hear a " compelling argument " to support change ; and Queensland Premier Anna Bligh expressed her opposition to a change of date in spite of any controversy .
In 2004 , a Newspoll that asked if the date of Australia Day should be moved to one that is not associated with European settlement found 79 per cent of respondents favoured no change , 15 per cent favoured change and 6 per cent were uncommitted . Historian Geoffrey Blainey said he believed 26 January worked well as Australia Day and that : " My view is that it is much more successful now than it 's ever been . "
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= Kain ( Legacy of Kain ) =
Kain is a fictional character , and the main protagonist and title character of the Legacy of Kain video game series . First introduced in Blood Omen : Legacy of Kain in 1996 , he was created by Denis Dyack and Silicon Knights , and has appeared in all subsequent Legacy of Kain games under the direction of developer Crystal Dynamics . Between games , he serves as either the central playable character , or as an antagonist , but in all his depictions he has consistently been described as an antihero .
Drawing inspiration from the morally @-@ ambiguous character of William Munny from Clint Eastwood 's 1992 film Unforgiven , Silicon Knights conceived Kain as a nobleman murdered and revived as a vampire to take revenge on his assassins . He gradually embraces his new existence , and learns of his birthright to maintain balance in Nosgoth ( the fictional setting of the series ) . Crystal Dynamics later portrayed Kain as an Oedipus @-@ like figure , seeking to thwart the fate determined for him before his birth .
Beyond his role in the series , Kain has also featured in tie @-@ in comics , and in Crystal Dynamics ' Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light . In all of his voiced appearances , he has been played by actor Simon Templeman . He has been favorably received by video game critics and enthusiasts , with praise attributed to his antagonistic role in Legacy of Kain : Soul Reaver , and his status as a strong example of a memorable , nuanced antihero in the medium .
= = Concept and creation = =
Kain 's character was originally conceived circa 1993 by Silicon Knights ' president , Denis Dyack , as the protagonist of The Pillars of Nosgoth , an initial video game concept for what would become 1996 's Blood Omen : Legacy of Kain . He was modeled in part on William Munny , the protagonist of Clint Eastwood 's 1992 Western film , Unforgiven . The developers set out to craft an antihero to suit " a game where the player is put in the position where everyone believes you are evil " , feeling that the industry required a story addressing issues of moral ambiguity and wondering how players would react when " everyone in the world was your enemy ( including yourself ) [ ... ] where you had to kill innocents to survive [ and ] you are the ultimate pawn " . Other influences which helped to define Kain 's character arc included The Wheel of Time , Necroscope , and cover art from The Pillars of the Earth . In comparison to Count Dracula , Dyack commented in an interview that he believed Kain would " kick his ass " in a fight . He and writer Ken McCulloch considered Simon Templeman 's voiceover for the character superlative , despite initial apprehensions that the actors they had hired might not be able to convey the game 's complicated dialogue .
After a legal dispute with Silicon Knights , Blood Omen publisher Crystal Dynamics obtained the rights to the Legacy of Kain intellectual property , with Amy Hennig directing Kain 's characterization for the sequel , 1999 's Legacy of Kain : Soul Reaver . In this game , which built upon the Blood Omen ending in which he damns the world , Kain adopted the role of antagonist , with new character Raziel serving as the lead . Hennig justified this choice , believing that it would prove interesting to see what his decision had engendered after a few millennia . She emphasized , though , that she did not consider him a monster or mustache @-@ twirling villain , remarking that " in many ways , he 's a more complex and sympathetic character than Raziel himself " . Sources which helped to formulate his role in the plot ranged from Biblical lore to Eastern myth and mysticism .
In interviews preceding the release of 2001 's Soul Reaver 2 , Hennig said that Crystal Dynamics had a huge investment in Kain as a character . His portrayal in this game extrapolated further from Blood Omen 's story , and was influenced by Joseph Campbell 's ideals . No longer acting as a pure villain , Kain was intended to function as a " steadfast character " , coming to the story from a position of knowledge in contrast to Raziel 's relative ignorance . Hennig expressed that , by Soul Reaver 2 , her personal perception of Kain 's character had changed over the years , and that she now considered him a somewhat more attractive and interesting individual than Raziel due to his complexity . She dubbed him a tragic hero , " screwed by his own character flaws " , and argued that this hamartia added to his depth . Since joining Naughty Dog , when asked whether Raziel or Kain is closest to her heart , Hennig has said that while Raziel is a sympathetic protagonist , she probably prefers Kain as a character .
For 2002 's Blood Omen 2 , developed by a different team within Crystal Dynamics , Kain returned as the playable protagonist . The development staff chose to focus on his rise to power as a younger vampire , combining aspects of his Blood Omen and Soul Reaver incarnations . He was marketed as a more powerful and ruthless character than traditional video game heroes , with lead designer Mike Ellis inviting comparison to Final Fantasy VI 's Kefka Palazzo and Revolver Ocelot of the Metal Gear series . Design issues , raised by the wealth of abilities and equipment he accumulated in Blood Omen , prompted the team to add to his backstory and convincingly deprive him of these powers . Producer Sam Newman described him as " a very unique character " who " doesn 't fit to the generic character molds you find in many other games , books and movies [ ... ] not good , he 's not necessarily evil -- Kain does as Kain believes " .
Legacy of Kain : Defiance , released in 2003 , returned to the aged , elder Kain from Soul Reaver and Soul Reaver 2 , now controllable alongside Raziel . The prospect of making this incarnation of Kain playable left the development team " very excited " , and was agreed upon very early in pre @-@ production . Recognizing that he is " the most important character in the series " , designer Kyle Mannerberg named several parallels and influences concerning his development up to that point , citing Neo and John Murdoch ( the protagonists of The Matrix and Dark City respectively ) , the archetypal Fisher King of Arthurian legend , the story of Oedipus , and Gnostic myth as inspirations ( with both latter sources being reaffirmed as strong influences by Hennig in a later interview ) . The spells he obtains over the course of his levels were intended to pay homage to the original Blood Omen .
= = Characteristics = =
Kain 's appearance undergoes " pretty dramatic changes " throughout the games as he ages , but core personality attributes cited by Defiance 's developers include his intelligence and cynicism , arrogance and regality , and his defiant nature . In the series ' fictional universe , he is described as the guardian of balance , a being responsible for preserving the health and integrity of Nosgoth ( the games ' setting ) , but left incapable of realizing this duty due to spiritual corruption he inherited at birth .
The character 's transformation into a vampire , and the visceral nature this trait lends the series , was derived from William Shakespeare 's classical models : " for the drunken commoners in the front rows he would insert dirty jokes to keep them entertained but for the aristocracy in the balconies he would write very cerebral metaphors " . According to Silicon Knights , the gore and vampirism in Blood Omen served as their " dirty jokes " , supplemented by a complex story .
As the story progresses , Kain evolves from a directionless young nobleman , to a lithe and devious vampire , to a " craggy " figure . As a playable character , he frequently narrates his thoughts through the dramatic device of soliloquy . In Blood Omen and Defiance , his battle cry and catchphrase is Vae victis , a Latin phrase attributed to Brennus meaning " woe to the conquered " .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Debut = = =
In Blood Omen : Legacy of Kain , Kain is introduced as a young human noble . In the game 's prologue , he is murdered by assassins , and resurrected as a vampire by Mortanius , a necromancer . He is promised both vengeance and a cure to his vampirism if he can restore the nine Pillars of Nosgoth , edifices whose state dictates the vitality of the world ; the nine guardians who symbiotically represent the Pillars were corrupted prior to his birth , and must be killed before the land can recover . During his quest , he meets the ancient vampire Vorador , who influences him to forsake his former humanity and accept his vampirism , and discovers the Soul Reaver , a legendary soul @-@ devouring sword . Using the Reaver , he tries to alter the course of Nosgoth 's history to prevent the Nemesis — a tyrant king — from coming to power . Tricked by Moebius , the guardian of time , Kain succeeds in destroying the Nemesis , but the temporal paradox this triggers results in a new timeline in which vampires have been hunted to extinction ; Kain is left the last surviving vampire in Nosgoth . After systematically tracking down and killing most of the guardians , he confronts Mortanius — revealed as the guardian of death , and the orchestrator of Kain 's assassination — and realizes that he himself is the final guardian , and that the cure to his curse entails his own destruction . Faced with the obligation of self @-@ sacrifice — thereby restoring the world , but ensuring the annihilation of the vampire race — or the alternative of destroying the Pillars to rule over the world in its miasmatic state , Kain opts for the latter choice , embracing vampirism as a blessing as the Pillars collapse .
= = = Soul Reaver games = = =
Legacy of Kain : Soul Reaver features Kain as the main antagonist and a recurring boss character , narratively following him centuries after his decision . Since the first game , Kain has revived the vampire race , and has become the despotic ruler of the land . When the game 's protagonist , his lieutenant Raziel , surpasses Kain , Raziel is executed for his transgression . Resurrected by The Elder God , Raziel returns to destroy his former brethren and Kain , and eventually confronts Kain at the ruins of the Pillars . Kain attacks Raziel with the Soul Reaver , but the blade shatters when it strikes him , and Kain escapes , strangely satisfied . Raziel discovers , to his horror , that Kain created him and his other lieutenants from the corpses of the Sarafan , an ancient order of vampire hunters . He fights Kain a second time in Moebius 's abandoned time machine , the Chronoplast , where Kain explains the nature of free will and rationalizes his actions . Narrowly escaping , Kain activates the Chronoplast and travels into the past , with Raziel pursuing him as the game ends .
In Soul Reaver 2 , Kain acts as a non @-@ player character encountered by Raziel in several cutscenes . As the game 's plot progresses , his agenda and motives become clearer . He seeks a third option to the dilemma prescribed for him at the end of Blood Omen , hoping to both restore Nosgoth and return the Pillars to vampire control . Having viewed the timestream , he learned that history is predestined , and seeks to change his fate by triggering more temporal paradoxes , an objective which demanded Raziel 's temporary destruction . It is revealed that Raziel is destined to be consumed by the Soul Reaver , thus becoming the soul @-@ devouring entity trapped within the weapon . With Raziel 's help , Kain is able to defy history and prevent his own pre @-@ ordained death , and , in return , he saves Raziel from being consumed by the Reaver at the story 's climax . However , this alteration putatively changes history for the worse , leading into the events of Blood Omen 2 and Legacy of Kain : Defiance .
= = = Blood Omen 2 and Defiance = = =
Blood Omen 2 pursues a younger Kain during his early conquests of Nosgoth , in the altered timeline triggered by the changes to Raziel 's destiny at the end of Soul Reaver 2 . Legacy of Kain : Defiance takes place in the same altered timeline , periodically switching between the characters of the elder Kain and Raziel from Soul Reaver 2 , with both acting as playable protagonists . Over the course of the game , Moebius manipulates Kain into believing he is a champion prophesied to fight against and destroy Raziel , culminating in a final battle between the two characters which Raziel wins . It is discovered that The Elder God is malevolent , and he and Moebius — his servant — had conspired against Kain from the outset of the series , considering vampires an abomination . Kain , after being presumed dead , returns , and reconciles with Raziel , who willingly enters the Soul Reaver . As he does so , he uses his powers to cleanse Kain of the corruption he inherited at birth as a Pillar guardian . Armed with the ancient sword once again , Kain is able to see and battle The Elder God for the first time , but is unable to destroy him . The story ends as he looks out at the Nosgoth landscape ; though uncertain that he can ever restore the world , he contemplates Raziel 's sacrifice and the " first bitter taste " of hope it has given him .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise and promotion = = =
Several action figures and figurines of Kain have been created by Blue Box Interactive and the National Entertainment Collectibles Association in partnership with Eidos . He featured extensively in marketing for the Legacy of Kain series , including a $ 1 million advertising campaign for Soul Reaver . Beyond the games , he also appeared in Top Cow 's promotional comics for Soul Reaver and Defiance , and was included alongside Raziel as a playable character in downloadable content for 2010 's Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light .
= = = Reception = = =
Opinion on Kain 's character has been largely positive in critical reviews of the Legacy of Kain games . Praise has frequently been directed towards Simon Templeman 's voice acting , with IGN , Game Revolution and Adrenaline Vault citing Kain 's soliloquies as " both gruesome and entertaining " , " the best part [ of the game 's audio ] " and " one of the best stints of voice acting ever recorded " respectively in their assessments of his debut in the original Blood Omen . For Blood Omen 2 , although critics expressed disappointment with the game itself , they praised Kain 's character nevertheless ; GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin branded him " a very intriguing protagonist " and " as memorable of a main character as they come " , while IGN 's Douglass C. Perry felt he was " incredibly likeable " , and " in a very true sense [ ... ] a great videogame character " . GameZone 's Michael Knutson opined that he was a " wicked cool character " , and Game Revolution 's Johnny Liu named him a " great anti @-@ hero " . Kasavin again praised him in a review for Defiance , writing that " it 's rare enough to find a truly memorable main character in a game , let alone two " , and that the game 's ensemble cast " [ to some extent superseded ] the problems in the gameplay " . Ian Dransfield of Play has stated that " we totally and completely fell in love with [ Kain ] " and highlighted him as a " character who [ needs ] to be revived " .
Kain has also appeared in contention on several lists comparing video game characters , both critical and user @-@ decided . A 2000 GameSpot readers ' choice poll to determine the top ten video game villains ranked him at # 10 , and the same site 's 2010 All @-@ Time Greatest Game Villain contest included him as one of 64 candidates . He featured in IGN 's 2005 Battle of the Badasses , surviving to the " Elite Eight " stage before being eliminated . A 2008 IGN Reader 's Choice poll determined that he ranked among ten heroes most desired to appear in a Soulcalibur game , and he appeared in an IGN list of gaming 's most notorious anti @-@ heroes , sharing both honors with Raziel . He ranked as # 34 in IGN 's top 100 videogame villains list , was showcased as # 2 on a 1UP.com list of the top five videogame characters named Kain / Kane , and ranked as # 4 on the latter site 's list of top ten vampires . GameDaily ranked him as # 17 out of their top 25 anti @-@ heroes , and GamingBolt listed him as one of " 35 Characters We Want To See In Sony 's Super Smash Bros " . Joystick Division included him as # 2 on their list of the top ten best vampires in video @-@ game history , while Diehard GameFAN named him # 8 on theirs . GamesRadar praised Kain 's role as an antagonist , putting him in their 2013 list of the best villains in video game history at # 59 , but noted that he " lives in more of a grey area than most of the villains on this list . "
Some reviewers were less enthusiastic about aspects of the character , with IGN 's Perry commenting that his Soul Reaver 2 dialogue was haughty and " overwritten " , and Ivan Sulic considering his Blood Omen 2 incarnation " nothing more than an arrogant jerk with little to latch on to and care about " while expressing preference for Raziel . Also relating to Blood Omen 2 , IGN 's Aaron Boulding regarded his pompous nature as his " one personality trait " , and considered it comedic , while Matt Casamassina felt Kain was " cool " , but decried his visual design as " flamboyant to the point of being comical " .
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= Drizzt Do 'Urden =
Drizzt Do 'Urden / ˈdrɪtst doʊˈɜːrdɪn / is a fictional character in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting for the Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role @-@ playing game . Drizzt was created by author R. A. Salvatore as a supporting character in the Icewind Dale Trilogy . Salvatore created him on a whim when his publisher needed to replace another character in Salvatore 's first novel , The Crystal Shard . Drizzt has since become a popular heroic character of the Forgotten Realms setting , and has been featured as the main character of a long series of books , starting chronologically with The Dark Elf Trilogy . As an atypical drow ( dark elf ) , Drizzt has forsaken both the evil ways of his people and their home in the Underdark , in the drow city of Menzoberranzan .
Drizzt 's story is told in Salvatore 's fantasy novels in The Icewind Dale Trilogy , The Dark Elf Trilogy , the Legacy of the Drow series , the Paths of Darkness series , The Hunter 's Blades Trilogy , the Transitions series , and the Neverwinter Saga , as well as in the short stories " The Dowry , " " Dark Mirror " , and " Comrades at Odds " . All of the novels featuring Drizzt have made the New York Times Best Seller list . A number of the novels have been adapted into graphic novels by Devil 's Due Publishing . Drizzt has also been featured in D & D @-@ based role @-@ playing video games , including the Baldur 's Gate Series and Forgotten Realms : Demon Stone .
= = Concept and creation = =
Drizzt Do 'Urden 's stories are set in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting for Dungeons & Dragons . The character has been a mainstay for author R. A. Salvatore , appearing in his novels for over 20 years . Drizzt is a drow who acts against the drow stereotype , favoring friendship and peace over hatred and violence . His unusual personality creates the conflict that allows Salvatore to create so many novels with stories about courage and friendship . Drizzt fights the dark traits that are inherent in the drow .
Salvatore uses Drizzt to represent issues of racial prejudice , particularly in The Dark Elf Trilogy . For instance , Drizzt is concerned that if he and his love Cattie @-@ Brie ( a human ) have children , their offspring will face hostility from both races . Drizzt is also troubled by the lifespan discrepancy between himself and Cattie @-@ Brie .
Drizzt was created by happenstance . In 1987 R.A. Salvatore sent Mary Kirchoff , then managing editor of TSR 's book department , a manuscript for what would become his 1990 novel Echoes of the Fourth Magic . She liked it , but asked if he could rewrite it to take place in the Forgotten Realms . She sent him Darkwalker on Moonshae by Douglas Niles , the only novel at the time set in the Forgotten Realms . Salvatore sent her a proposal for a sequel to Darkwalker , but Kirchoff sent back a large map of the Forgotten Realms and told him she wanted a new story set in a different part of the Realms . After two weeks of phone calls , Salvatore found a spot on the map that was not already designated for another project , and he located Icewind Dale there . According to Salvatore , the book was " set on the Moonshae Isles , because at the time I thought that was the Realms . When I found out how big the Realms were , I moved the story a thousand miles to the north . "
Salvatore created Drizzt on the spur of the moment . He was under pressure to create a sidekick for Wulfgar in the Icewind Dale series . Salvatore had sent an early version of The Crystal Shard ( what would become his first published novel ) to TSR , and one day Kirchoff called him . She was on her way to a marketing meeting concerning the book , and informed him that they could not use one of the characters . He asked for time to think , but she was already late for the meeting . Off the top of his head , Salvatore said he had a Dark Elf . Kirchoff was skeptical , but Salvatore convinced her it would be fine because he was just a sidekick . She asked his name , and he replied Drizzt Do 'Urden . She asked if he could spell it , and he said " not a chance " . Recalling Drizzt 's creation in an interview , Salvatore said , " I don 't know where it came from . I guess that Gary Gygax just did such an amazing job in creating the drow elves that something about them got stuck in the back of my head . Thank God ! " Although many readers have assumed that Drizzt is based on one of the many Dungeons & Dragons role @-@ playing campaigns that the author has played , this is not the case . Salvatore 's main influences were classical literature and works of J. R. R. Tolkien . " I like to think of Drizzt as a cross between Daryth from Darkwalker on Moonshae and Aragorn from The Lord of the Rings . " Salvatore calls Drizzt " the classic romantic hero — misunderstood , holding to a code of ideals even when the going gets tough , and getting no appreciation for it most of the time . "
= = Publication history = =
Drizzt 's story begins in the novel Homeland , the start of The Dark Elf Trilogy and published as a prequel in 1990 to The Icewind Dale Trilogy , which was published between 1988 and 1990 . In the book , Drizzt is born in Menzoberranzan as the third son to Matron Malice , the leader of House Do 'Urden ( a type of family akin to a Scottish clan ) . His father is Zaknafein , a weapons master who secretly hates drow society and teaches Drizzt his martial skills as he reinforces Drizzt 's innate moral code . The 1996 short story " The Fires of Narbondel " , in the Realms of the Underdark anthology , describes unrelated events involving Zaknafein as the main character , and a young Drizzt plays a supporting role .
During a raid against a group of surface elves , Drizzt finds himself unable to participate in the slaughter with his fellow drow . He pretends to kill an elf child , but actually helps her to escape . When the deception is discovered , Zaknafein is sacrificed in Drizzt 's stead to appease Lloth ( Known as Lolth by the Deep Gnomes - Svirfnebli ) , the drow 's goddess . Following a war against another House , Drizzt curses his family and the evil drow ways and escapes Menzoberranzan into the Underdark . At this time he also acquires the statuette that allows him to summon the magical panther Guenhwyvar . Guenhwyvar travels by Drizzt 's side as he makes his way across the Realms .
Drizzt fights off the resurrected spirit @-@ wraith of his father in Exile , the second book in the Dark Elf Trilogy and also published in 1990 . Sojourn picks up the story when Drizzt leaves the Underdark for the surface , where he meets a blind human ranger named Montolio Debrouchee . When Montolio begins teaching him the ways of the ranger , Drizzt realizes that , unknowingly , he had been following those very principles his entire life . From then on Drizzt 's patron goddess is Mielikki , the Faerûnian goddess of the forest and of rangers . Montolio eventually dies , and Drizzt travels the Realms in search of a new home . He eventually finds himself in Icewind Dale where he meets dwarven king Bruenor Battlehammer , and Bruenor 's adopted human daughter , Catti @-@ brie .
The fourth book chronologically in the series , although the first published , is The Crystal Shard ( 1988 ) , the first in The Icewind Dale Trilogy . It describes Drizzt 's meeting with the barbarian Wulfgar and the halfling Regis , and their adventures as they stop Akar Kessel , a mage possessed by the sentient artifact Crenshinibon ( the book 's eponymous Crystal Shard ) , from gaining control of the region . Streams of Silver ( 1989 ) , tells the story of the group as they journey to Mithral Hall , Bruenor 's boyhood home . Artemis Entreri , a recurring character in the series , also makes his first appearance . In later books , Artemis is Drizzt 's equal in combat , and they clash often due to their conflicting views and goals . In the 1990 book The Halfling 's Gem , Artemis kidnaps Regis while in the employ of a powerful crime lord . Drizzt and Wulfgar chase the assassin by sea , with the help of Captain Deudermont , to recover Regis . Drizzt ends up in combat with Artemis Entreri , who leaves the battle wounded . At the end of the book the group finds Regis , and Guenhwyvar kills Artemis 's employer .
Legacy of the Drow is a tetralogy , unlike the previous two trilogies . The 1993 short story , Dark Mirror , in the Realms of Valor anthology , describes events just prior to the series . The first three books , The Legacy , Starless Night , and Siege of Darkness , describe a drow attack on Mithril Hall . Wulfgar is seemingly slain by a yochlol , and Drizzt returns to Menzoberranzan to prevent his friends from being further attacked by dark elves . The drow launch a second attack against Mithril Hall during the Time of Troubles . It is eventually repelled and Drizzt returns to his friends .
Passage to Dawn , the final book in the Legacy of the Drow series and published two years after Siege of Darkness , picks up the story six years after the drow attack . Drizzt and Catti @-@ Brie work with Captain Deudermont on his pirate @-@ hunting ship , with the Companions of the Hall ultimately fighting the powerful demon Errtu who is aided by the Crystal Shard , which had previously been buried under a mountain of snow . Wulfgar , never truly dead , returns to life from the Abyss as the demon who had held his soul was destroyed .
Drizzt is the main character in only two books of the Paths of Darkness series . The Silent Blade ( 1998 ) describes the group 's journey to permanently destroy the Crystal Shard . Sea of Swords ( 2001 ) continues Drizzt 's story after the events of The Spine of the World ( 1999 ) , which focuses on Wulfgar , and Servant of the Shard ( 2000 ) , which has Artemis Entreri and Jarlaxle as the main characters . Sea of Swords covers the companions ' search for Wulfgar 's lost magical warhammer , Aegis @-@ fang , and the reunion of the group after an extended separation .
Drizzt returns as the main character throughout The Hunter 's Blades Trilogy . In The Thousand Orcs ( 2002 ) , Drizzt and his friends encounter the powerful orc Obould Many @-@ Arrows , who has employed frost giants to aid him in gaining control of the region . After a battle at the town of Shallows , Drizzt believes the other Companions of the Hall to have fallen in battle , and he sets off into the wilderness to fight all orcs in vengeance . The Lone Drow ( 2003 ) continues this storyline as the still @-@ living Companions protect Mithril Hall from orc attacks without the aid of Drizzt . He is reunited with his friends in The Two Swords ( 2003 ) .
R.A. Salvatore 's next series of Forgotten Realms books , The Sellswords Trilogy , focus on the further adventures of Artemis Entreri and Jarlaxle , with Drizzt only being mentioned in them . However , Drizzt is once again the main character in the Transitions trilogy , consisting of The Orc King , The Pirate King , and The Ghost King . Drizzt is the main character , along with Bruenor , in R.A. Salvatore 's next series in the Forgotten Realms , Neverwinter Saga ; the first book in this series , Gauntlgrym , was released October 5 , 2010 . The second book in the series Neverwinter , was released October 4 , 2011 , with the third installment entitled Charon 's Claw released August 7 , 2012 .
= = Reception = =
The Drizzt Do 'Urden books are popular with fantasy fans , and the Drizzt character is author R.A. Salvatore 's best known creation . All 31 novels featuring Drizzt by Salvatore have made the New York Times Best Seller list , starting with The Crystal Shard . The Orc King , which marked the 20th anniversary of the character , made it to # 7 on the list , as well as # 9 on the Wall Street Journal list , # 6 on the Publishers Weekly bestseller list , and # 36 on the USA Today list of top sellers .
The Two Swords peaked at # 4 on the New York Times Best Seller list in 2004 . It reached the top of the Wall Street Journal 's hardcover bestseller list after only two weeks , a record for its publisher Wizards of the Coast . It also debuted at # 4 on The New York Times 's bestseller list and # 2 on Publisher 's Weekly bestseller list .
The Lone Drow debuted at # 7 on the New York Times Best Seller list in October 2003 . Publishers Weekly felt that The Lone Drow was clichéd , but that some of the characters did achieve " some complexity " . They singled out two characters for praise : Innovindel , an elf who talks " pensively " of her long life in contrast to the short lived humans , and Obould the orc king .
A special Icewind Dale adventure was featured as the centerpiece at the November 3 , 2007 , Worldwide Dungeons and Dragons Game Day event , in honor of the 20th anniversary of the creation of Drizzt . According to PopMatters ' Andrew Welsh , Drizzt is Salvatore 's attempt to create a multifaceted character who faces internal struggles , in hopes of standing out from the drow , and fantasy fiction in general . Welsh feels that Salvatore fails in this regard , saying " any blood Drizzt finds on his hands is quickly justified and most “ internal ” conflict is superficial at best . " A review for Pyramid refers to Drizzt as the " most famous denizen " of Menzoberranzan , identifying him and the city as " some of the most famous pieces of the Realms " . Rob Bricken of Kotaku called Drizzt " one of the Mary Sue @-@ iest characters in all of fiction " .
= = Other media = =
Drizzt Do 'Urden has been featured in several accessories and one book for the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role @-@ playing game . The Hall of Heroes accessory for the second edition of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons , published in 1989 , features a four @-@ page description and game statistics for Drizzt and Guenhwyvar , written by R. A. Salvatore . The Heroes ' Lorebook accessory , published in 1996 and written by Dale Donovan and Paul Culotta , features an update and revision of Drizzt 's information from Hall of Heroes . The 1999 accessory Drizzt Do 'Urden 's Guide to the Underdark by Eric L. Boyd , details the cities and civilizations of Faerûn 's Underdark through the perspective of the title character . The Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting hardcover for the game 's third edition features a brief description and game statistics for Drizzt for this edition , under the section on the Sword Coast North .
Drizzt has also appeared in a number of graphic novels and video games , and as a miniature figure . Beginning in 2005 , Devil 's Due Publishing began releasing comic book adaptations of the Drizzt novels , covering each book in a three @-@ issue mini @-@ series along with a trade paperback collection . To date , Homeland , Exile , Sojourn , The Crystal Shard , Streams of Silver , The Halfling 's Gem , The Legacy , and Starless Night have been released . The character has appeared in several video games . He is part of the story and a party member the 1994 SSI game for PC Menzoberranzan . In Forgotten Realms : Demon Stone he is a playable character in the game 's seventh stage , described by a writer for Imagine Games Network ( IGN ) as " cool but utterly ineffective . " He is also an unlockable playable character in Baldur 's Gate : Dark Alliance and Baldur 's Gate : Dark Alliance II . Drizzt appears in Baldur 's Gate fighting some gnolls ; it is possible for a skilled player to kill him and steal his items , and a friendly or hostile version of Drizzt can be spawned with a cheat code . Drizzt also appears in the sequel Baldur 's Gate II and will react negatively if the player has imported characters from the first game that killed Drizzt or have any of his unique items . He will also react negatively to any elven character with a low reputation with the same name , challenging them to a duel of honor . Drizzt is also included in the Dungeons and Dragons Miniatures game , in the Legend of Drizzt Scenario Pack that also includes Wulfgar and the dragon Icingdeath . An enclosed booklet lets players recreate the battle between Drizzt , Wulfgar , and the dragon . The boxed set was nominated for Best Miniature Product at the 2008 ENnies .
Drizzt features prominently in the D & D Adventure System Cooperative Play board game The Legend of Drizzt , released October 18 , 2011 .
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= Operation Deny Flight =
Operation Deny Flight was a North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) operation that began on 12 April 1993 as the enforcement of a United Nations ( UN ) no @-@ fly zone over Bosnia and Herzegovina . The United Nations and NATO later expanded the mission of the operation to include providing close air support for UN troops in Bosnia and carrying out coercive air strikes against targets in Bosnia . Twelve NATO members contributed forces to the operation and , by its end on 20 December 1995 , NATO pilots had flown 100 @,@ 420 sorties .
The operation played an important role in shaping both the Bosnian War and NATO . The operation included the first combat engagement in NATO 's history , a 28 February 1994 air battle over Banja Luka , and in April 1994 , NATO aircraft first bombed ground targets in an operation near Goražde . These engagements helped show that NATO had adapted to the post @-@ Cold War era and could operate in environments other than a major force on force engagement on the plains of Central Europe . Cooperation between the UN and NATO during the operation also helped pave the way for future joint operations . Although it helped establish UN @-@ NATO relations , Deny Flight led to conflict between the two organizations . Most notably , significant tension arose between the two after UN peacekeepers were taken as hostages in response to NATO bombing .
The operations of Deny Flight spanned more than two years of the Bosnian War and played an important role in the course of that conflict . The no @-@ fly zone operations of Deny Flight proved successful in preventing significant use of air power by any side in the conflict . Additionally , the air strikes flown during Deny Flight led to Operation Deliberate Force , a massive NATO bombing campaign in Bosnia that played a key role in ending the war .
= = Background and Operation Sky Monitor = =
In October 1992 , at the beginning of the Bosnian War , the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 781 . This resolution prohibited unauthorized military flights in Bosnian airspace . Following the resolution , NATO began Operation Sky Monitor during which NATO forces monitored violations of the no @-@ fly zone , without taking any military action against violators . By April 1993 , NATO forces had documented more than 500 violations of the no @-@ fly zone . In response to these " blatant " violations of Bosnian air space , and implicitly of resolution 781 , the UN Security Council issued Resolution 816 .
While Resolution 781 prohibited only military flights , Resolution 816 prohibited all flights in Bosnian air space , except for those expressly authorized by the UN Flight Coordination Center in Zagreb . The resolution also authorized UN member states to " take all necessary measures ... to ensure compliance " with the no @-@ fly zone restrictions . In response to this resolution , NATO commenced Operation Deny Flight on 12 April 1993 . Initially Deny Flight was intended only to enforce the no @-@ fly zone ; however several NATO members , including the United States , were eager to find ways to end the war and improve the situation of civilians , and hoped that military action could do so . The US had already taken unilateral actions to aid civilians caught in the conflict by dropping humanitarian supplies into Bosnia under Operation Provide Promise , and many US officials argued for the use of military force . These officials were eager to expand US air operations through Deny Flight , hoping that an aggressive no @-@ fly zone and possible air strikes would end the conflict more quickly . NATO forces suffered its first loss on the second day of operations , when a French Mirage 2000 crashed in the Adriatic Sea due to mechanical failure . The pilot ejected safely .
= = Enforcement of no @-@ fly zone = =
After its adoption , Operation Deny Flight was relatively successful in preventing fixed @-@ wing aircraft from flying over restricted air space in Bosnia . During the monitoring phase of Operation Sky Monitor , unauthorized fixed @-@ wing flights averaged twenty per month , but during Deny Flight , the average was three . During the conflict , there were only an estimated 32 fixed @-@ wing military aircraft in Bosnia , all of them former Yugoslav National Army planes under the control of the Bosnian Serbs . Thus , NATO primarily needed to prevent incursions into Bosnian airspace from Croatia and Serbia .
The first serious violation to the no @-@ fly zone came on 28 February 1994 , when six Serb J @-@ 21 Jastreb jets bombed a Bosnian factory . US Air Force F @-@ 16s shot down four of the six Serb jets over Banja Luka . This engagement was the first combat engagement of Operation Deny Flight , and its only significant air @-@ to @-@ air combat engagement . Perhaps more importantly , the Banja Luka incident was also the first combat engagement in the history of NATO . The Serbs acknowledged the loss of a fifth aircraft in the incident .
While Deny Flight was relatively successful in stopping flights of fixed @-@ wing aircraft , NATO forces found it very difficult to stop helicopter flights , which presented a more complicated challenge . All sides in the conflict used helicopters extensively for non @-@ military purposes , and some of these flights were authorized by the UN . Under the operation 's rules of engagement , NATO fighters were only authorized to shoot down helicopters that committed a hostile act . Otherwise , NATO fighters issued orders to " land or exit " , in other words , land the aircraft or leave the no @-@ fly zone . Typically , helicopters in Bosnian airspace complied with these orders by landing , but then took off again after NATO forces departed . None of the parties in the conflict respected the ban on helicopter flights , as evidenced when Ratko Mladić responded to a BBC journalist 's question about his violation of the ban with the statement , " The commander of the Bosnian Serb armed forces does not ride on a donkey . "
Deceptive markings on helicopters further complicated matters for NATO pilots . Many of the combatants painted their helicopters to look like those of organizations that the UN 's Zagreb Flight Coordination Center had authorized to fly in restricted space . For example , the army of the Republika Srpska often painted a Red Cross logo on their helicopters , and Croatian helicopters were given markings similar to those of UN humanitarian aid helicopters . The questionable identity of these helicopters became particularly problematic after the Black Hawk Incident in Iraq , because NATO pilots became more reluctant to engage potential belligerents without clear identification . As a result of the rules of engagement and difficulties in aircraft identification , NATO forces proved unable to stop most unauthorized helicopter flights , resulting in a documented total of 5711 unauthorized flights during the conflict .
= = Close air support and air strikes = =
Even before Operation Deny Flight began , a number of US officials lobbied for a large role for NATO air power in Bosnia . In particular , as part of Bill Clinton 's platform during his 1992 campaign for President of the United States he promised a " lift and strike " policy , which included the use of air strikes against Bosnian Serb forces . After the commencement of Operation Deny Flight , US officials , including President Clinton , pushed for an expanded mission . After the Bosnian Serbs rejected the Vance @-@ Owen Plan on 6 May 1993 , Clinton and other US officials intensified these calls and they discussed the possibility of using large @-@ scale strikes to coerce the Serbs into acceptance . Ultimately , no such strikes were approved or carried out , but American officials became more open to the idea of using air power for coercion .
In June 1993 , partly in response to pressure from the United States , the Security Council passed Resolution 836 which authorized NATO forces to provide close air support for UNPROFOR forces upon request . The procedure to request air support was quite difficult , as it involved the " dual key " of both UN and NATO approval . UN approval required contact with the United Nations headquarters in New York City , making effective coordination nearly impossible given the difference in time zones . The UN approval process was later somewhat streamlined when UN Secretary @-@ General Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali delegated the authority to authorize air strikes to his special representative in Bosnia , Yasushi Akashi . Even after this simplification , however , " dual key " remained a problem as all requests first had to be processed through the UN Air Operations Center in Kiseljak then pass up the entire UNPROFOR chain of command to Akashi . After Akashi approved the request , he would make a request to NATO commanders who then had to pass orders back down their chain of command and coordinate with forces on the ground .
Due to the difficult " dual key " authorization measure , NATO did not fulfill its close air support mission for several months . Nonetheless , NATO soon began further planning for a third mission : coercive air strikes as advocated by the United States . NATO first prepared to use Deny Flight to carry out air strikes in August 1993 as part of a plan to end the Siege of Sarajevo . After diplomatic intervention , the plan was not executed , but a precedent was established for the possible use of air strikes . Thus , in February 1994 , after the Sarajevo Marketplace Bombing , NATO issued an ultimatum to the Serbs to withdraw all heavy weapons from an exclusion zone around Sarajevo or face bombing . The Bosnian Serbs complied with NATO demands and no strikes were carried out .
= = = Attack on Goražde = = =
In April 1994 , Bosnian Serbs forces launched an attack on the UN Safe Area of Goražde . Initially , US Secretary of Defense William Perry told reporters that the United States would " not enter the war to stop " the Serbs from overrunning Goražde , and other senior officials publicly downplayed the possibility of using air strikes . Several days into the attack , however , a number of UNPROFOR soldiers were injured , and one was killed by Serb fire . Thus , General Michael Rose , the UNPROFOR Commander , requested NATO strikes under the mandate of UNSCR 836 .
On 10 April , in response to the request , two US Air Force F @-@ 16s dropped bombs on Serb targets , including a tank and a command post . The next day , two US Marine Corps F / A @-@ 18C aircraft strafed additional targets in the area . That same day , General Ratko Mladić , the commander of the Bosnian Serb army , called General Rose and threatened the safety of his forces , saying " one more attack and I will shoot down aircraft – cannot guarantee safety of UNPROFOR and will attack UNPROFOR and your headquarters " . Making good on his threat , from 12 April to 14 April , Mladić ordered his forces to surround 150 UNPROFOR peacekeepers , effectively taking them hostage . Mladić then telephoned General Rose and told him " that if NATO did not stop its actions , not one UN soldier would leave alive " . Some of the UNPROFOR hostages were from NATO member states , notably the United Kingdom and France , who pushed for an immediate end to the strikes out of fear for the safety of their personnel . In response to the British and French concerns , NATO temporarily recalled its forces , but on 15 April , in response to increased Serb attacks , aircraft were again deployed to the area .
As Mladić had promised , the Bosnian Serb army around Goražde attempted to shoot down NATO aircraft . On 15 April 1994 , a French Dassault Étendard IV jet was hit by ground fire while conducting a reconnaissance mission in the area . The jet was damaged , but returned safely to its carrier , the Clemenceau . On 16 April , a British Sea Harrier from the carrier HMS Ark Royal was called in by UN forces to strike a tank . After making several unsuccessful passes at the target , the Sea Harrier was targeted by a Bosnian Serb shoulder @-@ launched surface @-@ to @-@ air missile and was subsequently shot down . The pilot ejected safely and was rescued , but his plane was destroyed . After the Harrier shootdown , NATO did not carry out any further strikes around Goražde , and on 17 April , Mladić released most of the hostages he had taken . Over the next several days , the Serbs agreed to , and then broke , several ceasefires in the Goražde area . In an effort to secure Goražde and to force the Serbs to honor agreements , NATO and the UN issued an ultimatum for Bosnian Serb forces to cease their attacks and withdraw their forces or face additional air strikes on 22 April . The Serbs complied with the ultimatum , requiring a withdrawal of heavy weapons from a 20 kilometers ( 12 mi ) zone and all forces from a 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) zone . Because of the Serb compliance , NATO ceased its operations around Goražde .
= = = Sarajevo = = =
In February 1994 ( when air strikes were originally threatened ) , NATO had created a heavy weapons exclusion zone around Sarajevo , and collected weapons at a number of sites . On 5 August , the VRS seized several weapons from the Illidža Weapons Collection site in clear violation of the exclusion zone agreement . During the seizure , Serb forces injured a Ukrainian UNPROFOR peacekeeper . In response to the attack , the UN once again requested NATO air support . Two U.S. A @-@ 10 aircraft repeatedly strafed Serb targets , and the Serbs returned the seized weapons to the collection site .
On 22 September , UNPROFOR again requested NATO air support in the Sarajevo area after Serb forces attacked a French armored personnel carrier . In response , two British SEPECAT Jaguar aircraft struck near a Serb tank , destroying it .
= = = Banja Luka incident = = =
On 28 February 1994 , a NATO Airborne Early Warning aircraft flying over Hungary vectored two US F @-@ 16s to an area south of Banja Luka , where six J @-@ 21 Jastreb and two J @-@ 22 Orao were flying back to their base after bombing the " Bratstvo " military factory at Novi Travnik , in blatant violation of the non @-@ fly zone . Four Serb aircraft were shot down and another crashed while trying to escape in low @-@ level flight . This marked the first combat mission in NATO 's history .
= = = Attack on Bihać , bombing of Udbina and hostages = = =
In October and November 1994 , during the Siege of Bihać , the Muslim @-@ Croat Federation launched a large offensive around the town of Bihać , in far northwestern Bosnia . The Serbs soon launched a counterattack , and in support of their operations , launched air strikes with aircraft based at a former JNA military airport in Udbina , south of Bihać , located in the Republic of Serbian Krajina . The Serb aircraft dropped napalm and cluster bombs . Although most of the ordnance came from old , unreliable stocks and failed to explode , the attacks were a clear violation of the no @-@ fly zone , and a challenge to NATO . NATO immediately looked for ways to respond , but its forces were not permitted to carry out operations in Croatian airspace , and due to Bihać 's proximity to the border , Serb aircraft could attack into Bosnia , then cross back into Croatia before being intercepted . As such , NATO was powerless to stop the incursions .
In recognition of the situation , the Security Council passed Resolution 958 , which allowed NATO aircraft to operate in Croatia . On 21 November , NATO acted under its new authority with a strike on the Udbina airfield . The strike , which involved 39 aircraft , was the largest combat operation in NATO 's history up to that time ; nonetheless , it was criticized as a " pinprick " that did little real damage to Serb capabilities , only temporarily disabling runways . The NATO forces deliberately refrained from attacking Serb planes at the airfield , and only targeted runways and anti @-@ air capabilities . Following the Udbina strike , NATO continued to launch strikes in the area , and on 23 November , after a NATO reconnaissance plane was illuminated by the radar of a surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) system , NATO planes attacked SAM sites at Otoka and Dvor with AGM @-@ 88 HARM anti @-@ radiation missiles . The Serbs reacted to these strikes by immediately seizing 250 UNPROFOR hostages , and a total of 500 by early December . While the hostages were treated fairly well , some were used as human shields , including three who were forced to lie on the tarmac at the Bosnian Serb airbase in Banja Luka .
After the strikes at Otoka and Dvor , Bosnian Serb forces continued to target NATO aircraft with surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles , while advancing against the Bihać enclave . On 24 November , Serb forces fired radar @-@ guided missiles at two British Tornado F3 aircraft . The next day , Serb forces fired on two NATO F @-@ 16s . In response to this growing SAM threat , and the UNPROFOR hostages , NATO suspended flights in Bosnian airspace on 2 December .
Shortly after the suspension of NATO flights , former US President Jimmy Carter personally negotiated a four @-@ month ceasefire in Bosnia . Although there were some violations of this ceasefire , most of the parties in the conflict heeded it . NATO ordered its planes back in the air , but due to the diminished hostilities , they did not engage in any significant operations for the next several months . The reduced tensions resulting from the Carter ceasefire and the cessation of NATO air operations also led to the release of most of the UNPROFOR hostages over the next several weeks .
= = Expansion of the air campaign in 1995 = =
Although 1994 ended peacefully with the Carter ceasefire , NATO continued planning for new operations . Both NATO and UN officials believed that after the ceasefire expired in March , the fighting would resume . As such , planners at the Balkans Combined Air Operations Center ( CAOC ) began drawing up plans for new air operations . By late December , the planners developed a plan called " Dead Eye " , designed to eliminate Serb SAM capabilities , so that NATO could regain uncontested air superiority . Over the next several months , the planning for " Dead Eye " gradually evolved into the plan for Operation Deliberate Force , a massive bombing of Serb targets that was eventually executed in August and September 1995 .
= = = Bombing of Pale and the hostage crisis = = =
While NATO was planning its new strategy , the ceasefire expired , and , as predicted , fighting resumed . As the fighting gradually widened , Bosnian Muslim forces launched a large @-@ scale offensive in the area of Sarajevo . In response to the attack , the Bosnian Serbs seized heavy weapons from a UN @-@ guarded depot , and began shelling targets . As a retaliation for these actions , the UN commander , Lt. General Rupert Smith requested NATO air strikes . NATO honored the request on 25 and 26 May 1995 by bombing a Serb ammunition dump at Pale . The mission was carried out by USAF F @-@ 16s and Spanish Air Force EF @-@ 18As Hornet armed with laser @-@ guided bombs . The Serbs then seized 377 UNPROFOR hostages and used them as human shields for a variety of targets in Bosnia , forcing NATO to end its strikes .
Facing a second hostage crisis , General Smith and other top UN commanders began shifting strategies . The UN began to redeploy its forces to more defensible locations , so that they would be harder to attack or take hostage . More importantly , Gen. Rose established the UN Rapid Reaction Force , a heavily armed unit with more aggressive rules of engagement , designed to take offensive action if necessary to prevent hostage @-@ taking and enforce peace agreements .
= = = Downing of Scott O 'Grady = = =
After the seizure of the 377 hostages , NATO did not carry out further air strikes , but it did continue regular air patrol operations in support of the no @-@ fly zone . On 2 June 1995 , Captain Scott O 'Grady of the United States Air Force was sent on a routine no @-@ fly zone patrol in his F @-@ 16 . While on patrol , O 'Grady 's F @-@ 16 was shot down by a Serb SA @-@ 6 surface @-@ to @-@ air missile system near Mrkonjić Grad . O 'Grady ejected safely , but found himself trapped in Serb @-@ controlled territory . According to many US officials , he may have been deliberately targeted so that the Serbs could take an American hostage .
After O 'Grady was shot down , tensions increased greatly between NATO and the Bosnian Serbs . A number of US commanders called for immediate retaliatory air strikes ; however , the Serbs still held the majority of the hostages seized after the bombing of Pale . The threat to the hostages prevented NATO from acting more forcefully , and the Serbs released 121 hostages immediately after the incident in an effort to cool tensions . Nonetheless , the situation remained explosive for the next six days until O 'Grady was rescued on 8 June by the 3rd Battalion 8th Marines 2nd Marine Division , ending the calls for immediate offensive action . Shortly thereafter , the Serbs released the remaining hostages . As a result of the incident , NATO ordered that all further sorties be accompanied by aircraft designed for suppression of enemy air defenses ( SEAD ) .
On 11 August , a USAF MQ @-@ 1 Predator UAV was shot down by Serb antiarcraft fire in the same area , while another was lost to mechanical failure on 14 August .
= = = Response to Srebrenica = = =
A month after the O 'Grady incident , on 6 July , the VRS launched an offensive against the UN safe- area of Srebrenica . Dutch peacekeepers in the area considered calling for NATO air strikes in response to the attack , but they decided against them because the Serbs were not using heavy weapons , and out of fear of another hostage crisis . On 10 July , as the fighting intensified , the Dutch troops finally requested close air support from NATO , but due to communication problems in the " dual key " system , the request was not authorized until the next day .
On 11 July , NATO prepared for a large @-@ scale mission in Srebrenica involving 60 aircraft . At 2 : 30 PM , the first wave of the assault , two Dutch F @-@ 16s , bombed two Serb tanks on the outskirts of the town . Two USAF F @-@ 16s were dispatched next to attack an artillery piece , but they failed to find their target . Soon thereafter , Bosnian Serb troops seized several Dutch peacekeepers as hostages and threatened to kill them if NATO did not call off its attacks . The Dutch commander reported this back to his government , and Dutch Defense Minister Joris Voorhoeve immediately telephoned the NATO operations center and ordered an end to the attacks .
By the end of the day , Srebrenica had fallen to Bosnian Serb forces , who began a brutal campaign of ethnic cleansing that left roughly 7 @,@ 000 men dead . In the wake of this tragedy , many observers blamed NATO for failing to use its airpower more forcefully . David Rohde , a journalist , later wrote that " if NATO close air support had been used earlier ... the 7 @,@ 079 missing might still be alive today " . This feeling that NATO could have prevented thousands of deaths by acting more strongly led to increased planning for Operation Deliberate Force .
= = = The London Conference = = =
After the events at Srebrenica , sixteen nations met at the London Conference , which began on 21 July 1995 , to consider new options for Bosnia . As a result of the conference , UN Secretary @-@ General Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali gave General Bernard Janvier , the UN military commander , the authority to request NATO airstrikes without consulting civilian UN officials . The North Atlantic Council , NATO 's top political body , and the UN also agreed to use NATO air strikes in response to attacks on any of the other safe areas in Bosnia . The participants at the conference also agreed in principle to the use of large @-@ scale NATO air strikes in response to future acts of Serb aggression .
= = Operation Deliberate Force = =
On 28 August 1995 , a mortar shell slammed into a Sarajevo marketplace , killing 37 people . The United States subsequently blamed Bosnian Serb forces for the attack . Admiral Leighton Smith , the NATO commander , recommended that NATO launch retaliatory air strikes against the Serbs under the plan established for Operation Deliberate Force . On 30 August 1995 , NATO officially launched Operation Deliberate Force with large @-@ scale bombing of Serb targets . This bombing superseded Operation Deny Flight 's role for air strikes and close air support , but Deny Flight remained an active operation , still enforcing the no @-@ fly zone over Bosnia .
Until 20 September 1995 , when Operation Deliberate Force ended , the role played by Deny Flight was minimal . After the suspension of Operation Deliberate Force ; however , several further operations were carried out under Deny Flight . On 4 October 1995 , Deny Flight aircraft fired HARM missiles after being targeted by surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . On 8 October 1995 , the UN requested close air support near Tuzla . Due to bad weather conditions , NATO aircraft were unable to locate their targets , but on 9 October , in the final combat engagement of Deny Flight , NATO aircraft returned and destroyed a Serb command and control bunker .
= = Termination of Deny Flight = =
After the adoption of the Dayton Accords , a peace agreement for Bosnia , Deny Flight 's mission was no longer necessary . On 15 December 1995 , the United Nations Security Council officially terminated the resolutions that had authorized the operation , and on 16 December , the North Atlantic Council agreed to terminate Operation Deny Flight , effective 20 December . On 21 December 1995 , NATO held a formal closure ceremony for Deny Flight in Vicenza . Many of the forces assigned to Deny Flight were transferred to Operation Decisive Endeavor , to provide support for new IFOR peacekeepers in Bosnia .
= = Structure of forces = =
Throughout the course of its operation , Deny Flight was directed by Allied Forces Southern Europe ( AFSOUTH ) in Naples , under the command of the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of Allied Forces Southern Europe . At the beginning of the operation , Admiral Jeremy Boorda served as the commanding officer ; he was replaced by Admiral Leighton Smith in 1994 . Smith and Boorda , however , delegated day to day authority to Allied Air Forces Southern Europe ( AIRSOUTH ) commanded by Lieutenant General Joseph W. Ashy ( until 1994 ) and then Lt. Gen Michael Ryan . While AIRSOUTH maintained day to day command , " mission tasking and operational control " were delegated to the commander of the NATO 5th Allied Tactical Air Force ( 5ATAF ) , initially Lt Gen Antonio Rosetti and later Lt Gen Andrea Fornaserio , both of the Italian Air Force .
To simplify the chain of command and coordinate activities , NATO established the Combined Air Operations Center ( CAOC ) in Vicenza , Italy , which assumed practical day @-@ to @-@ day control of Deny Flight and reported to the commander of the 5ATAF . Each squadron participating in the operation sent a liaison officer to the CAOC to ensure coordination . The initial director of the CAOC was Lt Gen James Chambers of the US Air Force . In November 1994 , Major General Hal Hornburg replaced him . In practice , most tactical level decisions about Deny Flight were made by the director of the CAOC , and he had the authority to order NATO pilots to engage violators of the no @-@ fly zone .
Twelve NATO countries provided forces to Operation Deny Flight : Belgium , Canada , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Spain , Turkey , the United Kingdom and the United States . Together , these twelve states contributed a total of 4 @,@ 500 personnel who were based at air bases in five countries : France , Germany , Greece , Italy , and the United Kingdom and on aircraft carriers in the region . Eight of the participating countries contributed a total of 239 aircraft to the operation , of which nearly half , 108 , came from the United States . Within the United States , the US Navy and US Marine Corps provided the most support for the operation , and together they flew 70 % of all of the air defense sorties flown during Deny Flight . American aircraft also provided the majority of the airstrikes during the conflict ; of the 1 @,@ 150 bombs dropped by NATO forces , 88 % came from American aircraft .
= = Impact and legacy = =
Operation Deny Flight lasted for 983 days and included 100 @,@ 420 sorties carried out by 4 @,@ 500 personnel from 12 NATO countries . It included the first combat engagement in NATO history , the Banja Luka incident , and many of NATO 's first out of area operations . As such , Deny Flight " represented a momentous act , if only in symbolic terms , in that the alliance assumed a combat mission in a nondefensive capacity and out @-@ of @-@ area " . Beyond this symbolic effect , Deny Flight had important consequences for NATO military policy , international relations , and the war in Bosnia .
= = = Effect on military policy = = =
As one of the first major combat tests of NATO airforces , Deny Flight provided several important military lessons . Most importantly , Deny Flight helped to prove the effectiveness , or drive the development of several technologies . For example , during the operation , the F / A @-@ 18D Hornet was proven to be a " highly resourceful multirole platform " for the United States Marine Corps . Deny Flight was also important in the move towards precision @-@ guided munitions , as nearly 70 % of the munitions dropped by NATO during the conflict were precision @-@ guided , versus only 8 % during the Gulf War . For the Royal Navy , Deny Flight led to a re @-@ evaluation of the Sea Harrier and a number of upgrades to it . In particular , the Royal Navy added the Paveway II laser @-@ guided bomb to the Harrier , giving it a precision capability , and upgraded electronics aboard the aircraft in response to the necessities of combat in Bosnia . The lessons of Bosnia also led the Royal Air Force to deploy the Harrier GR7 aboard Royal Navy carriers for future operations in order to deliver more offensive force projection capability .
The four NATO aircraft shot down during Operation Deny Flight also forced NATO members to consider new defensive measures for their aircraft , including increased stealth capabilities . Deny Flight also demonstrated the necessity of better communications and integration among forces operating together , and led to some calls for technical training of UN personnel to work with NATO military systems . Finally , the rules of engagement established under Deny Flight also played an important role in shaping the rules of engagement for later NATO operations other than war , including Operation Joint Endeavor , and even NATO operations in Afghanistan .
= = = Effect on the Atlantic relationship = = =
Operation Deny Flight , and other NATO operations during the Bosnian War , resulted in significant tension within NATO and the Atlantic relationship . Deny Flight and other early operations " forced the Allies to consider the question of NATO 's military responsibility for territory outside of its traditional defense perimeter , and it was one over which they were deeply divided " . Disagreements between the United States and its European allies over when and how to use air power " made intra @-@ alliance diplomacy more problematic " during the period . Many of these problems in the relationship were the result of concerns from European nations who had forces on the ground in UNPROFOR that might be taken hostage . The fact that the United States pushed for air strikes without placing its own forces on the ground in Bosnia greatly exacerbated this problem .
Deny Flight also helped set the path for future UN @-@ NATO relations . Throughout the operation , NATO " felt the frustration of having its wings clipped by a parallel UN authority " , while United Nations officials worried about the effect that NATO air strikes would have on the perceived neutrality of the United Nations . Frustration with the " dual key " procedure of authorization for NATO action also led NATO officers to reject such an arrangement in the future . Admiral Leighton Smith , the commander of NATO 's forces during Deny Flight , expressed this sentiment quite bluntly , saying " Don 't ever have another dual key . " These difficulties in negotiating the UN @-@ NATO relationship during Deny Flight were a major factor in the decision to place later NATO forces in the Balkans under the sole control of the NATO chain of command . While many of these effects on UN @-@ NATO relations were negative , Deny Flight also had positive implications . During the operation , NATO and the UN exchanged liaison officers for the first time in their respective histories , establishing a precedent for military cooperation between the two . The communication and coordination failures during Deny Flight also instilled " a desire for mutual understanding and common solutions " between the two organizations . This desire for cooperation was crucial to the establishment of IFOR , and later UN @-@ NATO cooperation in Bosnia and elsewhere .
= = = Effect on the Bosnian War = = =
Deny Flight also played a significant role in shaping the war in Bosnia , although its exact impact is debated . While Richard Holbrooke , the American special envoy for Bosnia , recognized Operation Deliberate Force as " a historic development in post @-@ Cold War relations " and as a crucial element in ending the war in Bosnia , the actual impact of Deny Flight on the course of the conflict was more muted . None of the air strikes in Deny Flight were on the scale of those in Deliberate Force , and they did not significantly change the balance of power . Notably , however , Deny Flight was successful in that it " neutralised the Bosnian Serbs ' advantage in fixed @-@ wing air @-@ power " . Deny Flight also paved the way for Operation Deliberate Force . According to Robert E. Hunter , then the US Ambassador to NATO , Deny Flight was crucial to the process of building " consensus support for increasingly robust use of airpower over Bosnia " , which eventually culminated in Operation Deliberate Force .
While the material impact of Deny Flight was minimal , it did have a significant political impact . From the very beginning , according to Michael Beale , " the operation 's implied objective was to demonstrate UN and NATO determination to stabilize the situation in Bosnia so that a peaceful settlement could be achieved " . Given the many violations of Deny Flight by helicopters , and the frequent failure of coordination between NATO and the UN , it is uncertain whether Deny Flight accomplished this mission . Nonetheless , NATO 's limited air strikes under Deny Flight " demonstrated its determination to protect United Nations personnel " and Bosnian civilians , according to Michael R. Gordon , chief military correspondent for The New York Times . This determination eventually held the key to peace .
= = = Books = = =
Beale , Michael ( 1997 ) . Bombs over Bosnia : The Role of Airpower in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . Maxwell Air Force Base , Montgomery : Air University Press . OCLC 39892597 .
Boot , Max ( 2006 ) . War Made New . New York : Gotham Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 59240 @-@ 222 @-@ 4 . OCLC 69104262 .
Bucknam , Mark ( 2003 ) . Responsibility of Command . Maxwell Air Force Base : Air University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58566 @-@ 115 @-@ 5 . OCLC 52199670 .
Burg , Steven ; Shoup , Paul ( 1999 ) . The War in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . Armonk : M.E. Sharper . ISBN 1 @-@ 56324 @-@ 308 @-@ 3 . OCLC 44955248 .
Davis , Bradley ( 2000 ) . " The Planning Background " . Deliberate Force . Maxwell Air Force Base : Air University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58566 @-@ 076 @-@ 0 . OCLC 43095788 .
Foster , Edward ( 1995 ) . NATO 's Military in the Age of Crisis Management . London : Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies . ISBN 0 @-@ 85516 @-@ 099 @-@ 3 . OCLC 32775929 .
Holbrooke , Richard ( 1999 ) . To End a War . New York : Modern Library . ISBN 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 75360 @-@ 5 . OCLC 40545454 .
Moore , Rebecca ( 2007 ) . NATO 's New Mission . Westport : Praeger Security International . ISBN 0 @-@ 275 @-@ 99296 @-@ 9 . OCLC 74966600 .
National Defense University ( April 1997 ) . Allied command structures in the new NATO . National Defense University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 57906 @-@ 033 @-@ 1 .
Ripley , Tim ( 2001 ) . Conflict in the Balkans , 1991 – 2000 . London : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 290 @-@ 3 .
Rohde , David ( 1997 ) . A Safe Area , Srebrenica : Europe 's Worst Massacre Since the Second World War . London : Pocket Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 00499 @-@ 9 . OCLC 37329422 .
= = = Articles = = =
Allin , Dana ( 2002 ) . NATO 's Balkan Interventions . Adelphi Paper 347 . International Institute for Strategic Studies . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 851676 @-@ 2 .
" Bosnian Serb leader parlays with Carter , promises peace moves " . Deutsche Presse @-@ Agentur . December 15 , 1994 .
Cohen , Roger ( November 22 , 1994 ) . " NATO , Expanding Bosnia Role , Strikes a Serbian Base in Croatia " . The New York Times .
Cohen , Roger ( December 9 , 1995 ) . " Serbs Release 55 Canadians But Renew Attack on Enclave " . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 04 @-@ 28 .
" Deny Flight shootdown may put USAF on the offensive " . Jane 's Defence Weekly . June 24 , 1995 .
" Flexing Joint Muscle : Mixed air groups aboard carriers " . Jane 's Navy International . December 1997 .
Gordon , Michael ( April 11 , 1994 ) . " Conflict in the Balkans : NATO ; Modest Air Operation in Bosnia Crosses a Major Political Frontier " . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 02 @-@ 17 .
Gordon , Michael ( April 5 , 1994 ) . " No ' Green Light ' for Serb Attacks , Clinton Says " . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 02 @-@ 17 .
Gordon , Michael R. ( 1 March 1994 ) . " Conflict in the Balkans : NATO Craft Down 4 Serb Warplanes Attacking Bosnia " . The New York times . Retrieved 2012 @-@ 11 @-@ 17 .
Leurdijk , Dick ( 1997 ) . " Before and after Dayton : The UN and NATO in the former Yugoslavia " . Third World Quarterly .
Owen , Robert ( Summer 1997 ) . " The Balkans Air Campaign Study : Part 1 " . Airpower Journal .
" RAF Harriers could add teeth to RN carriers " . Jane 's Defense Weekly . June 26 , 1996 .
" Ratko Mladic 's very personal war " . BBC World Service . July 26 , 2008 . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 03 @-@ 08 .
Safire , William ( November 23 , 1995 ) . " Essay : Biting Bosnia 's Bullet " . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 02 @-@ 16 .
Cohen , Roger ( 29 August 1995 ) . " Shelling Kills Dozens in Sarajevo ; U.S. Urges NATO to Strike Serbs " . The New York Times . Retrieved 2012 @-@ 11 @-@ 16 .
Simmons , Dean ( May 1997 ) . " Air operations over Bosnia " . United States Naval Institute Proceedings .
Slick , Anthony ( May 1995 ) . " Working the swing role into the 21st century--The F / A @-@ 18D " . Marine Corps Gazette .
Spence , Mike ( October 2000 ) . " Lessons for combined rules of engagement " . United States Naval Institute . Proceedings .
Starr , Barbara ( August 14 , 1993 ) . " Deny Flight forces poised for Bosnia strikes " . Jane 's Defence Weekly .
Starr , Barbara ( January 28 , 1995 ) . " The Jane 's Interview " . Jane 's Defence Weekly .
Sudetic , Chuck ( November 19 , 1994 ) . " Napalm and Cluster Bombs Dropped on Bosnian Town " . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 04 @-@ 28 .
Williams , Daniel ; Devroy , Ann ( December 15 , 1994 ) . " Carter Undertakes Bosnia Peace Initiative " . The Washington Post .
Wallander , Celeste ( Autumn 2000 ) . " Institutional Assets and Adaptability : NATO After the Cold War " . International Organization . ( subscription required for viewing )
= = = Web resources = = =
" Operation Deny Flight " . AFSOUTH Fact Sheets . NATO Regional Headquarters Allied Forces Southern Europe . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 04 @-@ 17 .
" Resolution 816 " ( PDF ) . United Nations Security Council Resolutions . UN Security Council . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 02 @-@ 17 .
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= Blue @-@ faced honeyeater =
The blue @-@ faced honeyeater ( Entomyzon cyanotis ) , also colloquially known as the bananabird , is a passerine bird of the honeyeater family , Meliphagidae .
It is the only member of its genus , and it is most closely related to honeyeaters of the genus Melithreptus . Three subspecies are recognised . At around 29 @.@ 5 cm ( 11 @.@ 6 in ) in length , the blue @-@ faced species is large for a honeyeater . Its plumage is distinctive , with olive upperparts , white underparts , and a black head and throat with white nape and cheeks . Males and females are similar in external appearance . Adults have a blue area of bare skin on each side of the face readily distinguishing them from juveniles , which have yellow or green patches of bare skin .
Found in open woodland , parks and gardens , the blue @-@ faced honeyeater is common in northern and eastern Australia and southern New Guinea . It appears to be sedentary in parts of its range and locally nomadic in other parts ; however , the species has been little studied . Its diet is mostly composed of invertebrates , supplemented with nectar and fruit . They often take over and renovate old babbler nests , in which the female lays and incubates two or rarely three eggs .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The blue @-@ faced honeyeater was first described by ornithologist John Latham in his 1801 work Supplementum Indicis Ornithologici , sive Systematis Ornithologiae . However , he described it as three separate species , seemingly not knowing it was the same bird in each case : The blue @-@ eared grackle ( Gracula cyanotis ) , the blue @-@ cheeked bee @-@ eater ( Merops cyanops ) , and as the blue @-@ cheeked thrush ( Turdus cyanous ) . It was as the blue @-@ cheeked bee @-@ eater that it was painted between 1788 and 1797 by Thomas Watling , one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter .
It was reclassified in the genus Entomyzon , which was erected by William Swainson in 1825 , who observed the " Blue @-@ faced Grakle " as the only insectivorous member of the genus and posited it was a link between the smaller honeyeaters and the riflebirds of the genus Ptiloris . The generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek ento- / εντο- ( " inside " ) and myzein / μυζειν " to drink " or " suck " . The specific epithet , cyanotis , means " blue @-@ eared " and combines cyano- / κυανο- " blue " with otis , a Latinised form of ωτος , the Greek genitive of ous / ους " ear " . Swainson spelt it Entomiza in an 1837 publication , and George Gray wrote Entomyza in 1840 .
The blue @-@ faced honeyeater is generally held to be the only member of the genus , although its plumage suggests an affinity with honeyeaters of the genus Melithreptus . It has been classified in that genus by Glen Storr , although others felt it more closely related to wattlebirds ( Anthochaera ) or miners ( Manorina ) . A 2004 molecular study has resolved it as close to Melithreptus after all . Molecular clock estimates indicate the blue @-@ faced honeyeater diverged from the Melithreptus honeyeaters somewhere between 12 @.@ 8 and 6 @.@ 4 million years ago , in the Miocene epoch . It differs from them in its much larger size , brighter plumage , more gregarious nature and larger patch of bare facial skin .
Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes ) , Acanthizidae ( Australian warblers , scrubwrens , thornbills , etc . ) , and the Maluridae ( Australian fairy @-@ wrens ) in a large Meliphagoidea superfamily .
Early naturalist George Shaw had called it the blue @-@ faced honey @-@ sucker in 1826 . Other common names include white @-@ quilled honeyeater , and blue @-@ eye . Its propensity for feeding on the flowers and fruit of bananas in north Queensland has given it the common name of banana @-@ bird . A local name from Mackay in central Queensland is pandanus @-@ bird , as it is always found around Pandanus palms there . It is called morning @-@ bird from its dawn calls before other birds of the bush . Gympie is a Queensland bushman 's term . Thomas Watling noted a local indigenous name was der @-@ ro @-@ gang . John Hunter recorded the term gugurruk ( pron . " co @-@ gurrock " ) , but the term was also applied to the black @-@ shouldered kite ( Elanus axillaris ) . It is called ( minha ) yeewi , where minha is a qualifier meaning ' meat ' or ' animal ' , in Pakanh and ( inh- ) ewelmb in Uw Oykangand and Uw Olkola , where inh- is a qualifier meaning ' meat ' or ' animal ' , in three aboriginal languages of central Cape York Peninsula .
Three subspecies are recognised :
E. c. albipennis was described by John Gould in 1841 and found in north Queensland , west though the Gulf of Carpentaria in the Northern Territory and across into the top of Western Australia . It has white on the wings and a discontinuous stripe on the nape . The wing patch is pure white in the western part of its range and is more cream towards the east . It has a longer bill and shorter tail than the nominate race . Birds also decrease in size with decreasing latitude , consistent with Bergmann 's rule . Molecular work supports the current classification of this subspecies as distinct from the nominate subspecies cyanotis .
E. c. cyanotis , the nominate form , is found from Cape York Peninsula south through Queensland and New South Wales , into the Riverina region , Victoria , and southeastern South Australia .
E. c. griseigularis is found in southwestern New Guinea and Cape York , and was described in 1909 by Dutch naturalist Eduard van Oort . It is much smaller than the other subspecies . The original name for this subspecies was harteri , but the type specimen , collected in Cooktown , was found to be an intergrade form . The new type was collected from Merauke . This subspecies intergrades with cyanotis at the base of the Cape York Peninsula , and the zone of intermediate forms is narrow . The white wing patch is larger than that of cyanotis and smaller than that of albipennis . Only one bird ( from Cape York ) of this subspecies was sampled in a molecular study , and it was shown to be genetically close to cyanotis .
= = Description = =
A large honeyeater ranging from 26 to 32 cm ( 10 to 12 @.@ 5 in ) and averaging 29 @.@ 5 cm ( 11 @.@ 6 in ) in length , the adult blue @-@ faced honeyeater has a wingspan of 44 cm ( 17 @.@ 5 in ) and weighs around 105 g ( 3 @.@ 7 oz ) . In general shape , it has broad wings with rounded tips and a medium squarish tail . The sturdy slightly downcurved bill is shorter than the skull , and measures 3 to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 4 in ) in length . It is easily recognised by the bare blue skin around its eyes . The head and throat are otherwise predominantly blackish with a white stripe around the nape and another from the cheek . The upperparts , including mantle , back and wings , are a golden @-@ olive colour , and the margins of the primary and secondary coverts a darker olive @-@ brown , while the underparts are white . Juveniles that have just fledged have grey head , chin and central parts of their breasts , and brown upperparts , and otherwise white underparts . After their next moult , they more closely resemble adults and have similar plumage , but are distinguished by their facial patches . The bare facial skin of birds just fledged is yellow , sometimes with a small patch of blue in front of the eyes , while the skin of birds six months and older has usually become more greenish , and turn darker blue beneath the eye , before assuming the adult blue facial patch by around 16 months of age . The blue @-@ faced honeyeater begins its moult in October or November , starting with its primary flight feathers , replacing them by February . It replaces its body feathers anywhere from December to June , and tail feathers between December and July . 422 blue @-@ faced honeyeaters have been banded between 1953 and 1997 to monitor movements and longevity . Of these , 109 were eventually recovered , 107 of which were within 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) of their point of banding . The record for longevity was a bird banded in May 1990 in Kingaroy in central Queensland which was found dead on a road after 8 years and 3 @.@ 5 months in September 1998 , around 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away .
The blue @-@ faced honeyeater produces a variety of calls , including a piping call around half an hour before dawn , variously described as ki @-@ owt , woik , queet , peet , or weet . Through the day , it makes squeaking noises while flying , and harsh squawks when mobbing . Its calls have been likened to those of the yellow @-@ throated miner ( Manorina flavigula ) , but are deeper . Blue @-@ faced honeyeaters make a soft chirping around nestlings and family members .
A distinctive bird , the blue @-@ faced honeyeater differs in coloration from the duller @-@ plumaged friarbirds , miners and wattlebirds , and it is much larger than the similarly coloured Melithreptus honeyeaters . Subspecies albipennis with its white wing patch has been likened to a khaki @-@ backed butcherbird in flight .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The blue @-@ faced honeyeater is found from the Kimberleys in northwestern Australia eastwards across the Top End and into Queensland , where it is found from Cape York south across the eastern and central parts of the state , roughly east of a line connecting Karumba , Blackall , Cunnamulla and Currawinya National Park . It has a patchy distribution in New South Wales , occurring in the Northern Rivers and Northern Tablelands regions , and along the coast south to Nambucca Heads . To the south it is generally absent from the Central and South Coast , and is instead found west of the Great Divide across South West Slopes and Riverina and to the Murray River . It is common in northern Victoria and reaches Bordertown in southeastern South Australia , its range continuing along the Murray . It is also found in the Grampians region , particularly in the vicinity of Stawell , Ararat and St Arnaud , with rare reports from southwestern Victoria . The species occasionally reaches Adelaide , and there is a single record from the Eyre Peninsula . The altitude ranges from sea level to around 850 m ( 2 @,@ 790 ft ) , or rarely 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) .
In New Guinea , it is found from Merauke in the far southeast of Indonesia 's Papua province and east across the Trans @-@ Fly region of southwestern Papua New Guinea . It has also been recorded from the Aru Islands .
The blue @-@ faced honeyeater appears to be generally sedentary within its range , especially in much of the Northern Territory , Queensland and New South Wales . However , in many places ( generally south of the Tropic of Capricorn ) , populations may be present or absent at different times of the year , although this appears to result from nomadic rather than seasonal migratory movements . Around Wellington in central New South Wales , birds were recorded over winter months , and were more common in autumn around the Talbragar River . Birds were present all year round near Inverell in northern New South Wales , but noted to be flying eastwards from January to May , and westwards in June and July . In Jandowae in southeastern Queensland , birds were regularly recorded flying north and east from March to June , and returning south and west in July and August , and were absent from the area in spring and summer .
They live throughout rainforest , dry sclerophyll ( Eucalyptus ) forest , open woodland , Pandanus thickets , paperbarks , mangroves , watercourses , and wetter areas of semi @-@ arid regions , as well as parks , gardens , and golf courses in urban areas . The understory in eucalypt @-@ dominated woodland where the blue @-@ faced honeyeater is found is most commonly composed of grasses such as Triodia , but sometimes it is made up of shrubs or small trees such as grevilleas , paperbarks , wattles , Cooktown ironwood ( Erythrophleum chlorostachys ) or billygoat plum ( Terminalia ferdinandiana ) . One study in Kakadu National Park found that blue @-@ faced honeyeaters inhabited mixed stands of eucalypts and Pandanus but were missing from pure stands of either plant .
= = Behaviour = =
The social organisation of the blue @-@ faced honeyeater has been little studied to date . Encountered in pairs , family groups or small flocks , blue @-@ faced honeyeaters sometimes associate with groups of yellow @-@ throated miners ( Manorina flavigula ) . They mob potential threats such as goshawks ( Accipiter spp . ) , rufous owls ( Ninox rufa ) , and Pacific koels ( Eudynamys orientalis ) . There is some evidence of cooperative breeding , with some breeding pairs recorded with one or more helper birds . Parents will dive at and harass intruders to drive them away from nest sites , including dogs , owls , goannas , and even a nankeen night heron ( Nycticorax caledonicus ) . A study published in 2004 of remnant patches of forest in central Queensland , an area largely cleared for agriculture , showed a reduced avian species diversity in areas frequented by blue @-@ faced honeyeaters or noisy miners .
This effect was more marked in smaller patches . The study concluded that conserved patches of woodland containing the two aggressive species should be larger than 20 ha ( 44 acres ) to preserve diversity .
Social birds , blue @-@ faced honeyeaters can be noisy when they congregate . When feeding in groups , birds seem to keep in contact with each other by soft chirping calls . In Mackay , a bird would fly up 10 or 12 metres ( 33 or 39 ft ) above the treetops calling excitedly to its flock , who would follow and fly around in what was likened to an aerial corroboree , seemingly at play . A single bird was recorded aping and playing with an immature Australian magpie ( Cracticus tibicen ) in Proserpine , Queensland . The blue @-@ faced honeyeater has been reported to be fond of bathing ; a flock of 15 – 20 birds were observed diving into pools one bird at a time , while others were perched in surrounding treetops preening .
The parasite Anoncotaenia globata ( a worldwide species not otherwise recorded from Australia ) was isolated from a blue @-@ faced honeyeater collected in North Queensland in 1916 . The habroneme nematode Cyrnea ( Procyrnea ) spirali has also been isolated from this among other honeyeater species . The nasal mite Ptilonyssus philemoni has been isolated from the noisy friarbird ( Philemon corniculatus ) and blue @-@ faced honeyeater .
= = = Feeding = = =
The blue @-@ faced honeyeater generally forages in the branches and foliage of trees , in small groups of up to seven birds . Occasionally larger flocks of up to 30 individuals have been reported , and the species has been encountered in a mixed @-@ species foraging flock with the little friarbird ( Philemon citreogularis ) . The bulk of their diet consists of insects , including cockroaches , termites , grasshoppers , bugs such as lerps , scale ( Coccidae ) and shield bugs ( Pentatomidae ) , beetles such as bark beetles , chafers ( subfamily Melolonthinae ) , click beetles ( genus Xanthophaea ) , darkling beetles ( genera Chalcopteroides and Homotrysis ) , leaf beetles ( genus Paropsis ) , ladybirds of the genus Scymnus , weevils such as the pinhole borer ( Platypus australis ) , and members of the genera Mandalotus , Polyphrades and Prypnus , as well as flies , moths , bees , ants and spiders . Birds have been reported preying on small lizards . Prey are caught mostly by sallying , although birds also probe and glean . In Kakadu National Park , birds prefer to hunt prey between the leaf bases of the screw palm Pandanus spiralis .
The remainder of their diet is made up of plant material such as pollen , berries , nectar , from such species as grasstrees ( Xanthorrhoea ) and scarlet gum ( Eucalyptus phoenicea ) , and cultivated crops such as bananas or particularly grapes . In general , birds prefer feeding at cup @-@ shaped sources such as flowers of the Darwin woollybutt ( Eucalyptus miniata ) , Darwin stringybark ( E. tetrodonta ) and long @-@ fruited bloodwood ( Corymbia polycarpa ) , followed by brush @-@ shaped inflorescences , such as banksias or melaleucas , gullet @-@ shaped inflorescences such as grevilleas , with others less often picked .
Usually very inquisitive and friendly birds , they will often invade a campsite , searching for edible items , including fruit , insects , and remnants from containers of jam or honey , and milk is particularly favoured . Parent birds feed the young on insects , fruit and nectar , and have been recorded regurgitating milk to them as well .
= = = Breeding = = =
The blue @-@ faced honeyeater probably breeds throughout its range . The breeding season is from June to January , with one or two broods raised during this time . The nest is an untidy deep bowl of sticks and bits of bark in the fork of a tree , Staghorn or bird 's nest ferns , or grasstree . Pandanus palms are a popular nest site in Mackay . They often renovate and use the old nests of other species , most commonly the grey @-@ crowned babbler ( Pomatostomus temporalis ) , but also the chestnut @-@ crowned babbler ( P. ruficeps ) , other honeyeaters including noisy ( Philemon corniculatus ) , little and silver @-@ crowned friarbirds ( P. argenticeps ) , the noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) and the red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ) , and artamids such as the Australian magpie and butcherbird species , and even the magpie @-@ lark . In Coen , an old babbler nest in a paperbark ( Melaleuca ) which had been lined with messmate bark had been occupied by blue @-@ faced honeyeaters and re @-@ lined with strips of paperbark . Two or rarely three eggs are laid , 22 × 32 mm ( 1 × 1 ⅓ in ) and buff @-@ pink splotched with red @-@ brown or purplish colours . The female alone incubates the eggs , over a period of 16 or 17 days .
Like those of all passerines , the chicks are altricial ; they are born blind and covered only by sparse tufts of brown down on their backs , shoulders and parts of wings . By four days they open their eyes , and pin feathers emerge from their wings on day six , and the rest of the body on days seven and eight . Both parents feed the young , and are sometimes assisted by helper birds . The Pacific koel and pallid cuckoo ( Cuculus pallidus ) have been recorded as brood parasites of the blue @-@ faced honeyeater , and the laughing kookaburra recorded as preying on broods .
= = Aviculture = =
Keeping blue @-@ faced honeyeaters in an aviary in New South Wales requires a Class 2 Licence . Applicants must show they have appropriate housing , and at least two years ' experience of keeping birds . Blue @-@ faced honeyeaters are exhibited at Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago , Philadelphia Zoo , and Birmingham Zoo ( Alabama ) in the United States , Chessington Zoo in England , Edinburgh Zoo in Scotland and Taronga Zoo in Sydney , Australia .
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= Sexuality of Adolf Hitler =
Adolf Hitler 's sexuality has long been a matter of historical and scholarly debate . There is evidence that he had romantic encounters with a number of women during his lifetime , as well as evidence of his antipathy to homosexuality , and no evidence of homosexual encounters . His name has been linked to a number of possible female lovers , two of whom committed suicide . Another died of complications eight years after a suicide attempt , and one made a failed suicide attempt .
Hitler created a public image as a celibate man without a domestic life , dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation . His relationship with Eva Braun , which lasted nearly 14 years , was hidden from the public and all but his inner circle . Braun biographer Heike Görtemaker notes that the couple enjoyed a normal sex life . Hitler and Braun married in late April 1945 , less than 40 hours before committing suicide together .
Two wartime reports by the Allies attempted to analyze Hitler psychologically . Walter C. Langer 's 1943 report for the American Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) describes Hitler as having repressed homosexual tendencies and opined that he was an impotent coprophile . Psychologist Henry Murray wrote a separate psychoanalytical report for the OSS in 1943 that drew similar conclusions . Otto Strasser , one of Hitler 's opponents in the Nazi Party , also told his post @-@ war interrogators a similar story . British historian Sir Ian Kershaw describes Strasser 's statement as " anti @-@ Hitler propaganda " .
In research following Hitler 's death , a variety of claims have been made about Hitler 's sexual orientation : that he was gay , bisexual , or asexual . Conclusive evidence is lacking , but most historians believe he was heterosexual . There is at least one claim that Hitler had an illegitimate child ( named Jean @-@ Marie Loret ) with one of his lovers . Mainstream historians , such as Ian Kershaw , dismiss this as unlikely or impossible .
= = Historical accounts = =
Hitler 's sex life has long been the subject of speculation and rumours , many of which were invented or " spiced up " by his political enemies . While the sexual preferences of many members of Hitler 's inner circle are known , conclusive evidence of Hitler 's sexuality is lacking . The evidence that exists about Hitler 's private life is largely from people in his inner circle , such as his adjutants , his secretaries , Albert Speer , the Richard Wagner family , and others . There is evidence that he had infatuations with a number of women during his lifetime , as well as evidence of his antipathy to homosexuality , and no evidence that he engaged in homosexual behavior . British historian Sir Ian Kershaw describes him as being repelled by personal contact and sexual activity , including homosexuality and prostitution , especially as a young man in Vienna . He was afraid of contracting a sexually transmitted infection .
Hermann Rauschning claimed to have seen in Hitler 's First World War military record an item concerning a court martial that found Hitler guilty of pederastic practices with an officer . Rauschning also claimed that in Munich Hitler was found guilty of a violation of Paragraph 175 , which dealt with pederasty . No evidence of either of these two charges has been found .
Hitler had a few brief relationships when young . He was deeply attached to his half @-@ niece Geli Raubal , 19 years his junior . She began living at his residence after her mother became Hitler 's housekeeper in 1925 . Although the exact nature and extent of their relationship is unknown , Kershaw describes it as a latent " sexual dependence " . It was rumoured among contemporaries that they were in a romantic relationship . Geli committed suicide with Hitler 's gun in his Munich apartment in September 1931 . Her death was a source of deep , lasting pain for Hitler . Ernst Hanfstaengl , one of the members of Hitler 's inner circle in the early years in Munich , wrote that " I felt Hitler was a case of a man who was neither fish , flesh nor fowl , neither fully homosexual nor fully heterosexual ... I had formed the firm conviction that he was impotent , the repressed , masturbating type . " Nevertheless , Hanfstaengl was convinced enough of Hitler 's heterosexuality that he unsuccessfully tried to encourage a romantic relationship between Hitler and Martha Dodd , daughter of the American ambassador . According to Hanfstaengl , filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl tried to begin a relationship with Hitler early on , but he turned her down .
Hitler 's regime persecuted homosexuals , sending an estimated 5 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 to concentration camps ; some 2 @,@ 500 to 7 @,@ 500 of these died . After the Night of the Long Knives ( 1934 ) , Hitler described the homosexuality of Ernst Röhm and other SA leaders as corrupt and immoral . In August 1941 Hitler declared that " homosexuality is actually as infectious and as dangerous as the plague " , and supported Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler 's efforts to remove gay men from the military and the SS . Male homosexuality was illegal , and offenders were sent to prison or directly to concentration camps .
Hitler created a public image as a celibate man without a domestic life , dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation . He considered himself to be attractive to women , partly because of his position of power . Hitler 's friend Albert Speer recalled him stating a preference for unintelligent women who would not challenge him about his work or prevent him from relaxing in his leisure time . Kershaw speculates that Hitler preferred younger women who were easy to dominate and mold . He notes that at least three of Hitler 's close female associates ( Eva Braun , Geli Raubal , and Maria Reiter ) were far younger than himself : Braun was 23 years younger , Raubal was 19 years younger , and Reiter was 21 years his junior .
His relationship with Braun , which lasted nearly 14 years , was hidden from the public and all but his inner circle . Within that circle ( most of whom survived the war ) , he was open about Braun , and they lived together at Berchtesgaden as a couple . Hitler 's valet , Heinz Linge , stated in his memoirs that Hitler and Braun had two bedrooms and two bathrooms with interconnecting doors at the Berghof , and Hitler would end most evenings alone with her in his study before they retired to bed . She would wear a " dressing gown or house @-@ coat " and drink wine ; Hitler would have tea . Braun biographer Heike Görtemaker notes that the couple enjoyed a normal sex life . Braun 's friends and relatives described her giggling over a 1938 photograph of Neville Chamberlain sitting on a sofa in Hitler 's Munich flat with the remark : " If only he knew what goings @-@ on that sofa has seen . "
Hitler 's letters provide evidence that he was fond of her , and worried when she participated in sports or was late returning for tea . His secretary Traudl Junge stated that during the war , Hitler telephoned Braun every day . He was concerned for her safety when she was staying in the Munich home he had bought her . Junge further asked Hitler once why he never married . Hitler replied , " ... I wouldn 't have been able to give enough time to my wife " . Hitler told her that he didn 't want children , as they would have had " ... a very hard time , because they 're expected to possess the same gifts as their famous parents and they can 't be forgiven for being mediocre " . In the end , Hitler and Braun married in the Berlin Führerbunker in late April 1945 , less than 40 hours before committing suicide together .
= = Langer 's and Murray 's wartime OSS reports = =
In 1943 , the American Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) received A Psychological Analysis of Adolf Hitler : His Life and Legend by Walter C. Langer , commissioned to help the Allies understand the dictator . The report , later expanded into book form as The Mind of Adolf Hitler : The Secret Wartime Report ( 1972 ) , describes Hitler as having repressed homosexual tendencies and states that he was an impotent coprophile . Psychologist Henry Murray wrote a separate psychoanalytical report for OSS also in 1943 , entitled Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler : With Predictions of His Future Behavior and Suggestions for Dealing with Him Now and After Germany 's Surrender . He also dealt with Hitler 's alleged coprophilia , but overall diagnosed Hitler a schizophrenic . One of Hitler 's opponents in the Nazi Party , Otto Strasser , told OSS interrogators that the Nazi dictator forced Geli Raubal to urinate and defecate on him . Kershaw contends that stories circulated by Strasser as to alleged " sexual deviant practices ought to be viewed as ... anti @-@ Hitler propaganda " .
= = Recent allegations = =
In research following his death , a variety of claims have been made about Hitler 's sexuality : that he was gay , bisexual , or asexual , or may have engaged sexual activity with his half @-@ niece , Geli Raubal .
The 1995 book The Pink Swastika , by Scott Lively and Kevin Abrams , asserts that most of the top Nazis were homosexual and that there is evidence that homosexuals are violent and dangerous . Mainstream historians have criticized the book for its inaccuracies and manipulation of facts . Bob Moser , writing for the Southern Poverty Law Center , says the book was promoted by anti @-@ gay groups and that historians agree its premise is " utterly false " .
Jack Nusan Porter of the University of Massachusetts Lowell wrote in 1998 : " Did Hitler despise homosexuals ? Was he ashamed of his own homosexual identity ? These are areas of psychohistory that are beyond known knowledge . My own feelings are that Hitler was asexual in the traditional sense and had bizarre sexual fetishes " .
Historian Lothar Machtan argues in The Hidden Hitler ( 2001 ) that Hitler was homosexual . The book speculates about Hitler 's experiences in Vienna with young friends , his adult relationships with ( among others ) Röhm , Hanfstaengl , and Emil Maurice , and includes a study of the Mend Protocol , a series of allegations made to the Munich Police in the early 1920s by Hans Mend , who served with Hitler during World War I. The American journalist Ron Rosenbaum is highly critical of Machtan 's work , saying his " evidence falls short of being conclusive and often falls far short of being evidence at all " . Most scholars dismiss Machtan 's claims , and believe Hitler was heterosexual . In 2004 , HBO produced a documentary film based on Machtan 's theory , titled Hidden Fuhrer : Debating the Enigma of Hitler 's Sexuality .
= = Possible relationships = =
Adolf Hitler 's name has been linked romantically with a number of women other than Eva Braun .
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= Drink You Away =
" Drink You Away " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Justin Timberlake for his fourth studio album , The 20 / 20 Experience – 2 of 2 ( 2013 ) . It was written and produced by Timberlake , Timothy " Timbaland " Mosley and Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon , with additional writing from James Fauntleroy . It was sent to US country radio stations on November 23 , 2015 as the fourth and final single from the album . Musically , it was defined by critics as a multi @-@ genre song including classic @-@ rock , country @-@ pop , gospel @-@ blues and Memphis soul . Lyrically , on the track , Timberlake compares love to alcoholism while making references to several alcoholic brands including Jack Daniel 's and Jim Beam . As of May 2016 , the song has sold over 600 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
" Drink You Away " received generally positive response from contemporary critics , with some of them labeling the song as a highlight and one of the most impressive moments on the album . Timberlake performed the song at the 2013 American Music Awards and it was part of the set list of The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 – 15 ) . In November 2015 , the singer together with Chris Stapleton gave a rendition of track at the 2015 Country Music Association Awards ; following it , " Drink You Away " sold 76 @,@ 000 digital copies and debuted at number five on the US Hot Digital Songs chart . It also peaked at number 85 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart .
= = Production and release = =
" Drink You Away " was written by Timberlake , Timothy " Timbaland " Mosley , Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon and James Fauntleroy . The song was produced by Timbaland , Timberlake and Harmon while Jones provided additional production . It was recorded the Larrabee Studios in North Hollywood , Los Angeles . Timberlake arranged and produced his vocals . Harmon provided keyboards for the song , while Ives played the guitar . The track was engineered by Chris Godbey and mixed by Jimmy Douglass , Godbey and Timberlake ; for the process they were assisted by Alejandro Baima . The keyboards were provided by Harmon . It was sent to country radio in the United States on November 23 , 2015 , as the fourth and final single from the The 20 / 20 Experience – 2 of 2 ( 2013 ) . Regarding the single release , Sony Music Nashville executive vice president , promotion / artist development Steve Hodges stated , " we received several requests from key programmers and we decided to get them a shortened version [ of " Drink You Away " ] so they didn 't have to air the longer cut from the album , " adding " our promotion staffs will not be actively working the single , we simply wanted to make the song easily accessible for country radio . Now they have it and can play it if they 'd like " in an interview for Billboard .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Drink You Away " runs for a duration of five minutes and thirty @-@ one seconds , while its radio edit lasts for four minutes and fifteen seconds . Chris Bosman of Time magazine described the track as a country @-@ pop . On the other hand , Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune thought that it was a gospel @-@ blues song , while according to The A.V. Club 's Annie Zaleski it is a classic @-@ rock " homage " . Kira Willis of Starpulse.com noted that " Drink You Away " is an " unabashed " Memphis soul song , " steeped in a gritty country riff . " Its instrumentation includes organ and acoustic guitar ; elements of pop and rock music can be heard in the song 's guitar .
Lyrically , the song features references to several alcoholic drinks which can be seen in the lyrics , " I can 't drink you away . I 've tried Jack , I 've tried Jim ... Now , tell me baby , do they make a medicine for heartbreak . " Brad Stern of MTV News described it as a " plethora of alcohol references , and a whole lot of bluesy sorrow . " According to Stacy @-@ Ann Ellis of Vibe magazine , the song 's lyrics continue the " druggy love analogy " which Timberlake started with some of the lyrical themes on The 20 / 20 Experience ( 2013 ) most particularly on , " Pusher Love Girl " ; she noted that he is " trying to drown a bitter memory of her by opening up a bar tab and taking Tennessee whiskies to the head . " Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine described " Drink You Away " as a " honky @-@ tonking " song on which the singer compares his love to alcoholism .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
HitFix 's Melinda Newman gave " Drink You Away " an A grade and called it " the best " and " the most captivating track " on The 20 / 20 Experience – 2 of 2 , " with potential to be ' 2 of 2 's ' " " Mirrors " . Similarly , Stern of MTV News thought that the song was one of the biggest surprises and one of the most impressive tracks on the album . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy labeled it as a " highlight " on the album and encouraged Timberlake to further explore the " Tennessee swagger " present on the track .
PopMatters ' Brice Ezell called the song a " hat trick " on the album and also described it as one of its most " weirdest " and " successful " moments . According to him , the way Timberlake lists the beverages in the lyrics it 's an unorthodox style for the singer and in addition it differs musically from the rest of the material on the album , however , " for whatever reason , though , it works " . He also noted that the song would suit better on a Montgomery Gentry LP . Kory Grow of Rolling Stone described it as a " a big genre @-@ bending , feel @-@ good sing @-@ along that really actually does feels good . " Jason King for Spin called the song " organ @-@ laced " and thought it was " a surefire hit , a country twanger lifted to heaven by Timberlake ’ s quilted , hermetic harmonies . "
Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media thought that " his heartbrokenness falls flat " on the song which he further described as " plastic blues " and compared it to the works of the American country singer , Kid Rock . Variety 's Andrew Barker described " Drink You Away " as one of the " lows " on the album and compared it to the music of Rock and Lynyrd Skynyrd . Stephen Carlick of Exclaim ! concluded that the track , " relies too heavily on repetition " .
= = = Commercial = = =
Following Timberlake 's performance at the Country Music Association Awards , for the issue dated November 21 , 2015 , the song sold 76 @,@ 000 digital copies and appeared at number five on the US Hot Digital Songs chart . It has since peaked at number 5 . For the chart dated February 6 , 2016 , the song debuted at number 60 on Billboard 's Country Airplay chart and climbed 38 @-@ 36 on the Mainstream Top 40 radio airplay chart . The single is his 26th entry on the latter as a solo artist . It has also peaked at number 17 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . AS of May 2016 , it has sold 609 @,@ 085 copies in the United States .
" Drink You Away " also peaked at number 85 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart . In South Korea , following the release of the parent album , the song sold 2 @,@ 358 digital copies and peaked at number 96 on the Gaon Digital Chart .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Timberlake performed " Drink You Away " for the first time at the 2013 American Music Awards held at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles ; Rolling Stone 's Grow ranked the performance at number five out of 16 performances that night . The song was part of the setlist of The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 – 15 ) . Timberlake and Chris Stapleton performed the song together along with the latter 's " Tennessee Whiskey " at the Country Music Association Awards on November 4 , 2015 . Rolling Stone magazine praised it as " the best performance of the entire show " , while The New York Times editor Katie Rogers highlighted Timberlake 's crossover appeal . Entertainment Weekly declared it as one of the best performances of 2015 and wrote , " In an unapologetic display of talent , Nashville met Motown during country music ’ s biggest night for a hands @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air , take @-@ us @-@ to @-@ church mash @-@ up that was everything you hope for from an all @-@ star duet . "
American country music artist Craig Morgan has performed the song at several of his concerts . David Fanning 's cover of " Drink You Away " peaked at number 58 on the Country Airplay chart .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The 20 / 20 Experience – 2 of 2 .
Locations
Vocals recorded and mixed at Larrabee , North Hollywood
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Banksia ericifolia =
Banksia ericifolia , the heath @-@ leaved banksia ( also known as the lantern banksia or heath banksia ) , is a species of woody shrub of the Proteaceae family native to Australia . It grows in two separate regions of Central and Northern New South Wales east of the Great Dividing Range . Well known for its orange or red autumn inflorescences , which contrast with its green fine @-@ leaved heath @-@ like foliage , it is a medium to large shrub that can reach 6 m ( 20 ft ) high and wide , though is usually half that size . In exposed heathlands and coastal areas it is more often 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) .
Banksia ericifolia was one of the original Banksia species collected by Joseph Banks around Botany Bay in 1770 and was named by Carl Linnaeus the Younger , son of Carolus Linnaeus , in 1782 . A distinctive plant , it has split into two subspecies : Banksia ericifolia subspecies ericifolia of the Sydney region and Banksia ericifolia subspecies macrantha of the New South Wales Far North Coast which was recognized in 1996 .
Banksia ericifolia has been widely grown in Australian gardens on the east coast for many years , and is used to a limited extent in the cut flower industry . Compact dwarf cultivars such as Banksia ' Little Eric ' have become more popular in recent years with the trend toward smaller gardens .
= = Description = =
Banksia ericifolia grows as a large shrub up to 6 metres ( 20 feet ) in height , though often smaller , around 1 – 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , in exposed places such as coastal or mountain heathlands . The grey @-@ coloured bark is smooth and fairly thin with lenticels ; however it can thicken significantly with age . The linear dark green leaves are small and narrow , 9 – 20 mm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) long and up to 1 mm wide , generally with two small teeth at the tips . The leaves are crowded and alternately arranged on the branches . New growth generally occurs in summer and is an attractive lime green colour .
Flowering is in autumn , or in winter in cooler areas ; the inflorescences are flower spikes 7 – 22 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 8 @.@ 7 in ) high and 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) broad or so . Each individual flower consists of a tubular perianth made up of four fused tepals , and one long wiry style . Characteristic of the taxonomic section in which it is placed , the styles are hooked rather than straight . The styles ' ends are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts , but break free at anthesis , when the flowers open . The spikes are red or gold in overall colour , with styles golden , orange , orange @-@ red or burgundy . Some unusual forms have striking red styles on a whitish perianth . Very occasionally , forms with all yellow inflorescences are seen . Though not terminal , the flower spikes are fairly prominently displayed emerging from the foliage ; they arise from two- to three @-@ year @-@ old nodes .
Old flower spikes fade to brown and then grey with age ; old flower parts soon fall , revealing numerous small dark grey to dull black finely furred follicles . Oblong in shape and 15 – 20 mm ( 9 ⁄ 16 – 13 ⁄ 16 in ) in diameter , the follicles are ridged on each valve and remain closed until burnt by fire . Banksia ericifolia responds to fire by seeding , the parent plant being killed . As plants take several years to flower in the wild , it is very sensitive to too @-@ frequent burns and has been eliminated in some areas where these occur . With time and the production of more cones with seed @-@ containing follicles , however , plants can store up to 16 @,@ 500 seeds at eight years of age . Some plants produce multiple flower spikes , possibly of varying sizes , from a single point of origin .
= = Taxonomy = =
B. ericifolia was first collected at Botany Bay on 29 April 1770 , by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander , naturalists on the Endeavour during Lieutenant ( later Captain ) James Cook 's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean . However , the species was not published until April 1782 , when Carolus Linnaeus the Younger described the first four Banksia species in his Supplementum Plantarum . Linnaeus distinguished the species by their leaf shapes and named them accordingly . Thus the species with leaves reminiscent of heather ( at the time classified in the genus Erica ) was given the specific name ericaefolia , from the Latin erica , meaning " heather " , and folium , meaning " leaf " . This spelling was later adjusted to " ericifolia " ; thus the full name for the species is Banksia ericifolia L.f. , with the initials L.f. identifying Carolus Linnaeus the Younger .
While many Banksia species have undergone much taxonomic change since publication , the distinctive B. ericifolia has remained largely unchanged as a species concept . Consequently , the species has no taxonomic synonyms ; it does , however , have three nomenclatural synonyms . The first synonym , Banksia phylicaefolia Salisb , was published by the English botanist Richard Anthony Salisbury in his 1796 Prodromus stirpium in horto ad Chapel Allerton vigentium . It was intended as a replacement name for B. ericaefolia , but Salisbury gave no reason why such a replacement was necessary . The name was therefore superfluous , and hence illegitimate . The second synonym arose from Otto Kuntze 's 1891 challenge of the name Banksia L.f. , on the grounds that Banksia J.R.Forst & G. Forst had been published before it , for the genus now known as Pimelea . Kuntze transferred all Banksia species to the new genus name Sirmuellera , in the process publishing Sirmuellera ericifolia ( L.f. ) Kuntze . The challenge failed , however ; indeed , his entire treatise was widely rejected . Finally , in 1905 James Britten mounted a similar challenge , proposing to transfer all Banksia species into Isostylis ; B. ericifolia L.f. thus becoming Isostylis ericifolia L.f. ( Britten ) . This challenge also failed .
A recent change to the species ' taxonomy is the recognition , in 1981 , of an infraspecific taxon . The existence of different forms of B. ericifolia was first recognised in 1979 by the amateur botanist Alf Salkin , who noted three distinct forms of the species , with one being a possible hybrid with Banksia spinulosa var. cunninghamii . Salkin gave his northern form the provisional infraspecific name " microphylla " , but when Alex George published a formal description in his 1981 The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) , he named it B. ericifolia var. macrantha . In 1996 , it was promoted to subspecific rank as B. ericifolia subsp. macrantha .
= = = Placement within Banksia = = =
Banksia ericifolia has traditionally been described as lying within series Spicigerae of Banksia , together with Banksia spinulosa and various western Hairpin @-@ like Banksias such as B. seminuda and B. brownii . This series is placed in Banksia sect . Oncostylis according to Alex George 's taxonomy of Banksia , but directly into Banksia subg . Banksia in Thiele 's arrangement based on cladistic analysis . Kevin Thiele additionally placed it in a subseries Ericifoliae , but this was not supported by George .
Under George 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia , B. ericifolia 's placement may be summarised as follows :
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Banksia
Section Banksia
Section Coccinea
Section Oncostylis
Series Spicigerae
B. spinulosa - B. ericifolia - B. verticillata - B. seminuda - B. littoralis - B. occidentalis - B. brownii
Series Tricuspidae
Series Dryandroidae
Series Abietinae
Subgenus Isostylis
Molecular research by American botanist Austin Mast suggests that B. spinulosa and B. ericifolia may be more closely related to Banksia ser . Salicinae , with includes Banksia integrifolia and its relatives .
In 2005 , Mast , Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia . They inferred a phylogeny markedly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement , including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic with respect to Dryandra . A full new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time , but early in 2007 Mast and Australian botanist Kevin Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg . Banksia . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. ericifolia is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae .
Hybrids with B. spinulosa var. spinulosa have been recorded in the wild , at Pigeon House Mountain in Morton National Park . Banksia ' Giant Candles ' was a chance garden hybrid between B. ericifolia and B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Two geographically distinct forms are recognised :
Banksia ericifolia subsp. ericifolia
The nominate race is found in the Sydney basin , south to the Illawarra and north to Collaroy , as well as the Blue Mountains . The seedling leaves have 2 – 6 teeth on each margin , while the perianths are 19 – 22 mm ( 3 ⁄ 4 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) long and pistils are 30 – 35 mm ( 1 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long . Salkin noted that this subspecies often grew in association with Banksia spinulosa var. cunninghamii and that there were plants with longer leaves some 20 – 25 mm ( ¾ – 1 in ) long with entire , curled margins . He gave them the name " longifolia " and suspected these may have been hybrids .
Banksia ericifolia subsp. macrantha
The northern race is found on the New South Wales north coast , from Crowdy Head northwards to the Queensland border . Described as a distinct subspecies in 1996 by Alex George from material he collected at Byron Bay in 1975 , it is distinguished by finer foliage , more crowded leaves and larger flowers , with the perianths 26 – 28 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 1 in ) long and pistils 46 – 48 mm ( 1 3 ⁄ 4 – 2 in ) long . The seedling leaves have one , or occasionally two teeth on each margin . Salkin observed that the inflorescences tended to be terminal rather than axial , and others have noted them to be sometimes taller than the nominate subspecies . Crowdy Bay , in particular , hosts specimens with spikes up to 26 cm ( 10 in ) in height .
= = = Name and symbolism = = =
In 1992 , B. ericifolia was adopted as the official plant of Sydney , and is sometimes seen in amenity plantings and parks around the city . It was known as wadanggari ( pron . " wa @-@ tang @-@ gre " ) to the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney basin .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
In nature , the variety ericifolia is found on acidic sandstone @-@ based soils ; either in elevated heathland within 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of the coast around the Sydney basin , from Collaroy south to Jervis Bay , or elevated sandstone soils in mountainous areas such as the Blue Mountains and the Budawangs . These heathlands are often moist , with access to some form of underground water , and can even be quite swampy . It can form dense thickets with the Dagger Hakea ( Hakea teretifolia ) and Scrub She @-@ oak ( Allocasuarina distyla ) . Other plants it associates with include the Coast Tea @-@ tree ( Leptospermum laevigatum ) and smaller plants such as Woollsia pungens . The inflorescences are a feature of autumn bushwalking in sandstone areas , such as the Kings Tableland walk in the Blue Mountains , Jennifer Street Boardwalk in Little Bay , and Royal National Park .
The northern subspecies macrantha is found in two distinct regions on the far north coast of New South Wales ; the first from Crowdy Bay on the Mid North Coast northwards to Hat Head National Park north of Port Macquarie , and then from Yuraygir National Park north to Kingscliff just south of the Queensland border . This variety is more strictly coastal with most populations being found within two kilometres of the coast , or in swampy areas . It may be associated with Banksia oblongifolia .
= = Ecology = =
Like other banksias , B. ericifolia plays host to a wide variety of pollinators and is a vital source of nectar in autumn , when other flowers are scarce . It has been the subject of a number of studies on pollination . A 1998 study in Bundjalung National Park in Northern New South Wales found that B. ericifolia inflorescences are foraged by a variety of small mammals , including marsupials such as Antechinus flavipes ( yellow @-@ footed antechinus ) , and rodents such as Rattus tunneyi ( pale field rat ) and Melomys burtoni ( grassland mosaic @-@ tailed rat ) . These animals carry pollen loads comparable to those of nectarivorous birds , making them effective pollinators . A 1978 study found Rattus fuscipes ( bush rat ) to bear large amounts of pollen from B. ericifolia and suggested the hooked styles may play a role in pollination by mammals . Other visitors recorded include Apis mellifera ( European honeybee ) .
A great many bird species have been observed visiting this Banksia species . A 1985 study in the Sydney area of B. ericifolia var. ericifolia found numerous birds visiting the inflorescences , including the honeyeaters eastern spinebill ( Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris ) , white @-@ cheeked honeyeater ( Phylidonyris nigra ) , New Holland honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) , white @-@ naped honeyeater ( Melithreptus lunatus ) , yellow @-@ faced honeyeater ( Lichenostomus chrysops ) , red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ) and little wattlebird ( Anthochaera chrysoptera ) , as well as the Silvereye ( Zosterops lateralis ) . The beautiful firetail ( Stagonopleura bella ) also associates with this species . Some mammals were recorded in this study but were found to bear no pollen . Exclusion of certain pollinators showed that birds and insects were important for fertilisation . Additional species seen in The Banksia Atlas survey include white @-@ eared honeyeater ( Lichenostomus leucotis ) , white @-@ plumed honeyeater ( Lichenostomus penicillatus ) , crescent honeyeater ( Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera ) , noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) , and species of friarbird for B. ericifolia var. ericifolia and brown honeyeater ( Lichmera indistincta ) , tawny @-@ crowned honeyeater ( Gliciphila melanops ) and black @-@ faced cuckoo @-@ shrike ( Coracina novaehollandiae ) for B. ericifolia var. macrantha .
Insects recovered from inflorescences include the banksia boring moth ( Arotrophora canthelias ) , younger instars of which eat flower and bract parts before tunneling into the rachis as they get older and boring into follicles and eating seeds . This tunneling itself damages the architecture of the spike and prevents seed development . Other seed predators include unidentified species of moth of the genus Cryptophasa , as well as Scieropepla rimata , Chalarotona intabescens and Chalarotona melipnoa , Brachmia trinervis , Carposina hyperlopha and an unidentified weevil species .
Like most other Proteaceae , B. ericifolia has proteoid roots — roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These enhance solubilisation of nutrients , allowing nutrient uptake in low @-@ nutrient soils such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia . The species lacks a lignotuber , and so is killed by fire and regenerates from seed .
Banksia ericifolia depends on fire for regeneration ; if fires are too infrequent , populations age and eventually die out . However , too @-@ frequent fires also threaten this species , which takes around six years to reach maturity and flower . One study estimated an optimum fire interval of 15 – 30 years . For a large part of its distribution Banksia ericifolia grows near areas of human habitation on Australia 's eastern coastline . Bushland near urban areas is subject to both arson and prescribed burns , drastically reducing fire intervals and resulting in the disappearance of the species from some areas . The hotter a fire the more quickly seed is released ; timing of rains afterwards is also critical for seedling survival .
Banksia ericifolia is listed in Part 1 Group 1 of Schedule 13 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 ; this means that as a common and secure species it is exempted from any licensing or tagging requirements under the 2002 – 2005 management plan to minimise and regulate the use of protected and threatened plants in the cut @-@ flower industry in New South Wales .
= = Cultivation = =
Banksia ericifolia was one of the first Banksia species to be cultivated , having been introduced into cultivation in England in 1788 . By 1804 , it had flowered in several collections . That year a painting of the plant by Sydenham Edwards was featured in Curtis 's Botanical Magazine , accompanied by text describing the species as " a handsome shrub [ that ] thrives freely " .
Banksia ericifolia inflorescences attract a variety of birds to the garden . Tough enough to be used as a street plant in parts of Sydney , B. ericifolia is a fairly easy plant to grow in the conditions it likes , namely a sandy , well drained soil and a sunny aspect . It requires extra water over dryer periods until established , which may take up to two years , as it comes from an area with rainfall in predominantly warmer months . It is resistant to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback , like most eastern banksias As it grows naturally on acid soils , Banksia ericifolia is particularly sensitive to iron deficiency . Known as chlorosis , this problem manifests as yellowing of new leaves with preservation of green veins ; it can occur on plants grown in soils of high pH . This can happen especially where soil contains quantities of cement , either as landfill or building foundations , and can be treated with iron chelate or sulfate .
Flowering may take some years from seed ; a minimum of four years is average . Buying an advanced plant may hasten this process , as will getting a cutting @-@ grown plant . Banksia ericifolia can be propagated easily by seed , and is one of the ( relatively ) easier banksias to propagate by cutting . Named cultivars are by necessity propagated by cuttings as this ensures that the plant produced bears the same attributes as the original plant .
Regular pruning is important to give the plant an attractive habit and prevent it from becoming leggy . Hard @-@ pruning below green growth is not advisable with this banksia ; since it lacks a lignotuber , it does not have dormant buds below the bark that respond to pruning or fire and therefore is unable to sprout from old wood as readily as commonly cultivated lignotuberous species , such as B. spinulosa and B. robur .
= = = Cultivars = = =
For many years the horticulture industry focussed on registered selections of Banksia spinulosa , but since the late 1990s more and more cultivars of Banksia ericifolia have come on the market , including colour variants and dwarf forms . The latter are particularly attractive as the original plant may reach 6 metres in height , and the new cultivars help enthusiasts choose a plant that is right for their conditions and tastes . Banksia ericifolia is also grown for the cut flower industry in Australia , though not to the degree that the western Australian species such as B. coccinea and B. menziesii are .
There are a number of commercial varieties available from Australian retail nurseries ; however none have yet been registered under plant breeders ' rights legislation , and only one ( ' Limelight ' ) is registered with the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority . The lack of official names has led to some varieties bearing several different names .
Banksia ericifolia ' Bronzed Aussie ' is a white @-@ budded terminal @-@ flowering form to 2 m with bronzed foliage ; the inflorescences have honey @-@ coloured pistils . It has been propagated by Victorian nurseryman Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery in Hoddles Creek . A new release in 2003 , its provenance is unknown ; seed had been given to Rod 's father by an SGAP member many years ago .
Banksia ericifolia ' Golden Girl ' is a golden yellow @-@ flowered form which grows to 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in height with blue @-@ grey foliage . It has hidden wide fat flowers to 8 cm high and has been propagated by Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery . Released in 2003 , its provenance is unknown ( seed donated to Rod 's father by an SGAP member many years ago . )
Banksia ericifolia ' Kanangra Gold ' , propagated by Kuranga Nursery in Melbourne , is a gold flowered form to 4 m ( 13 ft ) from the Kanangra @-@ Boyd region of the Blue Mountains . It is bushy and flowers are much paler than the regular orange or red forms .
Banksia ericifolia ' Limelight ' , registered with Australian Cultivar Registration Authority ( ACRA ) in 1987 , is a large plant to 5 m ( 16 ft ) with bright lime green foliage and orange blossoms . It is seldom seen due to the current focus on smaller forms for smaller gardens .
Banksia ericifolia ' Little Eric ' is a dwarf form reaching 1 or 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 or 6 @.@ 6 ft ) ; the inflorescences have maroon styles and whitish perianth . It is propagated by Richard Anderson of Merricks Nursery on the Mornington Peninsula southeast of Melbourne , the original having arisen as a chance garden seedling .
Banksia ericifolia ' Purple Pygmy ' , also called B. ' Port Wine ' , is a dwarf form propagated by Kuranga Nursery that grows to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) with purplish foliage with claret flowers . It only flowers rarely and is difficult to propagate . Also , due to low demand it is only propagated in low numbers .
Banksia ericifolia ' Red Rover ' is a dwarf cultivar reaching 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) with a more open habit than other forms of similar size . This form has lime green foliage and scarlet @-@ red flowers and was propagated by Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery from a garden selection and released in 2004 .
Banksia ericifolia ' St Pauls ' is a dwarf form that grows to 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) with conspicuous red inflorescences which has been available from time to time from Cranebrook Nursery in Sydney 's western suburbs . It was originally propagated from a plant cultivated at St Pauls ' secondary school ( a local high school ) .
Banksia ericifolia ' White Candles / Christmas Candles ' , also known as B. ericifolia ' Ruby Clusters ' , originated from a plant growing in the Sutherland Shire in Sydney 's south . It has an unusual red style / white body colour combination somewhat reminiscent of B. coccinea . The buds are white and contrast with the red styles that emerge through them . It is an open shrub to 3 – 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) .
Banksia ericifolia macrantha ' Creamed Honey ' , so called because its flowers are the colour of creamed honey , is a pale flowered variant originally found at Crowdy Head on the New South Wales north coast . Propagated by Kuranga nursery , it grows to 4 or 5 m ( 13 or 16 ft ) with a more open habit . It is notable in that it is the only cultivar of the northern subspecies of Banksia ericifolia currently available .
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= FN P90 =
The FN P90 is a personal defense weapon ( PDW ) designed and manufactured by FN Herstal in Belgium . Created in response to NATO requests for a replacement for 9 × 19mm Parabellum firearms , the P90 was designed as a compact but powerful firearm for vehicle crews , operators of crew @-@ served weapons , support personnel , special forces and counter @-@ terrorist groups .
Designed by FN in conjunction with the FN Five @-@ seven pistol and FN 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition , development of the weapon began in 1986 , and production commenced in 1990 ( from which the " 90 " in its name is derived ) , whereupon the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition was redesigned and shortened . A modified version of the P90 with a magazine adapted to use the new ammunition was introduced in 1993 , and the Five @-@ seven pistol was subsequently introduced as a companion weapon using the same 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition .
Featuring a compact bullpup design with an integrated reflex sight and fully ambidextrous controls , the P90 is an unconventional weapon with a futuristic appearance . Its design incorporates several innovations such as a unique top @-@ mounted magazine and FN 's small @-@ caliber , high @-@ velocity 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition .
The P90 is currently in service with military and police forces in over 40 nations , such as Austria , Brazil , Canada , France , Greece , India , Malaysia , Poland , and the United States . In the United States , the P90 is in use with over 200 law enforcement agencies , including the U.S. Secret Service . While developed and initially marketed as a PDW , it can also be considered a submachine gun or compact assault rifle . The standard selective fire P90 is restricted to military and law enforcement customers , but since 2005 , a semi @-@ automatic version has been offered to civilian shooters as the PS90 .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
The P90 and its 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition were developed by FN Herstal in response to NATO requests for a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge and associated pistols and submachine guns . NATO called for two types of weapons chambered for a new cartridge — one a shoulder @-@ fired weapon , and the other a handheld weapon . According to NATO , these new weapons , termed personal defense weapons ( PDWs ) , were to provide " personal protection in last @-@ resort situations when the user is directly endangered by the enemy [ ... ] . " In 1989 , NATO published document D / 296 , outlining a number of preliminary specifications for these weapons :
The new cartridge was to have greater range , accuracy , and terminal performance than the 9 × 19mm cartridge . Additionally , it was to be capable of penetrating body armor .
The shoulder @-@ fired personal defense weapon was to weigh less than 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) , with a magazine capacity of at least 20 rounds .
The handheld personal defense weapon ( pistol ) was to weigh less than 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) , although a weight of 700 g ( 1 @.@ 5 lb ) was deemed desirable ; it was to have a magazine capacity of at least 20 rounds .
Both weapons were to be sufficiently compact to be carried hands @-@ free on the user 's person at all times , whether in the cab of a vehicle or the cockpit of an aircraft , and were to perform effectively in all environments and weather conditions .
FN Herstal was the first small arms manufacturer to respond to NATO 's requirement ; FN started by developing a shoulder @-@ fired personal defense weapon , the P90 , along with a small caliber , high velocity 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge type . The original 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge , called the SS90 , went into production with the P90 in 1990 . The SS90 propelled a 1 @.@ 5 g ( 23 grain ) plastic @-@ core projectile from the P90 at a muzzle velocity of roughly 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . Shortly after its introduction , the P90 was adopted and used in service with the Belgian special forces group in the 1991 Gulf War .
Following the P90 's introduction , FN revised the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition . The new variation , designated the SS190 , used a projectile 2 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) shorter in length than that of the SS90 . This allowed it to be used more conveniently in the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm FN Five @-@ seven pistol , which was under development at that time . The SS190 projectile had a greater weight , and a more conventional construction with an aluminium and steel core . The first prototypes of the SS190 were created in 1992 , and the design was finalized in 1993 , replacing the SS90 . A modified version of the P90 , with a magazine adapted to use the shortened ammunition , was then introduced in the same year . Several special cartridge variations were developed , such as the L191 tracer round and the SB193 subsonic round for use with a sound @-@ suppressed P90 .
= = = NATO evolution = = =
In 2002 and 2003 , NATO conducted a series of tests with the intention of standardizing a PDW cartridge as a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge . The tests compared the relative merits of the FN 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge and the HK 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm cartridge , which was created by German small arms manufacturer Heckler & Koch as a competitor to the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm . The results of the NATO tests were analyzed by a group formed of experts from Canada , France , the United Kingdom , and the United States , and the group 's conclusion was that the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm was " undoubtedly " the more efficient cartridge . However , the German delegation and others rejected the NATO recommendation that 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm be standardized , halting the standardization process indefinitely . As a result , both the 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm and 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridges ( and the associated weapons ) have been independently adopted by various NATO countries , according to preference ; the P90 is currently in service with military and police forces in over 40 countries throughout the world .
= = = Present = = =
Further development of the P90 platform led to the creation of the P90 TR model , which has a MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 triple rail interface for mounting accessories . This model was introduced in late 1999 and continues to be offered alongside the standard P90 . More recently , the P90 has been offered to civilian shooters as the PS90 , a semi @-@ automatic carbine intended for personal protection and sporting use .
= = Design = =
The P90 is a selective fire , straight blowback @-@ operated weapon with a cyclic rate of fire of 900 RPM ( rounds per minute ) . The weapon is chambered for FN 's 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition . Its unusual shape is based on extensive ergonomic research . The weapon is grasped by means of a thumbhole in the frame that acts as a pistol grip , as well as an oversized trigger guard that acts as a foregrip for the shooter 's support hand . The P90 fires from a closed bolt for maximum accuracy , and its design makes extensive use of polymers for reduced weight and cost . Overall , the weapon is relatively lightweight , weighing 2 @.@ 5 kg ( 5 @.@ 6 lb ) empty , or 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) with a loaded 50 @-@ round magazine .
The P90 is notable for being fully ambidextrous — it can be operated by right or left @-@ handed shooters with equal ease , and without making any modifications to the weapon . FN Herstal has described it as the " first fully ambidextrous individual automatic weapon . " The charging handle , magazine release and backup iron sights are symmetrically distributed on both sides of the weapon , and the firing selector is located directly at the foot of the trigger , where it can be operated from either side by the shooter 's trigger finger or support hand thumb . When fired , the P90 ejects spent cartridge casings downward through a chute located behind the grip , so spent cases are kept out of the shooter 's line of sight .
The P90 can be fitted with a sling for greater ease of carry , and since the weapon has a fixed stock ( as opposed to having a collapsing or folding stock ) , it can be quickly deployed when needed . The weapon 's smooth , rounded contours prevent it from snagging on the shooter 's clothing or equipment , and a small vertical protrusion is provided at the front end of the weapon 's frame to prevent the shooter 's hand from accidentally slipping in front of the muzzle while shooting . A hollow compartment inside the rear of the weapon 's frame — accessed by removing the buttplate — allows for convenient storage of a cleaning kit .
The P90 was designed to have a length no greater than a man 's shoulder width , to allow it to be easily carried and maneuvered in tight spaces , such as the inside of an armored vehicle . To achieve this , the weapon 's design uses the unconventional bullpup configuration , in which the action and magazine are located behind the trigger and alongside the shooter 's face so that there is no wasted space in the stock . The P90 's dimensions are minimized by its unique horizontally mounted feeding system , wherein the box magazine sits parallel to the barrel on top of the weapon 's frame . The weapon overall has an extremely compact profile — it is the most compact fixed @-@ stock submachine gun to be made . The standard version of the weapon has an overall length of 500 mm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) , a height of 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) , and a width of 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) .
The P90 requires minimal maintenance , and it can be disassembled quickly and easily . It is a modular firearm , consisting of four main component groups : the barrel and optical sight group , the moving parts group , the frame and trigger group , and the hammer group . The P90 's barrel is cold hammer @-@ forged and chrome @-@ lined , with an overall length of 263 mm ( 10 @.@ 4 in ) . The barrel has eight rifling grooves with a right @-@ hand twist rate of 1 : 231 mm ( 1 : 9 @.@ 1 in ) , and it is equipped with a diagonally cut flash suppressor that also acts as a recoil compensator . The stated service life of the barrel is 20 @,@ 000 rounds .
The P90 uses an internal hammer striking mechanism and a trigger mechanism with a three @-@ position rotary dial fire control selector , located at the foot of the trigger . The dial has three settings : S – safe , 1 – semi @-@ automatic fire , and A – fully automatic fire . When set on A , the P90 's fire selector provides a two @-@ stage trigger operation similar to that of the Steyr AUG assault rifle — pulling the trigger back slightly produces semi @-@ automatic fire , and pulling the trigger fully to the rear produces fully automatic fire .
= = = Ammunition = = =
Particularly significant to the design of the P90 is the small @-@ caliber , high @-@ velocity bottlenecked cartridge it uses . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge was created by FN Herstal in response to a NATO requirement that called for a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge , which is commonly used in pistols and submachine guns . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge weighs 6 @.@ 0 g ( 93 grains ) — roughly half as much as a typical 9 × 19mm cartridge — allowing the same number of rounds to be carried for less weight , or allowing more rounds to be carried for the same weight . Since the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge has a relatively small diameter , an unusually high number of cartridges can be contained in a magazine . The cartridge has a loud report and produces considerable muzzle flash ( when fired from a pistol ) , but it produces roughly 30 percent less recoil than the 9 × 19mm cartridge , improving controllability . Due to its high velocity , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm exhibits an exceptionally flat trajectory .
One of the design intents for the standard 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge type , the SS190 , was that it have the ability to penetrate Kevlar protective vests — such as the NATO CRISAT vest — that will stop conventional pistol bullets . Fired from the P90 , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS190 has a muzzle velocity of roughly 716 m / s ( 2 @,@ 350 ft / s ) and is capable of penetrating the CRISAT vest at a range of 200 m ( 219 yd ) , or a Level IIIA Kevlar vest at the same range . FN states an effective range of 200 m ( 219 yd ) and a maximum range of 1 @,@ 800 m ( 1 @,@ 969 yd ) for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge when fired from the P90 .
In testing conducted by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) in 1999 , the SS190 fired from the P90 at a distance of 25 m ( 27 yd ) exhibited an average penetration depth of 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 85 in ) in ballistic gelatin covered with a Level II vest . The SS190 exhibited penetration depths ranging from 28 to 34 cm ( 11 to 13 @.@ 5 in ) when fired from the P90 into bare ballistic gelatin , in tests conducted by Houston Police Department SWAT . In testing , the SS190 and similar 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm projectiles consistently turn base over point ( " tumble " ) as they pass through ballistic gelatin and other media , using the 21 @.@ 6 @-@ mm ( .85 in ) projectile length to create a larger wound cavity . However , some are skeptical of the bullet 's terminal performance , and it is a subject of debate among civilian shooters in the United States .
The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm projectile potentially poses less risk of collateral damage than conventional pistol bullets , because the projectile design limits overpenetration , as well as risk of ricochet . The lightweight projectile loses much of its kinetic energy after traveling only 400 m ( 437 yd ) , whereas a conventional pistol bullet such as the 9 × 19mm retains significant energy beyond 800 m ( 875 yd ) , posing greater risk of collateral damage in the event of a miss . This range exceeds the engagement distances expected for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge 's intended applications , so the cartridge 's limited energy at long range is not considered to be disadvantageous . Since the SS190 projectile does not rely on fragmentation or the expansion of a hollow point , the cartridge ( and 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm weapons ) is considered suitable for military use under the Hague Convention of 1899 , which prohibits the use of expanding bullets in warfare .
= = = Feeding = = =
The P90 uses a unique horizontally mounted feeding system — patented in the United States — that contributes to the weapon 's compact profile and unusual appearance . U.S. Patent 4 @,@ 905 @,@ 394 ( " Top mounted longitudinal magazine " ) was awarded in 1990 , naming René Predazzer as the sole inventor . The detachable box magazine is mounted parallel to the P90 's barrel , fitting flush with the top of the weapon 's frame , and it contains 50 rounds of ammunition which lie in two rows facing left , offset 90 ° from the bore axis . As the cartridges are pushed back by spring pressure and arrive at the rear end of the magazine , they are fed as a single row into a spiral feed ramp and rotated 90 degrees , aligning them with the chamber . The magazine body is composed of polymer , and it is semi @-@ transparent to allow the shooter to see the amount of ammunition remaining at any time .
= = = Sights and accessories = = =
The P90 was originally equipped with the Ring Sights HC @-@ 14 @-@ 62 reflex sight , but the current weapon is instead fitted with the Ring Sights MC @-@ 10 @-@ 80 sight , which was specifically designed for it . The HC @-@ 14 @-@ 62 has a polymer housing and uses a forward @-@ aimed fiber optic collector to illuminate the white daytime reticle , which consists of a large circle of about 180 minutes of arc ( MOA ) , with a 20 MOA circle surrounding a 3 @.@ 5 MOA dot in the center . The MC @-@ 10 @-@ 80 has an anodized aluminium housing , and has a similar black reticle . The night reticle for both the HC @-@ 14 @-@ 62 and the MC @-@ 10 @-@ 80 consists of an open T that is primarily illuminated by a tritium module , and , in the HC @-@ 14 @-@ 62 , ambient light drawn in by an upward @-@ facing collector . The sight is adjustable for both windage and elevation , and it can be used in conjunction with night vision equipment . As backup in case the reflex sight is damaged , a set of fixed iron sights is provided on each side of the reflex sight housing .
The P90 has provisions for mounting a number of different types of accessories , including tactical lights and laser aiming devices . A sling can be attached to the P90 for greater ease of carry , or it can be fitted with various sound suppressors such as the Gemtech SP90 , which was designed specifically for the weapon in cooperation with FN Herstal . This stainless steel suppressor with a black oxide finish is built according to MIL @-@ SPECs , including saltwater corrosion resistance . It has a length of 184 mm ( 7 @.@ 2 in ) , a diameter of 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) and a weight of 680 g ( 1 @.@ 5 lb ) . When subsonic ammunition is used in conjunction with the suppressor , it reduces the sound signature of the P90 by 33 dB . A small case collector pouch for the P90 is available which fits over the ejection port and collects spent cases as they are ejected downward ; the pouch will collect up to one hundred cases before filling .
= = Variants = =
= = = Military models = = =
P90 TR
The P90 TR ( Triple Rail ) model , also known as the " flat @-@ top , " was introduced in late 1999 . It features a receiver @-@ mounted triple MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 ( Picatinny ) rail interface system , or " Triple Rail , " for mounting accessories . There is one full @-@ length accessory rail integrated into the top of the receiver , and two rail stumps are included on the sides of the receiver . The top rail will accept various optical sights with no tools or additional mounting hardware required , and the side rails serve to mount secondary accessories , such as tactical lights or laser aiming devices .
P90 USG
The P90 USG ( United States Government ) model is similar to the standard P90 , except the reflex sight housing is aluminium , and the sight has a revised reticle . The black reticle consists of a tiny dot inside of a small ring , which is joined by three posts that glow red in low light conditions due to tritium @-@ illumination . The USG reflex sight can be removed and replaced with a special MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 ( Picatinny ) rail mount for attaching a different sight .
P90 Laserex models
The P90 LV ( Laser Visible ) and P90 IR ( InfraRed ) models , both of which were introduced in late 1995 , have an integrated laser sight manufactured by Laserex Technologies in Australia . The P90 LV model projects an 8 mW visible laser intended to be used as a low @-@ light shooting aid or for dissuasive effect , while the P90 IR model projects a 4 @.@ 5 mW infrared laser that can only be seen with night vision equipment . Both laser systems are compact , consisting of a small , flat panel integrated into the front end of the weapon 's frame .
The Laserex P90 laser systems have a weight of 131 g ( 0 @.@ 29 lb ) , and they are activated by means of a green pressure switch located on the underside of the weapon 's pistol grip . The lasers can be configured for three different internal settings : Off – disabled to prevent accidental activation , Training – low intensity for eye safety and extended battery life in training , or Combat – high intensity for maximum visibility . The Laserex P90 laser systems have a battery life of 250 hours when used on the Training setting , or a life of 50 hours when used on the Combat setting .
= = = Semi @-@ automatic models = = =
The PS90 is a carbine version of the P90 , intended for civilian shooters for personal protection and sporting use ; it was introduced in 2005 , and continues to be offered in several configurations . The PS90 will accept the standard 50 @-@ round P90 magazines , but the gun is supplied with a magazine that is blocked to a capacity of 10 or 30 rounds , allowing it to be sold in jurisdictions where magazine capacities are restricted by law .
In order to be legal for purchase by civilians without obtaining a tax stamp for a Short Barreled Rifle ( SBR ) as defined by the United States National Firearms Act , the PS90 carbine has an extended 407 mm ( 16 in ) barrel and is semi @-@ automatic , with a trigger pull of approximately 31 – 36 newtons ( 7 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 1 lbf ) . The lengthened barrel has eight rifling grooves , with a right @-@ hand twist rate of 1 : 229 mm ( 1 : 9 in ) and a rifled length of 376 mm ( 14 @.@ 8 in ) ; the muzzle is equipped with a fixed " birdcage " type flash suppressor .
Despite the added barrel length , the PS90 is relatively compact and lightweight , with an overall length of 667 mm ( 26 @.@ 3 in ) , and a weight of 3 @.@ 4 kg ( 7 @.@ 5 lb ) with a fully loaded 50 @-@ round magazine . Due to the added barrel length , the PS90 can achieve a muzzle velocity of up to 777 m / s ( 2 @,@ 550 ft / s ) with SS195LF ammunition , or up to 930 m / s ( 3 @,@ 050 ft / s ) with third @-@ party ammunition .
PS90 Standard
The PS90 Standard is the current model of the PS90 offered by FN Herstal . It features a MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 ( Picatinny ) rail fitted to the top of the receiver , which allows the shooter to mount their preferred optical sight . The rail includes a set of integrated iron sights , as backup in case the primary sight is damaged . The PS90 Standard is available with either an olive drab or black frame .
PS90 TR
The PS90 TR is now discontinued . It featured a " Triple Rail " receiver assembly identical to that of the P90 TR . The top of the receiver consisted of an MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 ( Picatinny ) rail , allowing the shooter to mount his or her preferred optical sight . Two polymer side rails — one on each side of the receiver — were included for mounting secondary accessories , such as lasers or tactical lights . Like the PS90 Standard , the PS90 TR was available with either an olive drab or black frame . As of 2013 , the PS90 TR model is no longer listed by FNH USA .
PS90 USG
The PS90 USG is now discontinued . In the same fashion as the P90 USG , this model has an aluminium reflex sight housing with a revised reticle . The black reticle consists of a tiny dot inside of a small ring , which is joined by three posts that glow red in low light conditions due to tritium @-@ illumination . The USG reflex sight can be removed and replaced with a special MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 ( Picatinny ) rail mount for attaching a different sight , and like other models of the PS90 , the USG is available with either an olive drab or black frame . As of 2011 , the PS90 USG model is no longer listed by FNH USA , but the USG reflex sight is still offered as a standalone accessory .
= = Users = =
Despite being originally intended as a defensive weapon for military personnel whose primary role is not fighting with small arms ( such as vehicle drivers ) , most sales of the P90 have been to special forces and counter @-@ terrorist groups who use it for offensive roles . The P90 first saw operational use in the 1991 Gulf War , where it was used by the Belgian special forces group .
In 1997 , suppressed P90s were used in combat by the Peruvian special forces group ( Grupo de Fuerzas Especiales ) in Operation Chavín de Huantar , the hostage rescue siege that ended the Japanese embassy hostage crisis . The operation was a success : all 14 MRTA revolutionaries were killed , and 71 hostages were rescued . The MRTA revolutionaries who had taken the hostages were equipped with body armor , but it was defeated by the Peruvian special forces ' P90s . In 2011 , P90s were used by Muammar Gaddafi 's military forces in the 2011 Libyan civil war , and some of these examples were captured and used in the war by Libyan rebel forces .
By 2009 , the P90 was in service with military and police forces in over 40 countries . In the United States , Houston Police Department was the first local law enforcement agency to adopt the P90 , acquiring it for their SWAT team in 1999 . In 2003 , the Houston SWAT team became one of the first agencies in the country to use the weapon in a shootout . By 2009 , the P90 was in use with over 200 law enforcement agencies in the United States , including the Secret Service and Federal Protective Service . In response , the National Rifle Association added the P90 and PS90 to its NRA Tactical Police Competition standards , allowing law enforcement agencies to compete in the event using either weapon .
Military and law enforcement organizations using the P90 include :
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= Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall =
Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall is the sixth album ( and first live album ) by the Canadian @-@ American singer @-@ songwriter Rufus Wainwright , released through Geffen Records in December 2007 . The album consists of live recordings from his sold @-@ out June 14 – 15 , 2006 , tribute concerts at Carnegie Hall to the legendary American actress and singer Judy Garland . Backed by a 36 @-@ piece orchestra conducted by Stephen Oremus , Wainwright recreated Garland 's April 23 , 1961 , concert , often considered " the greatest night in show business history " . Garland 's 1961 double album , Judy at Carnegie Hall , a comeback performance with more than 25 American pop and jazz standards , was highly successful , initially spending 95 weeks on the Billboard charts and garnering five Grammy Awards ( including Album of the Year , Best Album Cover , Best Solo Vocal Performance – Female and Best Engineering Contribution – Popular Recording ) .
For his album , Wainwright was also recognized by the Grammy Awards , earning a 2009 nomination for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album . While the tribute concerts were popular and the album was well received by critics , album sales were limited . Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall managed to chart in three nations , peaking at number 84 in Belgium , number 88 in the Netherlands and number 171 on the United States ' Billboard 200 .
Guests on the album include Wainwright 's sister Martha Wainwright ( " Stormy Weather " ) , his mother Kate McGarrigle ( piano , " Over the Rainbow " ) , along with one of Garland 's daughters , Lorna Luft ( " After You 've Gone " ) . Related to the album , the February 25 , 2007 tribute concert filmed at the London Palladium was released on DVD as Rufus ! Rufus ! Rufus ! Does Judy ! Judy ! Judy ! : Live from the London Palladium on December 4 , 2007 .
= = Conception and development = =
According to Pitchfork Media , Wainwright " started listening to the Carnegie Hall album in the weeks and months after September 11 , craving some cheap showbiz cheer , but wound up discovering something deeper " . The subsequent War on Terrorism and invasion of Iraq caused Wainwright to become " traumatized and disillusioned with anything American " . Claiming he was reminded of how great " the US used to be " , Wainwright said the following of his appreciation for the album during that turbulent time in American history :
Somehow that album , no matter how dark things seemed , made everything brighten . She had this capacity to lighten the world through the innocence of her sound . Her anchor to the material was obviously through her devotion to music . You never feel that she didn 't believe every word of every song she ever sang .
I find the political and socioeconomic environment we live in very oppressive and very worrying , but every time I put on that live album , I was immediately put in a better mood . I was given a sense of hope and a sense of escape , only because so much of modern @-@ day culture and radio — and what 's prized by our society — is so empty . And then of course I would sing along .
Wainwright observed while driving in his car that " it [ would ] be funny to redo this as a song cycle " . Soon afterwards , he took the idea to New York @-@ based theatrical producer Jared Geller ( who would later co @-@ produce the tribute concert with David Foster ) , hoping to turn a dream into a reality . Geller initially thought the idea was " insane " , but he and Wainwright continued discussing options . Eventually , Geller agreed to assist with the production and the two found space in Wainwright 's schedule to book Carnegie Hall a year in advance . Once the venue was booked , staging elements such as lighting , microphone location and amplification were discussed . Stephen Oremus signed on as the conductor of the 36 @-@ piece orchestra and Phil Ramone took charge of the recording . Rehearsals began in April 2006 , and while it would have been easier to practice in rehearsal rooms , large theaters such as the Lynch at the John Jay College of Criminal Justice and the Museum of Jewish Heritage were utilized because " Rufus wanted a feel for performing this material on a stage " . As a result of financial restrictions , full orchestra rehearsals took place only two days before the show and the day of each performance ( practice with smaller groups of instruments began a few months before the concerts ) .
= = Tribute concerts = =
Due to popular demand , Wainwright 's tribute was performed a total of six times . After tickets for the first show ( June 14 , 2006 at Carnegie Hall in New York City ) sold out , a second show was added at the same venue for the following night ( June 15 ) . Increased demand resulted in three concerts in Europe : February 18 , 2007 at the London Palladium in London , February 20 at L 'Olympia in Paris and February 25 once again at the London Palladium . The final performance was on September 23 , 2007 at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles , California .
= = = Promotion , celebrity participation = = =
Part of the success of the tribute concerts can be attributed to the amount of press attention received and the eagerness of other artists to participate in the event . As written by Gaby Wood of The Guardian , Wainwright " sparkled on the cover of Time Out New York " and was " adored in the pages of The New York Times " following the Carnegie Hall shows . In fashion designer Marc Jacobs ' menswear boutique in Greenwich Village , " virtually nothing was for sale except T @-@ shirts advertising the show " ( the bright orange shirts contained the text " RUFUS RUFUS RUFUS " and " world 's greatest entertainer " , mimicking promotional material used for Garland 45 years earlier ) . Film director Sam Mendes planned to create a documentary about Wainwright 's re @-@ creation and the work leading up to it , though the project fell through . Dutch designers Viktor & Rolf outfitted Wainwright and his family members for the concerts . To return the favor Wainwright wrote the song " Ode to Antidote " and allowed its use in the promotion of the design duo 's cologne , " Antidote " . He also helped premiere the cologne at the after @-@ party for his first Garland tribute and later performed " Over the Rainbow " at the premiere of their Spring 2007 fashion line . Wainwright wore clothing by Tom Ford at the Hollywood Bowl concert . To promote the album , Wainwright 's website linked to an online store where fans could purchase merchandise , including several shirt designs , concert posters , programs and other collectibles . Like the shirts sold by Marc Jacobs , much of the promotional material mimicked posters used for Garland 's concert years before .
Celebrities attending the Carnegie Hall shows included Justin Bond ( " Kiki " of Kiki and Herb ) , Patricia Field , Gina Gershon , Joel Grey , Marc Jacobs , Michael Kors , Tony Kushner , Ann Magnuson , Sarah Jessica Parker , Kate Pierson , Fred Schneider , the Proenza Schouler boys , Chloë Sevigny , John Waters and Viktor & Rolf . Famous faces turned out at the concerts in Europe as well , including Julian Barratt , Keane frontman Tom Chaplin , Julia Davis , David Furnish , Mark Gatiss , Richard E. Grant , Jeremy Irons , Lulu , Paul Morley , Siân Phillips , Imogen Stubbs and Teddy Thompson . Celebrities at the Hollywood Bowl show included Jamie Lee Curtis , Jimmy Fallon , Jake Gyllenhaal , Debbie Reynolds and Rod Stewart .
= = Music = =
= = = Songs = = =
The songs on the album are identical to those performed on Garland 's 1961 album , Judy at Carnegie Hall , except Wainwright 's album included " Get Happy " as a bonus track in the UK and on iTunes in the US . " Hail [ ing ] from a golden era dotted with trolley cars , Cadillacs , and glitzy jazz clubs " , the set list included more than 25 American swing tunes , jazz and pop standards , including two Rodgers and Hart classics ( " This Can 't Be Love " , " You 're Nearer " ) , three from brothers George and Ira Gershwin ( " Who Cares ? ( As Long as You Care for Me ) " , " How Long Has This Been Going On ? " and " A Foggy Day " ) , two from duo Howard Dietz and Arthur Schwartz ( " Alone Together " , " That 's Entertainment ! " ) , Harold Arlen , Irving Berlin , Noël Coward and more . Wainwright performed the songs nearly identically to Garland , even " flubb [ ing ] " the lyrics purposely on " You Go to My Head " to mimic the mistake made by Garland years before .
= = = Orchestrations = = =
Stephen Oremus , musical director for the tribute concerts , faced the task of resurrecting Mort Lindsey 's original arrangements written for a 36 @-@ piece orchestra . Although it is no longer common to have orchestras so large ( Oremus acknowledged that even Wicked on Broadway only had 22 pieces ) , Wainwright and Oremus insisted the full 36 @-@ piece ensemble should be utilized to create " as exact a replica as [ they could ] muster " . Some of the arrangements had to be reconstructed , since the music was not available , and most of the songs had to be transposed , since Wainwright was performing them in a different key .
= = Gay elements = =
Garland was a gay icon , even before Wainwright was born . Gay identification with Garland was being discussed in the mainstream as early as 1967 . Time magazine , in reviewing Garland 's 1967 Palace Theatre engagement , disparagingly noted that a " disproportionate part of her nightly claque seems to be homosexual " . It goes on to say that " [ t ] he boys in the tight trousers " would " roll their eyes , tear at their hair and practically levitate from their seats " during Garland 's performances . Time then attempted to explain Garland 's appeal to the homosexual , consulting psychiatrists who opined that " the attraction [ to Garland ] might be made considerably stronger by the fact that she has survived so many problems ; homosexuals identify with that kind of hysteria " and that " Judy was beaten up by life , embattled , and ultimately had to become more masculine . She has the power that homosexuals would like to have , and they attempt to attain it by idolizing her . "
Garland always had a large base of fans in the gay community , which includes Wainwright , who identifies as gay and came out to his parents at the age of 14 . A connection is frequently drawn between the timing of Garland 's death and funeral , in June 1969 , and the Stonewall riots , the flashpoint of the modern Gay Liberation movement . Coincidental or not , the proximity of Garland 's death to Stonewall has become a part of LGBT history and lore . Wainwright , having been called the " first post @-@ liberation era gay pop star " , was obsessed with The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) as a child and would dress in his mother 's gown , " pretend [ ing ] to be either the Wicked Witch – melting for hours on end – or the Good Witch , depending on his mood " . Wainwright also claims his mother ( Canadian folk musician Kate McGarrigle ) forced him to perform " Over the Rainbow " for guests while growing up , a song he often included in his concert repertoire as an adult .
Wainwright never intended to impersonate Garland or create a drag act , but rather to inhabit the songs and expose them to a new generation . However , there was a certain camp style present , of which Wainwright stated the following : " I think that any gay person in the world would be seduced at one point by a certain kind of camp . For certain people it 's kind of a saving grace . " Regarding the tribute concerts and homosexuality , Wainwright admitted :
I don 't think it would have been possible for anyone other than a gay male to do this concert . In a weird way , a gay man has some sort of perspective on it , I believe .
While Wainwright did not dress in drag at any of the tribute shows in New York or Europe , he did return to the stage in " Judy drag " for an encore at the Hollywood Bowl performance , " bedecked in a double @-@ breasted tuxedo jacket sans pants , black stockings , high heels , earrings , lipstick and a tilted fedora " . He also took " Get Happy " from the set and performed the tune " Summer Stock " -style during part of his Release the Stars tour to mimic the look of Garland during her performance ( pictured on right ) .
= = Critical reception = =
Overall , reception of the album was positive . Stephen Holden of Blender called Wainwright 's tribute " a fabulous stunt in which a gay singer channeled the spirit of the ultimate gay icon " , and declared the album was " as good an introduction to the great American songbook as any " . Pitchfork Media 's Stephen Troussé wrote that Wainwright " elegantly outdoes [ Garland ] on a couple of the ballads " and also compliments guest performer Martha Wainwright , " who turns in a stunning , showstopping ' Stormy Weather ' in an appropriately brazen bid to steal the show " . In his review for Rolling Stone , Robert Christgau stated it was " a relief to hear him essay the show tunes and Tin Pan Alley chestnuts of this tribute album " . Furthermore , he wrote that the songs " expand [ Wainwright 's ] melodic compass " , allowing him to " bring something new to them too – namely , sexuality in the sensuality as opposed to gender @-@ preference sense " . Dave Hughes of Slant Magazine had positive comments about the album : " That Wainwright has the temerity to cover such a bona fide classic — and the chops to pull it off without breaking a limb or his brain — speaks both to his ambition and to his prodigious abilities . "
The album did receive some criticism . After noting Garland 's lifelong attempt to master pitch and articulation , Christgau claimed Wainwright 's habit of " slid [ ing ] past notes and draw [ ing ] out the final syllables of lines are signatures indistinguishable from tics " . Entertainment Weekly 's Chris Willman wrote that Wainwright 's " delicate upper range is nicely attuned to some of the ballads , but anything that requires belting is pretty much a loss " . Mark Edwards of The Times called Wainwright 's performance an acquired taste , stating his " trademark delivery " is " lazy and somewhat slurred " . Dave Hughes ' review pointed out Wainwright 's " problem with the brassy high notes in an otherwise energetic take on ' That 's Entertainment ' " , but admits it would be unfair to hold this against him since Garland 's live performance was not perfect either . Hughes appropriately notes , " Ain 't nobody perfect " .
= = Chart performance and recognition = =
Despite the popularity of Wainwright 's tribute concerts , an abundance of press regarding the album , and generally favorable critical reception , album sales were limited . However , Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall reached a peak position of number 84 in Belgium , number 88 in the Netherlands and number 171 on the United States ' Billboard 200 . The album was nominated for a 2009 Grammy Award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album , but lost to Natalie Cole 's Still Unforgettable . In 2012 , AfterElton.com included the album on its list of " 10 Great Pop Culture Moments from Famous Canadians " .
= = Track listing = =
Disc 1
Overture : " The Trolley Song " / " Over the Rainbow " / " The Man That Got Away "
( Ralph Blane , Hugh Martin ) / ( Harold Arlen , Yip Harburg ) / ( Arlen , Ira Gershwin ) – 4 : 15
" When You 're Smiling ( The Whole World Smiles With You ) " ( Mark Fisher , Joe Goodwin , Larry Shay ) – 3 : 44
Medley : " Almost Like Being in Love " / " This Can 't Be Love " ( Alan Jay Lerner , Frederick Loewe ) / ( Richard Rodgers , Lorenz Hart ) – 6 : 10
" Do It Again " ( George Gershwin , Buddy DeSylva ) – 5 : 15
" You Go to My Head " ( J. Fred Coots , Haven Gillespie ) – 2 : 40
" Alone Together " ( Howard Dietz , Arthur Schwartz ) – 3 : 21
" Who Cares ? ( As Long as You Care for Me ) " ( G. Gershwin , I. Gershwin ) – 2 : 08
" Puttin ' on the Ritz " ( Irving Berlin ) – 1 : 56
" How Long Has This Been Going On ? " ( G. Gershwin , I. Gershwin ) – 5 : 46
" Just You , Just Me " ( Jesse Greer , Raymond Klages ) – 2 : 03
" The Man That Got Away " ( Arlen , I. Gershwin ) – 4 : 59
" San Francisco " ( Walter Jurmann , Gus Kahn , Bronisław Kaper ) – 4 : 53
Disc 2
" That 's Entertainment ! " ( Dietz , Schwartz ) – 2 : 27
" I Can 't Give You Anything But Love " ( Dorothy Fields , Jimmy McHugh ) – 8 : 11
" Come Rain or Come Shine " ( Arlen , Johnny Mercer ) – 3 : 56
" You 're Nearer " ( Rodgers , Hart ) – 1 : 58
" A Foggy Day " ( G. Gershwin , I. Gershwin ) – 2 : 55
" If Love Were All " ( Noël Coward ) – 2 : 33
" Zing ! Went the Strings of My Heart " – ( James F. Hanley ) – 3 : 48
" Stormy Weather " ( Arlen , Ted Koehler ) – 6 : 45 ( performed by Martha Wainwright )
Medley : " You Made Me Love You " / " For Me and My Gal " / " The Trolley Song " ( Joseph McCarthy , James V. Monaco , Roger Edens ) / ( George W. Meyer , Edgar Leslie , E. Ray Goetz ) / ( Blane , Martin ) – 4 : 37
" Rock @-@ a @-@ Bye Your Baby with a Dixie Melody " ( Sam M. Lewis , Fred Schwartz , Joe Young ) – 5 : 45
" Over the Rainbow " ( Arlen , Harburg ) – 4 : 47 ( featuring Kate McGarrigle )
" Swanee " ( Irving Caesar , G. Gershwin ) – 1 : 54
" After You 've Gone " ( Henry Creamer , Turner Layton ) – 2 : 57 ( featuring Lorna Luft )
" Chicago " ( Fred Fisher ) – 4 : 30
Bonus track
" Get Happy " ( Arlen , Koehler ) – 3 : 12 ( offered in the UK and on the US iTunes version )
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
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= Macintosh Classic =
The Macintosh Classic is a personal computer manufactured by Apple Inc .. Introduced on October 15 , 1990 , it was the first Apple Macintosh to sell for less than US $ 1 @,@ 000 . Production of the Classic was prompted by the success of the Macintosh Plus and the Macintosh SE . The system specifications of the Classic were very similar to its predecessors , with the same 9 @-@ inch ( 23 cm ) monochrome CRT display , 512 × 342 pixel resolution , and 4 megabyte ( MB ) memory limit of the older Macintosh computers . Apple 's decision to not update the Classic with newer technology such as a 68010 CPU , higher RAM capacity or color display ensured compatibility with the Mac 's by @-@ then healthy software base as well as enabled it to fit the lower price Apple intended for it . Nevertheless , the Classic featured several improvements over the aging Macintosh Plus , which it replaced as Apple 's low @-@ end Mac computer . It was up to 25 percent faster than the Plus and included an Apple SuperDrive 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 9 cm ) floppy disk drive as standard .
The Classic was an adaptation of Jerry Manock 's and Terry Oyama 's 1984 Macintosh 128K industrial design , as had been the earlier Macintosh SE . Apple released two versions that ranged in price from $ 1 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @,@ 500 . Reviewer reactions were mixed ; most focused on the slow processor performance and lack of expansion slots . The consensus was that the Classic was only useful for word processing , spreadsheets and databases . The price and the availability of education software led to the Classic 's popularity in education . It was sold alongside the more powerful Macintosh Classic II in 1991 until its discontinuation the next year .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
After Apple co @-@ founder Steve Jobs left Apple in 1985 , product development was handed to Jean @-@ Louis Gassée , formerly the manager of Apple France . Gassée consistently pushed the Apple product line in two directions , towards more " openness " in terms of expandability and interoperability , and towards higher price . Gassée long argued that Apple should not market their computers towards the low end of the market , where profits were thin , but instead concentrate on the high end and higher profit margins . He illustrated the concept using a graph showing the price / performance ratio of computers with low @-@ power , low @-@ cost machines in the lower left and high @-@ power high @-@ cost machines in the upper right . The " high @-@ right " goal became a mantra among the upper management , who said " fifty @-@ five or die " , referring to Gassée 's goal of a 55 percent profit margin .
The high @-@ right policy led to a series of machines with ever @-@ increasing prices . The original Macintosh plans called for a system around $ 1 @,@ 000 , but by the time it had morphed from Jef Raskin 's original vision of an easy @-@ to @-@ use machine for composing text documents to Jobs ' concept incorporating ideas gleaned during a trip to Xerox PARC , the Mac 's list price had ballooned to $ 2 @,@ 495 . From there , the price of Mac systems continued to climb : the Macintosh Plus was slightly more expensive at $ 2 @,@ 599 , the SE was $ 2 @,@ 900 or $ 3 @,@ 900 depending on the model , and a basic Macintosh II with a 40 MB hard drive was at least $ 5 @,@ 500 ( at launch , with the price increasing in late 1988 ) . More modern machines cost even more : the Macintosh IIcx was $ 5 @,@ 369 , the IIci $ 6 @,@ 269 , and the IIfx $ 9 @,@ 900 - all without monitors or keyboards . Color CRTs were relatively expensive in the late 1980s ; Apple 's 14 @-@ inch 640 × 480 monitor had a list price of $ 999 and Apple 's ADB keyboards , while high quality , were similarly expensive . The only inexpensive machine in the lineup by the late 1980s was the several @-@ year @-@ old Mac Plus , which was now selling for around $ 1 @,@ 800 .
With the " low @-@ left " of the market it had abandoned years earlier booming with Turbo XTs , and being ignored on the high end for UNIX workstations from the likes of Sun and SGI , Apple 's fortunes of the 1980s quickly reversed . The Christmas season of 1989 drove this point home , with the first decrease in sales in years , and an accompanying 20 percent drop in Apple 's stock price for the quarter .
In January 1990 , Gassée resigned and his authority over product development was divided among several successors . Many Apple engineers had long been pressing for lower @-@ cost options in order to build market share and increase demand across the entire price spectrum . With Gassée out , a rush started to quickly introduce a series of low @-@ cost machines . Three market points were identified , a very low @-@ cost machine aimed at costing $ 1 @,@ 000 , a low @-@ cost machine with color graphics , and a more upscale color machine for small business use . In time , these would develop as the Classic , Macintosh LC , and Macintosh IIsi . Unlike the ' 020 and ' 030 based models , the Macintosh Classic has the original Macintosh startup sound .
= = = Release = = =
MacWEEK magazine reported on July 10 , 1990 , that Apple had paid $ 1 million to Modular Computer Systems Inc . , a subsidiary of Daimler @-@ Benz AG , for the right to use the " Classic " name as part of a five @-@ year contract . Apple did not renew the contract when it ended . MacWEEK speculated the Macintosh Classic would use the same 8 megahertz ( MHz ) Motorola 68000 microprocessor and 9 @-@ inch ( 23 cm ) display as its predecessors and that the Classic would be priced from $ 1 @,@ 500 to $ 2 @,@ 150 .
On December 12 , 1990 , John Sculley ( then Apple CEO ) introduced the Classic at a press conference , announcing that pricing would start at $ 1 @,@ 000 and saying , " To reach new customers , we didn 't just lower the prices of our existing products . We redesigned these computers from the ground up with the features customers have told us they value most . " Apple 's new pricing strategy caused concern among investors , who thought it would reduce profit margins . Brodie Keast , an Apple product marketing manager , said , " We are prepared to do whatever it takes to reach more people with Macintosh .... The plan is to get as aggressive on price as we need to be . " After the release of the Classic , Apple 's share price closed at $ 27 @.@ 75 per share , down 50 cents from October 12 , 1990 , and far below its previous 12 @-@ month high of $ 50 @.@ 37 .
The Classic was released in Europe and Japan concurrently with the United States release . In Japan , the Classic retailed for 198 @,@ 000 yen ( $ 1 @,@ 523 ) , more than in the US but matching the price of the Toshiba Dynabook laptop computer .
After spending $ 40 million marketing the Classic to first @-@ time buyers , Apple had difficulty meeting the high demand . Apple doubled its manufacturing space in 1990 by expanding its Singapore and Cork , Ireland factories , where the Classic was assembled . Air freight , rather than sea shipping , was used to speed delivery . The shortage caused concern among dealers , who blamed Apple 's poor business planning .
Macintosh Classics and LCs had been given to Scholastic Software 12 weeks before they were officially announced , and Scholastic planned to release 16 new Macintosh products in 1991 . Peter Kelman , Scholastic 's publisher , predicted that the Macintosh would become " the school machine of the nineties . " The Classic was sold to schools for $ 800 . This and the availability of education software led to the Classic 's popularity in the education sector .
= = Features = =
The low @-@ end model had 1 MB memory , no hard disk , and cost $ 999 , while the $ 1 @,@ 499 model contained an additional 1 MB memory expansion card and a 40 MB hard disk . The Classic featured several improvements over the Macintosh Plus , which it replaced as Apple 's low @-@ end Mac computer : it was up to 25 percent faster than the Plus and included an Apple SuperDrive 3 @.@ 5 " floppy disk drive as standard . The SuperDrive could read and write to Macintosh , MS @-@ DOS , OS / 2 , and ProDOS disks . Also , the Classic was the last compact Mac to use the Motorola 68000 central processing unit ( CPU ) .
The Classic used the System 6 @.@ 0 @.@ 7 operating system with support for all versions up to System 7 @.@ 5 @.@ 5 . A hidden Hierarchical File System ( HFS ) disk volume contained in the read @-@ only memory ( ROM ) included System 6 @.@ 0 @.@ 3 . The Mac Classic could be booted into System 6 @.@ 0 @.@ 3 by holding down the Command + Option + X + O keys during boot .
Some dealers included a software bundle called Smartbundle with the Classic . Also sold separately for $ 349 , this included T / Maker 's WriteNow word processor , Ashton @-@ Tate 's Full Impact spreadsheet program , RecordHolderPlus database , and Silicon Beach Software 's SuperPaint 2 @.@ 0 paint and draw program .
= = Design = =
The Macintosh Classic was the final adaptation of Jerry Manock 's and Terry Oyama 's Macintosh 128K industrial design , bringing back some elements of the original , while retaining little of the Snow White design language used in the Macintosh SE 's design . The only remnant of the SE was the stripe across the front panel ( bezel ) for the floppy drive ; the distinctive front bezel lines of the SE were not used on the Classic , and the vertical lines around its base were replaced by four horizontal vent lines , more reminiscent of the original design . Also , the curve of the front bezel was increased to the same 50 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) radial curve as on the front of both the Macintosh LC and Macintosh IIsi . The screen brightness dial on this bezel was also removed in favor of a software control . This broad , curved front bezel became a signature of Apple product design for much of the 1990s .
The logic board , the central circuit board of the computer , was based on the Macintosh SE design . Its size , however , was reduced using surface mount technology to 9 × 5 inches ( 23 × 13 cm ) , half the size of the SE board . This redesign , and the absence of expansion slots , kept manufacturing costs low . This lack of expansion abilities , along with the small screen size and Macintosh 's popularity in the burgeoning field of desktop publishing led to such oddities as video displays which connected through the SCSI port by users seeking to connect a larger full- or dual @-@ page display to their Mac . The Classic design was used once more in 1991 for the Classic II , which succeeded the Classic and replaced the Macintosh SE / 30 .
= = Reception = =
Some reviewers of the Macintosh Classic focused on the processor performance and lack of expansion slots . Liza Schafer of Home Office Computing praised the Classic 's ease of use and price , but criticized the 9 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) display because a full US letter page ( 8 1 ⁄ 2 × 11 inches ) would not fit at full size , and warned those who required high @-@ end graphics and desktop publishing capabilities against buying the Classic . Schafer concluded : " The Classic 's value is more impressive than its performance , but its performance will get you working on that novel , database , or spreadsheet . " PC Week criticized the lack of a faster processor , stating , " The 7 @.@ 8 MHz speed is adequate for text applications and limited graphics work , but it is not suitable for power users . As such , the Classic is appropriate as a home computer or for limited computing on the road . " Similarly , PC User 's review concluded , " The slow processor and lack of expansion slots on the Macintosh Classic offset the low prices " . MacWEEK described it as a " fine , inexpensive replacement for the Macintosh Plus that best embodies the original Macintosh vision six and a half years later " . Computer Gaming World was more skeptical , doubting that consumers would purchase a black @-@ and @-@ white computer with no hard drive that was only slightly faster than the Mac Plus .
In the February 1991 edition of Electronic Learning , Robert McCarthy wrote : " Teachers , educational administrators and software developers are enthusiastic about the new , lower cost Apple Macintosh computers " . Steve Taffe , manager of instructional strategy at MECC , a developer and publisher of educational software , explained his excitement about the Classic : " [ it ] is terrific – both because it 's a Mac and because of that low price . Everyone can now afford a Macintosh . " Scholastic , an education software developer , was also confident of Apple 's ability to compete with MS @-@ DOS machines , stating : " They are just as cost @-@ effective and as powerful as MS @-@ DOS computers , but the Apples will have a superior comfort @-@ level . " Sue Talley , Apple 's manager of strategic planning in education , said of the Classic : " we see it going into applications where you need a fair number of powerful stations , but where color is not a big issue . " Talley mentioned that it was most suited for writing labs and other basic productivity uses . Many schools decided not to buy the Macintosh Classic because of the lack of a color monitor , an option which the higher priced Macintosh LC had .
= = Specifications = =
= = Timeline of compact Macintosh models = =
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= Hippolyte De La Rue =
Air Commodore Hippolyte Ferdinand ( Frank ) De La Rue , CBE , DFC ( 13 March 1891 – 18 May 1977 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Joining the Mercantile Marine as a youth , he became a pilot in Britain 's Royal Naval Air Service during World War I. In 1918 , he was given command of No. 223 Squadron in the newly formed Royal Air Force . The following year he took charge of No. 270 Squadron RAF in Egypt . Returning to Australia , De La Rue joined the short @-@ lived Australian Air Corps in 1920 , and became a founding member of the RAAF in March 1921 . Specialising in maritime aviation , he led seaplane formations based at Point Cook , Victoria , during the 1920s and early 1930s .
De La Rue was appointed commanding officer of No. 1 Flying Training School at Point Cook in 1933 . He was promoted to group captain in 1937 and took command of RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , the following year . At the outbreak of World War II , De La Rue was slated to lead an air expeditionary force to Great Britain , but this plan was abandoned after Australia committed itself to the Empire Air Training Scheme . Promoted to temporary air commodore , he served as Air Officer Commanding Western Area from 1941 to 1943 , and finished the war as Inspector of Administration at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . Nicknamed " Kanga " , De La Rue retired from the Air Force in 1946 , and died in 1977 at the age of eighty @-@ six .
= = Early life and World War I = =
Born on 13 March 1891 in Auburn , a suburb of Sydney , De La Rue was the son of jeweller Edmond Emile De La Rue and his wife Ellen . Following a " limited " education , he joined the Merchant Navy in 1908 , becoming a second officer by 1914 . De La Rue transferred to the Royal Navy 's Transport Service shortly after the outbreak of World War I , operating on troop ships between England and France . He saw service at Gallipoli as navigator on Huntsgreen , from the Allied landings on 25 April 1915 until the withdrawal in December . In July 1916 , he transferred once again , to the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) as a temporary flight sub @-@ lieutenant , and was awarded his wings in November .
Training as a seaplane pilot in Hampshire , De La Rue was posted to Wales in February 1917 . Later that year , he claimed an unconfirmed sinking of a German submarine while on coastal patrol . Promoted flight lieutenant in January 1918 , De La Rue became an honorary captain in the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) that April , following the merger of the RNAS and the Royal Flying Corps . He was posted to No. 223 Squadron in Otranto , Italy , later taking command of the unit . While piloting a Short seaplane escorting Allied bombers on a raid against the port city of Durrës , Albania , he rescued the crew of another seaplane that had been forced down in the Austrian @-@ held harbour . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his actions , as well as the Italian Silver Medal of Military Valor .
= = Between the wars = =
De La Rue was posted to Alexandria , Egypt , in January 1919 to command No. 270 ( Seaplane ) Squadron . Offered a permanent commission in the RAF that August , he nevertheless returned to Australia and sought employment through Lieutenant Colonel Stanley Goble , an ex @-@ RNAS pilot then seconded to the Navy Office . Goble , desiring a specialist seaplane pilot for naval cooperation work , arranged a captain 's commission in the recently established Australian Air Corps , successor to the wartime Australian Flying Corps . On 17 June 1920 , in an Airco DH.9 , De La Rue accompanied Captain Adrian Cole on a flight to an altitude of 27 @,@ 000 feet ( 8 @,@ 200 m ) , setting an Australian record that stood for more than ten years . Later that month , flying an Avro 504L floatplane , he became the first person to land an aircraft on the Yarra River in Victoria . In July he was put in charge of trials of the Avro 504L aboard the Royal Australian Navy 's flagship , HMAS Australia . De La Rue joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as a flight lieutenant in 1921 , becoming one of the original twenty @-@ one officers on its strength when it was formed ( as the Australian Air Force ) that March . Going by the first name of Frank , he was also popularly known throughout the service as " Kanga " . In August 1921 , he underwent the RAAF 's " No. 1 Course " at the Australian Army 's Central Training Depot in Holsworthy , New South Wales ; his fellow inductees included Flying Officers George Jones , Arthur Murphy , and Raymond Brownell .
During the 1920s , De La Rue held a series of postings at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , and at Air Force Headquarters , Melbourne . In May 1922 , then in charge of the Seaplane Flight , he crashed an Avro 504L into Port Phillip ; his rescuers claimed that his main concern following the mishap was the state of the corduroy trousers he was wearing . He lost the RAAF 's sole Bristol Scout in another accident less than a year later . De La Rue married Clara Stone in a Presbyterian ceremony at Scots Church , Melbourne , on 1 October 1923 ; the couple would have a daughter . He had another escape in August 1925 when he crashed a Sopwith Pup into a hangar ; a witness said that De La Rue , who was " renowned for his fiery Gallic temper " , strode from the wreckage and began to violently abuse the aircraft . By 1926 , he was the examining officer on the flight instructors course at No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , Point Cook . On exchange in Britain during 1929 – 30 , De La Rue underwent familiarisation with aircraft carriers , and served on the staff of No. 201 ( Flying Boat ) Squadron , based on the south coast of England . Upon his return to Australia in 1931 , he was given command of the RAAF 's Seaplane Squadron at Point Cook . Promoted wing commander in December 1932 , De La Rue led No. 1 FTS from early 1933 . He was promoted group captain in January 1937 , and took over as commanding officer ( CO ) of Headquarters RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , from Group Captain Cole in January the following year .
= = World War II = =
De La Rue and his staff at Headquarters Richmond worked " flat out " in the days prior the outbreak of World War II to get the base to a fit state of readiness and , immediately after hostilities were declared on 3 September , to liaise with the Central War Room in Melbourne passing instructions to squadrons . The following day , Richmond 's first wartime sortie took place , a flight of three Avro Ansons and three Supermarine Seagulls patrolling the ocean off Sydney . Within a month the Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) , Air Vice Marshal Goble , proposed despatching a six @-@ squadron air expeditionary force to Great Britain , with De La Rue , then the RAAF 's seventh most senior officer , in charge . Air Marshal Richard Williams , Goble 's long @-@ time rival for leadership of the Air Force in the 1920s and ' 30s , later contended that the CAS was unduly favouring his fellow RNAS veteran and seaplane specialist to lead what would have been the RAAF 's largest formation to date , particularly considering that other contenders for the role such as Group Captains Cole , Frank McNamara , and Henry Wrigley had greater landplane experience than De La Rue . The concept was in any case abandoned soon after , as Australia concentrated on participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme . Some time in the latter half of 1940 , De La Rue was seeing dinner guests off the base at RAAF Richmond , and attempted to re @-@ enter the perimeter via the main gate . Wearing civilian clothes and without his security pass , he was challenged and then locked up by the guards , who did not recognise him or believe his assurances that he was their commander . De La Rue was finally released by the orderly officer but was still fuming the next morning ; only the advice of the base warrant officer ( disciplinary ) , who had congratulated the guards on their diligence , prevented the CO from taking action against all concerned .
After completing his tenure at Richmond , De La Rue briefly took the role of senior air staff officer ( SASO ) at Central Area Command in October 1940 . The following month , his name was put forward to establish an RAAF depot in London to look after the interests of the many thousands of Australian airmen disembarking there , but financial considerations led to the plan being scuppered temporarily . In fact , RAAF Overseas Headquarters would be formed on 1 December 1941 , with Air Marshal Williams appointed Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) . Meanwhile , De La Rue also missed out on a potential posting to the Middle East that was suggested by the British but turned down by the Australian government . Promoted acting air commodore , he became the inaugural AOC Western Area , headquartered in Perth , on 9 January 1941 . Among the units he controlled in this position were No. 14 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron , No. 25 ( General Purpose ) Squadron , No. 35 ( Transport ) Squadron , and No. 77 ( Fighter ) Squadron . De La Rue worked assiduously to prepare the latter for operations , as it was the only fighter squadron able to defend Perth and Fremantle . He also lobbied RAAF Headquarters for a force of long @-@ range PBY Catalina flying boats to augment the Lockheed Hudsons of No. 14 Squadron , but none were offered to him . De La Rue was made a temporary air commodore in July 1941 . By February 1942 , he was the eighth most senior officer in the RAAF . Handing over Western Area Command to Air Commodore Ray Brownell in January 1943 , De La Rue became Inspector of Administration at RAAF Headquarters , in which post he saw out the rest of the war . On 8 June 1944 , he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire .
= = Later life = =
De La Rue was summarily retired from the RAAF after the war , along with a number of other senior commanders and veterans of World War I , partly to make way for the advancement of younger and equally capable officers , and also due to his suspect health . In recommending early retirement , the CAS , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , noted that De La Rue possessed " fairly good Service knowledge " and was of strong character , but that " sometimes his efforts [ were ] ill @-@ directed " . De La Rue was , furthermore , above the statutory retiring age for his substantive rank of group captain . He was officially discharged on 1 April 1946 . An honorary air commodore from 1956 , his chief hobby in retirement was painting in water colours . On 31 March 1971 , he was among a select group of surviving foundation members who attended a celebratory dinner at the Hotel Canberra to mark the RAAF 's Golden Jubilee ; his fellow guests included Air Marshal Sir Richard Williams , Air Vice Marshals Henry Wrigley and Bill Anderson , and Wing Commander Sir Lawrence Wackett . Frank De La Rue died at his home in Kew , a suburb of Melbourne , on 18 May 1977 . He was survived by his daughter , and cremated .
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= Final Fantasy =
Final Fantasy ( ファイナルファンタジー , Fainaru Fantajī ) is a science fiction and fantasy media franchise created by Hironobu Sakaguchi , and developed and owned by Square Enix ( formerly Square ) . The franchise centers on a series of fantasy and science fantasy role @-@ playing video games ( RPGs ) . The eponymous first game in the series , published in 1987 , was conceived by Sakaguchi as his last @-@ ditch effort in the game industry ; the title was a success and spawned sequels . The video game series has since branched into other genres such as tactical role @-@ playing , action role @-@ playing , massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing , racing , third @-@ person shooter , fighting , rhythm and anime .
Although most Final Fantasy installments are stand @-@ alone stories with different settings and main characters , they feature identical elements that define the franchise . Recurring elements include plot themes , character names , and game mechanics . Plots center on a group of heroes battling a great evil while exploring the characters ' internal struggles and relationships . Character names are frequently derived from the history , languages , pop culture , and mythologies of cultures worldwide .
The series has been commercially and critically successful ; it is Square Enix 's best selling video game franchise , with more than 115 million units sold , and is one of the best @-@ selling video game franchises of all time . The series is well known for its innovation , visuals , and music , such as the inclusion of full motion videos , photo @-@ realistic character models , and orchestrated music by Nobuo Uematsu . Final Fantasy has been a driving force in the video game industry , and the series has affected Square Enix 's business practices and its relationships with other video game developers . It has also introduced many features now common in role @-@ playing video games and has been credited with helping to popularize console @-@ based RPGs in markets outside Japan .
= = Titles = =
= = = Games = = =
The first installment of the series premiered in Japan on December 18 , 1987 . Subsequent titles are numbered and given a story unrelated to previous games ; consequently , the numbers refer more to volumes than to sequels . Many Final Fantasy games have been localized for markets in North America , Europe , and Australia on numerous video game consoles , personal computers ( PC ) , and mobile phones . Future installments will appear on seventh and eighth generation consoles ; upcoming titles include Final Fantasy XV . As of January 2014 , the series includes the main installments from Final Fantasy to Final Fantasy XIV , as well as direct sequels and spin @-@ offs , both released and confirmed as being in development . Most of the older titles have been remade or re @-@ released on multiple platforms .
= = = = Main series = = = =
Three Final Fantasy installments were released on the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . Final Fantasy was released in Japan in 1987 and in North America in 1990 . It introduced many concepts to the console RPG genre , and has since been remade on several platforms . Final Fantasy II , released in 1988 in Japan , has been bundled with Final Fantasy in several re @-@ releases . The last of the NES installments , Final Fantasy III , was released in Japan in 1990 ; however , it was not released elsewhere until a Nintendo DS remake in 2006 .
The Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) also featured three installments of the main series , all of which have been re @-@ released on several platforms . Final Fantasy IV was released in 1991 ; in North America , it was released as Final Fantasy II . It introduced the " Active Time Battle " system . Final Fantasy V , released in 1992 in Japan , was the first game in the series to spawn a sequel : a short anime series titled Final Fantasy : Legend of the Crystals . Final Fantasy VI was released in Japan in 1994 , but it was titled Final Fantasy III in North America .
The PlayStation console saw the release of three main Final Fantasy games . The 1997 title Final Fantasy VII moved away from the two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) graphics used in the first six games to three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) computer graphics ; the game features polygonal characters on pre @-@ rendered backgrounds . It also introduced a more modern setting , a style that was carried over to the next game . It was also the second in the series to be released in Europe , with the first being Final Fantasy Mystic Quest . Final Fantasy VIII was published in 1999 , and was the first to consistently use realistically proportioned characters and feature a vocal piece as its theme music . Final Fantasy IX , released in 2000 , returned to the series ' roots by revisiting a more traditional Final Fantasy setting rather than the more modern worlds of VII and VIII .
Three main installments , as well as one online game , were published for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) . The 2001 title Final Fantasy X introduced full 3D areas and voice acting to the series , and was the first to spawn a direct video game sequel ( Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , published in 2003 ) . The first massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) in the series , Final Fantasy XI , was released on the PS2 and PC in 2002 , and later on the Xbox 360 . It introduced real @-@ time battles instead of random encounters . Final Fantasy XII , published in 2006 , also includes real @-@ time battles in large , interconnected playfields . The game is also the first in the main series to utilize a world used in a previous game , namely the land of Ivalice , which had previously featured in Final Fantasy Tactics and Vagrant Story .
In 2009 , Final Fantasy XIII was released in Japan , and in North America and Europe the following year , for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . It is the flagship installment of the Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy series and became the first mainline game to spawn two direct sequels ( XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns ) . It was also the first game released in Chinese & High Definition along with being released on two consoles at once . Final Fantasy XIV , a MMORPG , was released worldwide on Microsoft Windows in 2010 , but it received heavy criticism when it was launched , prompting Square Enix to send an apology for the players , and to re @-@ release the game under the title A Realm Reborn , this time to the Playstation 3 as well , in 2013 . At E3 2013 , Final Fantasy XV ( originally a spin @-@ off titled Versus XIII ) was officially unveiled as an upcoming title for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and currently scheduled for release in 2016 . Like XIII , XV uses the mythos of the Fabula Nova Crystallis series , although in many other respects the game stands on its own and has since been distanced from the series by its developers .
= = = = Remakes , sequels and spin @-@ offs = = = =
Final Fantasy has spawned numerous spin @-@ offs and metaseries . Several are , in fact , not Final Fantasy games , but were rebranded for North American release . Examples include the SaGa series , rebranded The Final Fantasy Legend , and its two sequels , Final Fantasy Legend II and Final Fantasy Legend III . Final Fantasy Mystic Quest was specifically developed for a United States audience , and Final Fantasy Tactics is a tactical RPG that features many references and themes found in the series . The spin @-@ off Chocobo series , Crystal Chronicles series , and Kingdom Hearts series also include multiple Final Fantasy elements . In 2003 , the Final Fantasy series ' first direct sequel , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , was released . Final Fantasy XIII was originally intended to stand on its own , but the team wanted to explore the world , characters and mythos more , resulting in the development and release of two sequels in 2011 and 2013 respectively , creating the series ' first official trilogy . Dissidia Final Fantasy was released in 2009 , a fighting game that features heroes and villains from the first ten games of the main series . It was followed by a prequel in 2011 . Other spin @-@ offs have taken the form of subseries — Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , Ivalice Alliance , and Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy .
= = = Related media = = =
= = = = Film and television = = = =
Square Enix has expanded the Final Fantasy series into various media . Multiple anime and computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) films have been produced that are based either on individual Final Fantasy games or on the series as a whole . The first was an original video animation ( OVA ) titled Final Fantasy : Legend of the Crystals , a sequel to Final Fantasy V. The story was set on the same world as the game , although 200 years in the future . It was released as four 30 @-@ minute episodes , first in Japan in 1994 and later in the United States by Urban Vision in 1998 . In 2001 , Square Pictures released its first feature film , Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within . The film is set on a future Earth invaded by alien life forms . The Spirits Within was the first animated feature to seriously attempt to portray photorealistic CGI humans , but was considered a box office bomb and garnered mixed reviews .
In 2005 , Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , a theatrical CGI film , and Last Order : Final Fantasy VII , a non @-@ canon OVA , were released as part of the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII . Advent Children was animated by Visual Works , which helped the company create CG sequences for the games . The film , unlike The Spirits Within , gained mixed to positive reviews from critics and has become a commercial success . Last Order , on the other hand , was released in Japan in a special DVD bundle package with Advent Children . Last Order sold out quickly and was positively received by Western critics , though fan reaction was mixed over changes to established story scenes .
A 25 @-@ episode anime television series titled Final Fantasy : Unlimited was released in 2001 based on the common elements of the Final Fantasy series . It was broadcast in Japan by TV Tokyo and released in North America by ADV Films .
Two animated tied ins for Final Fantasy XV were announced at the Uncovered Final Fantasy XV fan and press event , forming part of a larger multimedia project dubbed the Final Fantasy XV Universe . Brotherhood : Final Fantasy XV is a series of five 10 @-@ minute @-@ long episodes developed by A @-@ 1 Pictures and Square Enix detailing the backstories of the main cast . Kingsglaive : Final Fantasy XV , a CGI movie set for release prior to the game in Summer 2016 , is set during the game 's opening and follows new and secondary characters .
= = = = Other media = = = =
Several video games have either been adapted into or have had spin @-@ offs in the form of manga and novels . The first was the novelization of Final Fantasy II in 1989 , and was followed by a manga adaptation of Final Fantasy III in 1992 . The past decade has seen an increase in the number of non @-@ video game adaptations and spin @-@ offs . Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within has been adapted into a novel , the spin @-@ off game Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles has been adapted into a manga , and Final Fantasy XI has had a novel and manga set in its continuity . Seven novellas based on the Final Fantasy VII universe have also been released . The Final Fantasy : Unlimited story was partially continued in novels and a manga after the anime series ended . The Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy XIII series have also had novellas and audio dramas released .
Two titles , Final Fantasy Tactics Advance and Final Fantasy : Unlimited , have been adapted into radio dramas .
= = Common elements = =
Although most Final Fantasy installments are independent , many gameplay elements recur throughout the series . Most titles feature recycled names often inspired from various cultures ' history , languages and mythology , including Asian , European , and Middle @-@ Eastern . Examples include weapon names like Excalibur and Masamune — derived from Arthurian legend and the Japanese swordsmith Masamune respectively — as well as the spell names Holy , Meteor , and Ultima . Beginning with Final Fantasy IV , the main series adopted its current logo style that features the same typeface and an emblem designed by Japanese artist Yoshitaka Amano . The emblem relates to a title 's respective plot and typically portrays a character or object in the story . Subsequent remakes of the first three games have replaced the previous logos with ones similar to the rest of the series .
= = = Plot and themes = = =
The central conflict in many Final Fantasy games focuses on a group of characters battling an evil , and sometimes ancient , antagonist that dominates the game 's world . Stories frequently involve a sovereign state in rebellion , with the protagonists taking part in the rebellion . The heroes are often destined to defeat the evil , and occasionally gather as a direct result of the antagonist 's malicious actions . Another staple of the series is the existence of two villains ; the main villain is not always who it appears to be , as the primary antagonist may actually be subservient to another character or entity . The main antagonist introduced at the beginning of the game is not always the final enemy , and the characters must continue their quest beyond what appears to be the final fight .
Stories in the series frequently emphasize the internal struggles , passions , and tragedies of the characters , and the main plot often recedes into the background as the focus shifts to their personal lives . Games also explore relationships between characters , ranging from love to rivalry . Other recurring situations that drive the plot include amnesia , a hero corrupted by an evil force , mistaken identity , and self @-@ sacrifice . Magical orbs and crystals are recurring in @-@ game items that are frequently connected to the themes of the games ' plots . Crystals often play a central role in the creation of the world , and a majority of the Final Fantasy games link crystals and orbs to the planet 's life force . As such , control over these crystals drives the main conflict . The classical elements are also a recurring theme in the series related to the heroes , villains , and items . Other common plot and setting themes include the Gaia hypothesis , an apocalypse , and conflicts between advanced technology and nature .
= = = Characters = = =
The series features a number of recurring character archetypes . Most famously , every game since Final Fantasy II , including subsequent remakes of the original Final Fantasy , features a character named Cid . Cid 's appearance , personality , goals , and role in the game ( non @-@ playable ally , party member , villain ) vary dramatically . However , two characteristics many versions of Cid have in common are 1 ) being a scientist or engineer , and 2 ) being tied in some way to an airship the party eventually acquires . Every Cid has at least one of these two traits .
Biggs and Wedge , inspired by two Star Wars characters of the same name , appear in numerous titles as minor characters , sometimes as comic relief . The later titles in the series feature several males with effeminate characteristics . Recurring creatures include Chocobos and Moogles . Chocobos are large , often flightless birds that appear in several installments as a means of long @-@ distance travel for characters . Moogles , on the other hand , are white , stout creatures resembling teddy bears with wings and a single antenna . They serve different capacities in games including mail delivery , weaponsmiths , party members , and saving the game . Chocobo and Moogle appearances are often accompanied by specific musical themes that have been arranged differently for separate titles .
= = = Gameplay = = =
In Final Fantasy games , players command a party of characters as they progress through the game 's story by exploring the game world and defeating opponents . Enemies are typically encountered randomly through exploring , a trend which changed in Final Fantasy XI and Final Fantasy XII . The player issues combat orders — like " Fight " , " Magic " , and " Item " — to individual characters via a menu @-@ driven interface while engaging in battles . Throughout the series , the games have used different battle systems . Prior to Final Fantasy XI , battles were turn @-@ based with the protagonists and antagonists on different sides of the battlefield . Final Fantasy IV introduced the " Active Time Battle " ( ATB ) system that augmented the turn @-@ based nature with a perpetual time @-@ keeping system . Designed by Hiroyuki Ito , it injected urgency and excitement into combat by requiring the player to act before an enemy attacks , and was used until Final Fantasy X , which implemented the " Conditional Turn @-@ Based " ( CTB ) system . This new system returned to the previous turn @-@ based system , but added nuances to offer players more challenge . Final Fantasy XI adopted a real @-@ time battle system where characters continuously act depending on the issued command . Final Fantasy XII continued this gameplay with the " Active Dimension Battle " system . Final Fantasy XIII 's combat system , designed by the same man who worked on X , was meant to have an action @-@ oriented feel , emulating the cinematic battles in Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children .
Like most RPGs , the Final Fantasy installments use an experience level system for character advancement , in which experience points are accumulated by killing enemies . Character classes , specific jobs that enable unique abilities for characters , are another recurring theme . Introduced in the first game , character classes have been used differently in each title . Some restrict a character to a single job to integrate it into the story , while other games feature dynamic job systems that allow the player to choose from multiple classes and switch throughout the game . Though used heavily in many games , such systems have become less prevalent in favor of characters that are more versatile ; characters still match an archetype , but are able to learn skills outside their class .
Magic is another common RPG element in the series . The method by which characters gain magic varies between installments , but is generally divided into classes organized by color : " White magic " , which focuses on spells that assist teammates ; " Black magic " , which focuses on harming enemies ; " Red magic " , which is a combination of white and black magic , " Blue magic " , which mimics enemy attacks ; and " Green magic " which focuses on applying status effects to either allies or enemies . Other types of magic frequently appear such as " Time magic " , focusing on the themes of time , space , and gravity ; and " Summoning magic " , which evokes legendary creatures to aid in battle and is a feature that has persisted since Final Fantasy III . Summoned creatures are often referred to by names like " Espers " or " Eidolons " and have been inspired by mythologies from Arabic , Hindu , Norse , and Greek cultures .
Different means of transportation have appeared through the series . The most common is the airship for long range travel , accompanied by chocobos for travelling short distances , but others include sea and land vessels . Following Final Fantasy VII , more modern and futuristic vehicle designs have been included .
= = Development and history = =
= = = Origin = = =
In the mid @-@ 1980s , Square entered the Japanese video game industry with simple RPGs , racing games , and platformers for Nintendo 's Famicom Disk System . In 1987 , Square designer Hironobu Sakaguchi chose to create a new fantasy role @-@ playing game for the cartridge @-@ based NES , and drew inspiration from popular fantasy games : Enix 's Dragon Quest , Nintendo 's The Legend of Zelda , and Origin Systems 's Ultima series . Though often attributed to the company allegedly facing bankruptcy , Sakaguchi explained that the game was his personal last @-@ ditch effort in the game industry and that its title , Final Fantasy , stemmed from his feelings at the time ; had the game not sold well , he would have quit the business and gone back to university . Despite his explanation , publications have also attributed the name to the company 's hopes that the project would solve its financial troubles . In 2015 , Sakaguchi explained the name 's origin : the team wanted a title that would abbreviate to " FF " , which would sound good in Japanese . The name was originally going to be Fighting Fantasy , but due to concerns over trademark conflicts with the roleplaying gamebook series of the same name , they needed to settle for something else . As the word " Final " was a famous word in Japan , Sakaguchi settled on that . According to Sakaguchi , any title that created the " FF " abbreviation would have done .
The game indeed reversed Square 's lagging fortunes , and it became the company 's flagship franchise . Following the success , Square immediately developed a second installment . Because Sakaguchi assumed Final Fantasy would be a stand @-@ alone title , its story was not designed to be expanded by a sequel . The developers instead chose to carry over only thematic similarities from its predecessor , while some of the gameplay elements , such as the character advancement system , were overhauled . This approach has continued throughout the series ; each major Final Fantasy game features a new setting , a new cast of characters , and an upgraded battle system . Video game writer John Harris attributed the concept of reworking the game system of each installment to Nihon Falcom 's Dragon Slayer series , with which Square was previously involved as a publisher . The company regularly released new titles in the main series . However , the time between the releases of Final Fantasy XI ( 2002 ) , Final Fantasy XII ( 2006 ) , and Final Fantasy XIII ( 2009 ) were much longer than previous titles . Following Final Fantasy XIV , Square Enix stated that it intended to release Final Fantasy games either annually or biennially . This switch was to mimic the development cycles of Western games in the Call of Duty , Assassin 's Creed and Battlefield series , as well as maintain fan @-@ interest .
= = = Design = = =
For the original Final Fantasy , Sakaguchi required a larger production team than Square 's previous titles . He began crafting the game 's story while experimenting with gameplay ideas . Once the gameplay system and game world size were established , Sakaguchi integrated his story ideas into the available resources . A different approach has been taken for subsequent titles ; the story is completed first and the game built around it . Designers have never been restricted by consistency , though most feel each title should have a minimum number of common elements . The development teams strive to create completely new worlds for each title , and avoid making new games too similar to previous ones . Game locations are conceptualized early in development and design details like building parts are fleshed out as a base for entire structures .
The first five games were directed by Sakaguchi , who also provided the original concepts . He drew inspiration for game elements from anime films by Hayao Miyazaki ; series staples like the airships and chocobos are inspired by elements in Castle in the Sky and Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind , respectively . Sakaguchi served as a producer for subsequent games until he left Square in 2001 . Yoshinori Kitase took over directing the games until Final Fantasy VIII , and has been followed by a new director for each new title . Hiroyuki Ito designed several gameplay systems , including Final Fantasy V 's " Job System " , Final Fantasy VIII 's " Junction System " and the Active Time Battle concept , which was used from Final Fantasy IV until Final Fantasy IX . In designing the Active Time Battle system , Ito drew inspiration from Formula One racing ; he thought it would be interesting if character types had different speeds after watching race cars pass each other . Ito also co @-@ directed Final Fantasy VI with Kitase . Kenji Terada was the scenario writer for the first three games ; Kitase took over as scenario writer for Final Fantasy V through Final Fantasy VII . Kazushige Nojima became the series ' primary scenario writer from Final Fantasy VII until his resignation in October 2003 ; he has since formed his own company , Stellavista . Nojima partially or completely wrote the stories for Final Fantasy VII , Final Fantasy VIII , Final Fantasy X , and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . He also worked as the scenario writer for the spin @-@ off series , Kingdom Hearts . Daisuke Watanabe co @-@ wrote the scenarios for Final Fantasy X and XII , and was the main writer for the XIII games .
Artistic design , including character and monster creations , was handled by Japanese artist Yoshitaka Amano from Final Fantasy through Final Fantasy VI . Amano also handled title logo designs for all of the main series and the image illustrations from Final Fantasy VII onward . Tetsuya Nomura was chosen to replace Amano because Nomura 's designs were more adaptable to 3D graphics . He worked with the series from Final Fantasy VII through Final Fantasy X ; for Final Fantasy IX , however , character designs were handled by Shukō Murase , Toshiyuki Itahana , and Shin Nagasawa . Nomura is also the character designer of the Kingdom Hearts series , Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , and Fabula Nova Crystallis : Final Fantasy . Other designers include Nobuyoshi Mihara and Akihiko Yoshida . Mihara was the character designer for Final Fantasy XI , and Yoshida served as character designer for Final Fantasy Tactics , the Square @-@ produced Vagrant Story , and Final Fantasy XII .
= = = Graphics and technology = = =
Because of graphical limitations , the first titles on the NES feature small sprite representations of the leading party members on the main world screen . Battle screens use more detailed , full versions of characters in a side @-@ view perspective . This practice was used until Final Fantasy VI , which uses detailed versions for both screens . The NES sprites are 26 pixels high and use a color palette of 4 colors . 6 frames of animation are used to depict different character statuses like " healthy " and " fatigued " . The SNES installments use updated graphics and effects , as well as higher quality audio than in previous games , but are otherwise similar to their predecessors in basic design . The SNES sprites are 2 pixels shorter , but have larger palettes and feature more animation frames : 11 colors and 40 frames respectively . The upgrade allowed designers to have characters be more detailed in appearance and express more emotions . The first title includes non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) the player could interact with , but they are mostly static in @-@ game objects . Beginning with the second title , Square used predetermined pathways for NPCs to create more dynamic scenes that include comedy and drama .
In 1995 , Square showed an interactive SGI technical demonstration of Final Fantasy VI for the then next generation of consoles . The demonstration used Silicon Graphics 's prototype Nintendo 64 workstations to create 3D graphics . Fans believed the demo was of a new Final Fantasy title for the Nintendo 64 console ; however , 1997 saw the release of Final Fantasy VII for the Sony PlayStation . The switch was due to a dispute with Nintendo over its use of faster but more expensive cartridges , as opposed to the slower and cheaper , but much higher capacity Compact Discs used on rival systems . Final Fantasy VII introduced 3D graphics with fully pre @-@ rendered backgrounds . It was because of this switch to 3D that a CD @-@ ROM format was chosen over a cartridge format . The switch also led to increased production costs and a greater subdivision of the creative staff for Final Fantasy VII and subsequent 3D titles in the series .
Starting with Final Fantasy VIII , the series adopted a more photo @-@ realistic look . Like Final Fantasy VII , full motion video ( FMV ) sequences would have video playing in the background , with the polygonal characters composited on top . Final Fantasy IX returned to the more stylized design of earlier games in the series , although it still maintained , and in many cases slightly upgraded , most of the graphical techniques used in the previous two games . Final Fantasy X was released on the PlayStation 2 , and used the more powerful hardware to render graphics in real @-@ time instead of using pre @-@ rendered material to obtain a more dynamic look ; the game features full 3D environments , rather than have 3D character models move about pre @-@ rendered backgrounds . It is also the first Final Fantasy game to introduce voice acting , occurring throughout the majority of the game , even with many minor characters . This aspect added a whole new dimension of depth to the character 's reactions , emotions , and development .
Taking a temporary divergence , Final Fantasy XI used the PlayStation 2 's online capabilities as an MMORPG . Initially released for the PlayStation 2 with a PC port arriving six months later , Final Fantasy XI was also released on the Xbox 360 nearly four years after its original release in Japan . This was the first Final Fantasy game to use a free rotating camera . Final Fantasy XII was released in 2006 for the PlayStation 2 and uses only half as many polygons as Final Fantasy X , in exchange for more advanced textures and lighting . It also retains the freely rotating camera from Final Fantasy XI . Final Fantasy XIII and Final Fantasy XIV both make use of Crystal Tools , a middleware engine developed by Square Enix .
= = = Music = = =
The titles in the series feature a variety of music , but frequently reuse themes . Most of the games open with a piece called " Prelude " , which has evolved from a simple , 2 @-@ voice arpeggio in the early games to a complex , melodic arrangement in recent installments . Victories in combat are often accompanied by a victory fanfare , a theme that has become one of the most recognized pieces of music in the series . The basic theme that accompanies Chocobo appearances has been rearranged in a different musical style for each installment . A piece called " Prologue " ( and sometimes " Final Fantasy " ) , originally featured in the first game , is often played during the ending credits . Although leitmotifs are common in the more character @-@ driven installments , theme music is typically reserved for main characters and recurring plot elements .
Nobuo Uematsu was the chief music composer of the Final Fantasy series until his resignation from Square Enix in November 2004 . Other composers include Masashi Hamauzu , Hitoshi Sakimoto and Junya Nakano . Uematsu was allowed to create much of the music with little direction from the production staff . Sakaguchi , however , would request pieces to fit specific game scenes including battles and exploring different areas of the game world . Once a game 's major scenarios were completed , Uematsu would begin writing the music based on the story , characters , and accompanying artwork . He started with a game 's main theme , and developed other pieces to match its style . In creating character themes , Uematsu read the game 's scenario to determine the characters ' personality . He would also ask the scenario writer for more details to scenes he was unsure about . Technical limitations were prevalent in earlier titles ; Sakaguchi would sometimes instruct Uematsu to only use specific notes . It was not until Final Fantasy IV on the SNES that Uematsu was able to add more subtlety to the music .
= = Reception = =
Overall , the Final Fantasy series has been critically acclaimed and commercially successful , though each installment has seen different levels of success . The series has seen a steady increase in total sales ; it sold over 10 million units worldwide by early 1996 , 45 million by August 2003 , 63 million by December 2005 , and 85 million by July 2008 . In June 2011 , Square Enix announced that the series had sold over 100 million units , and by March 2014 , it had sold over 110 million units . Its high sales numbers have ranked it as one of the best @-@ selling video game franchises in the industry ; in January 2007 , the series was listed as number three , and later in July as number four .
Several games within the series have become best @-@ selling titles . At the end of 2007 , the seventh , eighth , and ninth best @-@ selling RPGs were Final Fantasy VII , Final Fantasy VIII , and Final Fantasy X respectively . Final Fantasy VII has sold more than 9 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , earning it the position of the best @-@ selling Final Fantasy title . Within two days of Final Fantasy VIII 's North American release on September 9 , 1999 , it became the top @-@ selling video game in the United States , a position it held for more than three weeks . Final Fantasy X sold over 1 @.@ 4 million Japanese units in pre @-@ orders alone , which set a record for the fastest @-@ selling console RPG . The MMORPG , Final Fantasy XI , reached over 200 @,@ 000 active daily players in March 2006 and had reached over half a million subscribers by July 2007 . Final Fantasy XII sold more than 1 @.@ 7 million copies in its first week in Japan . By November 6 , 2006 — one week after its release — Final Fantasy XII had shipped approximately 1 @.@ 5 million copies in North America . Final Fantasy XIII became the fastest @-@ selling game in the franchise , and sold one million units on its first day of sale in Japan . Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn , in comparison to its predecessor , was a runaway success , originally suffering from servers being overcrowded , and eventually gaining over one million unique subscribers within two months of its launch .
= = = Critical response = = =
The series has received critical acclaim for the quality of its visuals and soundtracks . In 1996 , Next Generation ranked it as the 17th top game series of all time , speaking very highly of its graphics , music and stories . It was awarded a star on the Walk of Game in 2006 , making it the first franchise to win a star on the event ( other winners were individual games , not franchises ) . WalkOfGame.com commented that the series has sought perfection as well as having been a risk taker in innovation . In 2006 , GameFAQs held a contest for the best video game series ever , with Final Fantasy finishing as the runner @-@ up to The Legend of Zelda . In a 2008 public poll held by The Game Group plc , Final Fantasy was voted the best game series , with five titles appearing in their " Greatest Games of All Time " list .
Many Final Fantasy games have been included in various lists of top games . Several games have been listed on multiple IGN " Top Games " lists . Eleven games were listed on Famitsu 's 2006 " Top 100 Favorite Games of All Time " , four of which were in the top ten , with Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy VII coming first and second , respectively . The series holds seven Guinness World Records in the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition 2008 , which include the " Most Games in an RPG Series " ( 13 main titles , seven enhanced titles , and 32 spin @-@ off titles ) , the " Longest Development Period " ( the production of Final Fantasy XII took five years ) , and the " Fastest @-@ Selling Console RPG in a Single Day " ( Final Fantasy X ) . The 2009 edition listed two titles from the series among the top 50 consoles games : Final Fantasy XII at number 8 and Final Fantasy VII at number 20 .
However , the series has garnered some criticism . IGN has commented that the menu system used by the games is a major detractor for many and is a " significant reason why they haven 't touched the series . " The site has also heavily criticized the use of random encounters in the series ' battle systems . IGN further stated the various attempts to bring the series into film and animation have either been unsuccessful , unremarkable , or did not live up to the standards of the games . In 2007 , Edge criticized the series for a number of related titles that include the phrase " Final Fantasy " in their titles , which are considered inferior to previous titles . It also commented that with the departure of Hironobu Sakaguchi , the series might be in danger of growing stale .
Several individual Final Fantasy titles have garnered extra attention ; some for their positive reception and others for their negative reception . Final Fantasy VII topped GamePro 's " 26 Best RPGs of All Time " list , as well as GameFAQs " Best Game Ever " audience polls in 2004 and 2005 . Despite the success of Final Fantasy VII , it is sometimes criticized as being overrated . In 2003 , GameSpy listed it as the seventh most overrated game of all time , while IGN presented views from both sides . Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII shipped 392 @,@ 000 units in its first week of release , but received review scores that were much lower than that of other Final Fantasy games . A delayed , negative review after the Japanese release of Dirge of Cerberus from Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu hinted at a controversy between the magazine and Square Enix . Though Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within was praised for its visuals , the plot was criticized and the film was considered a box office bomb . Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles for the GameCube received overall positive review scores , but reviews stated that the use of Game Boy Advances as controllers was a big detractor . The predominantly negative reception of the original version of Final Fantasy XIV caused then @-@ president Yoichi Wada to issue an official apology during a Tokyo press conference , stating that the brand had been " greatly damaged " by the game 's reception .
= = Impact and legacy = =
The Final Fantasy series and several specific games within it have been credited for introducing and popularizing many concepts that are today widely used in console RPGs . The original title is often cited as one of the most influential early console RPGs , and played a major role in legitimizing and popularizing the genre . Many console RPGs featured one @-@ on @-@ one battles against monsters from a first @-@ person perspective . Final Fantasy introduced a side view perspective with groups of monsters against a group of characters that has been frequently used . It also introduced an early evolving class change system , as well as different methods of transportation , including a ship , canoe , and flying airship . Final Fantasy II was the first sequel in the industry to omit characters and locations from the previous title . It also introduced an activity @-@ based progression system , which has been used in later RPG series such as SaGa , Grandia , and The Elder Scrolls . Final Fantasy III introduced the job system , a character progression engine allowing the player to change character classes , as well as acquire new and advanced classes and combine class abilities , at any time during the game . Final Fantasy IV is considered a milestone for the genre , introducing a dramatic storyline with a strong emphasis on character development and personal relationships . Final Fantasy VII is credited as having the largest industry impact of the series , and with allowing console role @-@ playing games to gain mass @-@ market appeal .
The series affected Square 's business on several levels . The commercial failure of Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within resulted in hesitation and delays from Enix during merger discussions with Square . Square 's decision to produce games exclusively for the Sony PlayStation — a move followed by Enix 's decision with the Dragon Quest series — severed their relationship with Nintendo . Final Fantasy games were absent from Nintendo consoles , specifically the Nintendo 64 , for seven years . Critics attribute the switch of strong third @-@ party titles like the Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest games to Sony 's PlayStation , and away from the Nintendo 64 , as one of the reasons behind PlayStation being the more successful of the two consoles . The release of the Nintendo GameCube , which used optical disc media , in 2001 caught the attention of Square . To produce games for the system , Square created the shell company The Game Designers Studio and released Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles , which spawned its own metaseries within the main franchise . Final Fantasy XI 's lack of an online method of subscription cancellation prompted the creation of legislation in Illinois that requires internet gaming services to provide such a method to the state 's residents .
The series ' popularity has resulted in its appearance and reference in numerous facets of popular culture like anime , TV series , and webcomics . Music from the series has permeated into different areas of culture . Final Fantasy IV 's " Theme of Love " was integrated into the curriculum of Japanese school children and has been performed live by orchestras and metal bands . In 2003 , Uematsu became involved with The Black Mages , a rock group independent of Square that has released albums of arranged Final Fantasy tunes . Bronze medalists Alison Bartosik and Anna Kozlova performed their synchronized swimming routine at the 2004 Summer Olympics to music from Final Fantasy VIII . Many of the titles ' official soundtracks have been released for sale as well . Numerous companion books , which normally provide in @-@ depth game information , have been published . In Japan , they are published by Square and are called Ultimania books .
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= Muhanna ibn Isa =
Husam ad @-@ Din Muhanna ibn Isa ( also known as Muhanna II ; d . 1335 ) was the lord of Palmyra and amir al @-@ ʿarab ( commander of the Bedouins ) under the Mamluk Sultanate . He served between 1284 and his death , but was dismissed and reinstated four times during this period . As the chieftain of the Al Fadl , a clan of the Tayy tribe , which dominated the Syrian Desert , Muhanna wielded considerable influence among the Bedouin . He was described by historian Amalia Levanoni as " the eldest and most senior amir " of the Al Fadl during his era .
Muhanna was first appointed amir al @-@ ʿarab to replace his father Isa ibn Muhanna in 1284 . He was imprisoned by Sultan al @-@ Ashraf Khalil in 1293 , but released two years later . In 1300 , he commanded a wing of the Mamluk army in the Third Battle of Homs against the Mongol Ilkhanate . He defected to the latter in the early years of Sultan an @-@ Nasir Muhammad 's reign ( 1310 – 1341 ) , ushering in a policy of playing off the Mamluks and the Mongols to further his own interests . An @-@ Nasir eventually banished Muhanna and his tribe to the depths of the Syrian Desert . Through mediation by the Ayyubid prince , al @-@ Afdal Muhammad , Muhanna reconciled with an @-@ Nasir in 1330 and remained loyal to the Mamluks until his death five years later .
Muhanna was succeeded by his son Musa , and his descendants filled the office of amir al @-@ ʿarab for the next seven decades with minor interruption . Throughout his reign , Muhanna was granted numerous iqtaʿat ( fiefs ) by an @-@ Nasir , including Palmyra , Salamiyah , Sarmin and Douma . Muhanna later criticized an @-@ Nasir 's generous iqtaʿ distribution to the Bedouin tribes , believing it would ultimately degrade the character of the Bedouin and in turn , weaken the Muslim armies .
= = Ancestry = =
Muhanna , also known as Muhanna II , belonged to the Al Fadl clan , a branch of the large Arab tribe of Tayy . His grandfather Muhanna ibn Mani ' ibn Haditha ibn Ghudayya ibn Fadl ibn Rabi 'a al @-@ Ta 'i or " Muhanna I " was the head of the clan and sometimes referred to as the " king of the Arabs " by the Mamluk government ; his son Isa became the first lord of Palmyra as a reward for supporting the Mamluk sultan Qalawun in the Second Battle of Homs in 1281 .
= = Lord of Palmyra = =
= = = First and second reigns = = =
Muhanna succeeded his father ' Isa as lord of Palmyra and amir al @-@ ʿarab in 1284 , after receiving the appointment from Sultan Qalawun . Muhanna visited Qalawun 's successor , Sultan al @-@ Ashraf Khalil , in Cairo in 1291 . In 1293 , after celebrating the wedding of his granddaughter , Muhanna and his sons and brothers met al @-@ Ashraf Khalil at the wells of Furqlus , near Homs , where the sultan had been on a hunting expedition . Al @-@ Ashraf Khalil had Muhanna and his family arrested and imprisoned in the Cairo Citadel . Muhanna was replaced by his distant cousin , Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr , from the Al Ali branch of Al Fadl . Muhanna was released with his family and restored as amir al @-@ ʿarab and lord of Palmyra two years later by Sultan al @-@ Adil Kitbugha . In 1298 , Muhanna performed the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca .
Muhanna later commanded the right wing of the Mamluk army during the Third Battle of Homs in 1299 / 1300 , during which the Mamluks were defeated by the Mongol Ilkhanids . In 1311 , the Mamluk na 'ib ( governor ) of Aleppo , Qarasunqur , defected to the Ilkhanids and was given refuge by Muhanna , who unsuccessfully attempted to mediate between Qarasunqur and Sultan an @-@ Nasir Muhammad ( r . 1310 – 1341 ) . These circumstances together with Muhanna 's suspicions of an @-@ Nasir 's negative disposition toward him prompted Muhanna and Qarasunqur to seek safe haven in Ilkhanid @-@ held Iraq . To that end , in 1312 , Muhanna sent his son Musa to confer with Öljaitü of the Ilkhanate , and afterward he defected to the latter with his son Sulayman ; unlike his father , Musa remained loyal to the Mamluks . Öljaitü gave Muhanna iqtaʿat ( fiefs ) in al @-@ Hillah , south of Baghdad . An @-@ Nasir Muhammad consequently dismissed Muhanna from his principality and appointed his brother Fadl ibn Isa the lord of Palmyra .
= = = Third reign = = =
Muhanna arrived at the Ilkhan 's court in 1316 , but then decided to go back to Palmyra where he was contacted by the sultan who summoned him to his court in Cairo . Muhanna avoided meeting the sultan , and sent his brothers and sons instead . He was able to gain the sultan 's forgiveness and was restored to his position in 1317 . The defection and subsequent reconciliation with an @-@ Nasir marked the first episode in Muhanna 's policy of extracting maximum gain from both the Mamluks and the Ilkhanids . According to contemporary historian Abu 'l Fida , who maintained good ties with the Al Fadl , Muhanna pursued a policy whereby both the Mamluks and Ilkhanids accorded him iqtaʿat , money and robes of honor while he stayed effectively neutral , " not going to this party or that ; a case the like of which had never happened before " . Moreover , Fadl too participated in this policy with Muhanna , albeit discreetly ; the contemporary historian al @-@ Umari wrote " Muhanna and Fadl were agreed at heart , but openly they were otherwise " .
An @-@ Nasir sought to keep the Al Fadl loyal to him and prevent their defection to the Ilkhanate , as well as ensure they would not disrupt peaceful travel on the roads . To accomplish this , an @-@ Nasir adopted an unprecedented policy among Mamluk sultans by distributing large iqtaʿat and grants to the Bedouin , namely the Al Fadl . Moreover , an @-@ Nasir granted Al Fadl members ' requests for possession of particularly lucrative iqtaʿat belonging to the Mamluk emirs ( commanders / princes ) of Aleppo , Hama and Damascus ( the Mamluk emirs were typically compensated with other iqtaʿat ) . In addition to Palmyra , Sarmin and Salamiyah , Muhanna was also given the town of Douma in the Ghouta near Damascus as an iqta . Muhanna criticized an @-@ Nasir for the lavish distribution of iqtaʿat to his tribesmen out of belief that such excesses would ruin the character of the Bedouin and ultimately weaken the Muslim armies . He also asserted to an @-@ Nasir that " even if he [ sic ] wished to change this situation ... you will no longer be able to do so " since the tribesmen would not willingly forfeit their new properties .
Muhanna later reestablished contact with the Ilkhanate , causing the sultan to banish him with his whole tribe in 1320 . On an @-@ Nasir 's order , the Mamluk army in Syria drove the Al Fadl from their home district of Salamiyah and pursued them eastward up to the Euphrates fortress towns of al @-@ Rahba and Anah . According to Ibn Abi al @-@ Fada 'il , Muhanna was punished because he went back on an agreement his son Sulayman made with an @-@ Nasir in 1319 . The agreement stipulated that the Al Fadl would receive 250 @,@ 000 silver dirhams and the iqtaʿat of Adhri 'at and Bosra in return for joining the Mamluk army as auxiliaries in an upcoming campaign against Ilkhanid @-@ held Sinjar ; an @-@ Nasir gave them the iqtaʿat and money , but when the Mamluk army arrived , Muhanna 's forces stopped it at ' Urd near Palmyra and refused it passage through Al Fadl territory . The tribe was exiled from their encampments in the Palmyrene steppe and were forced to live deep in the Syrian Desert .
= = = Final reign and death = = =
Ten years later , Muhanna contacted the Ayyubid emir al @-@ Afdal Muhammad of Hama ( vassal of the Mamluks ) , and requested that he intercede with the sultan on Muhanna 's behalf ; an @-@ Nasir ultimately forgave Muhanna , reinstating him in 1330 . This marked the end of Muhanna 's policy of playing the Mamluks and Ilkhanids against each other . Thereafter , Muhanna remained loyal to the sultanate until his death near al @-@ Salamiyah in June 1335 , at around age 80 . According to historian A. S. Tritton , " there was public lamentation " for Muhanna 's death and " black was worn " in mourning .
= = Legacy = =
Historian Amalia Levanoni described Muhanna as " the eldest and most senior amir " of the Al Fadl during his era . By 1352 , Muhanna 's descendants amounted to 110 men , all with with their own clans , iqtaʿ and princely titles . According to Levanoni , Muhanna 's warning to an @-@ Nasir about the effects of distributing and subsequently seizing iqtaʿat " came true only a short time " after Muhanna 's death , when his son and successor , Musa , threatened to start a Bedouin revolt and defect to the Ilkhanate if an @-@ Nasir did not return iqtaʿat confiscated from the Al Fadl .
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= The Little Fire Chief =
The Little Fire Chief is a 1910 American silent short comedy produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on a young boy , Willie Stone , who follows a parade of firemen and attempts to join them as their leader . The firemen find it humorous and allow him to play with them . The fire alarm sounds and Willie attempts to join them , but is too slow . On their way back , Willie holds them up and his sister appears . A fireman named Jack , who has affections for the woman , convinces Willie to be relieved of his " command " by promising to call him later . Marie Eline played the role of Willie Stone , but the other two credits are claimed to have been William Garwood and Mignon Anderson . The rest of the cast and credits are unknown . The film was released on November 8 , 1910 and does not appear to have had any reviews in the usual trade publications . The film was advertised nationally and was claimed to have been popular in Vancouver , Canada . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from October 29 , 1910 . It states : " Willie Stone is only six years old , but he yearns to be a fireman . He is much impressed with the parade of firemen he sees in his hometown , so much so in fact that he basely deserts his sister on the streets to follow the ' smoke eaters . ' But Willie is only a little boy , and despite his enthusiasm , he is soon weary and footsore . His plight , added to his tears , attracts the attention of a kindly fireman who is driving with his engine back to quarters . The lad 's discomfort is soon forgotten , for the fireman gives him a ride back to the engine house . There Willie gravely applies to the captain for a position on the uniformed force , and is jokingly accepted . But he does not see the humor in it and follows the other men to the bunkroom , where he takes part in their sports . "
" But in the midst of the happiest day of his life , an alarm is sounded , and the firemen hastily slide down the pole to their duty . The new fireman , however , is not the kind to be deserted . Grabbing the helmet , the insignia of his office , he follows the others , but it is too late to go to the fire . He arrives in time to hold them up on their way back , but is captured by his weeping sister . He does not wish to leave his command , but his friend , fireman Jack Allen , finally induces him to go on the promise that he , Jack , will call later . Perhaps one reason Jack is so accommodating is because he likes [ his ] sister . Jack pays ardent court to her , and the flame of their affection [ s ] resists all of young Willie 's efforts to put it out . He didn 't really mean to try , but he assuredly poured cold water on Jack , for it was in the line of what he regarded as his duty . "
= = Cast = =
Marie Eline as Willie Stone
William Garwood as Jack Allen ( unconfirmed )
Mignon Anderson as Willie Stone 's sister ( unconfirmed )
In December 1912 , a notice in the The Monroe News @-@ Star announced the showing of this film and also gave the key roles of the players . Though the credits cannot be confirmed , the " Thanhouser Kid " ( Marie Eline ) , William Garwood and Mignon Anderson were given as the featured players . This would indicate that Garwood played Jack Allen and the sister was played by Anderson if the information is accurate .
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits for this production are fragmentary like many 1910 Thanhouser productions . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters . The role of Willie Stone was played by Marie Eline . This film was another example of Eline cast in the role of a boy . Eline 's with the first such credit was as a young Italian boy in The Two Roses . Eline would also star as Hans in The Little Hero of Holland . If the cast information provided by the The Monroe News @-@ Star is accurate , it represents the earliest credit of Mignon Anderson for the Thanhouser Company . If it is not , the first known credit for would be four months later in Robert Emmet in March 1911 . The film would also be an early credit of William Garwood , who was among the most important actors at Thanhouser . He joined the company in late 1909 and remained until 1911 before returning in 1912 . His previous and first credited work with Thanhouser was Jane Eyre .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel comedy , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long was released on November 8 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , advertising theaters are known in Montana , Texas , Kansas , South Dakota , Indiana , Pennsylvania , Maryland , Louisiana , and Missouri . The film was also shown in Vancouver , Canada by the Province Theatre .
Bowers does not cite any trade publication reviews for this film , making it unlikely that the film was given attention in The New York Dramatic Mirror , The Moving Picture World or The Moving Picture News publications . The film was apparently a success at the Province Theater when it was shown in Vancouver . It is possible that non @-@ advertisement reviews of the film may exist in other publications .
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= Soyuz TM @-@ 30 =
Soyuz TM @-@ 30 ( Russian : Союз ТМ @-@ 30 , Union TM @-@ 30 ) , also known as Mir EO @-@ 28 , was a Soyuz mission , the 39th and final human spaceflight to the Mir space station . The crew of the mission was sent by MirCorp , a privately funded company , to reactivate and repair the station . The crew also resupplied the station and boosted the station to an orbit with a low point ( perigee ) of 360 and a high point ( apogee ) of 378 kilometers ( 223 and 235 miles , respectively ) . The boost in the station 's orbit , which was done by utilizing the engines of the Progress M1 @-@ 1 and M1 @-@ 2 spacecraft , made transit between Mir and the International Space Station impossible , as desired by NASA . The mission was the first privately funded mission to a space station .
The mission was part of an effort by MirCorp to refurbish and privatize the aging Mir space station , which was nearing the end of its operational life . Further commercially funded missions beyond Soyuz TM @-@ 30 were originally planned to continue the restoration efforts of the then 14 @-@ year @-@ old space station , but insufficient funding and investment ultimately led to the de @-@ orbit of the station in early 2001 .
= = Crew = =
Soyuz TM @-@ 30 was the first spaceflight for flight commander Zalyotin , who became a cosmonaut in 1990 and completed his general training two years later in 1992 . TM @-@ 30 was the third visit to space made by flight engineer Kaleri , who became a cosmonaut in 1984 and completed general training in 1986 . He served as flight engineer aboard the Soyuz TM @-@ 14 and TM @-@ 24 missions to Mir in 1992 and 1996 @-@ 7 , respectively .
= = = Backup crew = = =
While Soyuz TM @-@ 30 was in orbit , a second privately funded mission was being planned to continue the restoration efforts aboard Mir . The crew assigned to this mission , although never flown , was reported to have been the backup crew for TM @-@ 30 , cosmonauts Salizhan Sharipov and Pavel Vinogradov .
= = Background = =
Soyuz TM @-@ 30 was intended by MirCorp to be the first in a series of missions to refurbish the 14 @-@ year @-@ old Mir space station for commercial use . Although the mission was scheduled to last approximately two months , commander Sergei Zalyotin said before the flight that if additional funds became available the mission could be extended until August , when another crew would replace them . The other possible scenario , which occurred in reality , was again to leave the station uninhabited , as had been done several months before the mission . Towards the end of Soyuz TM @-@ 30 plans were formed to send another privately funded mission to continue with MirCorp 's maintenance efforts ; cosmonauts Salizhan Sharipov and Pavel Vinogradov were tentatively assigned as the crew .
= = Mission highlights = =
Soyuz TM @-@ 30 launched at 05 : 01 : 29 UT on April 4 , 2000 . Docking occurred on April 6 at 06 : 31 : 24 UT . Although the Soyuz docking system is automated under normal conditions , the final few meters of the approach to the station were executed in manual mode . The decision to switch to manual mode came after the cosmonauts noticed a small deviation in the spacecraft 's approach to the targeted docking port . At about 09 : 32 UT on the day of docking , the crew prepared to open the hatches between the Soyuz spacecraft and the station . After entering the station the crew stabilized the atmosphere inside Mir and undertook routine maintenance work .
On April 25 , an unmanned Progress resupply mission , Progress M1 @-@ 2 , launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome to the station to deliver supplies to the crew . Progress M1 @-@ 2 docked with Mir on April 27 . On April 26 , the Progress M1 @-@ 1 spacecraft , which had been docked since February and was used by the Russian Federal Space Agency to boost the station to a higher orbit , undocked and de @-@ orbited over the Pacific Ocean east of New Zealand .
The mission 's only Extra @-@ Vehicular Activity , or spacewalk , took place on May 12 , between 10 : 44 and 15 : 36 UTC . The primary objectives of the spacewalk were to repair damage to Mir 's exterior components and record panoramas of the station 's hull in order for experts on Earth to analyze the effects of space on the station itself . The cosmonauts inspected a malfunctioning solar array on the Kvant @-@ 1 module of the station . They discovered that a burnt @-@ through wire connecting the array with its steering system was preventing its proper rotation . The array was subsequently deemed a loss .
On June 15 , 2000 , the TM @-@ 30 spacecraft undocked from the station at about 21 : 24 UT . The de @-@ orbit burn occurred at about 23 : 52 UT and landing followed at about 00 : 44 UT on June 16 , about 45 kilometers ( 28 mi ) southeast of Arkalyk in Kazakhstan .
= = Milestones = =
Soyuz TM @-@ 30 was the first privately funded manned space expedition but several other firsts were also achieved , including the first privately funded extra @-@ vehicular activity , and the first privately funded unmanned resupply mission to a space station , utilizing the Progress @-@ M1 spacecraft . Soyuz TM @-@ 30 also managed to delay the de @-@ orbit of Mir , which was originally scheduled to occur some time in 2000 , but ultimately occurred in March 2001 .
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= John and Christopher Wright =
John ( Jack ) Wright ( January 1568 – 8 November 1605 ) , and Christopher ( Kit ) Wright ( 1570 ? – 8 November 1605 ) , were members of the group of provincial English Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605 , a conspiracy to assassinate King James I by blowing up the House of Lords . Their sister married another plotter , Thomas Percy . Educated at the same school in York , the Wrights had early links with Guy Fawkes , the man left in charge of the explosives stored in the undercroft beneath the House of Lords . As known recusants the brothers were on several occasions arrested for reasons of national security . Both were also members of the Earl of Essex 's rebellion of 1601 .
John was one of the first men to join the conspiracy , which was led by Robert Catesby . Christopher joined in March 1605 . At about midnight on 4 November Fawkes was discovered and arrested , following which John , Christopher and the rest of the conspirators travelled across the Midlands , attempting to gain support for a popular uprising . Eventually the group opted to wait for the authorities at Holbeche House , on the border of Staffordshire . On 8 November the Sheriff of Worcester arrived with a large group of armed men , and both brothers were killed in the ensuing firefight .
= = Family and life before 1604 = =
John and Christopher Wright were born to Robert Wright and his second wife , Ursula Rudston , daughter of Nicholas and Jane Rudston of Hayton . John was baptised at Welwick in Yorkshire , on 16 January 1568 , and Christopher was born in 1570 . Their sister , Martha , married Thomas Percy in 1591 .
The brothers were pupils at St Peter 's School in York , along with Guy Fawkes , whose name has become synonymous with the Gunpowder Plot . Although outwardly conformist , the school 's headmaster John Pulleine came from a notable family of Yorkshire recusants , and his predecessor at St Peter 's had spent 20 years in prison for his recusancy . Three Catholic priests , Oswald Tesimond , Edward Oldcorn and Robert Middleton , were also educated at St Peter 's . John and Christopher were both married , to Dorothy and Margaret respectively . John had a daughter , born some time in the late 1590s .
As a precautionary measure , in 1596 they were each arrested during Queen Elizabeth I 's illness . They were incarcerated at the White Lyon prison in 1601 for their involvement in the Earl of Essex 's rebellion . Both were skilled swordsmen , and John was renowned for his courage . The Jesuit priest Oswald Tesimond wrote that he possessed a " good physique and sound constitution . Rather on the tall side , his features were pleasing . He was somewhat taciturn in manner , but very loyal to his friends , even if his friends were few " . Christopher 's appearance was slightly different from that of his brother , " not like him in face , as being fatter and a lighter coloured hair and taller of person " . According to Father John Gerard , John 's involvement with Essex coincided with his conversion to Catholicism . Gerard also noted that John 's household , Twigmoor Hall in Lincolnshire , was a place where " he had Priests come often , both for his spiritual comfort and their own in corporal helps " , although the government 's description , " a Popish college for traitors " , was somewhat less favourable . Following his conversion John became " a man of exemplary life " . Two years later , as the queen 's health waned , a nervous government ensured that John and Christopher were again imprisoned , the English antiquarian William Camden describing them as men " hunger @-@ starved for innovation " . Christopher may have travelled to Spain in 1603 using the alias Anthony Dutton , seeking Spanish support for English Catholics , although biographer Mark Nicholls mentions that Dutton 's role may have been attributed to Christopher by Fawkes and Thomas Wintour , held in the Tower of London after the failure of the plot .
= = Gunpowder Plot = =
Early in 1604 Robert Catesby , a Catholic convert who had lost patience with King James I 's lack of toleration of Catholics , invited his cousin Thomas Wintour to a meeting at which John was also present . Catesby proposed to blow up " the Parliament House with gunpowder " , killing the king and his government , as in " that place , have they done us all the mischief " . Catesby had not then given up hope on foreign help , and so he sent Wintour to the continent to meet with the Constable of Castille . Wintour also met with Welsh spy Hugh Owen , who introduced him to Guy Fawkes , a man with whose name Catesby was familiar . A fifth conspirator , Thomas Percy , joined them several weeks later . Percy was related to the Wright family by marriage , having wed John 's sister , Martha . The group met on 20 May 1604 at the Duck and Drake inn , in the fashionable Strand district of London . After the meeting they swore an oath of secrecy on a prayer book and celebrated Mass in another room with Father John Gerard , who was ignorant of their purpose .
From these early meetings , according to biographer Mark Nicholls , John exhibited " little sign of doubt or scruple thereafter " . He remained close to the heart of the conspiracy , moving his family to Lapworth in Warwickshire , and stabling horses there . By March 1605 Christopher had joined the conspiracy as well , but in October that year , as the plan was nearing its culmination , its existence was revealed to the authorities by an anonymous letter delivered to William Parker , 4th Baron Monteagle , warning him to stay away from Parliament . Uncertain of its meaning Monteagle delivered the letter to the English Secretary of State , Robert Cecil , 1st Earl of Salisbury . Monteagle 's servant was closely related to Christopher 's wife , Margaret , and thus the plotters soon became aware of its existence . Catesby , by then at White Webbs near Enfield Chase with the Wright brothers , decided that the letter did not constitute a sufficiently serious threat to the scheme , and he decided to forge ahead . On 4 November Percy visited his patron , Henry Percy , 9th Earl of Northumberland , to see if he could discern what rumours surrounded the letter . He returned to London and assured John , Thomas Wintour and Robert Keyes that they had nothing to be concerned about . That same evening John probably set off for the Midlands with Catesby and his servant Thomas Bates , while the others moved into their positions , ready for the planned explosion the following day . At about midnight the authorities made a search of the House of Lords , and in the chamber 's undercroft they discovered and arrested Fawkes , who was guarding the gunpowder the conspirators had placed there .
As news of Fawkes 's capture spread , particularly through the great houses of the Strand , Christopher deduced what had occurred and went to Thomas Wintour at the Duck and Drake inn , exclaiming " the matter is discovered " . Wintour ordered him to verify the news , and on confirming that the government were seeking Thomas Percy ( for whom Fawkes , using the alias " John Johnson " , claimed to be working ) , ordered him to alert Percy . Christopher and Percy left London together , heading for Dunstable .
With the group mostly reintegrated , they spent the next two days moving across Warwickshire and Worcestershire , attempting to drum up support for a rebellion that as time passed became ever more unlikely . On 6 November , the same day they were helping to raid Warwick Castle for supplies , the brothers were identified by the Lord Chief Justice Sir John Popham as suspects . This prompted the authorities to issue a public proclamation on 7 November naming them and several of their fellow conspirators as wanted men . The group tried unsuccessfully to recruit more rebels at Hewell Grange , but on 7 November , tired and desperate , they decided to make their stand at Holbeche House , on the border of Staffordshire . On the arrival the following morning of the Sheriff of Worcester and his company of men , a gun battle broke out and Catesby , Percy , and both Wright brothers were shot . With medical attention they might have survived , but " the baser sort " among the sheriff 's men hurriedly stripped them of their clothes ( Christopher 's boots were pulled off to reach his silk stockings ) , and left them to die .
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= Inner Hebrides =
The Inner Hebrides ( Scottish Gaelic : Na h @-@ Eileanan a @-@ staigh , " the inner isles " ) is an archipelago off the west coast of mainland Scotland , to the south east of the Outer Hebrides . Together these two island chains form the Hebrides , which experience a mild oceanic climate . The Inner Hebrides comprise 35 inhabited islands as well as 44 uninhabited islands with an area greater than 30 hectares ( 74 acres ) . The main commercial activities are tourism , crofting , fishing and whisky distilling . In modern times the Inner Hebrides have formed part of two separate local government jurisdictions , one to the north and the other to the south . Together , the islands have an area of about 4 @,@ 130 km2 ( 1 @,@ 594 sq mi ) , and had a population of 18 @,@ 948 in 2011 . The population density is therefore about 4 @.@ 6 per km2 ( 12 per square mile ) .
There are various important prehistoric structures , many of which pre @-@ date the first written references to the islands by Roman and Greek authors . In the historic period the earliest known settlers were Picts to the north and Gaels in the southern kingdom of Dál Riada prior to the islands becoming part of the Suðreyjar kingdom of the Norse , who ruled for over 400 years until sovereignty was transferred to Scotland by the Treaty of Perth in 1266 . Control of the islands was then held by various clan chiefs , principally the MacLeans , MacLeods and MacDonalds . The Highland Clearances of the 19th century had a devastating effect on many communities and it is only in recent years that population levels have ceased to decline .
Sea transport is crucial and a variety of ferry services operate to mainland Scotland and between the islands . The Gaelic language remains strong in some areas ; the landscapes have inspired a variety of artists ; and there is a diversity of wildlife .
= = Geography = =
The islands form a disparate archipelago . The largest islands are , from south to north , Islay , Jura , Mull , Rùm and Skye . Skye is the largest and most populous of all with an area of 1 @,@ 656 km2 ( 639 sq mi ) and a population of just over 10 @,@ 000 .
The southern group are in Argyll , an area roughly corresponding with the heartlands of the ancient kingdom of Dál Riata and incorporated into the modern unitary council area of Argyll and Bute . The northern islands were part of the county of Inverness @-@ shire and are now in the Highland Council area .
= = = Physical = = =
The ten largest islands are as follows .
The geology and geomorphology of the islands is varied . Some , such as Skye and Mull , are mountainous , whilst others like Tiree are relatively low @-@ lying . The highest mountains are the Cuillins of Skye , although peaks over 300 metres ( 980 ft ) are common elsewhere . Much of the coastline is machair , a fertile low @-@ lying dune pastureland . Many of the islands are swept by strong tides , and the Corryvreckan tide race between Scarba and Jura is one of the largest whirlpools in the world .
There are various smaller archipelagoes including the Ascrib Islands , Crowlin Islands , Slate Islands , Small Isles , Summer Isles and Treshnish Islands .
= = = Human = = =
The inhabited islands of the Inner Hebrides had a population of 18 @,@ 257 at the 2001 census , and this had grown to 18 @,@ 948 in 2011 . During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 . There are a further 44 uninhabited Inner Hebrides with an area greater than 74 acres ( 30 ha ) . Records for the last date of settlement for the smaller islands are incomplete , but most of them were inhabited at some point during the Neolithic , Iron Age , Early Historic or Norse periods . In common with the other main island chains of Scotland , many of the smaller and more remote islands were abandoned during the 19th and 20th centuries , in some cases after continuous habitation since prehistoric times . These islands had been perceived as relatively self @-@ sufficient agricultural economies , but a view developed among both islanders and outsiders that the more remote islands lacked the essential services of a modern industrial economy . However , the populations of the larger islands grew overall by more than 12 % from 1981 @-@ 2001 .
The main commercial activities are tourism , crofting , fishing and whisky distilling ( centred on Islay but also including Talisker in Skye , Isle of Jura Single Malt and Tobermory and Ledaig in Mull ) . Overall , the area is relatively reliant on primary industries and the public sector ; there is a dependence on self @-@ employment and micro @-@ business , and most parts are defined by Highlands and Islands Enterprise as economically " Fragile Areas " . However , the islands are well placed to exploit renewable energy , particularly onshore and offshore wind ; and the Sleat peninsula of Skye is an example of a more economically robust area . Some of the islands have development trusts that support the local economy .
= = = Climate = = =
The influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the North Atlantic Current creates a mild oceanic climate . Temperatures are generally cool , averaging 6 @.@ 5 ° C ( 44 ° F ) in January and 15 @.@ 4 ° C ( 60 ° F ) in July at Duntulm on the Trotternish peninsula of Skye . Snow seldom lies at sea level and frosts are fewer than on the mainland . Winds are a limiting factor for vegetation : a speed of 128 km / h ( 80 mph ) has been recorded ; south @-@ westerlies are the most common . Rainfall is generally high at between 1300 – 2000 mm ( 50 – 80 in ) per annum , and the mountains and hills are wetter still . Tiree is one of the sunniest places in the country and had 300 days of sunshine in 1975 . Trotternish typically has 200 hours of bright sunshine in May , the sunniest month .
= = Prehistory = =
The Hebrides were originally settled in the Mesolithic era and have a diversity of prehistoric sites . A flint arrowhead found in a field near Bridgend , Islay has been dated to 10 @,@ 800 BC . This find may indicate the presence of a summer hunting party rather than permanent settlement . Burnt hazelnut shells and microscopic charcoal found at Farm Fields , Kinloch on Rùm indicate a settlement of some kind and this is amongst the oldest evidence of occupation in Scotland .
Evidence of large @-@ scale Mesolithic nut processing , radiocarbon dated to circa 7000 BC , has been found in a midden pit at Staosnaig on Colonsay . The dig discovered the remains of hundreds of thousands of burned hazelnut shells and gives an insight into communal activity and forward planning in the period . The nuts were harvested in a single year and pollen analysis suggests that the hazel trees were all cut down at the same time . The scale of the activity , unparalleled elsewhere in Scotland , and the lack of large game on the island , suggests the possibility that Colonsay contained a community with a largely vegetarian diet for the time they spent on the island .
Three stone hearths and traces of red ochre found on Jura and dated to 6000 BC are the earliest stone @-@ built structures found so far in Scotland . However , in general the Neolithic sites in the Inner Hebrides lack the scale and drama of those found in Orkney and the Western Isles . There are numerous Iron Age sites including the remains of Dun Ringill fort on Skye , which are similar in layout to that of both a broch and a complex Atlantic roundhouse .
= = Etymology = =
The earliest extant written reference to these islands appears in Pliny the Elder 's Natural History , where he states that there are 30 " Hebudes " . Ptolemy , writing about 80 years later , around AD 140 @-@ 150 and drawing on the earlier naval expedition of Agricola , refers to the Ἐβοῦδαι ( " Eboudai " ) ( " Ebudes " or " Ebudae " in Latin translation ) of which he writes that there were only five , thus possibly specifically meaning the Inner Hebrides . Pliny probably took his information from Pytheas of Massilia who visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC . It is possible that Ptolemy did so also , as Agricola 's information about the west coast of Scotland was of poor quality .
Watson ( 1926 ) states that the meaning of Ptolemy 's " Eboudai " is unknown and that the root may be pre @-@ Celtic . Other early written references include the flight of the Nemed people from Ireland to " Domon and to Erdomon in the north of Alba " , which is mentioned in the 12th century Lebor Gabála Érenn . Domon , meaning the " deep sea isle " refers to the Outer Hebrides and Erdomon , meaning " east of , on or near Domon " is thus the Inner Hebrides .
The individual island and place names in the Outer Hebrides have mixed Gaelic and Norse origins .
= = History = =
= = = Dál Riata = = =
Although Ptolemy 's map identifies various tribes such as the Creones that might conceivably have lived in the Inner Hebrides in the Roman era , the first written records of life begin in the 6th century AD when the founding of the kingdom of Dál Riata is recorded . This encompassed roughly what is now Argyll and Bute and Lochaber in Scotland and County Antrim in Ireland .
In Argyll it consisted initially of three main kindreds : Cenél Loairn in north and mid @-@ Argyll , Cenél nÓengusa based on Islay and Cenél nGabráin based in Kintyre . By the end of the 7th century a fourth kindred , Cenél Comgaill had emerged , based in eastern Argyll .
The figure of Columba looms large in any history of Dál Riata and his founding of a monastery on Iona ensured that Dál Riata would be of great importance in the spread of Christianity in northern Britain . However , Iona was far from unique . Lismore in the territory of the Cenél Loairn , was sufficiently important for the death of its abbots to be recorded with some frequency and many smaller sites , such as on Eigg , Hinba and Tiree , are known from the annals . The kingdom 's independent existence ended in the Viking Age , and it eventually merged with the lands of the Picts to form the Kingdom of Alba .
North of Dál Riata the Inner Hebrides were nominally under Pictish control although the historical record is sparse .
= = = Norse rule = = =
According to Ó Corráin ( 1998 ) " when and how the Vikings conquered and occupied the Isles is unknown , perhaps unknowable " although from 793 onwards repeated raids by Vikings on the British Isles are recorded . " All the islands of Britain " were devastated in 794 with Iona being sacked in 802 and 806 . In 870 Dumbarton was besieged by Amlaíb Conung and Ímar , " the two kings of the Northmen " . It is therefore likely that Scandinavian hegemony was already significant on the western coasts of Scotland by then . In the 9th century the first references to the Gallgáedil ( i.e. " foreign Gaels " ) appear . This term was variously used in succeeding centuries to refer to individuals of mixed Scandinavian @-@ Celtic descent and / or culture who became dominant in south @-@ west Scotland , parts of Northern England and the isles .
The early 10th century are an obscure period so far as the Hebrides are concerned but Aulaf mac Sitric , who fought at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937 is recorded as a King of the Isles from c . 941 @-@ 980 .
It is difficult to reconcile the records of the Irish annals with Norse sources such as the Orkneyinga Saga but it is likely that Norwegian and Gallgáedil Uí Ímair warlords fought for control for much of period from the 9th to the 12th centuries . In 990 Sigurd the Stout , Earl of Orkney took command of the Hebrides , a position he retained for most of the period until he was killed at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 . There is then a period of uncertainty but it is possible that Sigurd 's son Thorfinn the Mighty became ruler circa 1035 until his own death some two decades later .
By the late 12th century Irish influence became a significant feature of island life and Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó , the High King of Ireland took possession of Mann and the Isles until 1072 . The records for the rulers of the Hebrides are obscured again until the arrival of Godred Crovan as King of Dublin and the Isles . The ancestor of many of the succeeding rulers of Mann and the Isles , he was eventually ousted by Muirchertach Ua Briain and fled to Islay , where he died in the plague of 1095 . It is not clear the extent to which Ui Briain dominance was now asserted in the islands north of Man , but growing Irish influence in these seas brought a rapid and decisive response from Norway .
Magnus Barelegs had re @-@ established direct Norwegian overlordship by 1098 . A second expedition in 1102 saw incursions into Ireland but in August 1103 he was killed fighting in Ulster . The next king of the isles was Lagmann Godredsson and there followed a succession of Godred Crovan 's descendants who , ( as vassals of the kings of Norway ) ruled the Hebrides north of Ardnamurchan for the next 160 years . However , their control of the southern Inner Hebrides was lost with the emergence of Somerled , the self @-@ styled Lord of Argyle .
For a while Somerled took control of Mann and the Hebrides in toto , but he met his death in 1164 during an invasion of the Scottish mainland . At this point Godred the Black , grandson of Godred Crovan re @-@ took possession of the northern Hebrides and the southern isles were distributed amongst Somerled 's sons , his descendant 's eventually becoming known as the Lords of the Isles , and giving rise to Clan MacDougall , Clan Donald and Clan Macruari . However , both during and after Somerled 's life the Scottish monarchs sought to take a control of the islands he and his descendants held . This strategy eventually led to an invasion by Haakon Haakonarson , King of Norway . After the stalemate of the Battle of Largs , Haakon retreated to Orkney , where he died in 1263 . Following this expedition , the Hebrides and Mann and all rights that the Norwegian crown " had of old therein " were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth .
= = = Clans and Scottish rule = = =
The Lords of the Isles , a phrase first recorded in 1336 , would continue to rule the Inner Hebrides as well as part of the Western Highlands as subjects of the King of Scots until John MacDonald , fourth Lord of the Isles , squandered the family 's powerful position . Through a secret treaty with Edward IV of England , negotiated at Ardtornish Castle and signed in 1462 , he made himself a servant of the English crown . When James III of Scotland found out about the treaty in 1476 , he issued a sentence of forfeiture for MacDonald 's lands . Some were restored for a promise of good behaviour , but MacDonald was unable to control his son Aonghas Óg , who defeated him at the Battle of Bloody Bay fought of the coast of Mull near Tobermory in 1481 . A further rebellion by his nephew , Alexander of Lochalsh provoked an exasperated James IV to forfeit the lands for the last time in 1493 .
The most powerful clans on Skye in the post – Norse period were Clan MacLeod , originally based in Trotternish , and Clan MacDonald of Sleat . Following the disintegration of the Lordship of the Isles , the Mackinnons also emerged as an independent clan , whose substantial landholdings in Skye were centred on Strathaird . The MacDonalds of South Uist were bitter rivals of the MacLeods , and an attempt by the former to murder church @-@ goers at Trumpan in retaliation for a previous massacre on Eigg , resulted in the Battle of the Spoiling Dyke of 1578 .
After the failure of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745 , Flora MacDonald became famous for rescuing Prince Charles Edward Stuart from the Hanoverian troops . Her story is strongly associated with their escape via Skye and she is buried at Kilmuir . She was visited by Samuel Johnson and James Boswell during their 1773 Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland and written on her gravestone are Johnson 's words that hers was " A name that will be mentioned in history , and if courage and fidelity be virtues , mentioned with honour " . In the wake of the rebellion the clan system was broken up and islands of the Hebrides became a series of landed estates .
= = = British era = = =
With the implementation of the Treaty of Union in 1707 the Hebrides became part of the new Kingdom of Great Britain , but the clans ' loyalties to a distant monarch were not strong . A considerable number of islesmen " came out " in support of the Jacobite Earl of Mar in the " 15 " and again in the 1745 rising including Macleod of Dunvegan and MacLea of Lismore . The aftermath of the decisive Battle of Culloden , which effectively ended Jacobite hopes of a Stuart restoration , was widely felt . The British government 's strategy was to estrange the clan chiefs from their kinsmen and turn their descendants into English @-@ speaking landlords whose main concern was the revenues their estates brought rather than the welfare of those who lived on them . This may have brought peace to the islands , but in the following century it came at a terrible price .
The early 19th century was a time of improvement and population growth . Roads and quays were built , the slate industry became a significant employer on Easdale and surrounding islands , and the construction of the Crinan and Caledonian canals and other engineering works such as Telford 's " Bridge across the Atlantic " improved transport and access . However , in the mid @-@ 19th century , the inhabitants of many parts of the Hebrides were devastated by the clearances , which destroyed communities throughout the Highlands and Islands as the human populations were evicted and replaced with sheep farms . The position was exacerbated by the failure of the islands ' kelp industry that thrived from the 18th century until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and large scale emigration became endemic . The " Battle of the Braes " involved a demonstration against lack of access to land and the serving of eviction notices . This event was instrumental in the creation of the Napier Commission , which reported in 1884 on the situation in the Highlands . Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters ' Act and on one occasion 400 marines were deployed on Skye to maintain order .
For those who remained new economic opportunities emerged through the export of cattle , commercial fishing and tourism . Nonetheless emigration and military service became the choice of many and the archipelago 's populations continued to dwindle throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries . Jura 's population fell from 1300 in 1831 to less than 250 by 1961 and Mull 's from 10 @,@ 600 in 1821 to less than 3 @,@ 000 in 1931 . Lengthy periods of continuous occupation notwithstanding , some of the smaller islands were abandoned - the Treshnish Isles in 1934 , Handa in 1948 , and Eilean Macaskin in the 1880s among them .
Nonetheless , there were continuing gradual economic improvements , among the most visible of which was the replacement of the traditional thatched blackhouse with accommodation of a more modern design and in recent years , with the assistance of Highlands and Islands Enterprise many of the island 's populations have begun to increase after decades of decline .
= = Transport = =
Scheduled ferry services between the Inner Hebrides and the Scottish mainland operate on various routes including : Tayinloan , Kintyre to Gigha ; Kennacraig , Kintyre to Islay ; Oban to Mull , Coll and Tiree and Colonsay ; Mallaig to Armadale , Skye and Eigg , Muck , Rùm & Canna ; and Glenelg to Kyle Rhea on the Sleat peninsula , Skye .
Some ferries reach the Inner Hebrides from other islands such as the Seil to Luing route , Fionnphort on the Ross of Mull to Iona , Sconser to Raasay and Port Askaig to Feolin , Jura . There is also a service to and form the Outer Hebrides from Tarbert , Harris and Lochmaddy on North Uist to Uig , Skye and from Castlebay , Barra to Tiree .
National Rail services are available for onward journeys , from stations at Oban , which has direct services to Glasgow and from Kyle of Lochalsh to Inverness . There are scheduled flights from Broadford Airfield Skye , Colonsay Airport , Islay Airport near Port Ellen and Tiree Airport .
The archipelago is exposed to wind and tide , and there are numerous sites of wrecked ships . Lighthouses are sited as an aid to navigation at various locations . Dubh Artach lighthouse is located on a remote rock and warns seafarers away from the area itself and the nearby Torran Rocks . Originally it was considered to be an impossible site for a light , but the loss of the steamer Bussorah with all thirty @-@ three hands on her maiden voyage in 1863 and of an astonishing 24 vessels in the area in a storm on 30 – 31 December 1865 encouraged positive action . Skerryvore is another remote lighthouse in the vicinity and at a height of 48 metres ( 157 ft ) it is the tallest in Scotland .
= = Gaelic language = =
There are about 4 @,@ 000 Gaelic speakers in the Inner Hebrides equal to 20 % of the population of the archipelago .
There have been speakers of Goidelic languages in the Inner Hebrides since the time of Columba or before and the modern variant of Scottish Gaelic ( Gàidhlig ) remains strong in some parts . However , the Education ( Scotland ) Act 1872 led to generations of Gaels being forbidden to speak their native language in the classroom , and is now recognised as having dealt a major blow to the language . Children were being beaten for speaking Gaelic in school as late as the 1930s . More recently the Gaelic Language ( Scotland ) Act was enacted by the Scottish Parliament in 2005 in order to provide continuing support for the language .
By the time of the 2001 census Kilmuir parish in Skye had 47 % Gaelic Speakers , with Skye overall having an unevenly distributed 31 % . At that time Tiree had 48 % of the population Gaelic @-@ speaking , Lismore 29 % , Islay 24 % , Coll 12 % , Jura 11 % , Mull 13 % and Iona 5 % . Students of Scottish Gaelic travel from all over the world to attend Sabhal Mòr Ostaig , a Scottish Gaelic college based on Skye .
= = The arts = =
Hebridean landscapes have inspired a variety of musicians , writers and artists . The Hebrides , also known as Fingal 's Cave , is a famous overture written by Felix Mendelssohn inspired by his visit to Staffa . Contemporary musicians associated with the islands include Ian Anderson , Donovan and Runrig . Enya 's song " Ebudæ " from Shepherd Moons is based on a traditional waulking song .
The poet Sorley MacLean was born on Raasay , the setting for his best known poem , Hallaig . George Orwell wrote much of the novel 1984 whilst living at Barnhill on Jura and J.M. Barrie wrote a screenplay for the 1924 film adaptation of Peter Pan whilst on Eilean Shona . Cressida Cowell , the author of How to Train Your Dragon , spent childhood summers in the Inner Hebrides and has stated that they are " one of the most beautiful places on Earth " and " the kind of place where you expect to see dragons overhead " .
= = Wildlife = =
In some respects the Hebrides generally lack biodiversity in comparison to mainland Britain , with for example only half the number of mammalian species the latter has . However , these islands have much to offer the naturalist . Observing the local abundance found on Skye in the 18th century Samuel Johnson noted that :
At the tables where a stranger is received , neither plenty nor delicacy is wanting . A tract of land so thinly inhabited , must have much wild @-@ fowl ; and I scarcely remember to have seen a dinner without them . The moor @-@ game is every where to be had . That the sea abounds with fish , needs not be told , for it supplies a great part of Europe . The Isle of Sky has stags and roebucks , but no hares . They sell very numerous droves of oxen yearly to England , and therefore cannot be supposed to want beef at home . Sheep and goats are in great numbers , and they have the common domestic fowls . "
In the modern era avian life includes the corncrake , red @-@ throated diver , rock dove , kittiwake , tystie , Atlantic puffin , goldeneye , golden eagle and white @-@ tailed sea eagle . The last named was re @-@ introduced to Rùm in 1975 and has successfully spread to various neighbouring islands , including Mull . There is a small population of red @-@ billed chough concentrated on the islands of Islay and Colonsay .
Mountain hare ( apparently absent from Skye in the 18th century ) and rabbit are now abundant and predated on by wild cat and pine marten . Red deer are common on the hills and the grey seal and common seal are present around the coasts of Scotland in internationally important numbers , with colonies of the former found on Oronsay and the Treshnish Isles and the latter most abundant in the Firth of Lorn . The rich fresh water streams contain brown trout , Atlantic salmon and water shrew . Offshore minke whales , killer whales , basking sharks , porpoises and dolphins are among the sea life that can be seen and edible crab and oyster are also found , in for example , the Sound of Scalpay . There are nationally important horse mussel and brittlestar beds in the sea lochs .
Heather moor containing ling , bell heather , cross @-@ leaved heath , bog myrtle and fescues is abundant and there is a diversity of arctic and alpine plants including alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal .
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= Loca ( Shakira song ) =
" Loca " ( English : " Crazy " ) is a song by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira , taken from her seventh studio album , Sale el Sol ( 2010 ) . It was released by Epic Records as the lead single from the album . The Spanish @-@ language version features Dominican rapper El Cata , and was released on 10 September 2010 , while the English @-@ language version features British rapper Dizzee Rascal , and was released on 13 September 2010 . It was written and produced by Shakira , with additional songwriting from Edward Bello , Armando Pérez , and Dylan Mills . The song is a Latin pop and merengue track that lyrically describes Shakira 's eccentric infatuation with a man . In August 2014 , a senior US district judge found " Loca " to have been indirectly plagiarised from " Loca con su Tiguere " , a mid @-@ 1990s song composed by Dominican songwriter Ramon " Arias " Vasquez . The case was dismissed in August 2015 after it was found that Vasquez had fabricated the evidence he had presented in court .
Upon its release , " Loca " received generally favourable reviews from music critics , who complimented the inclusion of merengue music on the recording . The English version of the song became a worldwide commercial success and peaked inside the top five of the record charts of countries including Austria , Belgium , France , Hungary and Italy . The Spanish version peaked atop the charts of Spain and Switzerland , and became a hit on the Latin record charts in the United States , topping the Billboard Hot Latin Songs , Latin Pop Airplay , and Tropical Songs charts . " Loca " received record certifications in various countries around the world , including a diamond certification in Colombia and multi @-@ platinum certifications in Italy , Mexico , and Spain .
Its accompanying music video was filmed in Barcelona , Spain in August 2010 , and was released the following month . It features Shakira interacting with a beach crowd , and dancing in front of the sea wearing a golden bikini . It generated a favourable response from critics , many of whom praised its concept for matching the vibe of the song . For additional promotion , Shakira performed " Loca " on several television shows and on her The Sun Comes Out World Tour .
= = Background and composition = =
" Loca " was written by American rapper Armando Pérez , better known by his stage name Pitbull , Dominican rapper Edward Bello , and Shakira , for the singer 's ninth studio album Sale el Sol ( 2010 ) . The album marked the first time she worked with Bello , who is better known by his stage name El Cata , and their collaboration started after Shakira expressed her desire to experiment with merengue music , saying " I grew up listening to merengue — that was a big part of my life , and I was missing it " . Merengue is a type of music and dance originating in the Dominican Republic , and after being referred to Bello by Pitbull , Shakira travelled to the country and began recording sessions with him in his " tiny " studio in Santo Domingo . Bello talked about his collaboration with Shakira , saying " If I was thinking that this little studio was going to be in the world ’ s vision at this time , I wouldn 't believe it " . " Loca " is a Latin @-@ pop song composed of horn @-@ laden merengue beats combined with techno dance percussion beats . Lyrically , the song is about Shakira expressing her erratic and obsessive behaviour towards her lover , more so than his other leading lady , prominently heard in the lines " She 'd die for your love / But your love 's only mine , boy " and " I 'm crazy but you like it " .
Two versions of the song are present on the album ; the English @-@ language version features vocals from English rapper Dizzee Rascal ( who also wrote the lyrics of his parts ) , while the Spanish @-@ language version features El Cata . Speaking about the collaboration , Dizzee Rascal said that " I know it sounds a bit mad now , but you 'll see it and see what 's going on " . He further said " It 's me doing something different man , on a merengue tip . " In an interview with Billboard , Dizzee Rascal said about Shakira that , " she 's a bit of a trendsetter -- she does loads of different things on a major scale " and added " You 'd expect her to use an American rapper [ for the song ] , but she chose me . It meant a lot . " He then commented about the song that , " I 'd like to be in that Spanish market . I got into the whole reggaeton thing when it came out , so I always wanted to get around to something like that " . " Loca " served as the lead single from Sale el Sol . The Spanish version of the song , featuring El Cata , was released on 10 September 2010 . The English version , featuring Dizzee Rascal , debuted later on 13 September 2010 .
= = = Plagiarism case = = =
On 19 August 2014 , Alvin Hellerstein , senior judge of the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York , concluded that the Spanish version of " Loca " had been indirectly plagiarised from " Loca con su Tiguere " , a mid @-@ 1990s song composed by Dominican songwriter Ramon " Arias " Vasquez . He testified that he had met Bello in 2006 and had introduced him to two of his songs , including " Loca con su Tiguere " . According to Vasquez , Bello was impressed by the song and asked him to record it . However , Bello claimed that the song was originally his and was based on his relationship with his ex @-@ wife as opposed to Vasquez 's claim that " Loca con su Tiguere " was based on his sister 's relationship with a street @-@ tough boyfriend . Hellerstein ruled in favour of Vasquez and found the two songs to be similar in structure and rhythm . As the Spanish version of " Loca " features Bello singing numerous portions , the judge reasoned that it too was plagiarised from Vasquez 's song . After a trial phase , SonyATV Latin and Sony / ATV Discos ( the distributors of the Spanish version of " Loca " in the United States ) will pay damages to Mayimba Music , the owner of the rights to Vasquez 's song and the plaintiff in the lawsuit .
On 10 August 2015 , the case was dismissed by Hellerstein after Sony Music brought forth new evidence suggesting that Vasquez had fabricated the cassette tape that he had earlier produced in court to prove that the song was originally recorded by him . Hellerstein said the evidence given by Sony Music provided " competent and substantial proof " that the cassette tape was fake .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , " Loca " received generally favourable reviews from music critics . A reviewer from Billboard complimented Shakira for displaying her unpredictable musical choices by having Dizzee Rascal sing over a merengue beat , which they termed as a " jarring combination " . Robert Copsey from Digital Spy also reviewed the song positively , and labelled the song " bizarre yet thoroughly enjoyable " . Jennifer Schaffer from Stanford Daily marked Dizzee Rascal 's rap as the highlight of the song . James Reed from The Boston Globe termed it as an " irresistible merengue hybrid " and deemed the Spanish version of the song as an album essential . Michelle Morgante , again from The Boston Globe , was impressed by the song 's effectiveness in both its Spanish and English version , which she commented is " lost in some of Shakira 's other attempts at language switching " . Allison Stewart from The Washington Post , however , claimed that there was " little appreciable difference " between the two versions of the song .
The Spanish version of the song was nominated for " Top Latin Song " at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards . Two other songs by Shakira , " Gypsy " and " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " , were also nominated , and the award was won by the latter song . In the same year , at the Latin Billboard Music Awards , the Spanish version was nominated for " Hot Latin Song of the Year , Vocal Event " and " Latin Digital Download of the Year " , but lost both . At the 2011 Premios 40 Principales awards ceremony , the Spanish version of the song was nominated for " Mejor Canción Internacional en Español " ( " Best International Song in Spanish " ) . The Spanish version of the song was nominated for " La Más Pegajosa " ( " Catchiest Tune " ) and " Mi Ringtone " ( " My Ringtone " ) at the 2011 Premios Juventud awards , but lost both categories to American rapper Pitbull 's song " Bon , Bon " . The English version of the song received a nomination in the category of " Best Latin / Reggaeton Track " at the 26th Annual International Dance Music Awards in 2011 .
= = Commercial performance = =
The English version of " Loca " became a worldwide commercial success . After debuting at number 17 on the Austrian Singles Chart , it peaked at number two and spent a total of 20 weeks on the chart . In this region , it was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for selling 15 @,@ 000 units . In the French @-@ speaking Wallonia region of Belgium , the song peaked atop the Ultratop chart for two weeks , and spent a total of 26 weeks in the region . It was Shakira 's fourth single to reach number one in the country . The Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) certified it gold for sales of 10 @,@ 000 units . " Loca " also reached number one on the Czech Airplay Chart for a total of seven consecutive weeks . In France , the song entered the singles chart at number four and peaked at number two , spending a total of 49 weeks in the region . However , it managed to reach number one on the French digital songs chart . It was the eighth best @-@ selling single in 2010 in France , with sales of 143 @,@ 337 units . " Loca " peaked at number four on both the Hungarian Singles and Dance charts . The song entered the top 20 of the Italian Singles Chart at number one , becoming Shakira 's first single since " Beautiful Liar " to accomplish the feat , and stayed atop the chart for six weeks . In this region , it was certified double @-@ platinum by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) for selling 60 @,@ 000 units . In the United States , " Loca " peaked at number 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . On the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , it became Shakira 's first single since " Did It Again " to peak at number one .
The Spanish version of " Loca " peaked at number two on the Monitor Latino chart in Mexico , and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) for selling 120 @,@ 000 units . It entered the Spanish Singles Chart at number 10 and peaked at number one for 12 weeks . It stayed on the chart for a total of 47 weeks , and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) for sales of 80 @,@ 000 units . The song entered the Swiss Singles Chart at number two and peaked at number one for four weeks ; it spent a total of 40 weeks on the chart . In this region , IFPI certified " Loca " platinum for selling 30 @,@ 000 units . The Spanish version became a huge hit on the Latin record charts in the United States . It reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs , and also peaked atop the Latin Pop Airplay and Tropical Songs chart . " Loca " was Shakira 's eighteenth top 10 single on the Hot Latin Songs chart , making her the third @-@ ranking female artist with the highest number of top 10 singles on the chart , behind Gloria Estefan and Ana Gabriel .
= = Music video = =
The music video was filmed near the beaches in Barcelona , Spain in August 2010 , and was directed by Jaume de Laiguana , who had previously worked with Shakira on the videos for the songs " No " and " Gypsy " . The music video was shot in " guerrilla @-@ style " , utilizing hand @-@ held cameras to shoot many of the scenes . Shakira talked about the video , saying " I decided to just do something more spontaneous , and be myself and be free and feel free about it because that is what this song is about " . The music video was released on 29 September 2010 , and the Spanish and English versions of the video were individually released on iTunes on 11 October 2010 , and 13 October 2010 , respectively .
The video starts with Shakira roller @-@ skating with many fans surrounding her . After roaming about the city , including numerous scenes of dancing , she publicly changes her wardrobe and hitches a ride on a motorbike . Further on , she dances and jumps into a fountain . During the next verse , she is seen belly dancing with a man by the beach and , near the end of the video , she dives into the sea along with many fans and celebrates . Scenes of Shakira dancing wearing a gold triangle bikini and gold sequined pants are also interspersed throughout the video . Dizzee Rascal also makes an appearance during his part of the song .
Walter Frazier from Billboard reviewed the video positively , and appreciated Shakira 's craziness in the video . James Montgomery from MTV gave the video a very positive review , calling it a " rare video " which perfectly complimented the nature of the song . The music video was nominated for " Best Short Form Music Video " at the 12th Latin Grammy Awards in 2011 , but lost to the video of Calle 13 's " Calma Pueblo " . At the 2011 Premios Nuestra Tierra award ceremony , the music video won the award for " Mejor Video Musical Para Artista Colombiano " ( " Best Music Video for Colombian Artist " ) . It was nominated at the 2011 Premios Juventud for Mi Video Favorito ( My Favorite Video ) . Having received 100 million views on YouTube , the music video was given a VEVOCertified Award .
= = Live performances = =
Shakira performed the English version of " Loca " first on 23 September 2010 on the Late Show with David Letterman . Shakira appeared on Lopez Tonight to talk about " Loca " and taught host George Lopez the dance steps of the song . She performed it on Dancing With The Stars on 19 October - the release date of the album . Shakira also performed the song on November 9 at the finale of the German version of the X @-@ Factor .
Shakira performed the song with Dizzee Rascal together for the first time on the MTV Europe Music Awards 2010 on 7 November . Gabi Gregg from MTV chose the performance as the best on the show , praising Shakira 's dance moves and noting that " she actually sounds the same live as she does recorded " . Jillian Mapes from Billboard included the performance on her list of " 5 Must @-@ See Moments at the 2010 MTV European Music Awards " . Shakira performed the Spanish version of the song live during the 12th Latin Grammy awards ceremony . The song was included on the setlist of The Sun Comes Out World Tour in 2010 and 2011 . During the performances , Shakira wore a pair of neon leopard @-@ print pants and performed a dance routine with " intricate and urban choreographies " . On 25 October 2010 , Shakira was leaving the Honda Centre parking lot in California after a concert , but got out of her limo and performed " Loca " with two dancers on top of a car .
= = Formats and track listings = =
Digital download ( English Version )
" Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) – 3 : 11
Digital download ( Spanish Version )
" Loca " ( featuring El Cata ) – 3 : 04
CD single
" Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) – 3 : 11
" Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) ( Gucci Vump aka Brodinski & The Shoes Discothèque Remix ) – 4 : 07
Digital EP
" Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) ( JS Mix ) - 3 : 13
" Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) ( Sticky Drums Remix By Gucci Vump Aka Brodinski and the Shoes ) - 3 : 14
" Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) ( Freemasons Radio Edit ) - 3 : 01
" Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) ( Music Video ) - 3 : 24
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= HTC First =
The HTC First is an Android smartphone released by HTC on April 12 , 2013 . It was unveiled on April 4 , 2013 , as part of a press event held by Facebook — serving as a successor to a pair of Facebook @-@ oriented devices HTC released in 2011 , it is the first Android device to be pre @-@ loaded with Facebook 's own user interface layer , Facebook Home in lieu of HTC 's own Sense .
While considered compelling by critics for a mid @-@ range phone due to its display quality and its optional use of stock Android beneath the default Facebook Home overlay , the HTC First was panned by critics for its poor camera and lack of removable storage , and was also affected by the similarly underwhelming reception faced by the Facebook Home software . AT & T , the exclusive U.S. carrier of the First , only reportedly sold over 15 @,@ 000 units of the device , while both ReadWrite and Time named it among the biggest failures in the technology industry for 2013 .
= = Development = =
In 2011 , HTC released two low @-@ end smartphones that provided integration with the social networking service Facebook , the keyboard @-@ equipped HTC Status , and the larger slate HTC Salsa . The two phones featured Facebook 's apps pre @-@ loaded , along with Facebook integration within the HTC Sense interface and a dedicated Facebook key that could be used to provide quick access to sharing functions . Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg endorsed the two devices in a pre @-@ taped statement during their unveiling , and promised the possibility of more " Facebook phones " in the near future . Later that year , details began surfacing about a collaboration between Facebook and HTC known as " Buffy " ( after the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer ) , a fork of Android that would be " deeply social " .
The specifications of the phone was first leaked out by an HTC insider towards the end of 2012 that had claimed the device was then called " Opera UL " with a 1280x720 screen , and an Adreno 305 graphics processor with the Snapdragon 1 @.@ 4 GHz CPU system on chip , which was later known to match the actual specifications of the final device .
In early 2013 , reports indicated that HTC was preparing to unveil a Facebook @-@ oriented smartphone with the revised codename " Myst " ; this mid @-@ range device was reportedly pre @-@ loaded with a new Facebook @-@ developed user interface layer known as " Facebook Home " . Renderings of the new device leaked on April 3 , 2013 , revealing the design of the phone and its official name as the HTC First . Both Facebook Home and the HTC First were unveiled at a Facebook news conference held the following day on April 4 , 2013 . AT & T exclusively released the device in the United States on April 12 , 2013 .
= = Specifications = =
= = = Hardware = = =
The HTC First is a mid @-@ range smartphone which uses a dual @-@ core , 1 @.@ 4 GHz Qualcomm Snapdragon 400 processor with support for LTE , a 2000 mAh battery , 1 GB of RAM and 16 GB of non @-@ expandable storage . The First uses a 4 @.@ 3 @-@ inch 720p Super LCD display , and includes a 5 @-@ megapixel rear @-@ facing camera , and a 1 @.@ 6 @-@ megapixel front @-@ facing camera . The HTC First 's exterior uses a rounded , minimal design with three capacitive buttons below its screen , and was available in black , light blue , red , and white color finishes .
= = = Software = = =
The HTC First runs Android 4 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 " Jelly Bean " and Facebook Home , a new interface layer developed by Facebook that heavily integrates with the service . Facebook Home consists of a home screen and lock screen replacement known as Cover Feed ( which aggregates content posted by friends on Facebook along with notifications from other apps ) , the ability to message users ( via either Facebook or SMS ) from any app using the " Chat Heads " overlay , and an overall experience that is oriented towards social interaction . The HTC First was also the first smartphone to include the recently acquired Instagram as a pre @-@ loaded app . Although support for Facebook Home is not limited to the HTC First ( it was also released for select HTC and Samsung models as well , and the Chat Heads feature was added to the standalone Facebook Messenger app ) , integration with certain system functions ( such as the ability to display non @-@ Facebook notifications on the lock screen ) is exclusive to the First due to technical limitations .
If Facebook Home is disabled , the device reverts to a stock Android 4 @.@ 1 experience ; the First was the first HTC device since the T @-@ Mobile G2 to offer a stock Android interface and not ship with the company 's HTC Sense software .
= = Reception = =
The HTC First was released to mixed reviews . Dieter Bohn of The Verge gave the HTC First a 7 @.@ 9 out of 10 , receiving high marks in most categories except for its camera . Its design was considered to have a comfortable size and shape by contrast to larger flagship Android phones , and a display that was noted for its high resolution , good color reproduction and " ridiculous " viewing angles ( but still being hard to use in direct sunlight ) . The First 's camera was considered to be better than expected for a low @-@ end phone , but produced " muddy " photos and " [ felt ] like a throwback to an earlier age when smartphones were nigh @-@ useless in the dark . " Facebook Home 's functionality was considered to be good for casual users , but the ability to switch back to a stock Android 4 @.@ 1 interface was considered " stunning " and a good compromise for the lack of Nexus devices with LTE support at the time .
Alex Roth of TechRadar gave the HTC First a 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , praising its build quality and operating system ( feeling that the First could " develop a sort of second life as the mid @-@ range of choice among Google geeks " due to its use of stock Android and LTE support ) and considering it to possibly be " the last decent dual @-@ core handset ever made " , but considered Facebook Home to be a " glorified screensaver " , and also criticized the camera 's low quality and the lack of a dedicated shutter button ( which Roth believed would have made sense on a Facebook @-@ oriented phone ) .
On May 13 , 2013 , reports surfaced that AT & T had only sold 15 @,@ 000 units of the First since its launch , and was planning to discontinue the device in response to the poor reception of Facebook Home from both users and AT & T 's sales representatives . The reports came shortly after AT & T had lowered the First 's price from $ 99 @.@ 99 to $ 0 @.@ 99 on a two @-@ year contract as a promotion ; however , AT & T denied any possible connection to the device being possibly discontinued . In response to the issues , the release of the First on the British carriers EE and Orange was indefinitely delayed so Facebook could focus on making improvements to the Home software .
In December 2013 , Time named the HTC First as one of the 47 " lamest moments in tech " for 2013 , and ReadWrite similarly named it one of the " Top 10 Tech Failures " of 2013 , stating that " like Carrie Underwood in the remade Sound of Music Live ! , the HTC First smartphone started out as an intriguing concept that attempted to shoehorn something very popular ( Facebook ) into a familiar vehicle ( a smartphone ) . And like that live television event , it wound up being an undeniable disaster . "
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= The Hunting Party ( album ) =
The Hunting Party is the sixth studio album by American rock band Linkin Park . The album , produced by band members Mike Shinoda and Brad Delson , was released by Warner Bros. Records and Machine Shop on June 13 , 2014 . It is the first album since Meteora ( 2003 ) not to be produced with Rick Rubin , after producing the band 's previous three studio albums . The title The Hunting Party is a contextual metaphor : Linkin Park is the party that is hunting to bring back the energy and soul of rock .
The Hunting Party is a departure from the electronic rock sound of the band 's previous two studio albums . The album , described by Shinoda as simply " a rock record " , serves a statement by the band against contemporary mainstream and active rock bands , accused by him as " trying to be other bands and playing it safe " . Packaged by an artwork by Brandon Parvini based on an original drawing by James Jean , the album took under a year to record and produce , with material being improvisationally written by the band . The album also features guest appearances from Page Hamilton of Helmet , Daron Malakian of System of a Down , Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine , and Rakim , marking the first time Linkin Park has collaborated with other artists on a studio album .
The album was promoted by the band and Warner Bros , with multiple promotional teasers and interviews produced and published in the lead @-@ up to the album 's release and listening parties of the album being held worldwide on multiple dates . The band embarked on the Carnivores Tour , a double @-@ headline tour with Thirty Seconds to Mars , as well as The Hunting Party Tour , in support of the album . Five singles from The Hunting Party have been released ; " Guilty All the Same " in March 2014 , " Until It 's Gone " in May 2014 , and " Wastelands " , " Rebellion " and " Final Masquerade " in June 2014 .
The album has received generally positive reviews , where it has been praised as bringing back the heavier rock sound resembling their older albums . It debuted at number three on Billboard 200 , and has placed at number four on Revolver 's list of " The 20 Best Albums of 2014 " .
= = Background = =
In 2010 and 2012 respectively , Linkin Park released their fourth and fifth studio albums A Thousand Suns and Living Things . The albums , both produced by Rick Rubin and Mike Shinoda , marked a shift in the band 's musical direction from a nu metal @-@ oriented sound , recognized with Hybrid Theory ( 2000 ) and Meteora ( 2003 ) , to a more experimental and " cutting edge " sound . The electronica @-@ influenced albums were commercially successful .
Production on the band 's sixth studio album began as a result of a series of events in which Shinoda decided to drop the electronic and experimental sound of the band 's previous two studio albums . Shinoda had originally recorded and produced demos , which continued the sound of A Thousand Suns and Living Things , for the band 's sixth studio album during the band 's Living Things World Tour in 2013 . He presented the demos to his bandmates , which received positive reception from the rest of the band , and to Rubin , who was also positive towards the demos , though describing them to Shinoda as more " poppy " than he expected . However , Shinoda , after listening to the demos again after the end of the tour , felt a strong negativity towards his material , especially after Rubin 's statements . In a Warner Music interview , Shinoda stated that " I don 't even believe in this music . This is a mistake ; I don 't like what I 'm making . I kind of went backwards into the process and scrapped all of it and started new stuff . "
Following A Thousand Suns and Living Things , albums which were created with leaving behind a sound that was " not new and not cool anymore " in mind , the band 's sixth studio album was approached as a return to the band 's early sound , with the electronic sounds of their previous two studio albums being dropped in favor of the band 's traditional rock instrumentation . Using Hybrid Theory as a template , the band composed and recorded it in context of modern times , in 2014 rather than 2000 . Guitarist Brad Delson jokingly stated that the album was an " alternative Hybrid Theory " and " maybe its prequel " , with the album being inspired by artists the band listened to before they started their musical career . Shinoda told Rolling Stone about the ideas surrounding The Hunting Party : " We 're not 18 @-@ year @-@ old kids making a loud record – we 're 37 @-@ year @-@ old adults making a loud record . And what makes a 37 @-@ year @-@ old angry is different than what made us angry back in the day . "
= = Composition = =
The band took a different method in writing new material for The Hunting Party as opposed to their previous albums . While for all their previous albums they used the traditional method of writing , demoing and rerecording in the studio , songs were instead written and composed in the studio itself , with no material being written or composed beforehand . Delson spoke about the methods used on the album in an interview with Premier Guitar , saying that " Something unintentional might be the coolest sound I make all day , and knowing how to allow those mistakes to happen and to shape them potentially makes for some great music . "
The album has been described as alternative metal , nu metal , hard rock and rap rock by professional reviewers . Shinoda described the album 's sound as a 1990s style of rock record " It 's a Rock record ; " it 's loud and it 's Rock , but not in the sense of what you 've heard before , which is more like ' 90s Hardcore @-@ Punk – Thrash " . He described the " weak " status of modern rock in the music industry as an inspiration in recording a heavier rock album ; to try to bring the sound of the 1990s back to the forefront . In an interview with MusicRadar , Delson stated that the album would feature more guitar solos . He further stated that " this is from someone who was quoted early on as saying I hated them . Not that I hated them as a listener ; I just don ’ t want to play any ; I shirked guitar solos . Early on , I felt as though the songs we were making aesthetically didn 't want them . This new batch of songs , to me , always want solos . I feel like every song has one . "
= = Recording = =
The Hunting Party was recorded at the Larrabee Sound Studios , located in Hollywood , Los Angeles . During the recording for the band 's sixth studio album , the band would spend five or six days a week at the Larrabee Studios working on the record . The Hunting Party was also recorded in part at EastWest Studios , also located in Hollywood . There , drummer Rob Bourdon and Shinoda would record drums and percussion for the album . The band would also record other material for the album at EastWest on occasion .
In an interview with Rolling Stone , Shinoda said that the album was difficult for drummer Rob Bourdon , where he had to push himself to meet the music speed and style . He commented that " It 's probably the hardest stuff he 's ever played on one of our albums . He had to physically work his way up to it . He had to go running , lift weights , work with a trainer " , eventually Bourdon feels that he had become a better drummer at the end of each day after recording . Shinoda later told Q magazine that Bourdon had to seek help from a chiropractor after he had broken his back recording material for the new album . Shinoda told Q that " Rob was killing himself . He played 10 hours a day for seven days straight and blew his back . "
Orange , Bogner and ENGL brand amplifiers were used on the record by Delson , providing a " core sound " described by engineer Ethan Mates as " a small collection of core tones to be used in a sonically consistent way throughout the record " . Chandler brand amps were also used for overdubs and " higher parts " . Delson spoke about his studio setup for The Hunting Party , stating that " It 's great to have a setup where I can run combinations of heads and cabs simultaneously to get the most appropriate tone , or do something more straightforward like record just one cabinet with two mikes " .
Lead singer Chester Bennington arrived late in the recording process of the album , having been chosen to replace Scott Weiland in the band Stone Temple Pilots , and then proceeded to record High Rise and tour with the band for most of 2013 . When he eventually joined the band in the studio , he was surprised to find the band had reverted to their heavier rock @-@ centric sound . Bennington stated in an interview with Kerrang ! : " Mike wrote tons while I was touring with Stone Temple Pilots last year . When I got home , there was a lot for me to catch up with , and he was playing me things and I was like , ' Dude , this is fucking awesome ! ' I was really surprised how heavy it was " .
The album features four guest artists ; Rakim from the hip hop duo Eric B. & Rakim on " Guilty All the Same " , Page Hamilton from the American alternative metal band Helmet on " All for Nothing " , Daron Malakian from System of a Down for the song " Rebellion " and Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine fame on the song " Drawbar " . Bennington commented on the collaborations , stating that " We really felt like if we need to be inspired and move in another direction . I think when we got Page in , Mike had written this chorus and sang it , and his voice had this tone , and it was unlike anything I 'd heard from him before . And I was like , " Dude this is crazy , this sounds like a Helmet song ! It 's cool ! " And we were like , " Dude , why don 't we see if we can get like Page in here ? " You know ? And if that 's why the song says it 's feeling like it should be , then why don 't we just go straight to the source " .
= = Packaging = =
= = = Artwork = = =
The album cover for The Hunting Party features a 3D modeled artwork by Brandon Parvini , who had previously designed the artworks for Living Things and the band 's singles during the album 's release cycle . The artwork was based off an original drawing , entitled " Archer " , by visual artist James Jean that was created for the album . It is one of many artworks by Jean to be used in the packaging of the album , which also features , in deluxe editions of the album , a lithograph , T @-@ shirt and a 36 @-@ page art book by him . Jean 's traditional style , notably different to the artwork created for The Hunting Party had been previously described by Dana Jennings of The New York Times as " suffused with a dreamy romanticism and lyricism worthy of Maxfield Parrish , even as Mr. Jean subverts those and other isms . "
Linkin Park had professed that they have been fans of James Jean 's art for a while , describing discussions between the band and Jean as having " started naturally " . Joe Hahn served as a creative director for the artwork of The Hunting Party , instructing Jean to " create a universe inhabited by powerful characters and defined by strange landscapes " , with a general concept of having a unique " character " for each track on the album . Delson also contributed ideas of " internal and external struggles " , metaphorically depicted on a battlefield , where images such as " flesh tearing and transforming into different forms and brittle shards of crystal erupting from organic matter " would recur . Shinoda explained : " We try to approach our art — packaging , merchandise , tour visuals , videos , anything — in a holistic way . All the parts are interconnected , and by creating great imagery that can be used in multiple contexts , we can immerse the fans in a universe that is consistent and unique to each release . It 's always a work in progress , but I feel like we 've learned a lot and continue to make it better each time . "
James Jean was invited by Shinoda and Delson to listen to the band 's rough material created early on during the recording sessions for The Hunting Party . He acknowledged the band 's change of musical direction from A Thousand Suns and Living Things , and was inspired by the material to create artworks that were " charged with [ the band 's ] intensity as well as their rationale for that change " . However , Joe Hahn banned Jean from listening to any more material after Jean had performed some of the songs from memory on his piano . Jean originally sketched each individual artwork for The Hunting Party in a personal sketchbook , where it felt more intimate and less precious to Jean . The minimality of the images was intentional , as the artworks would eventually be made into 3D @-@ modelled artworks where lighting and texture would be added to each character . 20 artworks were made in the space of a month by Jean for Brandon Parvini and his team to transform into 3D @-@ modelled artworks , with Parvini choosing exactly which artworks would be modelled for The Hunting Party .
= = = Title = = =
The title of the album , The Hunting Party , is a contextual metaphor . The album , a return to the band 's original harder rock @-@ centric sounds , represents the band 's desire to not only create something different from other rock bands , but to also bring back the " energy and soul " of rock itself , and that Linkin Park are the party that will hunt for that energy and soul . Shinoda elaborated on the title of the album in an interview with Kerrang ! explaining : " We got so sick of other bands trying to be other bands and playing it safe the whole time , so the album name comes from a theory about culture becoming too passive , everyone just standing around waiting for opportunities to come to them instead of going out and getting theirs . I 'm aware there are always going to be heavier bands than us , but The Hunting Party is Linkin Park going out and getting it for ourselves . " The inspiration for the title came from a news article Shinoda read online about a Japanese writer 's concerns about today 's growing society . The writer described the young men of today as " herbivores " , and explained how they are essentially grazing , waiting for an opportunity to come to them , rather than hunting for it .
= = Promotion = =
On March 6 , 2014 , the band premiered " Guilty All the Same " , which features Rakim , from the album through Shazam . The track was later released by Warner Bros. on March 7 , 2014 as the lead single promoting the then @-@ unannounced sixth studio album by the band . A music video for " Guilty All the Same " also premiered on YouTube on March 25 , 2014 . The music video , a continuation of the band 's collaboration with Xbox , was made entirely with the in @-@ game engine of Team Dakota 's 2014 sandbox video game Project Spark . Additionally , the course made for the music video was made openly available by the band , giving players of Project Spark on Microsoft Windows and the Xbox One the opportunity of editing and remixing the course .
While information about Linkin Park 's sixth studio album had leaked beforehand , including the album 's title and release date , The Hunting Party was officially unveiled by the band and Warner Bros. Records on April 9 , 2014 . The track listing of the album was additionally unveiled by Shinoda and Linkin Park 's management team on April 27 , 2014 . " Until It 's Gone " became the second track to be unveiled , and was released as the album 's second single on May 6 , 2014 . Pre @-@ orders for the album were also opened on the same day , with " Guilty all the Same " and " Until It 's Gone " released early on the album 's iTunes Store page . A music video for " Until It 's Gone " was then released on June 11 , 2014 . " Wastelands " was released on the iTunes Store on June 1 , 2014 , and later as a single on June 2 . On June 3 , 2014 , Bennington appeared on Zane Lowe 's BBC Radio 1 to premiere the song , " Rebellion " . An official lyric video was released alongside a release of the track on the iTunes Store the same day . It was later released as a single on June 4 , and was released as the album 's fourth retail single on October 13 . On June 8 , 2014 , Linkin Park premiered the third single " Final Masquerade " on MTV .
A listening session for the album took place on May 23 , 2014 in Los Angeles . Further listening sessions for Linkin Park Underground members were announced for June 4 , 2014 in various locations worldwide . The band , additionally , hosted the tenth and eleventh editions of the LPU summit , a convention for Underground members , during the album cycle . The tenth edition was held at the Darien Lake Performing Arts Center in Darien , New York on August 21 , 2014 , and the eleventh edition was held at the Cynthia Woods Mitchell Pavilion in The Woodlands , Texas on September 5 , 2014 .
The band 's first live performance of the The Hunting Party album cycle was on May 24 , 2014 at the KMFA Day music festival , in which they headlined . The band performed " Guilty All the Same " , " Until It 's Gone " and " Wastelands " for the first time . The band also performed as headliners at Rock in Rio Lisboa VI on May 30 , 2014 . During the performance , Shinoda tossed promotional singles containing the studio version of " Wastelands " out into the open audience , days before the song 's official single release . Linkin Park are also set to embark on a double @-@ headline tour of North America with Thirty Seconds to Mars in support of both The Hunting Party and Thirty Seconds to Mars ' 2013 album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams . The tour , dubbed the Carnivores Tour , spanned 25 dates in August and September 2014 , with American rock band AFI serving as opening act during the entire tour . The band is currently holding another tour named as " The Hunting Party Tour " , which started in May 30 , 2014 . However , some of the shows on the tour were cancelled due to Bennington breaking his leg .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Upon its release , The Hunting Party received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , the album has received an aggregated score of 65 / 100 , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " , based on 15 reviews . Dave Simpson of The Guardian gave the album a positive review . Upon giving the album three stars , he praised the band 's return to their original sound , stating that " Shinoda 's desire to make a punk rock record and Bennington 's more ethereal electropop segments don 't always make comfortable bedfellows , but Rob Bourdon 's terrific drumming means the energy never lets up " . Despite labeling some tracks of the record like " Until It 's Gone " as cliché , he commented positively on the music and writing of others such as " Drawbar " and " Rebellion " . He further wrote , " Linkin Park certainly know their audience , and here delicately navigate the gulf between their own aspirations and a fanbase who will celebrate the band 's loud return to rocking hard . " Chris Schulz of The New Zealand Herald also gave the album a positive review , describing the record as " Loud , spontaneous and free " , attributes that , he states , " aren 't normally associated with Linkin Park , but The Hunting Party takes just seconds to prove the sixth release from the Californian precision @-@ metal act is a different beast " . He continues to compare the album with the band 's recent discography , describing their previous three albums as having " sagged with overwrought ballads and pretentious soft @-@ rock " , while The Hunting Party " gets on with the task of rap @-@ rocking like it 's 1999 all over again . "
David Renshaw at NME opined that " It might not kill the Mumford and Butler clones , but The Hunting Party is an energetic effort at least . " Renshaw also praises Daron Malakian 's guest spot , but considers Tom Morello 's contribution a disappointment . AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine observes " Far from sounding as if they 're grasping at straws , Linkin Park seem rejuvenated , proving there is value in the cliché of returning to roots . " Dan Epstein from Revolver described the album as " ... not only the hardest and heaviest thing they 've ever released , but it 's also their first album to pack the sort of guitar firepower that would actually appeal to your average headbanger . " Epstein concludes by stating that it 's proof that bands don 't need to get softer in order to mature . At Billboard , Kenneth Partridge states " ... these Cali rap @-@ rock commandos go rogue , flinging missiles in all directions . They attack record companies , politicians , rule makers , exes , and anyone else in sight , all the while rediscovering the savage fun of super @-@ loud guitars . " Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph stated " ... it is sleek , exciting and committed enough to suggest there is life in the rock beast yet . " Jordan Blum at PopMatters rated it a 5 / 10 , describing it as a " solid album " , but considers it " too repetitive , uninspired , and generic " , compared to the three previous albums . Rolling Stone reviewer Jon Dolan states that " on Album Six they 're back with a retro @-@ neo @-@ aggro sound that would 've been too intense for modern @-@ rock radio in 1999 ... these dudes can still bring it like backward @-@ ball @-@ cap warriors hopped up on Mountain Dew and Dad 's fourth divorce . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 chart behind Lana Del Rey 's Ultraviolence and Sam Smith 's In the Lonely Hour , with first @-@ week sales of 110 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . This was the first week of 2014 where three albums sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In its second week , the album dropped to number nine on the chart , selling 29 @,@ 000 copies . In its third week the album sold 16 @,@ 000 more copies bringing its total album sales to 155 @,@ 000 in the United States . As of December 2014 , the album has sold 274 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and 900 @,@ 000 copies worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
The Hunting Party was featured in a number of year end " best of " lists . The album also was nominated for the " 2014 Rock Album of the Year " by Loudwire , but lost to " Islander " ' s Violence & Destruction by a close margin of 0 @.@ 29 % of votes . Whereas the band won the " Best Rock Band of 2014 " and " Best Live Act of 2014 " . The song Rebellion from the album got a nomination for " 2014 Rock Song of the Year " where it lost to Three Days Grace 's " Painkiller " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Linkin Park , except where noted .
Notes
^ a Live from Mexico is Linkin Park 's 2012 live performance in Monterrey , Mexico , originally recorded for MTV World Stage .
= = The Hunting Party ( Acapellas + Instrumentals ) = =
The Hunting Party ( Acapellas + Instrumentals ) is the second instrumental and a cappella tracks performed by Linkin Park , taken from The Hunting Party . The album was released on iTunes and Amazon through Warner Bros. and Machine Shop on August 12 , 2014 . Produced by Shinoda and Delson , the album serves as a sequel to Living Things ( Acapellas and Instrumentals ) ( 2012 ) .
= = = Track listing = = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Other charted songs = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Letters from an American Farmer =
Letters from an American Farmer is a series of letters written by French American writer J. Hector St. John de Crèvecœur , first published in 1782 . The considerably longer title under which it was originally published is Letters from an American Farmer ; Describing Certain Provincial Situations , Manners , and Customs not Generally Known ; and Conveying Some Idea of the Late and Present Interior Circumstances of the British Colonies in North America . The twelve letters cover a wide range of topics , from the emergence of an American identity to the slave trade .
Crèvecœur wrote Letters during a period of seven years prior to the American Revolutionary War , while farming land near Orange County , New York . It is told from the viewpoint of a fictional narrator in correspondence with an English gentleman , and each letter concerns a different aspect of life or location in the British colonies of America . The work incorporates a number of styles and genres , including documentary , as well as sociological observations .
Although only moderately successful in America , Letters was immediately popular in Europe upon its publication in 1782 . Prompted by high demand , Crèvecœur produced an expanded French version that was published two years later . The work is recognised as being one of the first in the canon of American literature , and has influenced a diverse range of subsequent works .
= = Biographical background = =
Born in Caen , Normandy to an aristocratic family , Michel @-@ Guillaume Hector St. John de Crèvecœur received a Jesuit education at the Jesuit Collège Royal de Bourbon . In 1754 , having left school , Crèvecœur visited relatives in England where he became engaged ; this visit would mark the beginning of a lifelong admiration for the culture and politics of the country . Shortly after this , possibly due to the death of his fiancée , he joined a French regiment in Canada engaged in the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) . After being wounded in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham ( 1759 ) , Crèvecœur resigned his commission and began traveling widely across Pennsylvania and New York .
In 1765 , Crèvecœur became an official resident of New York and naturalized as a British subject , adopting the name J. Hector St. John . After working as a surveyor and trader during the subsequent four years , in which he traveled extensively , he purchased farm @-@ land in Orange County , New York and married Mehitabel Tippett . During the following seven years , Crèvecœur wrote Letters from an American Farmer and corresponded with William Seton ( possibly referenced in the book as " Mr F. B. " , and to whom the French edition was dedicated ) .
As local hostilities between the loyalists and revolutionaries escalated in the build @-@ up to the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) , Crèvecœur decided to return to France ; scholars have suggested that he did so in order to secure his legal claim to his patrimony . Upon his arrival in New York City in 1778 , Crèvecœur found himself under suspicion of being a Revolutionary spy and was detained ; whilst in detention , he suffered a nervous collapse . He was released to travel in September 1780 , and traveled to London after landing in Ireland . There , he sold the manuscript of Letters to publishers Davies & Davis before leaving for France .
= = Summary = =
Letter I : " Introduction " — Introduction of the fictional persona of James , an American farmer , and the commencement of his correspondence via letters with ' Mr F. B. ' , an English gentleman . Doubting his writing abilities , he receives advice from his wife and the local minister .
Letter II : " On the Situation , Feelings , and Pleasures of an American Farmer " — Description of the creatures , plants , and activities on and around the farm owned by James . It comments on the differences between the American model of society and that of European countries .
Letter III : " What Is an American ? " — Comparison between the physical environment and the societies that emerge from it . Explores the conditions and aspects of the new American country and what constitutes the identity of its citizens .
Letters IV – VIII — Widely referred to as the " Nantucket sequence " or " Nantucket letters " . These letters describe various aspects of the Quaker society on the island of Nantucket and Martha 's Vineyard :
Letter IV : " Description of the island of Nantucket ; with the manners , customs , policy and trade , of the inhabitants "
Letter V : " Customary education and employment of the inhabitants of Nantucket "
Letter VI : " Description of the island of Martha 's Vineyard , and of the whale @-@ fishery "
Letter VII : " Manners and customs at Nantucket "
Letter VIII : " Peculiar customs at Nantucket "
Letter IX : " Description of Charles Town ; Thoughts on Slavery ; on Physical Evil ; a Melancholy Scene " — An account of " Charles Town " ( now Charleston ) , particularly on the institution of slavery in the town and in the Southern United States . It argues about the destruction that revolves around the slave @-@ master relationships and makes an appeal to the North , in particular , that slavery is a truly evil practice in the midst of the new nation of America .
Letter X : " On snakes and on the humming @-@ bird " — Extensive detailing of a wide variety of snakes , including the cultural practices surrounding them ; it also mentions their habits and stories that have been told in America , warning people about certain ones . At the end of this letter , the discussion turns to the hummingbirds found around James ' land and their habits and varieties .
Letter XI : " From Mr. Iw — — n Al — — z , a Russian gentleman describing a visit he paid , at my request , to Mr. John Bertram , the celebreated Pennsylvanian botanist " — Narrated by a Russian gentleman , describing his visit to the famous Pennsylvanian botanist , Mr. John Bertram . The narrator tells of the new methods of fertilizing and irrigation that Bertram has invented and used on his own plants .
Letter XII : " Distresses of a Frontier Man " — Description of the impending American Revolutionary War and James ' turmoil at being caught between forces — American and British — beyond his own control , including anxiety over to whom he owes his allegiance . Also considered is the way of life of Native Americans , with whom James and his family intend to live at the close of the book .
= = Structure , genre and style = =
Letters is structured around the fictional correspondence via letters between James — an American farmer living in the Quaker colony of Pennsylvania — and an English gentleman , Mr F. B. However , it 's only James ' letters that are presented , as the addressee 's answers are absent . The work consists of twelve letters that address a wide range of issues concerning life in the British colonies in America in the years prior to the American Revolutionary War . The " Introductory Letter " ( Letter I ) introduces the fictional narrator James , and each subsequent letter takes as its subject matter either a certain topic ( Letter III " What is an American ? " ) or a particular location that James visits ( Letters IV , VI and IX describe Nantucket , Martha 's Vineyard and Charles Town respectively ) , though certain themes span or are referred to within several letters . The exception to this is Letter XI , which is written by a Russian gentleman ( " Mr. Iw — — n Al — — z " ) describing his visit to the botanist John Bartram , but who is presumed to also be writing to Mr F. B. Arranged as a series of discontinuous letters , the work can appear superficially disconnected , although critics have identified various levels of coherence and organization .
The text incorporates a broad range of genres , ranging from documentary on local agricultural practices to sociological observations of the places visited and their inhabitants ; Norman Grabo describes it as " an example of the American tradition of book @-@ as @-@ anthology and authorship @-@ as @-@ editing " . Whereas early readings of the text tended to consider it " as a straightforward natural and social history of young America " , critics now see it as combining elements of fiction and non @-@ fiction in what Thomas Philbrick has termed a " complex artistry " . In addition to its usual classification as a form of epistolary , philosophical travel narrative — comparable to Montesquieu 's Persian Letters — the text has been considered as a Novel , and as a romance .
= = Themes = =
= = = Shift of tone = = =
Letters has been said to exhibit a " model of decline " , as the optimistic tone of the early letters is disrupted and the text become increasingly pessimistic ; there is a movement from a " joy , pride , wonder " at the spectacle of America , to the " images of the inhuman brutality of slavery " . However , there is disagreement over whether this model of decline is produced by James ' own disillusionment , or whether it is evidence of Crèvecœur 's voice interceding into the narrative ; further , critics disagree over where in the narrative the disillusionment occurs , variably placing it in the third , eighth and ninth letters .
= = = Relationship with the environment = = =
Among the most significant and recurring themes of Letters is that of the individual and society 's relationship with their environment ; the work has been read as an " impassioned , unqualified defense of American agrarianism " . The theme appears especially in Letter II , III and in the letters describing Nantucket and Martha 's Vineyard , where James ' views are expressive of the doctrine of environmental determinism , that human growth , development and activities are controlled by the physical environment . In Letter III he says :
Men are like plants : the goodness and flavour of the fruit proceeds from the peculiar soil and exposition in which they grow . We are nothing but what we derive from the air we breathe , the climate we inhabit , the government we obey , the system of religion we profess , and the nature of our employment .
Anna Carew @-@ Miller suggests that what the text articulates on this subject is " the [ cultural ] myth that a man 's relationship with the land confirms his masculinity and dignity as a citizen . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
When Crèvecœur offered his manuscript essays to the London publishers Davies & Davis in 1782 , they were initially skeptical about the potential for the Letters to be successful . However , the work proved to be instantly popular in England for a variety of reasons . Proponents of political reform such as William Godwin and Thomas Paine approved of the radical anti @-@ government implications of its message . Romantic writers admired , and were influenced by , its evocation of the natural landscape and the individual 's relationship to it . More widely , in the final years of the Revolutionary War , the public was eager for the documentary detail Letters provided about America . The popularity of the book led to a second edition being called for only a year later .
In continental Europe , Letters proved equally popular . Dutch and German translations were rapidly produced , and prompted by constant demand , editions appeared in such places as Dublin , Paris and Maastricht . In lieu of a second volume of letters , Crèvecœur produced an expanded French version ( Lettres d 'un cultivateur américain ) that was published in 1784 . The French version , which removed the fictional persona of James , is presented as a series of documents that have been neutrally edited , providing greater documentary detail but at the expense of artistry .
In the twentieth century there was a revival of interest in the text . Critic David Carlson suggests that it was " Not aesthetics , but the politics of nationalism appears to have been the primary force behind Crevecoeur 's critical resurrection " — the Letters being among the first works to depict an American " melting pot " . Letters , particularly Letter III ( " What is an American ? " ) , is frequently anthologized , and the work is recognized as being one of the first in the canon of American literature .
= = = Modern editions = = =
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= Rogue River ( Oregon ) =
The Rogue River ( Tolowa : yan @-@ shuu @-@ chit ’ taa @-@ ghii ~ -li ~ ’ , Takelma : tak @-@ elam ) in southwestern Oregon in the United States flows about 215 miles ( 346 km ) in a generally westward direction from the Cascade Range to the Pacific Ocean . Known for its salmon runs , whitewater rafting , and rugged scenery , it was one of the original eight rivers named in the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 . Beginning near Crater Lake , which occupies the caldera left by the explosive volcanic eruption of Mount Mazama , the river flows through the geologically young High Cascades and the older Western Cascades , another volcanic province . Further west , the river passes through multiple exotic terranes of the more ancient Klamath Mountains . In the Kalmiopsis Wilderness section of the Rogue basin are some of the world 's best examples of rocks that form the Earth 's mantle . Near the mouth of the river , the only dinosaur fragments ever discovered in Oregon were found in the Otter Point Formation , along the coast of Curry County .
People have lived along the Rogue River and its tributaries for at least 8 @,@ 500 years . European explorers made first contact with Native Americans ( Indians ) toward the end of the 18th century and began beaver trapping and other activities in the region . Clashes , sometimes deadly , occurred between the natives and the trappers and later between the natives and European @-@ American miners and settlers . These struggles culminated with the Rogue River Wars of 1855 – 56 and removal of most of the natives to reservations outside the basin . After the war , settlers expanded into remote areas of the watershed and established small farms along the river between Grave Creek and the mouth of the Illinois River . They were relatively isolated from the outside world until 1895 , when the Post Office Department added mail @-@ boat service along the lower Rogue . As of 2010 , the Rogue has one of the two remaining rural mail @-@ boat routes in the United States .
Dam building and removal along the Rogue has generated controversy for more than a century ; an early fish @-@ blocking dam ( Ament ) was dynamited by vigilantes , mostly disgruntled salmon fishermen . By 2009 all but one of the main @-@ stem dams downstream of a huge flood @-@ control structure 157 miles ( 253 km ) from the river mouth had been removed . Aside from dams , threats to salmon include high water temperatures . Although sometimes too warm for salmonids , the main stem Rogue is relatively clean , ranking between 85 and 97 ( on a scale of 0 to 100 ) on the Oregon Water Quality Index ( OWQI ) .
Although the Rogue Valley near Medford is partly urban , the average population density of the Rogue watershed is only about five people per square mile ( 12 per km2 ) . Several historic bridges cross the river near the more populated areas . Many public parks , hiking trails , and campgrounds are near the river , which flows largely through forests , including national forests . Biodiversity in many parts of the basin is high ; the Klamath @-@ Siskiyou temperate coniferous forests , which extend into the southwestern Rogue basin , are among the four most diverse of this kind in the world .
= = Course = =
The Rogue River begins at Boundary Springs on the border between Klamath and Douglas counties near the northern edge of Crater Lake National Park . Although it changes direction many times , it flows generally west for 215 miles ( 346 km ) from the Cascade Range through the Rogue River – Siskiyou National Forest and the Klamath Mountains to the Pacific Ocean at Gold Beach . Communities along its course include Union Creek , Prospect , Trail , Shady Cove , Gold Hill , and Rogue River , all in Jackson County ; Grants Pass , and Galice in Josephine County , and Agness , Wedderburn , and Gold Beach in Curry County . Significant tributaries include the South Fork Rogue River , Elk Creek , Bear Creek , the Applegate River , and the Illinois River . Arising at 5 @,@ 320 feet ( 1 @,@ 622 m ) above sea level , the river loses more than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in elevation by the time it reaches the Pacific .
It was one of the original eight rivers named in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 , which included 84 miles ( 135 km ) of the Rogue , from 7 miles ( 11 @.@ 3 km ) west of Grants Pass to 11 miles ( 18 km ) east of the mouth at Gold Beach . In 1988 , an additional 40 miles ( 64 km ) of the Rogue between Crater Lake National Park and the unincorporated community of Prospect was named Wild and Scenic . Of the river 's total length , 124 miles ( 200 km ) , about 58 percent is Wild and Scenic . The Rogue is one of only three rivers that start in or east of the Cascade Range in Oregon and reach the Pacific Ocean . The others are the Umpqua River and Klamath River . These three Southern Oregon rivers drain mountains south of the Willamette Valley . The Willamette River and its tributaries drain north along the Willamette Valley into the Columbia River , which starts in British Columbia rather than Oregon .
= = = Discharge = = =
The United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) operates five stream gauges along the Rogue River . They are located , from uppermost to lowermost , near Prospect , Eagle Point , Central Point , Grants Pass , and Agness . Between 1960 and 2007 , the average discharge recorded by the Agness gauge at river mile ( RM ) 29 @.@ 7 or river kilometer ( RK ) 47 @.@ 8 was 6 @,@ 622 cubic feet per second ( 188 m3 / s ) . The maximum discharge during this period was 290 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 8 @,@ 200 m3 / s ) on December 23 , 1964 , and the minimum discharge was 608 cubic feet per second ( 17 m3 / s ) on July 9 and 10 , 1968 . This was from a drainage basin of 3 @,@ 939 square miles ( 10 @,@ 202 km2 ) , or about 76 percent of the entire Rogue watershed . The maximum flow occurred between December 1964 and January 1965 during the Christmas flood of 1964 , which was rated by the National Weather Service as one of Oregon 's top 10 weather events of the 20th century .
= = Watershed = =
Draining 5 @,@ 156 square miles ( 13 @,@ 350 km2 ) , the Rogue River watershed covers parts of Jackson , Josephine , Curry , Douglas , and Klamath counties in southwestern Oregon and Siskiyou and Del Norte counties in northern California . The steep , rugged basin , stretching from the western flank of the Cascade Range to the northeastern flank of the Siskiyou Mountains , varies in elevation from 9 @,@ 485 feet ( 2 @,@ 891 m ) at the summit of Mount McLoughlin in the Cascades to 0 feet ( 0 m ) , where the basin meets the ocean . The basin borders the watersheds of the Williamson River , Upper Klamath Lake , and the upper Klamath River on the east ; the lower Klamath , Smith , and Chetco rivers on the south ; the North Umpqua , South Umpqua , Coquille , and Sixes rivers on the north , and the Pacific Ocean on the west .
In 2000 , Jackson County had a population of about 181 @,@ 300 , most of them living in the Bear Creek Valley cities of Ashland ( 19 @,@ 500 ) , Talent ( 5 @,@ 600 ) , Phoenix ( 4 @,@ 100 ) , Medford ( 63 @,@ 200 ) , Central Point ( 12 @,@ 500 ) , and Jacksonville ( 2 @,@ 200 ) . Others in Jackson County lived in the cities of Shady Cove ( 2 @,@ 300 ) , Eagle Point ( 4 @,@ 800 ) , Butte Falls ( 400 ) and Rogue River ( 1 @,@ 800 ) . Josephine County had a population of 75 @,@ 700 , including the cities of Grants Pass ( 23 @,@ 000 ) and Cave Junction ( 1 @,@ 400 ) . Gold Beach ( 1 @,@ 900 ) is the only city in Curry County ( 21 @,@ 100 ) in the Rogue River basin . Only small , sparsely inhabited parts of the watershed are in Klamath and Douglas counties in Oregon and Siskiyou and Del Norte counties in California . The watershed 's average population density is about 32 people per square mile ( 12 @.@ 4 / km2 ) .
Many overlapping entities including city , county , state , and federal governments share jurisdiction for parts of the watershed . About 60 percent of the basin is publicly owned and is managed by the United States Forest Service , the Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) , and the United States Bureau of Reclamation . Under provisions of the federal Clean Water Act , the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , assisted by the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) and other agencies in both states are charged with controlling water pollution in the basin . United States National Forests and other forests cover about 83 percent of the basin ; another 6 percent is grassland , 3 percent shrub , and only 0 @.@ 2 percent wetland . Urban areas account for slightly less than 1 percent and farms for about 6 percent .
Precipitation in the Rogue basin varies greatly from place to place and season to season . At Gold Beach on the Pacific Coast it averages about 80 inches ( 2 @,@ 000 mm ) a year , whereas at Ashland , which is inland , it averages about 20 inches ( 510 mm ) . The average annual precipitation for the entire basin is about 38 inches ( 970 mm ) . Most of this falls in winter and spring , and summers are dry . At high elevations in the Cascades , much of the precipitation arrives as snow and infiltrates permeable volcanic soils ; snowmelt contributes to stream flows in the upper basin during the dry months . Along the Illinois River in the lower basin , most of the precipitation falls as rain on shallow soils ; rapid runoff leads to high flows during winter storms and low flows during the dry summer . Average monthly temperatures for the whole basin range from about 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) in July and August to about 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) in December . Within the basin , local temperatures vary with elevation .
= = Geology = =
= = = High and Western Cascades = = =
Arising near Crater Lake , the Rogue River flows from the geologically young High Cascades through the somewhat older Western Cascades and then through the more ancient Klamath Mountains . The High Cascades are composed of volcanic rock produced at intervals from about 7 @.@ 6 million years ago through geologically recent events such as the catastrophic eruption of Mount Mazama in about 5700 BCE . The volcano hurled 12 to 15 cubic miles ( 50 to 63 km3 ) of ash into the air , covering much of the western U.S. and Canada with airfall deposits . The volcano ’ s subsequent collapse formed the caldera of Crater Lake .
Older and more deeply eroded , the Western Cascades are a range of volcanoes lying west of and merging with the High Cascades . They consist of partly altered volcanic rock from vents in both volcanic provinces , including varied lavas and ash tuffs ranging in age from 0 to 40 million years . As the Cascades rose , the Rogue maintained its flow to the ocean by down @-@ cutting , which created steep narrow gorges and rapids in many places . Bear Creek , a Rogue tributary that flows south to north , marks the boundary between the Western Cascades to the east and the Klamath Mountains to the west .
= = = Klamath Mountains = = =
Much more ancient than the upstream mountains are the exotic terranes of the Klamath Mountains to the west . Not until plate tectonics separated North America from Europe and North Africa and pushed it westward did the continent acquire , bit by bit , what became the Pacific Northwest , including Oregon . The Klamath Mountains consist of multiple terranes — former volcanic islands and coral reefs and bits of subduction zones , mantle , and seafloor — that merged offshore over vast stretches of time before colliding with North America as a single block about 150 to 130 million years ago . Much of the Rogue River watershed , including the Rogue River canyon , the Kalmiopsis Wilderness , the Illinois River basin , and Mount Ashland , are composed of exotic terranes .
Among the oldest rocks in Oregon , some of the formations in these terranes date to the Triassic , nearly 250 million years ago . Between 165 and 170 million years ago , in the Jurassic , faulting consolidated the Klamath terranes offshore during what geologists call the Siskiyou orogeny . This three- to five @-@ million @-@ year episode of intense tectonic activity pushed sedimentary rocks deep enough into the mantle to melt them and then forced them to the surface as granitic plutons . Belts of plutons , which contain gold and other precious metals , run through the Klamaths and include the Ashland pluton , the Grayback batholith east of Oregon Caves National Monument , the Grants Pass pluton , the Gold Hill pluton , the Jacksonville pluton , and others . Miners have worked rich deposits of gold , silver , copper , nickel , and other metals in several districts of the Klamaths . Placer mining in the mid @-@ 19th century soon led to lode mining for gold . Aside from a mine in eastern Oregon , the Greenback Mine along Grave Creek , a Rogue tributary , was the most productive gold mine in Oregon .
In Curry County , the lower Rogue passes through the Galice Formation , metamorphosed shale and other rocks formed when a small oceanic basin in the merging Klamath terranes was thrust over other Klamath rocks about 155 million years ago . The lowest part of the seafloor of the Josephine Basin , as this ancient sea came to be called , rests on top of the Kalmiopsis Wilderness , where it is known as the Josephine ophiolite . Some of its rocks are peridotite , reddish @-@ brown when exposed to oxygen but very dark green inside . According to geologist Ellen Morris Bishop , " These odd tawny peridotites in the Kalmiopsis Wilderness are among the world ’ s best examples of rocks that form the mantle . " Metamorphosed peridotite appears as serpentine along the west side of the Illinois River . Chemically unsuited for growing plants , widespread serpentinite in the Klamaths supports sparse vegetation in parts of the watershed . The Josephine peridotite was a source of valuable chromium ore , mined in the region between 1917 and 1960 .
At the mouth of the Rogue River , along the coast of Curry County , is the Otter Point Formation , a mélange of metamorphosed sedimentary rocks such as shales , sandstones , and chert . Although the rocks formed in the Jurassic , evidence suggests that they faulted north as part of the Gold Beach Terrane after the Klamaths merged with North America . Oregon ’ s only dinosaur fragments , those of a hadrosaur or duck @-@ billed dinosaur , were found here . In the mid @-@ 1960s , a geologist also discovered the beak and teeth of an ichthyosaur in the Otter Point Formation .
= = History = =
= = = First peoples = = =
Archeologists believe the first humans to inhabit the Rogue River region were nomadic hunters and gatherers . Radiocarbon dating suggests that they arrived in southwestern Oregon at least 8 @,@ 500 years ago , and at least 1 @,@ 500 years before the first contact with whites the natives established permanent villages along streams . The home villages of various groups shared many cultural elements , such as food , clothing , and shelter types . Intermarriage was common , and many people understood dialects of more than one of the three language groups spoken in the region . The Native Americans ( Indians ) included Tututni people near the coast and , further upstream , groups of Shasta Costa , Dakubetede , Takelma , Shasta , and Latgawa . Houses in the villages varied somewhat , but were often about 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide and 15 to 20 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) long , framed with posts sunk into the ground , and covered with split sugar pine or red cedar planks . People left the villages during about half of the year to gather camas bulbs , sugar @-@ pine bark , acorns , and berries , and hunted deer and elk to supplement their main food , salmon . The total early @-@ 1850s native population of southern Oregon , including the Umpqua , Coos , Coquille , and Chetco watersheds as well as the Rogue , is estimated to have been about 3 @,@ 800 . The population before the arrival of explorers and European diseases is thought to have been at least one @-@ third larger , but " there is insufficient evidence to estimate aboriginal populations prior to the time of first white contact ... " .
= = = Culture clash = = =
The first recorded encounter between whites and coastal southwestern Oregon Indians occurred in 1792 when British explorer George Vancouver anchored off Cape Blanco , about 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of the mouth of the Rogue River , and Indians visited the ship in canoes . In 1826 , Alexander Roderick McLeod of the Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) led an overland expedition from HBC 's regional headquarters in Fort Vancouver to as far south as the Rogue .
In 1827 an HBC expedition led by Peter Skene Ogden made the first direct contact between whites and the inland Rogue River natives when he crossed the Siskiyou Mountains to look for beaver . Friction between Indians and whites was relatively minor during these early encounters ; however , in 1834 an HBC expedition led by Michel Laframboise was reported to have killed 11 Rogue River natives , and shortly thereafter a party led by an American trapper , Ewing Young , shot and killed at least two more . The name Rogue River apparently began with French fur trappers who called the river La Riviere aux Coquins because they regarded the natives as rogues ( coquins ) . In 1835 , Rogue River people killed four whites in a party of eight who were traveling from Oregon to California . Two years later , two of the survivors and others on a cattle drive organized by Young killed the first two Indians they met north of the Klamath River .
The number of whites entering the Rogue River watershed greatly increased after 1846 , when a party of 15 men led by Jesse Applegate developed a southern alternative to the Oregon Trail ; the new trail was used by emigrants headed for the Willamette Valley . Later called the Applegate Trail , it passed through the Rogue and Bear Creek valleys and crossed the Cascade Range between Ashland and south of Upper Klamath Lake . From 90 to 100 wagons and 450 to 500 emigrants used the new trail later in 1846 , passing through Rogue Indian homelands between the headwaters of Bear Creek and the future site of Grants Pass and crossing the Rogue about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) downstream of it . Despite fears on both sides , violence in the watershed in the 1830s and 1840s was limited ; " Indians seemed interested in speeding whites on their way , and whites were happy to get through the region without being attacked . "
In 1847 , the Whitman massacre and the Cayuse War in what became southeastern Washington raised fears among white settlers throughout the region and led to the formation of large volunteer militias organized to fight Indians . Along the Rogue , tensions intensified in 1848 at the start of the California Gold Rush , when hundreds of men from the Oregon Territory passed through the Rogue Valley on their way to the Sacramento River basin . After Indians attacked a group of returning miners along the Rogue in 1850 , former territorial governor Joseph Lane negotiated a peace treaty with Apserkahar , a leader of the Takelma Indians . It promised protection of Indian rights and safe passage through the Rogue Valley for white miners and settlers .
The peace did not last . Miners began prospecting for gold in the watershed , including a Bear Creek tributary called Jackson Creek , where they established a mining camp in 1851 at the site of what later became Jacksonville . Indian attacks on miners that year led to U.S. Army intervention and fighting near Table Rock between Indians and the combined forces of professional soldiers and volunteer miner militias . John P. Gaines , the new territorial governor , negotiated a new treaty with some but not all of the Indian bands , removing them from Bear Creek and other tributaries on the south side of the main stem . At about the same time , more white emigrants , including women and children , were settling in the region . By 1852 , about 28 donation land claims had been filed in the Rogue Valley . Further clashes in 1853 led to the Treaty with the Rogue River ( 1853 ) that established the Table Rock Indian Reservation across the river from the federal Fort Lane . As the white population increased and Indian losses of land , food sources , and personal safety mounted , bouts of violence upstream and down continued through 1854 – 55 , culminating in the Rogue River War of 1855 – 56 .
Suffering from cold , hunger , and disease on the Table Rock Reservation , a group of Takelma returned to their old village at the mouth of Little Butte Creek in October 1855 . After a volunteer militia attacked them , killing 23 men , women , and children , they fled downriver , attacking whites from Gold Hill to Galice Creek . Confronted by volunteers and regular army troops , the Indians at first repulsed them ; however , after nearly 200 volunteers launched an all @-@ day assault on the remaining natives , the war ended at Big Bend ( at RM 35 or RK 56 ) on the lower river . By then , fighting had also ended near the coast , where , before retreating upstream , a separate group of natives had killed about 30 whites and burned their cabins near what later became Gold Beach .
Most of the Rogue River Indians were removed in 1856 to reservations further north . About 1 @,@ 400 were sent to the Coast Reservation , later renamed the Siletz Reservation . To protect 400 natives still in danger of attack at Table Rock , Joel Palmer , the Oregon Superintendent of Indian Affairs , ordered their removal , involving a forced march of 33 days , to the newly established Grande Ronde Reservation in Yamhill County , Oregon .
= = = Mail boats = = =
After the Rogue River War , a small number of newcomers began to settle along or near the Rogue River Canyon . These pioneers , some of whom were white gold miners married to native Karok women from the Klamath River basin , established gardens and orchards , kept horses , cows , and other livestock , and received occasional shipments of goods sent by pack mule over the mountains . Until the 1890s , these settlers remained relatively isolated from the outside world . In 1883 , one of the settlers , Elijah H. Price , proposed a permanent mail route by boat up the Rogue River from Ellensburg ( later renamed Gold Beach ) to Big Bend , about 40 miles ( 64 km ) upstream . The route , Price told the government , would serve perhaps 11 families and no towns . Although the Post Office Department resisted the idea for many years , in early 1895 it agreed to a one @-@ year trial of the water route , established a post office at Price 's log cabin at Big Bend , and named Price postmaster . Price 's job , for which he received no pay during the trial year , included running the post office and making sure that the mail boat made one round @-@ trip a week . He named the new post office Illahe . The name derives from the Chinook Jargon word ilahekh , meaning " land " or " earth " .
Propelled by rowing , poling , pushing , pulling , and sometimes by sail , the mail boat delivered letters and small packages , including groceries from Wedderburn , where a post office was established later in 1895 . In 1897 , the department established a post office near the confluence of the Rogue and the Illinois rivers , 8 miles ( 13 km ) downriver from Illahe . The postmaster named the office Agnes after his daughter , but a transcription error added an extra " s " and the name became Agness . Upriver , a third post office , established in 1903 , was named Marial after another postmaster 's daughter . Marial , at ( RM ) 48 ( RK 77 ) , is about 13 miles ( 21 km ) upriver from Illahe and 21 miles ( 34 km ) from Agness . To avoid difficult rapids , carriers delivered the mail by mule between Illahe and Marial , and after 1908 most mail traveling beyond Agness went by mule . The Illahe post office closed in 1943 , and when the Marial post office closed in 1954 , " it was the last postal facility in the United States to still be served only by mule pack trains . "
The first mail boat was an 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) , double @-@ ended craft made of cedar . By 1930 , the mail @-@ boat fleet consisted of three 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) boats , equipped with 60 @-@ horsepower Model A Ford engines and designed to carry 10 passengers . By the 1960s , rudderless jetboats powered by twin or triple 280 @-@ horsepower engines , began to replace propeller @-@ driven boats . The jetboats could safely negotiate shallow riffles , and the largest could carry nearly 50 passengers . Rogue mail @-@ boat excursions , which had been growing more popular for several decades , began in the 1970s to include trips to as far upriver as Blossom Bar , 20 miles ( 32 km ) above Agness . As of 2010 , jet boats , functioning mainly as excursion craft , still deliver mail between Gold Beach and Agness . The Rogue River mail boat company is " one of only two mail carriers delivering the mail by boat in the United States " ; the other is along the Snake River in eastern Oregon .
= = = Commercial fishing = = =
For thousands of years , salmon was a reliable food source for Native Americans living along the Rogue . Salmon migrations were so huge that early settlers claimed they could hear the fish moving upstream . These large runs continued into the 20th century despite damage to spawning beds caused by gold mining in the 1850s and large @-@ scale commercial fishing that began shortly thereafter . The fishing industry fed demands for salmon in the growing cities of Portland and San Francisco and for canned salmon in England .
By the 1880s , Robert Deniston Hume of Astoria , had bought land on both sides of the lower Rogue River and established such a big fishing business that he became known as the Salmon King of Oregon . His fleet of gillnetting boats , controlling most of the anadromous fish population of the river , plied its lower 12 miles ( 19 km ) . During his 32 @-@ year tenure , Hume 's company caught , processed , and shipped hundreds of tons of salmon from the Rogue . Upriver commercial fishermen also captured large quantities of fish . On a single day in 1913 , Grants Pass crews using five drift boats equipped with gill nets caught 5 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 300 kg ) of salmon .
In 1877 , in connection with his commercial fishery , Hume built a hatchery at Ellensburg ( Gold Beach ) , which released fish into the river . In its first year of operation , Hume collected 215 @,@ 000 salmon eggs and released about 100 @,@ 000 fry . After the first hatchery was destroyed by fire in 1893 , Hume he built a new hatchery in 1895 , and in 1897 he co @-@ operated with the United States Fish Commission in building and operating an egg @-@ collecting station at the mouth of Elk Creek on the upper Rogue . In 1899 , he built a hatchery near Wedderburn , across the river from Gold Beach , and until the time of his death in 1908 he had salmon eggs shipped to it from the Elk Creek station .
Based on variations in the size of the yearly catch , Hume and others believed his methods of fish @-@ propagation to be successful . However , as salmon runs declined over time despite the hatcheries , recreational fishing interests began to oppose large @-@ scale operations . In 1910 , a state referendum banned commercial fishing on the Rogue , but this decision was reversed in 1913 . As fish runs continued to dwindle , the state legislature finally closed the river to commercial fishing in 1935 .
As of 2010 , the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife ( ODFW ) operates the Cole M. Rivers Hatchery near the base of the dam at Lost Creek Lake , slightly upstream of the former Rogue – Elk Hatchery built by Hume . It raises rainbow trout ( steelhead ) , Coho salmon , spring and fall Chinook salmon , and summer and winter steelhead . The United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) built the hatchery in 1973 to offset the loss of fish habitat and spawning grounds in areas blocked by construction of the Lost Creek Dam on the main stem and the Applegate and Elk Creek dams on Rogue tributaries . It is the third @-@ largest salmon and steelhead hatchery in the United States .
= = = Celebrities = = =
In 1926 , author Zane Grey bought a miner 's cabin at Winkle Bar , near the river . He wrote Western books at this location , including his 1929 novel Rogue River Feud . Another of his books , Tales of Fresh Water Fishing ( 1928 ) , included a chapter based on a drift @-@ boat trip he took down the lower Rogue in 1925 . The Trust for Public Land bought the property at Winkle Bar and transferred it in 2008 to the BLM , which made it accessible to the public .
In the 1930s and 1940s many other celebrities , attracted by the scenery , fishing , rustic lodges , and boat trips , visited the lower Rogue . Famous visitors included actors Clark Gable , Tyrone Power , and Myrna Loy , singer Bing Crosby , author William Faulkner , journalist Ernie Pyle , radio comedians Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll , circus performer Emmett Kelly , and football star Norm van Brocklin . Bobby Doerr , a Hall of Fame baseball player , married a teacher from Illahe , and made his home along the Rogue . From 1940 to 1990 , actress and dancer Ginger Rogers owned the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 400 ha ) Rogue River Ranch , operated for many years as a dairy farm , near Eagle Point . The historic Craterian Ginger Rogers Theater in Medford was named after her . Actress Kim Novak and her veterinarian husband bought a home and 43 acres ( 17 ha ) of land in 1997 near the Rogue River in Sams Valley , where they raise horses and llamas .
= = Dams = =
The William L. Jess Dam , a huge flood @-@ control and hydroelectric structure , blocks the Rogue River 157 miles ( 253 km ) from its mouth . Built by the USACE between 1972 and 1976 , it impounds Lost Creek Lake . The dam , which is 345 feet ( 105 m ) high and 3 @,@ 600 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) long , prevents salmon migration above this point . When the lake is full , it covers 3 @,@ 428 acres ( 1 @,@ 387 ha ) and has an average depth of 136 feet ( 41 m ) . Ranked by storage capacity , its reservoir is the seventh @-@ largest in Oregon .
Other dams have impeded fish passage at one time or another between the William L. Jess Dam and Grants Pass . After decades of controversy about water rights , costs , migratory fish , and environmental impacts , removal or modification of remaining middle @-@ reach dams as well as a partly finished dam on Elk Creek , a major tributary of the Rogue , began in 2008 . The de @-@ construction projects were all meant to improve salmon runs by allowing more fish to reach suitable spawning grounds .
In 1904 , brothers C.R. and Frank Ray built the Gold Ray Dam , a log structure , to generate electricity near Gold Hill . They installed a fish ladder . The California @-@ Oregon Power Company , which later became Pacific Power , acquired the dam in 1921 . Replacing the log dam in 1941 with a concrete structure 35 feet ( 11 m ) high , it added a new fish ladder and a fish @-@ counting station . The company closed the hydroelectric plant in 1972 , although the fish ladder remained , and biologists from the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife used the station to count migrating salmon and steelhead . Jackson County , which owned the dam , had it removed with the help of a $ 5 million federal grant approved in June 2009 . The dam was demolished in the summer of 2010 .
In 2008 , the city of Gold Hill removed the last of the Gold Hill Dam , a diversion dam slightly downstream of the Gold Ray Dam . Originally built to provide power for a cement company , it was 3 to 14 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 to 4 @.@ 27 m ) high and 900 feet ( 270 m ) long . The dam and a diversion canal later delivered municipal water to the city until Gold Hill installed a pumping station to supply its water .
Savage Rapids Dam was 5 miles ( 8 km ) upstream from Grants Pass . Built in 1921 to divert river flows for irrigation , the dam was 39 feet ( 12 m ) tall and created a reservoir that seasonally extended up to 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) upstream . Its removal began in April 2009 , and was completed in October 2009 . Twelve newly installed pumps provide river water to the irrigation canals serving 7 @,@ 500 acres ( 3 @,@ 000 ha ) of the Grants Pass Irrigation District ( GPID ) .
In 2008 , USACE removed part of the Elk Creek Dam and restored Elk Creek to its original channel . Construction on the dam had been halted by a court injunction in the 1980s after about 80 feet ( 24 m ) of the proposed height of 240 feet ( 73 m ) was reached . Further controversy delayed the notching for two decades . Elk Creek enters the Rogue River 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) downstream from Lost Creek Lake .
Historically , other dams along the river 's middle reaches were removed or destroyed during the first half of the 20th century . The Ament Dam , built in 1902 by the Golden Drift Mining Company to provide water for mining equipment , was slightly upriver of Grants Pass . After the company failed to keep promises to provide irrigation and electric power to the vicinity and because the dam was a " massive fish killer " , vigilantes destroyed part of the dam with dynamite in 1912 . The damaged dam was completely removed before construction of the Savage Rapids Dam in 1921 .
In 1890 , the Grants Pass Power Supply Company had built a log dam 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) high , across the river near the city . Salmon could pass the dam during high water , but most were blocked : " For half a mile below the dam , the river was crowded with fish throughout the summer . " After a flood destroyed this dam in 1905 , it was replaced by a 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) dam that , like its predecessor , lacked a fish ladder . By 1940 , the dam had deteriorated to the point that it no longer blocked migratory fish .
In addition to the dams on the Rogue main stem , at one time or another " several hundred dams were built on tributaries within the range of salmon migration " , most of which supplied water for mining or irrigation . Before 1920 , many of these dams made no provision for fish passage ; public pressure as well as efforts by turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century cannery owner R.D. Hume led to the installation of fish ladders on the most destructive dams . As of 2005 , there were about 80 non @-@ hydroelectric dams , mostly small irrigation structures , in the Rogue basin . In addition to Lost Creek Lake on the main stem , large reservoirs in the basin include Applegate Lake , Emigrant Lake , and Fish Lake .
The only artificial barrier on the main stem of the Rogue upstream of Lost Creek Lake is a diversion dam at Prospect at RM 172 ( RK 277 ) . The concrete dam , 50 feet ( 15 m ) high and 384 feet ( 117 m ) wide , impounds water from the Rogue and nearby streams and diverts it to power plants , which return the water to the river further downstream . PacifiCorp operates this system , called The Prospect Nos. 1 , 2 , and 4 Hydroelectric Project . Built in pieces between 1911 and 1944 , it includes separate diversion dams on the Middle Fork Rogue River and Red Blanket Creek , and a 9 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ( 14 @.@ 89 km ) water @-@ transport system of canals , flumes , pipes , and penstocks .
= = Bridges = =
Among the many bridges that cross the Rogue River is the Isaac Lee Patterson Bridge , which carries U.S. Route 101 over the river at Gold Beach . Designed by Conde B. McCullough and built in 1931 , it is " one of the most notable bridges in the Pacific Northwest " . Named a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1982 by the American Society of Civil Engineers , the 1 @,@ 898 @-@ foot ( 579 m ) structure was the first in the U.S. to use the Freyssinet method of stress control in concrete bridges . It features 7 open @-@ spandrel 230 @-@ foot ( 70 m ) arch spans , 18 deck @-@ girder approach spans , and many ornate decorative features such as Art Deco entrance pylons .
Several historic bridges cross the Rogue between Gold Hill and Grants Pass . The Gold Hill Bridge , designed by McCullough and built in 1927 , is the only open @-@ spandrel , barrel @-@ arch bridge in Oregon . Its main arch is 143 feet ( 44 m ) long . Also designed by McCullough , the Rock Point Bridge carries U.S. Route 99 and Oregon Route 234 over the river near the unincorporated community of Rock Point . The 505 @-@ foot ( 154 m ) structure has a single arch . Built in 1920 for $ 48 @,@ 400 , it replaced a wooden bridge at the same site . The bridge was closed in September 2009 for repairs to its deck and railings . The project is expected to cost $ 3 @.@ 9 million .
Caveman Bridge in Grants Pass is a 550 @-@ foot ( 170 m ) , three @-@ arch concrete structure . Designed by McCullough and built in 1931 , it replaced the Robertson Bridge . The city calls the structure Caveman because the Redwood Highway ( U.S. Route 199 ) that crosses the bridge passes near Oregon Caves National Monument , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) south of Grants Pass .
Slightly downstream of Grants Pass , the Robertson Bridge , built around 1909 , is a 583 @-@ foot ( 178 m ) three @-@ span , steel , through @-@ truss structure moved downriver in 1929 to make way for the Caveman Bridge . It carries the Rogue River Loop Highway ( Oregon Route 260 ) over the river west of the city . The bridge was named for pioneers who settled in the area in the 1870s .
= = Pollution = =
To comply with section 303 ( d ) of the federal Clean Water Act , the EPA or its state delegates must develop a list of the surface waters in each state that do not meet approved water @-@ quality criteria . To meet the criteria , the DEQ and others have developed Total Maximum Daily Load ( TMDL ) limits for pollutants entering streams and other surface waters . The Oregon 303 ( d ) list of pollutants for 2004 – 06 indicated that some reaches of the surface waters in the Rogue River Basin did not meet the standards for temperature , bacteria , dissolved oxygen , sedimentation , pH and nuisance weeds and algae . All of the listed stream reaches were in Oregon ; none in the California part of the basin was listed as impaired on that state 's 303 ( d ) list in 2008 .
The EPA approved temperature TMDLs for three Rogue River tributaries : Upper Sucker Creek in 1999 , Lower Sucker Creek in 2002 , and Lobster Creek in 2002 . It approved temperature , sedimentation , and biological criteria TMDLs for the Applegate River basin in 2004 , and temperature , sedimentation , fecal coliform , and Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) TMDLs for the Bear Creek watershed in 2007 . In 1992 it had approved pH , aquatic weeds and algae , and dissolved oxygen TMDLs for the Bear Creek watershed . In December 2008 , DEQ developed two TMDLs for the Rogue River basin ( except the tributaries with their own TMDLs ) ; a temperature TMDL was meant to protect salmon and trout from elevated water temperatures , and a fecal contamination TMDL was intended to safeguard people using surface waters for recreation .
The DEQ has collected water @-@ quality data in the Rogue basin since the mid @-@ 1980s and has used it to generate scores on the Oregon Water Quality Index ( OWQI ) . The index is meant to provide an assessment of water quality for general recreational uses ; OWQI scores can vary from 10 ( worst ) to 100 ( ideal ) . Of the eight Rogue basin sites tested during the water years 1997 – 2006 , five were ranked good , one was excellent , and two — Little Butte Creek and Bear Creek , in the most populated part of the Rogue basin — were poor . On the Rogue River itself , scores varied from 92 at RM 138 @.@ 4 ( RK 222 @.@ 7 ) declining to 85 at RM 117 @.@ 2 ( RK 188 @.@ 6 ) but improving to 97 at RM 11 @.@ 0 ( RK 17 @.@ 7 ) . By comparison , the average OWQI score for the Willamette River in downtown Portland , the state 's largest city , was 74 between 1986 and 1995 .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Most of the Rogue River watershed is in the Klamath Mountains ecoregion designated by the EPA , although part of the upper basin is in the Cascades ecoregion , and part of the lower basin is in the Coast Range ecoregion . Temperate coniferous forests dominate much of the basin . The upper basin , in the High Cascades and Western Cascades , is in places " identified as containing extremely high species richness within many groups of plants and animals " . Common tree species in the forests along the upper Rogue include incense cedar , white fir , and Shasta red fir .
Further downstream a diverse mix of conifers , broadleaf evergreens , and deciduous trees and shrubs grow in parts of the basin . In more populated areas , orchards , cropland , and pastureland have largely replaced the original vegetation , although remnants of oak savanna , prairie vegetation , and seasonal ponds survive at Table Rocks north of Medford . Oak woodlands , grassland savanna , ponderosa pine , and Douglas @-@ fir thrive in the relatively dry foothills east of Medford ; areas in the foothills of the Illinois Valley support Douglas @-@ fir , madrone , and incense cedar . Parts of the Illinois River watershed have sparse vegetation including Jeffrey pine and oak and ceanothus species that grow in serpentine soils . The Klamath @-@ Siskiyou region of northern California and southwestern Oregon , including parts of the southwestern Rogue basin , is among the four most diverse temperate coniferous forests in the world . Considered one of the global centers of biodiversity , it contains about 3 @,@ 500 different plant species . The Klamath @-@ Siskiyou region is one of seven International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) areas of global botanical significance in North America and has been proposed as a World Heritage Site and UNESCO Biosphere Reserve .
The lower Rogue passes through the Southern Oregon Coast Range , where forests include Douglas @-@ fir , western hemlock , tanoak , Port Orford cedar , and western redcedar , and at lower elevations Sitka spruce . Coastal forests extending from British Columbia in the north to Oregon ( and the Rogue ) in the south are " some of the most productive in the world " . The coastal region , where it has not been altered by humans , abounds with ferns , lichens , mosses , and herbs , as well as conifers .
The Rogue River contains " extremely high @-@ quality salmonid habitat and has one of the finest salmonid fisheries in the west . However , most stocks are less abundant than they were historically ... " . Salmonids found in the Rogue River downstream of Lost Creek Lake include Coho salmon , spring and fall Chinook salmon , and summer and winter steelhead . Other native species of freshwater fish found in the watershed include coastal cutthroat trout , Pacific lamprey , green sturgeon , white sturgeon , Klamath smallscale sucker , speckled dace , prickly sculpin , and riffle sculpin . Nonnative species include redside shiner , largemouth bass , smallmouth bass , black crappie , bluegill , catfish , brown bullhead , yellow perch , carp , goldfish , American shad , Umpqua pikeminnow , and species of trout . Coho salmon in the watershed belong to an Evolutionarily Significant Unit ( ESU ) that was listed by the National Marine Fisheries Service as a threatened species in 1997 and reaffirmed as threatened in 2005 . The state of Oregon in 2005 listed Rogue spring Chinook salmon as potentially at risk .
Trees and shrubs growing in the riparian zones along the Rogue River include willows , red alder , white alder , black cottonwood , and Oregon ash . A few of the common animal and bird species seen along the river are American black bear , North American river otter , black @-@ tailed deer , bald eagle , osprey , great blue heron , water ouzel , and Canada goose .
= = Recreation = =
= = = Boating = = =
Soggy Sneakers : A Paddler 's Guide to Oregon 's Rivers lists several whitewater runs of varying difficulty along the upper , middle , and lower Rogue River and its tributaries . The longest run , on the main stem of the river downstream of Grants Pass , is " one of the best @-@ known whitewater runs in the United States " . Popular among kayakers and rafters , the 35 @-@ mile ( 56 km ) run consists of class 3 + rapids separated by more gentle stretches and deep pools . Its entire length is classified Wild and Scenic .
The Wild section of the lower Rogue River runs for 33 @.@ 8 miles ( 54 @.@ 4 km ) between Grave Creek and Watson Creek . To protect the river from overuse , a maximum of 120 commercial and noncommercial users a day are allowed to run this section . To enter it , boaters must obtain a special @-@ use permit allocated through a random @-@ selection process and pick it up at the Smullin Visitor Center , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) west of Interstate 5 on the Merlin – Galice Road , at the Rand Ranger Station downstream of Galice . Other sections of the river are open to jetboats . A Gold Beach company offers commercial jetboat trips of up to 104 miles ( 167 km ) round @-@ trip on the lower Rogue River . Another company offers jetboat excursions on the Hellgate section of the river below Grants Pass .
= = = Hiking = = =
The Upper Rogue River Trail , a National Recreation Trail , closely follows the river for about 40 miles ( 64 km ) from its headwaters at the edge of Crater Lake National Park to the boundary of the Rogue River National Forest at the mountain community of Prospect . Highlights along the trail include a river canyon cut through pumice deposited by the explosion of Mount Mazama about 8 @,@ 000 years ago ; the Rogue Gorge , lined with black lava , and Natural Bridge , where the river flows through a 250 @-@ foot ( 76 m ) lava tube . Between Farewell Bend and Natural Bridge , the trail passes through the Union Creek Historic District , a site with early 20th @-@ century resort buildings and a former ranger station that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
The Lower Rogue River Trail , a National Recreation Trail of 40 miles ( 64 km ) , runs parallel to the river from Grave Creek to Illahe , in the Wild Rogue Wilderness , 27 miles ( 43 km ) northwest of Grants Pass . The roadless area through which the trail runs is managed by the Siskiyou National Forest and the Medford District of the federal Bureau of Land Management and covers 224 square miles ( 580 km2 ) including 56 square miles ( 150 km2 ) of designated federal wilderness . Backpackers use the trail for multiple @-@ day trips , while day hikers take shorter trips . In addition to scenery and wildlife , features include views of rapids and " frantic boaters " , lodges at Illahe , Clay Hill Rapids , Paradise Creek , and Marial , and the Rogue River Ranch and museum . Hikers can take jet boats from Gold Beach to some of the lodges between May and November . The trail connects to many shorter side trails as well as to the 27 @-@ mile ( 43 km ) Illinois River Trail south of Agness . Hikers can also take trips along the Rogue that combine backpacking and rafting .
Rogue River Trail 1168 continues west 12 miles ( 19 km ) along the north side of the river from Agness to the Morey Meadow Trailhead . Forest Road 3533 provides a hiking route between the trailhead and the Lobster Creek Bridge , 5 miles ( 8 km ) further west . The Rogue River Walk , a 6 @-@ mile ( 10 km ) trail along the south side of the river continues west to a trailhead about 5 miles ( 8 km ) east of Gold Beach .
= = = Fishing = = =
Sport fishing on the Rogue River varies greatly depending on the location . In many places , fishing is good from stream banks and gravel bars , and much of the river is also fished from boats . Upstream of Lost Creek Lake , the main stem , sometimes called the North Fork , supports varieties of trout . Between Lost Creek Lake and Grants Pass there are major fisheries for spring and fall Chinook salmon , and Coho salmon from hatcheries , summer and winter steelhead , and large resident rainbow trout . The river between Grants Pass and Grave Creek has productive runs of summer and winter steelhead and Chinook , as well as good places to fish for trout . From Grave Creek to Foster Bar , all but the lower 15 miles ( 24 km ) of which is closed to jetboats , anglers fish for summer and winter steelhead , spring and fall Chinook , and Coho . Near Agness , the river produces large catches of immature steelhead known as " half @-@ pounders " that return from the ocean to the river in August in large schools . The lower river has spring and fall Chinook , as well as perch , lingcod , and crab near the ocean .
= = = Parks = = =
Parks along the Rogue River , which begins in the northwest corner of Crater Lake National Park , include Prospect State Scenic Viewpoint , a forested area 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Prospect with a hiking trail leading to waterfalls and the Rogue River . The Joseph H. Stewart State Recreation Area has campsites overlooking Lost Creek Lake . Casey State Recreation Site offers boating , fishing , and picnic areas along the river 29 miles ( 47 km ) northeast of Medford . TouVelle State Recreation Site is a day @-@ use park along the river at the base of Table Rocks and adjacent to the Denman Wildlife Area , about 9 miles ( 14 km ) north of Medford . Valley of the Rogue State Park , 12 miles ( 19 km ) east of Grants Pass , is built around 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of river shoreline .
Between Grants Pass and the Hellgate Recreation Area , Josephine County manages two parks , Tom Pearce and Schroeder , along the river . Hellgate , 27 miles ( 43 km ) long , begins at the confluence of the Rogue and Applegate rivers about 7 miles ( 11 km ) west of Grants Pass . This stretch of the Rogue , featuring class I and II rapids , 11 access points for boats , 4 parks and campgrounds managed by Josephine County , ends at Grave Creek , where the Wild Rogue Wilderness begins . Indian Mary Park , part of the Josephine County park system , has tent sites , yurts , and spaces for camping vehicles on 61 acres ( 25 ha ) along the Merlin – Galice road at Merlin . The other three Josephine County parks in the Hellgate Recreation Area are Whitehorse , across from the mouth of the Applegate River ; Griffin , slightly downstream of Whitehorse , and Almeda , downstream of Indian Mary .
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= HMS Diamond ( H22 ) =
HMS Diamond was a D @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship spent the bulk of her career on the China Station . She was briefly assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1939 before she was transferred to West Africa for convoy escort duties . Diamond returned to the Mediterranean Fleet in early 1940 where she generally escorted convoys to and from Malta . The ship participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento in November . Diamond was sunk by German aircraft on 27 April 1941 whilst evacuating Allied troops from Greece .
= = Description = =
Diamond displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Diamond carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Diamond had a single 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ) gun between her funnels and two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mark II guns mounted on the side of her bridge . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Career = =
Diamond was ordered on 2 February 1931 under the 1930 Naval Estimates , and was laid down at Vickers @-@ Armstrong 's yard at Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness on 29 September 1931 . She was launched on 8 April 1932 and completed on 3 November 1933 , at a total cost of £ 223 @,@ 509 , excluding equipment supplied by the Admiralty , such as weapons , ammunition and wireless equipment . The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September – November 1933 . Diamond was refitted at Devonport Dockyard between 3 September and 27 October 1934 for service on the China Station with the 8th ( later the 21st ) Destroyer Flotilla and arrived there in January 1935 , where she remained for the next four years .
The ship began a refit at Singapore on 7 August 1939 and she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet after it was completed in November . Diamond arrived at Malta on 19 December , but she was transferred to the South Atlantic Station the following month . She departed Malta on 8 January 1940 , bound for Freetown where she joined the 20th Destroyer Division for escort duties . In April the ship returned to the Mediterranean where Diamond was assigned to the newly formed 10th Destroyer Flotilla after a short refit at Malta .
She was slightly damaged by air attacks on 11 and 17 June near Malta after the Italians declared war on the Allies on 10 June . Together with her sisters Dainty , Defender , the Australian destroyer Stuart , and the light cruisers Capetown and Liverpool , she escorted Convoy AN.2 from Egypt to various ports in the Aegean Sea in late July . Diamond bombarded the Italian seaplane base at Bomba , Libya on 23 August . A week later she escorted four transports to Malta with Dainty and the destroyers Jervis and Juno as part of Operation Hats . The ship escorted Convoy MB.8 during Operation Collar . After reaching Malta on 26 November , Diamond joined Force D and sailed to rendezvous with Force H , coming from Gibraltar . The next day , after the British forces had combined , they were spotted by the Italians and the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento was fought .
During Operation Excess , Diamond and Defender escorted Convoy MW.5 to Malta in January 1941 . In mid @-@ April she escorted a convoy of four freighters from Malta to Alexandria .
= = Loss = =
On the evening of 26 April , Diamond was in the Argolic Gulf with three light cruisers , three other destroyers and two troopships . The force began evacuating British , Australian and New Zealand troops from Nauplia . The cruisers HMS Calcutta and HMS Orion and destroyers HMS Hotspur and HMS Isis embarked nearly 2 @,@ 500 troops and , at 03 : 00 the next morning , Calcutta ordered the evacuation force to sail . One of the troop ships , the Dutch ocean liner Slamat , disobeyed and continued to embark troops . Slamat embarked 500 troops before she eventually obeyed orders at 04 : 15 , and the convoy sailed for Crete .
Near the mouth of the Argolic Gulf a Staffel of nine Luftwaffe Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers from Jagdgeschwader 77 attacked the convoy at either 06 : 45 or 07 : 15 . Slamat was hit , set afire and began to abandon ship . Calcutta ordered Diamond to go alongside Slamat to rescue survivors while the rest of the convoy continued to try to reach Souda Bay in Crete . At 08 : 15 Diamond reported that she was still rescuing survivors and still under air attack . By then three destroyers had reinforced the convoy so Calcutta sent one of them , HMS Wryneck , to assist Diamond . Slamat was afire from stem to stern when Diamond fired a torpedo that sank her in a coup de grâce . Diamond reported at 09 : 25 that she had rescued most of the survivors and was proceeding to Souda Bay . An hour later Wryneck signalled a request for aircraft cover .
At about 13 : 15 , an air attack by German Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and Junkers Ju 88 bombers sank both destroyers within minutes . Wryneck launched her whaler , and each destroyer launched her three Carley floats . Survivors in the whaler set off east past Cape Maleas , towing two Carley floats and their occupants . In the evening the wind increased , causing the floats to strike the boat , so Waldron reluctantly cast them adrift .
After 1900 hrs on 27 April the Vice Admiral , Light Forces , Henry Pridham @-@ Wippell , became concerned that Diamond had not returned to Souda Bay and was not answering radio signals . Wryneck had been ordered to keep radio silence so no attempt was made to radio her . Pridham @-@ Wippell sent the destroyer HMS Griffin to the position where Slamat had been lost . She found 14 survivors in two Carley floats that night , more floats and another four survivors in the morning , and took the survivors to Crete .
The last living survivor from Slamat , Royal Army Service Corps veteran George Dexter , states that after Wryneck was sunk he and three other men were rescued by the cruiser HMS Orion .
Survivors in Wryneck 's whaler reached Crete in three stages . On 28 April they aimed for the island of Milos in the Aegean Sea , but were too exhausted so they landed at Ananes Rock , about 13 nautical miles ( 24 km ) southeast of Milos . There they met a caïque full of Greek refugees and British soldiers evacuated from Piraeus , who were sheltering by day and sailing only by night to avoid detection . In the evening everyone left Ananes and headed south for Crete , with most people in the caïque and five being towed in the whaler . On 29 April the caïque sighted a small landing craft that had left Porto Rafti near Athens . She took aboard everyone from the caïque and whaler , and the next day they reached Souda Bay .
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= Glenn Anderson =
Glenn Chris Anderson ( born October 2 , 1960 ) is a retired Canadian professional ice hockey player who played 16 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Edmonton Oilers , Toronto Maple Leafs , New York Rangers , and St. Louis Blues . Anderson was known to have a knack for stepping up in big games , which garnered him the reputation of a " money " player . His five playoff overtime goals rank third in NHL history , while his 17 playoff game @-@ winning goals put him fifth all @-@ time . During the playoffs , Anderson accumulated 93 goals , 121 assists , and 214 points , the fourth , ninth , and fourth most in NHL history . Anderson is also first all @-@ time in regular season game winning goals in Oilers history with 72 .
At a young age , Anderson admired the European aspects of the game . He was known to have a liking for participating in international tournaments , more so than his NHL contemporaries . When he was drafted by the Oilers in 1979 , he chose to play for Team Canada at the 1980 Winter Olympics instead of immediately joining the Oilers . Anderson won gold at the 1984 and the 1987 Canada Cup and he was a silver medalist at the 1989 Ice Hockey World Championships . During his NHL career , Anderson was part of six Stanley Cup winning teams ( he won five as a member of the Oilers and one as a member of the Rangers ) and he was a participant at four All @-@ Star Games . He is one of only seven Oilers players to have won all five Cups in franchise history . Anderson was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame on November 10 , 2008 and his jersey number , 9 , was retired by the Oilers on January 18 , 2009 .
= = Background = =
Anderson was born in Vancouver , but was raised in Burnaby , British Columbia . His father , Magnus , is the son of a Norwegian immigrant , and his mother , Anne , is of Ukrainian origin . He has two brothers ( Allan and David ) and a sister ( Pam ) . As a young child , Anderson did not enjoy the game of ice hockey . His first ever goal came against his own team . However , as he grew older , and better at the game , Anderson 's love of the game increased .
Growing up , Anderson played hockey against his neighbours , most notably the Berrys . Anderson and his brothers had a friendly rivalry against the Berry brothers and their father . The father , Don Berry , was a player with the Penticton Vees when they won gold at the 1955 World Ice Hockey Championships . Unusual for a boy born and raised in Canada , Anderson 's hockey idol was not Canadian . Instead , his favourite player was Russian Alexander Yakushev , whom he had watched play during the 1972 Summit Series .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Anderson and one of the Berrys , Ken Berry , began their junior hockey career together with the Bellingham Blazers of the British Columbia Junior Hockey League ( BCJHL ) during the 1977 – 78 season . In 64 games , Anderson recorded 62 goals , 69 assists , and 131 points , the third most goals and eighth most points in the league . To top off his lone season in the BCJHL , he was named to the league 's Second All @-@ Star Team .
In 1978 – 79 , Anderson and Berry were recruited to play for the hockey team of the University of Denver in the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) by Marshall Johnston , the university team 's head coach . Anderson played in 41 games , and led the team in points with 55 . During his time in university , Anderson struggled with his schoolwork and was , at times , stopped from participating in tournaments . However , at the end of the year , Anderson managed to pass his courses .
During the 1979 NHL Entry Draft , Anderson was drafted 69th overall by the Edmonton Oilers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Anderson opted to not join the Oilers immediately as he wished to play for Team Canada during the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid . Father David Bauer , who was in charge of the national team program , accepted both Anderson and Berry to the team . The influence that Father David Bauer had on Anderson was significant as Anderson would cite him as a major reason for his future success . The team toured around the world playing against different opponents in preparation for the Olympics . The practice Anderson received during this time helped " greatly improve " his skills . Anderson scored four points in six games during the tournament as Canada was eliminated by the Soviet Union by a score of 6 – 4 . Canada finished 6th and the loss deeply saddened Anderson as he " cried for two hours straight " .
= = = Edmonton Oilers ( 1980 – 1991 ) = = =
The Canadian National Team program was discontinued in the fall of 1980 . Facing a choice of whether to rejoin the University of Denver , or to join the Oilers , Anderson chose the latter , signing a contract worth $ 250 @,@ 000 with the team . Making his professional debut with the Oilers , Anderson recorded 30 goals , 23 assists , and 53 points in 58 games in his first season . The Oilers made the playoffs that year where they defeated the Montreal Canadiens in the preliminary round , three games to none . This was deemed a huge upset since the Canadiens had finished eleven spots higher than the Oilers in the overall standings . The Oilers moved on to the quarter @-@ finals where they were defeated in six games by the eventual Stanley Cup champions , New York Islanders . During the playoff run , Anderson scored 12 points in 9 games , establishing himself as a " fierce " playoff performer . Anderson 's sophomore season saw him record career highs in both assists and points with 67 and 105 , respectively . His team jumped from fourth place to first place in the Smythe Division . In the playoffs , the Oilers were the victims of one of the biggest upsets in hockey history . Facing the Los Angeles Kings , a team they had finished 48 points ahead in the regular season , the Oilers were defeated in five games in a best of five series .
The following season , Anderson tallied 48 goals and 56 assists for a total of 104 points to help the Oilers remain atop their division . In the playoffs , the Oilers managed to advance to the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in franchise history . Anderson and his team were matched up against the Islanders who were looking for a fourth consecutive Stanley Cup victory . During the Finals , Anderson had several noted run @-@ ins with Islanders goaltender Billy Smith . During game one , a slash on Anderson 's knee earned Smith a two @-@ minute slashing penalty . Anderson 's knee swelled up and prevented him from practicing the next day . In game four , when the two crashed into each other , Smith 's dive resulted in referee Andy Van Hellemond handing a five @-@ minute penalty to Anderson . Van Hellemond later said that Smith was making a fool of him . The season ended in disappointment for the Oilers as they were defeated in four games in a best of seven series . Anderson 's team would cite the loss as a valuable lesson in their quest for their first Stanley Cup .
The Oilers again repeated as division champions in 1983 – 84 . Anderson set a career high in goals with 54 and he made his first All @-@ Star Game appearance . In the playoffs , the Oilers made their second consecutive Finals appearance . Once again , Anderson and his team faced the Islanders who were now looking to become the second team in NHL history to win five consecutive Stanley Cups . This time though , the Oilers emerged victorious in five games . This marked the ending of the Islanders ' dynasty and the beginning of the Oilers ' dynasty . Anderson scored 17 points in the playoffs .
At the beginning of the 1984 – 85 season , Anderson signed an eight @-@ year contract with the Oilers which would pay him $ 400 @,@ 000 per season . He had suggested he might have played in Europe if the Oilers had not provided a satisfactory deal . Anderson recorded 42 goals and 81 points and once more his team were the division champions . Anderson was also selected to play in the All @-@ Star Game . For the third straight season , the Oilers reached the Finals . The Oilers defeated their opponent , the Philadelphia Flyers , in five games . Anderson set a career high in assists with 16 during the playoff run . The 1985 – 86 season saw Anderson score 54 goals , 48 assists , adding up to 102 points . This was the second time Anderson had reached the 50 goal plateau in his career and the third time he had reached the 100 point plateau . It would be the last time in his career he would reach either plateau . He was also selected to play in his third consecutive All @-@ Star Game . For the fifth consecutive season , the Oilers sat atop the Smythe Division . However , the Oilers were eliminated in the division finals by the Calgary Flames on an own goal by defenceman Steve Smith . The loss did not seem to faze Anderson and his team , as they won their third Cup the next season by beating the Flyers once again , but this time in seven games . Anderson set career highs in goals ( 14 ) , points ( 27 ) and PIM ( 59 ) during the playoff run .
The Oilers failed to win the division title in 1987 – 88 for the first time since the 1981 – 82 season , as they finished runner @-@ up to the Calgary Flames . Anderson scored 88 points during the season , and he was selected to play in the All @-@ Star Game . This would be Anderson 's last appearance at the All @-@ Star Game . In the midst of the 1988 playoffs , Anderson 's friend , Dr. George Varvis , died after falling into Anderson 's pool . Glen Sather , the head coach and general manager of the Oilers , was worried that Anderson 's play would be affected by this tragedy . However , his friend 's death did not seem to affect his on @-@ ice production . He scored 9 goals , and 16 assists for a total of 25 points to help the Oilers win their fourth Cup . His 16 assists tied a career high . However , the death of Anderson 's friend seemed to have caught on to him the next season . Anderson was battling with depression . To make matters worse , Wayne Gretzky , his longtime teammate , had been traded to a different team . Anderson scored 64 points in 73 games , the lowest output since his rookie season . At one time , Anderson considered retiring . In the playoffs , the Oilers were ousted in the first round by the Kings , Gretzky 's new team . After being eliminated from the playoffs , Anderson chose to play for Team Canada at the World Championships in Sweden . Anderson credits his time in Sweden for rejuvenating his love of the game .
Looking to rebound after a disappointing season , Anderson and his team made a surprise appearance in the Finals . The Oilers defeated their opponents , the Boston Bruins , in five games to win their fifth Stanley Cup . Anderson scored 22 points and became one of only seven players to be a part of the entire Oilers dynasty . In 1990 – 91 , Anderson recorded 55 points , his lowest point totals since his rookie season . Wanting to rebuild the team with a younger core , the Oilers were involved in a blockbuster trade at the end of the season with the Toronto Maple Leafs that included seven players . Anderson , along with Grant Fuhr and Craig Berube , were sent to Toronto in exchange for Scott Thornton , Vincent Damphousse , Luke Richardson , Peter Ing and future considerations .
During his time with the Oilers , Anderson scored 417 goals , 489 assists , and 906 points , ranking him third , fourth , and fourth most respectively in franchise history . His 183 playoff points are fourth all @-@ time in franchise history and his 126 powerplay goals are the most in franchise history .
= = = Late career ( 1991 – 1997 ) = = =
Anderson spent two seasons and part of another with the Maple Leafs . He recorded consecutive 20 @-@ goal seasons , and he reached the career milestone of 1000 points with them . During the Maple Leafs playoff run in 1992 – 93 , Anderson recorded 18 points in 21 games , including an overtime goal in Game 5 of the Western Conference Finals against the Kings , which gave the Leafs a 3 @-@ 2 series lead but turned out to be their last win of the season . In Game 6 , Anderson took a costly penalty in the last minute of the third period , which resulted in Gretzky 's overtime @-@ winner . The Kings then won Game 7 in Toronto to advance to the Finals .
In 1993 – 94 , Anderson played 73 games with the Maple Leafs before being traded to the New York Rangers . In New York , Anderson was reunited with many of his former teammates from his days in Edmonton . The Rangers featured six former Oilers , including future Hall of Famer and Anderson 's long @-@ time linemate Mark Messier . The Rangers qualified for the playoffs and were able to advance to the Finals . Matched up against the Vancouver Canucks , the Rangers defeated them in seven games . This was the Rangers ' first Stanley Cup victory since 1940 and the end of the longest Stanley Cup drought in NHL history . After being held scoreless in the previous rounds , Anderson scored his only three playoff goals in the Finals , two of them being game @-@ winners . This would be Anderson 's sixth and last Stanley Cup victory .
Due to the 1994 – 95 NHL lockout , Anderson went to Europe to play hockey . He played with the Augsburger Panther of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga in Germany and the Lukko Rauma of the SM @-@ liiga in Finland , as well as the Canadian National Team . After the lockout was resolved , Anderson signed as a free agent with the St. Louis Blues and played 42 regular season and playoff games combined . At the end of the season , Anderson did not re @-@ sign with the Blues . After playing part of the next season with Augsburger and the National Team again , Anderson signed with the Canucks as a free agent for the reported sum of $ 400 @,@ 000 . His reasons for joining the team were because of former Oiler teammate Esa Tikkanen already playing there , and a desire to finish his career in his hometown . However , Anderson never played for the Canucks as the Oilers picked him up on re @-@ entry waivers . Anderson expressed his disappointment at these turn of events , as he wanted to play in Vancouver instead . He spent 17 games with the Oilers , before being put on waivers that same season . The Blues claimed him , and he spent his last days in the NHL with them . The 1996 – 97 season saw Anderson return to Europe and play with HC La Chaux @-@ de @-@ Fonds of the National League A in Switzerland and with Bolzano HC of the Alpenliga in Italy . Anderson played a combined 25 games in both leagues before retiring .
= = International career = =
Anderson was known to have a liking for participating in international competitions . His first test at the international stage was during the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid , New York . Canada finished sixth in the tournament while Anderson scored four points in six games . Later on , Anderson credited the practice he received in preparation for the Olympics as a key to his future success in the NHL .
Anderson was chosen to participate in the 1984 Canada Cup . The roster included eight of Anderson 's teammates from the Edmonton Oilers . Canada advanced to the finals and defeated Sweden 2 – 0 in a best of three series to win the Cup . Anderson scored five points during the tournament . The 1987 Canada Cup also saw Anderson participate . Once more , Canada reached the finals , but this time they were up against the Soviet Union . The finals required all three games as Canada defeated the Soviet Union . All three games needed overtime and had a final score of 6 – 5 . Anderson recorded three points during the tournament .
In 1989 , Anderson played at the Ice Hockey World Championships for the first time . With four points in six games , Anderson helped Canada win the silver medal , as the Soviets took home the gold . Three years later , Anderson made his second and final appearance at the World Ice Hockey Championships , this time in Czechoslovakia . Canada was eliminated by Finland in the quarterfinals by a score of 4 – 3 . Anderson registered three points during the tournament .
Wanting to participate in the Olympics again , Anderson did what he could to play at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer , Norway . He negotiated a clause with his team , the Toronto Maple Leafs , to grant him the right to play for Team Canada . This was not enough as Anderson also had to obtain permission from the league . The league had instituted a policy that only players with less than one year of National Hockey League experience could join and therefore turned down his request . The league 's decision caused an outrage in Canada . Canada won silver as they lost the gold medal game to Sweden .
= = Playing style = =
Anderson was noted for his aggressive " to the net " playing style , typifying the NHL power forward in the early 1980s . He credits coach Clare Drake 's drills during his time with the Olympic team for his love of driving the net . He also liked to stay behind the net and pass to his teammates in front of the goal for scoring chances . Noted as a " money " player , Anderson was able to elevate his game in high pressure situations . He scored five playoff overtime goals and 17 playoff game @-@ winning goals , good for third and fifth all @-@ time in NHL history . During the playoffs , Anderson accumulated 93 goals , 121 assists , and 214 points , the fourth , ninth , and fourth most in NHL history . In addition , his 72 regular season game @-@ winning goals with the Oilers put him first all time in franchise history .
Anderson was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame on November 10 , 2008 in the players category . His jersey number 9 was retired on January 18 , 2009 , by the Oilers , before a game against the Phoenix Coyotes . The date for Anderson 's number retirement was specifically selected because his former Oilers teammates , Wayne Gretzky and Grant Fuhr , were serving as the Coyotes ' head coach and goaltending coach respectively at the time .
= = Personal life = =
Anderson 's post @-@ playing career was mired by a bitter legal battle over child support . He was accused of reneging on child support payments to a woman whom he had fathered a child with out of wedlock . The case has since been settled . It was reported that the bad publicity from this case had kept Anderson out of the Hockey Hall of Fame for a long time .
He resides in Manhattan with his wife Susan , and daughter Autumn . Anderson plays in charity and old @-@ timers games , and owns a hockey school in Connecticut . He also runs a fantasy camp , which gives fans a chance to play hockey alongside him . On occasions , Anderson appears as an analyst for the New York Rangers . Anderson started a company called Glenn Anderson 's Cell @-@ City . It specializes in car phones .
Anderson was a participant in season one of Battle of the Blades . His partner , Isabelle Brasseur , and he were the second pair to be eliminated from the competition . For their efforts , Brasseur 's charity , the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada , and Anderson 's charity , the Cross Cancer Institute , each received a $ 12 @,@ 500 donation .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
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= Dominik Hašek =
Dominik Hašek ( Czech pronunciation : [ ˈdomɪnɪk ˈɦaʃɛk ] , audio ; born January 29 , 1965 ) is a retired Czech ice hockey goaltender . In his 16 @-@ season National Hockey League ( NHL ) career , he played for the Chicago Blackhawks , Buffalo Sabres , Detroit Red Wings and the Ottawa Senators . During his years in Buffalo , he became one of the league 's finest goaltenders , earning him the nickname " The Dominator " . His strong play has been credited with establishing European goaltenders in a league previously dominated by North Americans . He is a two @-@ time Stanley Cup champion , both with the Red Wings .
Hašek was one of the league 's most successful goaltenders of the 1990s and early 2000s . From 1993 to 2001 , he won six Vezina Trophies . In 1998 he won his second consecutive Hart Memorial Trophy , becoming the first goaltender to win the award multiple times . During the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano , Japan , he led the Czech national ice hockey team to its first and only Olympic gold medal . The feat made him a popular figure in his home country and prompted hockey legend Wayne Gretzky to call him " the best player in the game " . While with the Red Wings in 2002 , Hašek became the first European @-@ trained starting goaltender to win the Stanley Cup . In the process , he set a record for shutouts in a postseason year .
Hašek is considered an unorthodox goaltender , with a distinct style that has labeled him a " flopper " . He is best known for his concentration , foot speed , flexibility , and unconventional saves , such as covering the puck with his blocker rather than his trapper . Hašek holds the highest career save percentage of all time ( 0 @.@ 9223 ) and is seventh in goals against average ( first in the modern era ) ( 2 @.@ 202 ) , and the third @-@ highest single @-@ season save percentage ( 0 @.@ 9366 in 1998 – 99 ) . The record was broken by Tim Thomas in the 2010 @-@ 11 season and again by Brian Elliott in the 2011 @-@ 12 season who now holds the record at .940 . Hašek is the only goalie to face the most shots per 60 minutes and have the highest save percentage in one season . He did it twice , while with the Buffalo Sabres ( 1996 and 1998 ) .
At the time of his retirement , he was the oldest active goalie in the NHL at 43 , and the second @-@ oldest active player in the league after Red Wings teammate Chris Chelios , who was 46 . Hašek announced his retirement on June 9 , 2008 , but on April 21 , 2009 , he announced a comeback to professional hockey and signed a contract with HC Pardubice of the Czech Extraliga . On June 7 , 2010 , he signed with Spartak Moscow of the KHL and played the last season of his career with this team . Hašek announced his retirement on October 9 , 2012 . Hašek was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame on November 17 , 2014 .
= = Early life = =
Hašek started playing hockey at the age of six in his native Czechoslovakia . As he explains :
In 1980 , Hašek joined the top hockey league in the country , the Czechoslovak Extraliga , with his hometown team , HC Pardubice . He became the youngest hockey player in history to play at the professional level at age 16 . He helped to win two league titles in 1987 and 1989 . The next year , he was drafted by the Czech army to play for Dukla Jihlava . After making his mark and eventually playing for the Czechoslovakian National team , Hašek entered the NHL draft and was drafted by the Chicago Blackhawks in 1983 . At the time , NHL teams were wary of drafting players from behind the Iron Curtain who were often unwilling to play in the NHL or barred from doing so by their countries . Consequently , Hašek was picked in the 10th round ( 199th overall ) and was the seventeenth goalie selected . Hašek did not even know he had been drafted until several months later .
Until 1990 , Hašek played in his native Czechoslovakia for HC Pardubice and HC Jihlava . He was named the top ice hockey player of the Czechoslovak Extraliga in 1987 , 1989 and 1990 , and Goaltender of the Year from 1986 through 1990 . His American career began with the Indianapolis Ice of the IHL , where he played parts of two seasons . His NHL debut with the Blackhawks finally came in the 1990 – 91 season , seven years after the 1983 NHL Entry Draft .
= = NHL career = =
= = = Chicago Blackhawks ( 1990 – 1992 ) = = =
In Chicago , Hašek spent time as the backup to Ed Belfour , and played only 25 games over two seasons with the Blackhawks , splitting time between the Blackhawks and the Indianapolis Ice of the IHL . On November 6 , 1990 , wearing the number 34 ( 31 was worn by backup goaltender Jacques Cloutier that year ) , Hašek made his first NHL start in a 1 – 1 tie against the Hartford Whalers . His first victory came on March 8 , 1991 , in a 5 – 3 performance over the Buffalo Sabres , and on January 9 , 1992 , he recorded his first shutout in a 2 – 0 win against the Toronto Maple Leafs . During this time with the Blackhawks , his goaltending coach was Vladislav Tretiak , who was selected in the 1983 draft but was barred from playing in the NHL by the Soviet government . Hašek appeared in game 4 of the 1992 Stanley Cup Finals against the Pittsburgh Penguins , after Belfour allowed two goals on four shots in the opening 6 : 33 , and had 21 saves . Although the Penguins won to clinch the Stanley Cup , Hašek 's performance attracted the attention of the Sabres , who had considered trading for him earlier that season .
= = = Buffalo Sabres ( 1992 – 2001 ) = = =
After the Stanley Cup finals appearance , Chicago decided to stay with Belfour and Jimmy Waite . Hašek was traded to the Buffalo Sabres for goalie Stephane Beauregard and future considerations , which later materialized into a draft pick used to obtain Éric Dazé . In Buffalo , wearing number 39 , he was initially the backup goaltender , first playing behind Tom Draper and then Grant Fuhr . When Fuhr was injured partway through the season , Hašek was elevated to starter and soon developed into a top tier goaltender . In 1994 , he won his first Vezina Trophy , was runner @-@ up for the Hart Trophy and shared the William M. Jennings Trophy with Fuhr . Hašek played 58 games with a league @-@ best 1 @.@ 95 goals against average ( GAA ) , seven shutouts , and a .930 save percentage . He followed this feat by again winning the Vezina Trophy and again placing as a Hart finalist in 1995 .
Hašek 's success in the 1996 – 97 season was overshadowed by a conflict with then @-@ head coach Ted Nolan . The conflict created a tense , clique @-@ like atmosphere in the Sabres ' clubhouse . In game three of the first round series against the Ottawa Senators , Hašek removed himself in the second period and was replaced by Steve Shields . Hašek suffered a mild sprain of his right MCL , and the team doctor pronounced him day @-@ to @-@ day . However , the media and some teammates speculated Hašek was using his injury to bail out on the team . One such individual was Buffalo News columnist Jim Kelley , who wrote a column which detailed Hašek 's injury and his conflict with Nolan , and questioned the goaltender 's mental toughness . When Kelley approached Hašek for an interview after a loss in game five of the best @-@ of @-@ seven series , Hašek attacked the journalist and received a three @-@ game suspension and a $ 10 @,@ 000 ( US ) fine as a result of the incident . With Steve Shields in goal , the Sabres fought back against the Senators and took the series in seven games . However , Hašek claimed his knee was still injured and did not play in the five @-@ game loss in the following series against the Philadelphia Flyers .
Though General Manager John Muckler was named " Executive of the Year " , he was fired for his constant feuding with Nolan . Hašek , who sided with Muckler , stated in an interview during the 1997 NHL Awards Ceremony that the team would benefit from replacing Nolan . Despite winning the Jack Adams Award as top coach and being popular with the Sabres fanbase , Nolan was only offered a one @-@ year contract extension by replacement GM Darcy Regier . He rejected this under the grounds that it was too short , and decided to part ways with the franchise . This upset many fans , who blamed Nolan 's departure on Hašek 's alleged attempt to rid him . For the first six weeks of the next season he was booed so vigorously that arena workers would play tapes of a crowd cheering to help balance it out . As the season progressed , Hašek played well and won back many fans . He won the Vezina Trophy again , as well as the Lester B. Pearson Award and the Hart Trophy for league MVP . He became one of the few goaltenders in NHL history to win the Hart , alongside Al Rollins and José Théodore , and Hall of Famers Jacques Plante , Chuck Rayner and Roy Worters .
Hašek played a career high 72 games in the 1997 – 98 season , and set a team record with 13 shutouts . Six of these shutouts came in December , which tied the all @-@ time NHL record for most in one month . He again won the Lester B. Pearson Award , the Hart Trophy , and the Vezina Trophy , becoming the first goalie in NHL history to win the Hart twice . He donated the $ 10 @,@ 000 prize money after winning the Pearson Award in 1998 to the Variety Club of Buffalo . In the off @-@ season he signed a three @-@ year , $ 26 million deal , securing the highest goaltender salary contract at that time .
In 1999 , Hašek averaged a career best 1 @.@ 87 GAA and .937 save percentage , capturing him his third consecutive Vezina , and fifth overall . He was also a finalist for the Hart and Pearson trophies . Though the Sabres did not have a stellar regular season and finished with the seventh seed in the Eastern Conference , they defeated the Ottawa Senators , Boston Bruins and Toronto Maple Leafs in the playoffs en route to a best @-@ of @-@ seven Stanley Cup Final against the Presidents ' Trophy @-@ winning Dallas Stars . The Sabres eventually lost the series four games to two , with the decisive sixth game being one of the longest Stanley Cup playoff games in NHL history . Hašek and Ed Belfour made 50 and 53 saves , respectively , in a sudden @-@ death triple @-@ overtime duel that only ended when Brett Hull scored a controversial Cup @-@ winning goal with his foot in the goal crease .
The goal was not reviewed immediately , so officials did not notice Hull 's foot in the crease until minutes later . After video reviews showed Hull 's position , the goal was still upheld , leaving the Sabres infuriated . Hašek commented , " Maybe [ the video goal judge ] was in the bathroom . Maybe he was sleeping . Maybe he doesn 't know the rule . " The following season , NHL commissioner Gary Bettman announced that video replays would no longer be used to judge if players are in the crease or not , and that it would be a judgment call by the officiating crew . After the season ended , Hašek contemplated retirement because of a combination of injuries and a desire to become more involved in his family life . The announcement stunned many of his teammates , particularly Mike Peca and Jason Woolley .
In the 1999 – 2000 season , Hašek was hampered by a nagging groin injury . He missed forty games and failed to win a major NHL award for the first time in several years . Though he healed in time for the playoffs , the Sabres were eliminated in the first round in five games by the Philadelphia Flyers . In 2000 – 01 — his final season with Buffalo — Hašek set a modern era record by collecting his sixth Vezina Trophy . He also won his second William M. Jennings Trophy . The Sabres played Philadelphia in the first round of the playoffs again , where Hašek outplayed his 1998 Olympic back @-@ up Roman Čechmánek . In the clinching sixth game , Hašek recorded a shutout against the Flyers . In the second round , the Sabres played a seven @-@ game series against Mario Lemieux 's Pittsburgh Penguins , which culminated with the Penguins winning the final game in overtime .
= = = First tenure with the Detroit Red Wings ( 2001 @-@ 2002 ; 2003 @-@ 2004 ) = = =
Before the start of the next season , Hašek was traded to the Detroit Red Wings in an attempt to lower the Sabres ' payroll and to send Hašek to a more competitive team . He was dealt for Vyacheslav Kozlov , a first round selection in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft and future considerations , which eventually became the draft pick of Jim Slater . During his first season with Detroit , Hašek posted a career high 41 wins with just 15 losses , helping the Red Wings earn the President 's Trophy with the league 's best record . In the playoffs , he led the Wings past the Vancouver Canucks , the St. Louis Blues , the Colorado Avalanche and eventually the Carolina Hurricanes in the finals to win the Stanley Cup . During the conference finals against Colorado , he became the first goalie to be awarded an assist on an overtime game @-@ winning goal in the post @-@ season after passing the puck to Wings captain Steve Yzerman , who then assisted Fredrik Olausson in scoring the final goal of the third game of that series . He also set a record for most shutouts in a post @-@ season with six , broken the year after by Martin Brodeur with seven .
That summer , Hašek officially announced his retirement so that he could spend time with his family and other hobbies . However , after Detroit 's first round loss to the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in the following season , he expressed his desire to play again . This created a difficult situation for the Red Wings , who had two years left on Curtis Joseph 's three @-@ year $ 24 million contract , which had a no @-@ trade clause . Detroit was also under pressure knowing that the rival Colorado Avalanche would be looking for a goalie to replace Patrick Roy after his retirement . With Manny Legace also on the Wings ' roster , Detroit now had three potential starting goalies .
In the 2003 – 04 season Hašek injured his groin after playing just 14 games . On January 9 , he and the team agreed he should rest his injury for two to four weeks . Hašek privately told general manager Ken Holland that he would not accept any pay while he was injured . On February 10 , he announced that he was not going to continue to play that season , surprising the Red Wings management . He eventually revealed that he refused about $ 3 million of his $ 6 million salary . In April 2004 , he underwent groin surgery in Prague , and returned to his hometown of Pardubice to recuperate .
= = = Ottawa Senators ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
After his contract with the Wings expired , Hašek announced his intention to play for a Stanley Cup contender , and specifically named the Ottawa Senators as a possibility . On July 6 , 2004 , after trading Patrick Lalime to the St. Louis Blues , the Senators signed Hašek to a one @-@ year deal .
During the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , Hašek toured with the Primus Worldstars . Similar to the tour Wayne Gretzky and IMG formed during the 1994 – 95 NHL lockout , the Primus Worldstars Tour ran December 7 – 23 , playing in seven different countries ( Riga , Latvia ; Moscow and St Petersburg , Russia ; Bratislava , Slovakia ; Bern , Switzerland ; Karlstad , Jonkoping and Linkoping , Sweden ; Oslo , Norway ; Katowice , Poland ) in ten scheduled games . The tour competed against all @-@ star teams or club teams of each country .
Hašek played increasingly well for the Senators up until the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin . During the season , he reached 300 career wins , and his GAA and save percentage were the second @-@ best in the league . Upon departure to Turin , Hašek 's equipment was accidentally left behind in Ottawa . This caused Hašek to miss a number of practices with the Czech National team . At the Winter Olympics , he injured his right adductor muscle while making a save in the first qualifying match against Germany , forcing him to leave the game after only 9 minutes and 25 seconds . Hašek 's injury caused him to miss the rest of the regular season and post @-@ season , despite several rumours that he would return in time for the playoffs . He said that if he were to be re @-@ signed , he would play for a base salary of $ 500 @,@ 000 with bonuses .
After the Senators were eliminated in the second round , they opted not to re @-@ sign Hašek , despite Hašek 's willingness to take a pay cut .
= = = Return to the Red Wings ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = =
On July 31 , 2006 , at the age of 41 , Hašek joined the Red Wings for the second time . He signed a one @-@ year $ 750 @,@ 000 US contract , with added bonuses if the team succeeded in the playoffs . He posted 38 wins and a 2 @.@ 05 GAA while leading the Red Wings to the number one seed in the Western Conference . He also broke his own personal record by going 181 minutes and 17 seconds without allowing a goal . Midway through the regular season , the team announced that to avoid injury and preserve Hašek for the playoffs , he would not play on consecutive nights . He played his first consecutive nights of the season on April 21 and 22 against the Calgary Flames in games 5 and 6 of the Western Conference Quarterfinals . Hašek won both games , clinching the series for Detroit . In the next round against the San Jose Sharks , the Red Wings were on the road and down two games to one , but Hašek held the Sharks to three goals in the next three games . His 28 @-@ save shutout in game six tied him for sixth place on the all @-@ time NHL playoff shutouts list and sent the Red Wings to the Western Conference finals against the Anaheim Ducks . However , Hašek and the Red Wings lost in six games to the Ducks , who eventually defeated the Ottawa Senators for the Stanley Cup .
Hašek contemplated retirement in the 2007 offseason , but on July 5 , 2007 , he signed a one @-@ year contract with Detroit worth $ 2 million with up to $ 2 million in bonuses , reportedly turning down $ 5 million for salary cap room for the rest of the Red Wings ' roster .
During the 2007 – 08 season , he was replaced by backup Chris Osgood , who had originally been traded away from the Red Wings to make way for Hašek before the 2001 @-@ 02 season . When Hašek recovered and got back into his stride , Detroit chose to alternate goaltenders in tandem instead of designating either as the backup . Detroit coach Mike Babcock announced Hašek to start in the 2008 playoffs . Through the first two games against the Nashville Predators , the Red Wings were victorious , but after a lackluster performance in the next two , Osgood was in goal for the remainder of the playoffs . Despite expressing disappointment at losing his starting position , Hašek maintained his professionalism in practice and continued to support his teammates , with Darren McCarty citing a close relationship between Hašek and Osgood . Eventually the Red Wings beat the Pittsburgh Penguins in six games for the Stanley Cup .
On June 9 , 2008 , Hašek announced his retirement from the NHL , only five days after winning his second Stanley Cup with the Detroit Red Wings , saying he lacked the motivation for another year in the NHL . With Osgood , the two were awarded the William M. Jennings Trophy for least goals against on a team in the season .
= = Final years in Europe and retirement = =
In April 2009 , Hašek once again came out of retirement and signed a one @-@ year contract with HC Moeller Pardubice , the club where he started his long career . In the 2009 – 10 season he led his team to win Czech league title . Hašek had three shutouts in the playoffs , one in the finals , while his Pardubice lost just one game in the playoffs before claiming 12 consecutive wins . For the 2010 – 2011 hockey season , Hašek signed a one @-@ year contract with HC Spartak Moscow .
On May 15 , 2012 , Czech website hokej.cz reported that Hašek had discussed playing for Piráti Chomutov after their promotion to the Czech Extraliga . On May 25 , 2012 , Czech sport website Deniksport reported that Hašek was considering a return to the NHL , possibly with the Buffalo Sabres , Detroit Red Wings or Tampa Bay Lightning . However , the start of the 2012 – 13 NHL season was delayed due to the 2012 – 13 NHL lockout and Hašek announced his retirement on October 9 , 2012 .
On January 13 , 2015 , the Sabres retired Hašek 's # 39 jersey prior to a game against the Detroit Red Wings , becoming the seventh retired number in Sabres ' history .
= = International play = =
Hašek 's most memorable international performance came in the 1998 Winter Olympics , where he led the Czech national team to the gold medal . He allowed six goals in total , with only two of them coming in the medal round . Against Team Canada in the semifinals , Hašek stopped Theoren Fleury , Ray Bourque , Joe Nieuwendyk , Eric Lindros and Brendan Shanahan in a dramatic shootout win . He then shut out the Russian team 1 – 0 in the final game , stopping 20 shots . He was later announced as the best goaltender in the Olympics . After he won the gold , he was quoted as saying :
His play made him one of the most popular figures in the Czech Republic , so much so that residents chanted " Hašek to the castle ! " in the streets . In response to this , Hašek called the country 's president Václav Havel and jokingly told him that his job was not in jeopardy . He also helped to inspire an opera ( titled Nagano ) about the Czech team 's gold medal victory , and in 2003 , Petr Pravec and Lenka Šarounová named an asteroid ( 8217 Dominikhašek ) in his honour .
In the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin , Italy , Hašek played for just nine minutes and twenty @-@ five seconds , until he injured his right adductor muscle . Despite his absence , the Czechs managed to earn the bronze medal with backup goaltender Tomáš Vokoun , which Hašek received as well .
= = Style of play = =
Hašek had an unorthodox goaltending style . He was extraordinarily flexible and was jokingly described in a MasterCard commercial as having " a Slinky for a spine " . In order to cover the bottom of the net , where most goals are scored , Hašek dropped down on almost every shot . His " flopping " style was derived from him flailing in the crease , using every part of his body , including his head , to stop the puck . Hašek occasionally dropped his stick and covered the puck with his stick hand , whereas most goaltenders would use the glove hand instead . In response to the speculation he received from his style , Hašek explained :
Hašek 's unique style attracted fans to games . Because of his flexibility , Hašek could make difficult saves that other goalies could not — an opposing coach once referred to them as " miracle saves " . These types of saves include toe @-@ stops , snagging pucks from behind his back , and a desperation maneuver known as the " Hašek roll " . Hašek was also known for his strict regimen of conditioning . During the off @-@ season between May and September 2006 , he lost a considerable amount of weight to increase his flexibility . Hašek was one of the last goaltenders to wear a helmet @-@ and @-@ cage combo rather than a contemporary hybrid goalie mask . The last was his former teammate Chris Osgood who left the NHL three years after Hašek .
= = Personal life = =
Hašek and his former wife Alena have a son named Michael ( born 1990 ) and a daughter named Dominika ( born 1994 ) . He divides much of his free time playing squash and inline hockey , where he plays defense . When he was younger , Hašek played competitive football as a midfielder , and was a junior tennis champion in Eastern Bohemia . His brother Martin is also a competitive athlete and played for the Czech Republic football team AC Sparta Prague before retiring and eventually deciding to coach . Cousin Ivan Hašek also played professional football . Hobby @-@ wise , Hašek claims that he has been a fan of professional wrestling since his Buffalo days , and says that he mostly follows his favorite wrestlers , Stone Cold Steve Austin and Don " The Rock " Muraco .
Because of his formal education , Hašek stands out among Czech sportsmen . He earned a university degree after studying history and the Czech language in the Faculty of Education at the University of Hradec Králové , which qualified him to be a teacher , and led him to teach high school classes . Hašek also has a brand of sportswear named Dominator Clothing , which was launched shortly after the Nagano Olympics in 1998 . It also had two locations in Michigan for a short time . Unfortunately , sales was short , and Dominator brand was forced to end in 2008 . In May 2001 , Hašek founded the Dominik Hašek Youth Hockey League / Hašek 's Heroes , and donated over $ 1 million to help underprivileged children in Buffalo play hockey . In 1998 , he also organized a charity hockey game in Prague , and donated the profits to hospitals in the Czech Republic .
Hašek is known to appreciate humor to keep team spirits up , and often jokes about his resemblance to Cosmo Kramer of Seinfeld . In the late 1990s , he was featured in a Mastercard commercial that praised his flexibility . On November 26 , 2006 , Mark Parisi 's comic panel off the mark featured a comic about Hašek 's childhood .
In November 2012 Hašek announced divorce after 23 years of marriage .
Throughout his long career , Hašek has been represented by agent Ritch Winter .
= = = Inline hockey game incident = = =
During an inline hockey game on May 18 , 2003 , Hašek was accused of assaulting another player . He was playing as a defender for Bonfire Střída when he crosschecked Martin Šíla . The prosecutor in the case , Lenka Strnadová , ruled two months later that there was no evidence that Hašek intended bodily harm and recommended the case be treated as a misdemeanor , punishable only by fine ( $ 95 USD maximum ) , rather than a felony where jail time would have been possible . Hašek 's lawyer Pavel Jelínek announced in a statement that media reports about the incident were exaggerated , with Šíla not having sustained any documented injuries . In October 2003 , the country 's top prosecutor overruled Strnadová , saying her ruling was unlawful because the case had not been properly investigated . The Pardubice prosecution then investigated the case again , and reached the same decision as Strnadová .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Milestones = = =
Hašek earned his 300th National Hockey League win on October 15 , 2005 , in a 5 – 1 home victory with the Ottawa Senators over the Boston Bruins . He stopped 34 of 35 shots and was holding a shutout until Bruins forward Pat Leahy jammed a loose puck under him three minutes into the third period . He became the twenty @-@ second goaltender to reach the milestone . He is the oldest goaltender in NHL history to post a 30 @-@ win season , and in 1997 , he became the second goaltender to win the Lester B. Pearson Award for most outstanding player in the league ( Mike Liut won the Lester B. Pearson Trophy as the league 's MVP as determined by his peers in 1981 ) . He is also the only goaltender to win the Hart Trophy twice for most valuable player , and was only one Vezina Trophy away from tying Jacques Plante 's record of seven . Hašek 's personal best shutout streak is 181 minutes , 17 seconds .
= = = Records = = =
In nine seasons with the Buffalo Sabres , Hašek acquired over 25 franchise records , including most all @-@ time games played , wins , shutouts and lowest goals against average . He also holds the Sabres ' record for most shutouts in a single season with 13 in 1997 – 98 , and lowest goals against average in a single season with a total of 1 @.@ 87 in 1998 – 99 . During the Detroit Red Wings ' championship run in 2002 , Hašek set franchise records for most games played , minutes played , wins and shutouts in a playoff year . He holds several notable NHL records :
One of the most impressive single @-@ game performances by any player in NHL history came on April 27 , 1994 . Hašek made 70 saves in a 4OT shutout . The opposing goalie was Martin Brodeur , then a rookie , who made 49 saves before being beaten by Dave Hannan and the Sabres beat New Jersey 1 – 0 . Hašek 's 70 saves set a record , which still stands , for the most saves in a game without allowing a goal .
= = Career statistics = =
Bolded numbers indicate season leader
= = = Regular season = = =
† Note : As of the 2005 – 06 season , ties have been replaced by an overtime or shootout loss .
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
Bolded numbers indicate tournament leader
= = Awards = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = = Nominations = = =
= = = Czechoslovak and Czech awards = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Transactions = =
June 8 , 1983 – Drafted by Chicago in the 10th round , 199th overall
August 7 , 1992 – Traded to Buffalo for Stephane Beauregard and a fourth round pick ( Éric Dazé )
March 19 , 1998 – Agreed with Buffalo on a three @-@ year , twenty @-@ six million dollar contract
June 30 , 2001 – Traded to Detroit for Vyacheslav Kozlov , a first round pick in 2002 ( Daniel Paille ) and future considerations
June 25 , 2002 – Announced retirement from professional hockey
July 8 , 2003 – Returned to Detroit as an active player
July 6 , 2004 – Signed as a free agent by Ottawa
July 27 , 2005 – Contract option exercised by Ottawa for 2005 – 06 season
July 31 , 2006 – Signed as a free agent by Detroit
July 5 , 2007 – Signed as a free agent by Detroit
June 9 , 2008 – Again announced retirement from professional hockey
April 21 , 2009 – Signed as a free agent by HC Pardubice of the Czech Extraliga
June 7 , 2010 – Signed as a free agent by Spartak Moscow of the KHL
October 9 , 2012 - Announced retirement from professional hockey for the third time .
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= 2012 – 13 Harvard Crimson men 's basketball team =
The 2012 – 13 Harvard Crimson men 's basketball team represents Harvard University during the 2012 – 13 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . The Crimson , led by sixth year head coach Tommy Amaker , played their home games at Lavietes Pavilion and are members of the Ivy League .
Harvard entered the season as the two @-@ time defending Ivy League Champion , but its roster was greatly changed due to graduation and the 2012 Harvard cheating scandal that led to the withdrawal of two star players . With reduced expectations , the team entered the season expected to finish second in conference . During the season , the team swept the three opponents that are also from Boston . The win against Boston College , gave Amaker his sixth victory against no defeats over Atlantic Coast Conference foes . Despite the team 's turmoil , it prevailed to win the 2012 – 13 Ivy League men 's basketball season regular season championship , earning the team an automatic bid to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , where it won the school 's first ever NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament game . The tournament victory over # 3 seed New Mexico was also the school 's first victory over a top 10 ranked team .
The team was led by Wesley Saunders who was unanimous First Team All @-@ Ivy and Ivy League Rookie of the Year Siyani Chambers who was also a first team honoree . Both Steve Moundou @-@ Missi and Laurent Rivard earned honorable mention All @-@ Ivy recognition . Harvard tied an Ivy League single @-@ season team record with 13 combined Player of the Week and Rookie of the Week Awards .
= = Roster = =
= = Preseason = =
Prior to the season , Harvard won all four games on its international training trip to Italy . The team announced that senior Christian Webster and junior Laurent Rivard would serve as captain . The Crimson only returned one starter from the prior year . Harvard 's two captains from the prior season , Keith Wright and Oliver McNally were seniors . Wright had been the Ivy League Men 's Basketball Player of the Year in 2011 . Wright , the Crimson all @-@ time leader in blocked shots , signed with Uppsala Basket of the Swedish Basketball League , and McNally , signed with the Moncton Miracles of the National Basketball League of Canada . The team welcomed five freshmen and ten returning players .
The Ivy League media selected Harvard as the preseason runner @-@ up to Princeton , giving the team the only first place vote that did not go to Princeton . Jeff Goodman of CBS Sports also selected Princeton first and Harvard second with his preseason predictions , noting that Harvard had been his preseason favorite until the September cheating scandal that involved about 125 athletes and students ensnared Kyle Casey and Brandyn Curry , leading to their withdrawal . Casey and Curry had been first @-@ team and second @-@ team All @-@ Ivy selections respectively for the 2011 – 12 Ivy League men 's basketball season , respectively . Both players withdrew from school in hopes of preserving their final year of athletic eligibility following the investigation .
Harvard appeared on 14 televised games in the regular season . Of these 14 , six came on the NBC Sports Network . In addition , the team had four games broadcast on four different ESPN networks . Its February 23 game against Yale was televised by CBS Sports .
= = Schedule = =
Harvard 's November 14 contest against Massachusetts was televised on ESPN as part of the network 's Tip @-@ Off Marathon . Harvard lost the contest 67 – 64 . On December 4 , the team defeated Boston College for its fifth consecutive victory against Boston College Eagles men 's basketball , making Amaker a perfect 6 – 0 against the Atlantic Coast Conference . The team also defeated cross @-@ town rivals MIT and Boston University as well as in @-@ state rival Holy Cross . Harvard 's contest against Columbia that was originally scheduled for February 9 at 7 : 00 PM at Levien Gymnasium in Manhattan was postponed until February 10 at 2 : 00 PM due to the February 2013 nor 'easter ( also known as Winter Storm Nemo ) .
Harvard had cruised to a 9 – 1 record in conference play and then fell to 7 – 2 Princeton on March 1 . The following night , Princeton defeated Dartmouth and Harvard lost to Penn to give Princeton the lead in the conference race . Harvard earned the Ivy League Championship with wins on March 8 and 9 over Columbia and Cornell to finish at 11 – 3 in conference as Princeton was swept on the same nights to Yale and Brown to fall to 9 – 4 in conference .
On March 21 in the 2013 NCAA Tournament , Harvard earned the school 's first NCAA Tournament victory and its first victory over a top 10 opponent when it defeated number three seeded New Mexico ( # 10 AP Poll / # 10 Coaches ' Poll ) . The victory was the first by an Ivy League team in the tournament since the 2009 – 10 Cornell Big Red men 's basketball team advanced to the Sweet Sixteen . Two days later , the team lost to Arizona , ending its season .
N.B. Source :
= = = In season = = =
Each week the Ivy League selects a player of the week and a rookie of the week . Led by Wesley Saunders ' 5 Ivy League Player of the Week Awards and Siyani Chambers ' 6 Rookie of the Week Awards , Harvard tied the Ivy League record with 13 single @-@ season weekly recognitions .
= = = All @-@ Ivy = = =
Siyani Chambers was named the unanimous choice for Ivy League Rookie of the Year and the first freshman to be first team All @-@ Ivy . Chambers and Saunders were the first Harvard teammates selected together as first team All @-@ Ivy . The following players earned Ivy League postseason recognition :
First Team All @-@ Ivy
^ Wesley Saunders , ( So . , G / F - Los Angeles )
Siyani Chambers , ( Fr . , G - Golden Valley , Minn . )
Honorable Mention All @-@ Ivy
Steve Moundou @-@ Missi , ( So . , F - Yaounde , Cameroon )
Laurent Rivard , ( Jr . , G - Saint @-@ Bruno @-@ de @-@ Montarville , Québec , Canada )
^ Unanimous Selection
On March 12 , the U.S. Basketball Writers Association named Saunders to its 2012 – 13 Men 's All @-@ District I ( ME , VT , NH , RI , MA , CT ) Team , based upon voting from its national membership . The National Association of Basketball Coaches announced their Division I All ‐ District teams on March 26 , recognizing the nation ’ s best men ’ s collegiate basketball student @-@ athletes . Selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , 240 student @-@ athletes , from 24 districts were chosen . The selections on this list were then eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America teams . Saunders and Chambers were among the District 13 first team selections .
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= Alice in Wonderland ( 2010 film ) =
Alice in Wonderland is a 2010 American fantasy film directed by Tim Burton from a screenplay written by Linda Woolverton . The film stars Johnny Depp , Anne Hathaway , Helena Bonham Carter , Crispin Glover , Matt Lucas , and Mia Wasikowska and features the voices of Alan Rickman , Stephen Fry , Michael Sheen , and Timothy Spall . Based on Lewis Carroll 's fantasy novels , Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking @-@ Glass , and inspired by Walt Disney 's 1951 animated film of the same name , the film tells the story of a nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Alice Kingsleigh , who is told that she can restore the White Queen to her throne , with the help of the Mad Hatter . She is the only one who can slay the Jabberwocky , a dragon @-@ like creature that is controlled by the Red Queen and terrorizes Underland 's inhabitants .
The film was produced by Walt Disney Pictures and shot in the United Kingdom and the United States . The film premiered in London at the Odeon Leicester Square on February 25 , 2010 , and was released in Australia on March 4 , 2010 , and the following day in the United Kingdom and the United States through the Disney Digital 3D , RealD 3D , and IMAX 3D formats well as in conventional theaters .
Alice in Wonderland received mixed reviews upon release ; although praised for its visual style and special effects , the film was criticized for its lack of narrative coherence and overuse of computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) . At the 83rd Academy Awards , Alice in Wonderland won Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design , and was also nominated for Best Visual Effects . The film generated over $ 1 billion in ticket sales and became the fifth highest @-@ grossing film of all time during its theatrical run . The film started a trend of many live action fairytale films being green @-@ lit ( Disney alone had since released similar fantasy films like Oz the Great & Powerful , Maleficent and Cinderella , the latter also featuring Helena Bonham Carter ) . A sequel , titled Alice Through the Looking Glass , was released on May 27 , 2016 .
= = Plot = =
Troubled by a strange recurring dream and mourning the loss of her beloved father , nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Alice Kingsleigh attends a garden party at Lord Ascot 's estate . There she is confronted by an unwanted marriage proposal to Hamish Ascot and the stifling expectations of the society in which she lives . Unsure of how to proceed , she pursues a rabbit wearing a blue waistcoat and accidentally falls into a large rabbit hole under a tree . She emerges in a forest where she is greeted by the White Rabbit , the Dormouse , the Dodo , the Talking Flowers , and Tweedledee and Tweedledum . They argue over her identity as " the right Alice " who must slay the Red Queen 's Jabberwocky and restore the White Queen to power , as foretold by Absolem the Caterpillar and his prophetic scroll . The group is then ambushed by the Bandersnatch and a group of playing @-@ card soldiers led by the Knave of Hearts . Alice , Tweedledum and Tweedledee escape into the woods . The Knave steals the Caterpillar 's scroll . The Dormouse leaves the others behind with one of the Bandersnatch 's eyes in her possession . Tweedledum and Tweedledee are then captured by the Red Queen 's Jubjub bird .
The Knave informs the Red Queen that Alice threatens her reign , and the soldiers and Bayard the Bloodhound are ordered to find Alice immediately . Meanwhile , the Cheshire Cat guides Alice to the March Hare and the Hatter . The Hatter helps Alice avoid capture by allowing himself to be seized instead . Later , Alice is found by Bayard the Bloodhound ; but Alice insists upon helping the Hatter . At the Queen 's citadel , the Red Queen is unaware of Alice 's true identity and therefore welcomes her as a guest . Alice learns that the Vorpal Sword , the only weapon capable of killing the Jabberwocky , is locked inside the den of the Bandersnatch . The Knave crudely attempts to seduce Alice , but she rebuffs him , and a jealous Red Queen orders Alice beheaded . Alice obtains the sword and befriends the Bandersnatch by returning its eye . She then escapes on the back of the grateful Bandersnatch and delivers the sword to the White Queen . The Cheshire Cat saves the Hatter from the executioner , and the Hatter calls for rebellion against the Red Queen . The rebellion is quickly put down by the Jubjub bird , but the resistance flees to the White Queen 's castle , and both armies prepare for battle . Former caterpillar Absolem advises Alice to fight the Jabberwocky just before completing his transformation into a pupa .
On the appointed day , the White and Red Queens gather their armies on a chessboard @-@ like battlefield and send Alice and the Jabberwocky to decide the battle in single combat . Encouraged by the advice of her late father , Alice fights the Jabberwocky among the ruins surrounding the battlefield and finally jumps from the remains of a spiral staircase onto the Jabberwocky 's neck and beheads it . The White Queen sends the Red Queen and the Knave into exile . After the Hatter performs a celebration dance called Futterwacken , the White Queen gives Alice a vial of the Jabberwocky 's purple blood whose power will bring her whatever she wishes . She decides to rejoin the everyday world . Back in England , Lord Ascot takes Alice as his apprentice with the idea of establishing oceanic trade routes to Hong Kong . As the story closes , Alice prepares to set off on a trading ship . A light @-@ blue butterfly lands on her shoulder , and Alice recognizes him as Absolem .
= = Cast = =
Johnny Depp as Tarrant Hightopp , The Mad Hatter . Wasikowska said that the characters " both feel like outsiders and feel alone in their separate worlds , and have a special bond and friendship . " Burton explained that Depp " tried to find a grounding to the character ... as opposed to just being mad . " Burton also said that , " In a lot of versions it 's a very one @-@ note kind of character and you know [ Depp 's ] goal was to try and bring out a human side to the strangeness of the character . " The orange hair is an allusion to the mercury poisoning suffered by hatters who used mercury to cure felt ; Depp believes that the character " was poisoned ... and it was coming out through his hair , through his fingernails and eyes " . Depp and Burton decided that the Hatter 's clothes , skin , hair , personality and accent would change throughout the film to reflect his emotions . In an interview with Depp , the character was paralleled to " a mood ring , [ as ] his emotions are very close to the surface " . The Hatter is " made up of different people and their extreme sides " , with a gentle voice much like the character 's creator Lewis Carroll reflecting the lighter personality and with a Scottish Glaswegian accent ( which Depp modeled after Gregor Fisher 's Rab C. Nesbitt character ) reflecting a darker , more dangerous personality . Illusionary dancer David " Elsewhere " Bernal doubled for Depp during the " Futterwacken " sequence near the end of the film .
Mia Wasikowska as Alice Kingsleigh . When creating the character , screenwriter Linda Woolverton researched how young women were expected to behave in the Victorian era and then made her the opposite . Wasikowska read Carroll 's books as a child and re @-@ read them to prepare for her role . She also watched Jan Švankmajer 's Alice . She said , " When we were kids , my mum would pop it in the VCR player . We would be disturbed , and wouldn 't really understand it , but we couldn 't look away because it was too intriguing . So I had kept that feeling about Alice , a kind of haunting feeling . " Although facing pressures to conform to society 's expectations , Alice grows into a stronger @-@ willed and empowered heroine who chooses her own path ; Independent columnist Liz Hoggard praised Alice as a role model for girls , describing the character as " stubborn , brave , [ and ] non @-@ girlie " . Mairi Ella Challen portrayed Alice as a six @-@ year @-@ old .
Helena Bonham Carter as Iracebeth of Crims , the Red Queen . She is an amalgamation of two Carroll characters : the Red Queen and the Queen of Hearts . Her first name is a play on the word irascible , as she is easily irritated and quick to anger . Bonham Carter 's head was digitally increased to three times its original size on screen . The character hates animals , choosing to use them as servants and furniture . The actress took inspiration from her young daughter Nell , a toddler , stating that , " The Red Queen is just like a toddler , because she 's got a big head and she 's a tyrant . "
Anne Hathaway as Mirana of Marmoreal , the White Queen . She was one of few characters that did not require digital manipulation . Hathaway summed up her character with a caption on a magnet of Happy Bunny holding a knife ; " Cute but psycho . Things even out . " According to Hathaway , " She comes from the same gene pool as the Red Queen . She really likes the dark side , but she 's so scared of going too far into it that she 's made everything appear very light and happy . But she 's living in that place out of fear that she won 't be able to control herself . " Hathaway described her interpretation of the White Queen as " a punk @-@ rock vegan pacifist " , with inspiration drawn from Debbie Harry , Greta Garbo , and the artwork of Dan Flavin . Burton said that the White Queen 's appearance was inspired by Nigella Lawson .
Crispin Glover played Ilosovic Stayne , the Knave of Hearts . The character is arrogant and tricky , and while following the Red Queen 's every order , he is the only one capable of calming her dramatic mood swings . Glover said , " The Red Queen has a fair amount of short @-@ tempered reactions to things that people do , and so [ the Knave ] has to be quite diplomatic . " The Red Queen believes he is her lover , but this proves to be false .
Matt Lucas portrayed both Tweedledee and Tweedledum . Burton commented on the mixture of animation and Lucas , saying that " It 's a weird mixture of things which gives his characters the disturbing quality that they so richly deserve . " The characters are portrayed through a combination of CGI and live @-@ action , with Lucas ' face digitally composited to a full animated body . While performing the character , Lucas had to wear a teardrop @-@ shaped motion capture suit and walk on stilts . In order to play both characters , Lucas was doubled by Ethan Cohn .
Frances de la Tour as Imogene , Alice 's aunt . She is suffering from severe delusions and is constantly awaiting her fictional fiancé whom she believes to be a prince .
Leo Bill as Hamish Ascot , the would @-@ be fiancé of Alice .
Marton Csokas makes a cameo appearance as Alice 's deceased father in the film 's opening scene and Alice 's mother is played by Lindsay Duncan . Lord and Lady Ascot are played by Tim Pigott @-@ Smith and Geraldine James respectively . Eleanor Tomlinson and Eleanor Gecks play the Cathaway sisters , who bear a strong resemblance to Tweedledum and Tweedledee . Jemma Powell appears briefly as Alice 's sister , Margaret , while Margaret 's unfaithful husband Lowell is played by John Hopkins .
= = = Voice cast = = =
Michael Sheen voiced Nivens McTwisp , the White Rabbit . Sheen said the character " is such an iconic character that [ he ] didn 't feel like [ he ] should break the mold too much . " Burton said the quality he wanted most in his clock @-@ watching bunny was a twitchiness , also commenting that " [ in ] any incarnation of the [ White Rabbit ] through the years , there 's that sort of nervousness of a rabbit . "
Alan Rickman voiced Absolem , the Caterpillar . Rickman was originally going to have his face composited onto the animated Caterpillar . He was filmed recording his voice in the studio , but the idea was eventually scrapped . The animators did , however , try to give Absolem 's face characteristics similar to Rickman 's .
Stephen Fry voiced Cheshire , the Cheshire Cat . Burton stated that the character had a creepy quality in addition to tapping into his own hatred of cats . The role was intended to be played by Michael Sheen but he changed his role to the White Rabbit due to scheduling conflicts .
Barbara Windsor voiced Mallymkun , the Dormouse . Burton said that he sought after Windsor for the role because he was a fan of her TV show EastEnders . Her voice sealed the deal for her role as the character .
Paul Whitehouse voiced Thackery Earwicket , the March Hare . Burton stated that because Whitehouse is a great comedic actor , a lot of his lines came from improvisation .
Timothy Spall voiced Bayard , the Bloodhound . Although Bayard does not appear in the book , a similar character named The Puppy is likely the inspiration for the character .
Michael Gough voiced Uilleam , the Dodo . Burton said that Gough was the first person he thought of for the role of the Dodo because he has " a full life quality to his voice " . The character only speaks three lines , that Gough recorded in a day . This would be Gough 's final acting role because he died the following year , aged 94 . Gough had previously portrayed the March Hare in the 1966 TV play of the book .
Christopher Lee voiced the Jabberwocky . While it only had two lines , Burton said that he felt Lee to be a good match for the iconic character because he is " an iconic guy " . For the character , Lee had originally tried to make his voice ' burble ' ( as described in the poem " Jabberwocky " ) . However , Tim Burton convinced him to use his actual voice , as he found it more intimidating .
Imelda Staunton voiced the Tall Flower Faces . Though there are many flowers that appear around Wonderland , only one of them speaks and one of them is clearly a caricature of Staunton . Staunton only speaks three lines that are heard very briefly at the beginning of the film .
Jim Carter voiced the Red Queen 's executioner . The Executioner only speaks one line and appears extremely briefly , though Carter also voiced several other servants to the Red Queen .
Frank Welker provided additional voices and vocal effects ; including roars of the Jabberwocky and Bandersnatch , squawks for the Jubjub bird , and Bayard barking . Rickman , Windsor , Fry , Gough , Lee , Staunton and Carter each took only a day to record their dialogue .
Burton and Bonham Carter 's children Billy and Nell made cameo appearances as a boy and baby at the dock in the end of the film .
= = Production = =
Tim Burton signed with Walt Disney Pictures to direct two films in Disney Digital 3D , which included Alice in Wonderland and his remake of Frankenweenie . Burton developed the story because he never felt an emotional tie to the original book .
He explained " the goal is to try to make it an engaging movie where you get some of the psychology and kind of bring a freshness but also keep the classic nature of Alice . " On prior versions , Burton said " It was always a girl wandering around from one crazy character to another , and I never really felt any real emotional connection . " His goal with the new movie is to give the story " some framework of emotional grounding " and " to try and make Alice feel more like a story as opposed to a series of events . " Burton focused on the poem " Jabberwocky " as part of his structure , and refers to the described creature by the name of the poem rather than by the name " Jabberwock " used in the poem . Burton also stated that he does not see his version as either a sequel to any existing Alice film nor as a " re @-@ imagining " . However , the idea of the climax of the story being Alice 's battle with the Queen 's champion , the Jabberwocky , was first added in the video game American McGee 's Alice , and the landscape , tower , weapons and appearance of Alice in those scenes of the movie are very reminiscent of the same scenes in the game .
This film was originally set to be released in 2009 but was pushed back to March 5 , 2010 . Principal photography was scheduled for May 2008 , but did not begin until September and concluded in three months . Scenes set in the Victorian era were shot at Torpoint and Plymouth from September 1 to October 14 . Two hundred and fifty local extras were chosen in early August . Locations included Antony House in Torpoint , Charlestown , Cornwall and the Barbican , however , no footage from the Barbican was used . Motion capture filming began in early October at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City , California , though the footage was later discarded . Filming also took place at Culver Studios . Burton said that he used a combination of live action and animation , without motion capture . He also noted that this was the first time he had filmed on a green screen . Filming of the green screen portions , comprising 90 % of the film , was completed after only 40 days . Many of the cast and crew felt nauseated as a result of the long hours surrounded by green , and Burton had lavender lenses fitted into his glasses to counteract the effect . Due to the constant need for digital effects to distort the actors ' physical appearances , such as the size of the Red Queen 's head or Alice 's height , visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston cited the film as being exhausting , saying it was " The biggest show I 've ever done , [ and ] the most creatively involved I 've ever been . "
Sony Pictures Imageworks designed the visual effects sequences . Burton felt 3D was appropriate to the story 's environment . Burton and Zanuck chose to film with conventional cameras , and convert the footage into 3D during post @-@ production ; Zanuck explained 3D cameras were too expensive and " clumsy " to use , and they felt that there was no difference between converted footage and those shot in the format . James Cameron , who released his 3D film Avatar in December 2009 , criticized the choice , stating , " It doesn 't make any sense to shoot in 2 @-@ D and convert to 3 @-@ D " .
= = Music = =
= = = Score = = =
Longtime Burton collaborator Danny Elfman 's score was released March 2 , 2010 . It debuted at # 89 on the Billboard Top 200 albums chart .
= = = Almost Alice = = =
Almost Alice is a collection of various artists ' music inspired by the film . The lead single , " Alice " by Avril Lavigne , premiered on January 27 , 2010 on Ryan Seacrest 's radio program . Other singles include " Follow Me Down " by 3OH ! 3 , " Her Name Is Alice " by Shinedown , and " Tea Party " by Kerli . The album was released on March 2 , 2010 .
= = Release = =
On February 12 , 2010 , major UK cinema chains , Odeon , Vue and Cineworld , had planned to boycott the film because of a reduction of the interval between cinema and DVD release from the usual 17 weeks to 12 ( possibly to avoid the release of the DVD clashing with the 2010 FIFA World Cup , which was Disney 's pretext for cutting short Alice 's theatrical run but UK exhibitors protested that Alice would be less threatened by the World Cup than other titles ) . A week after the announcement , Cineworld , who has a 24 % share of UK box office , chose to play the film on more than 150 screens . Cineworld 's chief executive Steve Wiener stated , " As leaders in 3D , we did not want the public to miss out on such a visual spectacle . As the success of Avatar has shown , there is currently a huge appetite for the 3D experience " . Shortly after , the Vue cinema chain also reached an agreement with Disney , but Odeon had still chosen to boycott in Britain , Ireland and Italy . On February 25 , 2010 Odeon had reached an agreement and decided to show the film on March 5 , 2010 . The Royal premiere took place at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on February 25 , 2010 for the fundraiser The Prince 's Foundation for Children and The Arts where the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall attended . It also did not affect their plans to show the film in Spain , Germany , Portugal and Austria . The film was released in the U.S. and UK , in both Disney Digital 3D and IMAX 3D , as well as regular theaters on March 5 , 2010 .
= = = Marketing = = =
On June 22 , 2009 , the first pictures of the film were released , showing Depp as the Mad Hatter , Hathaway as the White Queen , Bonham Carter as the Red Queen and Lucas as Tweedledee and Tweedledum . A new image of Alice was also released . In July , new photos emerged of Alice holding a white rabbit , the Mad Hatter with a hare , the Red Queen holding a pig , and the White Queen with a mouse .
On July 22 , 2009 , a teaser trailer from the Mad Hatter 's point of view was released on IGN but was shortly taken down because Disney claimed that the trailer was not supposed to be out yet . The teaser was also planned to premiere along with a trailer of Robert Zemeckis ' film adaptation of A Christmas Carol on July 24 , 2009 for G @-@ Force . The following day , the teaser trailer premiered at Comic @-@ Con but the trailer shown was different from the one that leaked . The ComicCon version didn 't have the Mad Hatter 's dialogue . Instead , it featured " Time to Pretend " by MGMT , and the clips shown were in different order than in the leaked version . The leaked version was originally to be shown to one of the three Facebook groups used to promote the film that had the most members . The groups used to promote the film are " The Loyal Subjects of the Red Queen " , " The Loyal Subjects of the White Queen " and " The Disloyal Subjects of the Mad Hatter " .
Also at ComicCon , props from the film were displayed in an " Alice in Wonderland " exhibit . Costumes featured in the exhibit included the Red Queen 's dress , chair , wig , spectacles and scepter ; the White Queen 's dress , wig and a small model of her castle ; the Mad Hatter 's suit , hat , wig , chair and table ; Alice 's dress and battle armor ( to slay the Jabberwocky ) . Other props included the " DRINK ME " bottles , the keys , an " EAT ME " pastry and stand @-@ in models of the White Rabbit and March Hare .
A nighttime party area at the Disney 's California Adventure theme park was created , called " Mad T Party " .
= = = Video games = = =
On July 23 , 2009 , Disney Interactive Studios announced that an Alice in Wonderland video game , developed by French game studio Étranges Libellules , would be released in the same week as the film for the Wii , Nintendo DS and Microsoft Windows . The soundtrack was composed by video games music composer Richard Jacques . The Wii , DS and PC versions were released on March 2 , 2010 .
Disney Interactive released in 2013 the game Alice in Wonderland : A New Champion for iOS .
= = = Home media = = =
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released a 3 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray combo pack ( which includes the Blu @-@ ray , DVD and a digital copy ) , 1 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray and 1 @-@ disc DVD on June 1 , 2010 in the US and July 1 , 2010 in Australia . All versions are presented in 1080p with a 16 : 9 aspect ratio and Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 HD surround sound . The DVD release includes three short features about the making of the film , focusing on Burton 's vision for Wonderland and the characters of Alice and the Mad Hatter . The Blu @-@ ray version has nine additional featurettes centered on additional characters , special effects and other aspects of the film 's production . In some confusion , a small number of copies were put on shelves a week before schedule in smaller stores , but were quickly removed , although a handful of copies were confirmed purchased ahead of schedule .
In its first week of release ( June 1 – 6 , 2010 ) , it sold 2 @,@ 095 @,@ 878 DVD units ( equivalent to $ 35 @,@ 441 @,@ 297 ) and topped the DVD sales chart for two continuous weeks . By May 22 , 2011 , it had sold 4 @,@ 313 @,@ 680 units ( $ 76 @,@ 413 @,@ 043 ) . It failed to crack the 2010 top ten DVDs list in terms of units sold , but reached 10th place on that chart in terms of sales revenue .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Alice in Wonderland earned $ 334 @,@ 191 @,@ 110 in North America , as of July 8 , 2010 , and $ 691 @,@ 276 @,@ 000 in other territories , as of July 10 , 2011 , for a worldwide total of $ 1 @,@ 025 @,@ 467 @,@ 110 . Worldwide , it is currently the twenty @-@ third highest @-@ grossing film and the second highest @-@ grossing 2010 film . It is the third highest @-@ grossing film starring Johnny Depp , the highest @-@ grossing film directed by Tim Burton and the second highest @-@ grossing children 's book adaptation ( worldwide , as well as in North America and outside North America separately ) .
On its first weekend , the film made $ 220 @.@ 1 million worldwide , marking the second @-@ largest opening ever for a movie not released during the summer or the holiday period ( behind The Hunger Games ) , the fourth largest for a Disney @-@ distributed film and the fourth largest among 2010 films . It dominated for three consecutive weekends at the worldwide box office . On May 26 , 2010 , its 85th day of release , it became the sixth film ever to surpass the $ 1 @-@ billion @-@ mark and the second film that had been released by Walt Disney Studios that did so .
= = North America = =
Alice in Wonderland is the forty @-@ fourth highest @-@ grossing film but out of the top 100 when adjusted for inflation . It is also the second highest @-@ grossing 2010 film , behind Toy Story 3 , the second highest @-@ grossing film starring Johnny Depp and the highest @-@ grossing film directed by Tim Burton . The film opened on March 5 , 2010 , on approximately 7 @,@ 400 screens at 3 @,@ 728 theaters with $ 40 @,@ 804 @,@ 962 during its first day , $ 3 @.@ 9 million of which came from midnight showings , ranking number one and setting a new March opening @-@ day record . Alice earned $ 116 @.@ 1 million on its opening weekend , breaking the record for the largest opening weekend in March ( previously held by 300 ) , the record for the largest opening weekend during springtime ( previously held by Fast and Furious ) , the largest opening weekend for a non @-@ sequel ( previously held by Spider @-@ Man ) and the highest one for the non @-@ holiday , non @-@ summer period . However , all of these records were broken by The Hunger Games ( $ 152 @.@ 5 million ) in March 2012 . Alice made the seventeenth highest @-@ grossing opening weekend ever and the fifth largest among 3D films . Opening @-@ weekend grosses originating from 3D showings were $ 81 @.@ 3 million ( 70 % of total weekend gross ) . This broke the record for the largest opening @-@ weekend 3D grosses but it was topped by Marvel 's The Avengers ( $ 108 million ) . It had the largest weekend per theater average of 2010 ( $ 31 @,@ 143 per theater ) and the largest for a PG @-@ rated film . It broke the IMAX opening @-@ weekend record by earning $ 12 @.@ 2 million on 188 IMAX screens , with an average of $ 64 @,@ 197 per site . The record was first overtaken by Deathly Hallows – Part 2 ( $ 15 @.@ 2 million ) . Alice remained in first place for three consecutive weekends at the North American box office . Alice closed in theaters on July 8 , 2010 with $ 334 @.@ 2 million .
= = = Outside North America = = =
Outside North America , Alice is the thirteenth highest @-@ grossing film , the highest @-@ grossing 2010 film , the fourth highest @-@ grossing Disney film , the second highest @-@ grossing film starring Johnny Depp and the highest @-@ grossing film directed by Tim Burton . It began with an estimated $ 94 million , on top of the weekend box office , and remained at the summit for four consecutive weekends and five in total . Japan was the film 's highest @-@ grossing country after North America , with $ 133 @.@ 7 million , followed by the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 64 @.@ 4 million ) , and France and the Maghreb region ( $ 45 @.@ 9 million ) .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 52 % of critics have given the film a positive review based on 262 reviews ; the average score is 5 @.@ 7 / 10 . The consensus is : " Tim Burton 's Alice sacrifices the book 's minimal narrative coherence — and much of its heart — but it 's an undeniable visual treat " . Metacritic rated it 53 / 100 based on 38 reviews .
Todd McCarthy of Variety praised it for its " moments of delight , humor and bedazzlement " , but went on to say , " But it also becomes more ordinary as it goes along , building to a generic battle climax similar to any number of others in CGI @-@ heavy movies of the past few years " . Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter said " Burton has delivered a subversively witty , brilliantly cast , whimsically appointed dazzler that also manages to hit all the emotionally satisfying marks " , while as well praising its computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) , saying " Ultimately , it 's the visual landscape that makes Alice 's newest adventure so wondrous , as technology has finally been able to catch up with Burton 's endlessly fertile imagination . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly said , " But Burton 's Disneyfied 3 @-@ D Alice in Wonderland , written by the girl @-@ power specialist Linda Woolverton , is a strange brew indeed : murky , diffuse , and meandering , set not in a Wonderland that pops with demented life but in a world called Underland that 's like a joyless , bombed @-@ out version of Wonderland . It looks like a CGI head trip gone post apocalyptic . In the film 's rather humdrum 3 @-@ D , the place doesn 't dazzle — it droops . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times awarded the film three out of four stars and wrote in his review that , " Alice plays better as an adult hallucination , which is how Burton rather brilliantly interprets it until a pointless third act flies off the rails . " The market research firm CinemaScore found that audiences gave the film an average rating of " A- " .
Several reviews criticized the decision to turn Alice into a " colonialist entrepreneur " at the end of the film setting sail for China . Given Britain 's role in the First and Second Opium Wars during the Victorian era and the foreign domination of China through " unequal treaties " , China expert Kevin Slaten writes , " Not only is it troubling imagery , for a female role model in a Disney movie , but it 's also a celebration of the exploitation that China suffered for a century . "
Game developer American McGee , best known for creating Alice and Alice : Madness Returns , was asked in a 2011 interview about Tim Burton 's interpretation of the title character since both versions share almost similar dark and twisted tone of Wonderland . McGee praised the film 's visuals and audio but criticized the lack of screen time Alice had compared to the other characters . He felt Alice did not have any purpose in the story and that she was merely used as a " tool . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Possible stage adaptation = =
Walt Disney Theatrical is in early talks with Burton and screenwriter Linda Woolverton to develop the property as a Broadway musical . Woolverton authored the screenplay for Disney 's The Lion King and is also the Tony Award @-@ nominated book writer of Beauty and the Beast , Aida and Lestat . Burton will also render the overall designs for the stage musical . Woolverton will adapt her screenplay for the stage production . Neither a composer nor songwriting team has been chosen yet . Direction and choreography will be done by Rob Ashford . The musical is aiming to make its world @-@ premiere in London .
= = Sequel = =
On December 7 , 2012 , Variety announced the development of a sequel to Alice in Wonderland . Linda Woolverton returned to write a screenplay . On May 31 , 2013 , James Bobin began talks to direct the sequel under the working title Alice in Wonderland : Into the Looking Glass . Johnny Depp returned as The Hatter , Mia Wasikowska reprised the role of Alice , and Helena Bonham Carter returned as the Red Queen . Several other cast @-@ members from the 2010 film also reprised their roles in the sequel . On November 22 , 2013 , it was announced that the sequel will be released on May 27 , 2016 and that Bobin would direct the film . Rhys Ifans and Sacha Baron Cohen will be featured in the film . On January 21 , 2014 , the film was again retitled to Alice in Wonderland : Through the Looking Glass . The title was later reworked once again to Alice Through the Looking Glass .
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= I Got a Boy ( song ) =
" I Got a Boy " is a song recorded in Korean language by South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation for their fourth Korean @-@ language studio album of the same name . It was released on January 1 , 2013 by S.M. Entertainment and KT Music . Produced by the group 's long @-@ time collaborator Yoo Young @-@ jin and Will Simms , the song is described as a hybrid of various genres including bubblegum pop , dance , and electropop .
" I Got a Boy " was a success domestically , debuting atop the Gaon Digital Chart and has sold over 1 @.@ 3 million digital copies in South Korean in 2013 . Internationally , the song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who praised its eclectic sound and noted it as a " phenomenon " that could challenge popular Western singers like Katy Perry or One Direction . The single peaked at number 98 on the Japan Hot 100 and number 3 on the US World Digital Songs .
A music video for the song was filmed in October 2012 . It features hip hop @-@ inspired dance moves choreographed by renowned American choreographers Nappytabs . It won the award for Video of the Year at the first YouTube Music Awards in 2013 , which generated much attention for beating other popular nominees like Justin Bieber and Psy despite the fact that the group was considered lesser @-@ known to the Western audience at the time .
= = Background and composition = =
“ I Got a Boy ” was written by European composers Will Simms , Sarah Lundbäck Bell , Anne Judith Wik with additional writing by Korean composer Yoo Young @-@ jin , who is also Girls ' Generation 's longtime collaborater . The song was recorded at S.M. Entertainment studio Boomingsystem and was produced by Will Simms and Yoo Young @-@ jin .
" I Got a Boy " is a K @-@ pop song that is described as an eclectic mix of various genres . According to U.S. magazine Billboard , the track features elements of electropop and minimal drum and bass . On reviewing I Got a Boy album for the same publication , Jeff Benjamin noted dubstep elements on the song . Meanwhile , Rolling Stone 's Nick Catucci opined that " I Got a Boy " was made up of a range of genres from minimal R & B to " high @-@ BPM " dance . Writing for Time , Douglas Wolk described the track as a " monomaniacally charming " hybrid of bubblegum pop , dubstep , and hard rock . Meanwhile , AllMusic 's David Jefferies characterized " I Got a Boy " as a mix of dubstep , EDM , and pop @-@ rap .
= = Promotion = =
On January 1 , 2013 , Girls ' Generation performed " I Got a Boy " for the first time on their MBC comeback special Girls ’ Generation ’ s Romantic Fantasy . To further promote the song , the group appeared on several South Korean shows in 2013 including Mnet 's M ! Countdown , KBS ' Music Bank , MBC 's Music Core , and SBS 's Inkigayo .
The music video for the song was directed by Hong Won @-@ ki for Zanybros , and was choreographed by Nappytabs , who had worked with the group 's label mates TVXQ and BoA . It aired on Mnet and was released on S.M. Entertainment 's YouTube channel on January 1 , 2013 .
According to MTV 's Liza Darwin , the costumes featured in the music video included streetwear fashion such as Kenzo x Opening Ceremony , Adidas Collection by Jeremy Scott and printed leggings ; Stussy 's " Good Vibe " T @-@ shirt , Obey 's " OG Basic " crewneck , and Joyrich varsity jacket . In the sleepover scene , the girls are seen wearing clothes by UK independent label Lazy Oaf , such as a Batman shirt , a " fruity " T @-@ shirt , and a " pizza crewneck " . The fashion style in the visual was hailed as " a kaleidoscopic streetwear explosion " , and the music video itself " a fashion whirlwind ... jam @-@ packed with rad clothes " . Clyde Barretto from Prefix magazine opined that the video was " more colorful than a rainbow " and featured " alluring " and " bombastic " dance moves .
The video became an instant success on YouTube , achieving over 20 million views within six days and becoming the fastest K @-@ pop video to achieve such a feat at its time of release . It has since attracted over 100 million views on YouTube , becoming the group 's second music video to do so following " Gee " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Domestic reception = = =
" I Got a Boy " was a success in the group 's home country South Korea . It debuted atop the South Korean Gaon Singles Chart on the week commencing December 30 , 2013 , selling 319 @,@ 824 copies within its first week of release . The following week , the single dropped to number 4 , selling 242 @,@ 803 copies . The single sold over 1 @.@ 35 million copies in South Korea in 2013 , becoming the 13th best @-@ selling single of the year in the country . On the Korea K @-@ Pop Hot 100 , " I Got a Boy " debuted at number 36 on the week of January 12 , 2013 . The following week , the single charted at number one on the chart and remained its peak for a further week .
The song was nominated for Song of the Year at the 2013 Mnet Asian Music Awards . It was a success on South Korea 's music programs , achieving the top spot on M Countdown ( three consecutive weeks ) , and Music Bank ( three consecutive weeks ) .
= = = International reception = = =
Internationally , " I Got a Boy " received generally positive reviews from music critics . The Los Angeles Times ' music critic Randall Roberts called it a " scattered anthem " and a " gleefully chaotic " song that could " indicate pop music 's future trajectory . " Billboard K @-@ Town columnist Jeff Benjamin praised the song as " one of the most @-@ forward thinking lead pop singles heard in any country " for its intense mix of different sounds and melodies , and commended Girls ’ Generation for " [ setting ] the bar truly high for pop in 2013 . " Staff writers of Entertainment Weekly picked " I Got a Boy " as Girls ' Generation " key track " and recommended the group as one of the fifteen " artists to watch " in 2013 .
Rolling Stone 's contributor Nick Catucci described the song as a " musical gymnastics routine . " Upon reviewing I Got a Boy album for AllMusic , David Jefferies named " I Got a Boy " a highlight on the album . Time named " I Got a Boy " the 5th best song on their Top 10 Songs of the Year list , calling it a " pop phenomenon " that rivals the likes of One Direction and Katy Perry . In August 2014 , Pitchfork Media 's Jakob Dorof listed the song as part of his 20 Essential K @-@ Pop Songs Lists , writing that " I Got a Boy " helped " prove the adventurousness of K @-@ pop ’ s listenership . " " I Got a Boy " became the fourth best @-@ selling K @-@ pop single in the United States in 2013 , behind Psy 's " Gangnam Style " and " Gentleman " and Big Bang 's " Fantastic Baby " .
The music video for " I Got a Boy " won the award for Video of the Year at the first YouTube Music Awards , held on November 3 , 2013 at Pier 36 in New York City . Following the event , Girls ' Generation received a considerable amount of negative feedback from Western audience as the group was not well known in the United States compared to other nominees for the same category including Psy , Justin Bieber and Lady Gaga . As a result of the controversial event , the music video gained 86 @,@ 000 views on the awards day , up from 25 @,@ 000 the day before . The following five days , it achieved an increase of 327 % in viewership .
= = Charts = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Credits = =
Credits adapted from I Got a Boy album liner notes
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= Soviet cruiser Kalinin =
Kalinin ( Russian : Калинин ) was a Project 26bis2 Kirov @-@ class cruiser of the Soviet Navy that was built during World War II . She was built in Siberia from components shipped from European Russia . She saw no action during the war and served into the Cold War . Her post @-@ war career was uneventful until she was disarmed and converted into a floating barracks in 1960 . She was sold for scrap in 1963 .
= = Description = =
Kalinin was 187 m ( 613 ft 6 in ) long at the waterline , and 191 @.@ 2 m ( 627 ft 4 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 17 @.@ 66 m ( 57 ft 11 in ) and had a draft between 5 @.@ 88 to 6 @.@ 3 m ( 19 ft 3 in to 20 ft 8 in ) . Kalinin displaced 8 @,@ 400 tonnes ( 8 @,@ 267 long tons ) at standard load and 10 @,@ 040 tonnes ( 9 @,@ 881 long tons ) at full load . Her geared steam turbines produced a total of 126 @,@ 900 shaft horsepower ( 94 @,@ 629 kW ) on trials , but she fell somewhat short of her designed speed of 37 knots ( 69 km / h ; 43 mph ) , only reaching 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) on trials , because she was over 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 181 long tons ) overweight . The ship normally carried 650 tonnes ( 640 long tons ) of fuel oil , 1 @,@ 660 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 634 long tons ) at full load and 1 @,@ 750 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 722 long tons ) at overload . This gave her an endurance of 5 @,@ 590 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 350 km ; 6 @,@ 430 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) with overload fuel .
Kalinin carried nine 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) 57 @-@ caliber B @-@ 1 @-@ P guns in three electrically powered MK @-@ 3 @-@ 180 triple turrets . The turrets were very small ; they were designed to fit into the limited hull space available and were so cramped that their rate of fire was much lower than designed — only two rounds per minute instead of six . The guns were mounted in a single cradle to minimize space and were so close together that their shot dispersion was very high because the muzzle blast from adjacent barrels affected each gun . Unlike her half @-@ sisters built in European Russia , her secondary armament initially consisted of eight single 76 @.@ 2 mm ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) 55 @-@ caliber 34 @-@ K anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns mounted on each side of the rear funnel because the 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) B @-@ 34 guns originally intended to be used had run into production problems . The 34 @-@ K guns were a stop @-@ gap until the Army 85 mm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) 52 @-@ K anti @-@ aircraft gun could be mated with the mount of the 34 @-@ K and put into production as the 90 @-@ K. They replaced the 34 @-@ K guns in May 1943 . Light AA guns initially consisted of six semi @-@ automatic 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) 21 @-@ K AA guns with 600 rounds per gun , ten fully automatic 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K AA guns with a thousand rounds per gun , and six DK 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) machine guns with 12 @,@ 500 rounds per gun , but were significantly increased during the war . By 1945 Kalinin had exchanged her 45 mm guns for nine additional 70 @-@ K AA guns . By 1957 her light anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of only nine powered 37 mm V @-@ 11 mounts .
Six 533 @-@ millimeter ( 21 in ) 39 @-@ Yu torpedo tubes were fitted in two triple mountings , one on each side . She received the Lend @-@ Lease ASDIC @-@ 132 sonar system , which the Soviets called Drakon @-@ 132 , as well as the experimental Soviet Mars @-@ 72 system .
As built Kalinin lacked any radars , but by 1944 she was equipped with British and American Lend @-@ Lease radars as well as Soviet @-@ designed systems . A British Type 291 and an American SG radar were used for air search . Two Soviet Yupiter @-@ 1 radars were used for main battery fire control while anti @-@ aircraft fire control was provided by two British Type 282 radars .
= = Service = =
Kalinin was one of the Project 26bis2 cruisers , the third pair of the Kirov @-@ class cruisers . She was larger and had a more powerful anti @-@ aircraft armament than her half @-@ sisters . She was assembled at the newly constructed Shipyard 199 , Komsomolsk @-@ on @-@ Amur , from components built at the Shipyard 198 ( Marti South ) in Nikolayev . She was laid down on 12 August 1938 , launched from drydock on 8 May 1942 and was completed on 31 December 1942 after being towed down the Amur River to Vladivostok . Her construction was prolonged by late deliveries from western factories . For example , her propellers had to be shipped from Leningrad after it had been surrounded by the Germans and her propeller shafts had to be removed from the Barrikada factory in Stalingrad in 1942 before it was destroyed by the Germans .
She was commissioned into the Pacific Fleet in 1943 . She was ordered to prepare for transfer to the Soviet Northern Fleet via the Northern Sea Route on 24 April 1943 and extensive preparations were made for the voyage . They included the installation of special propellers with removable blades and the strengthening of her hull to withstand ice pressure . The transfer was canceled without explanation on 1 June 1943 , but the alterations remained in place until 1944 . She remained inactive during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in 1945 .
Kalinin hosted the State Commissariat for Defence ( Russian : Narodnyy Komissariaht Oborony — NKO ) during their visit to the Pacific Fleet in October 1954 and demonstrated her main guns while they were aboard . She spent the post @-@ war period on routine training missions until she was placed in reserve on 1 May 1956 . She was reactivated on 1 December 1957 before being disarmed and converted into floating barracks PKZ @-@ 21 on 6 February 1960 . Kalinin was finally sold for scrap on 12 April 1963 .
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= Battle of Longue @-@ Pointe =
The Battle of Longue @-@ Pointe was an attempt by Ethan Allen and a small force of American and Quebec militia to capture Montreal from British forces on September 25 , 1775 , early in the American Revolutionary War . Allen , who had been instructed only to raise militia forces among the local inhabitants , had long had thoughts of taking the lightly defended city . When he reached the southern shore of the St. Lawrence River with about 110 men , he seized the opportunity to try . Major John Brown , who Allen claimed was supposed to provide additional forces , did not appear as they had planned , isolating Allen and his men on the north side of the river .
British General Guy Carleton sent a force composed mostly of Quebec militia in response to news of Allen 's crossing of the St. Lawrence . This force cut off Allen 's escape route , and eventually surrounded and captured Allen and a number of his men . Carleton eventually abandoned Montreal , which fell without battle to Continental Army forces on November 13 . Allen was sent first to England and then New York City as a prisoner , and was eventually exchanged in 1778 .
= = Background = =
In the 18th century , the city of Montreal occupied only a small portion of the island of Montreal , centered on what is now called Old Montreal . The eastern tip of the island was called Longue @-@ Pointe , and there was at one time a fortification called Fort Longue Pointe on the island , across the river from Longueuil . This area , annexed to Montreal in 1910 , and now the Mercier @-@ Est neighborhood of Mercier @-@ Hochelaga @-@ Maisonneuve , a borough of the city , is near where the action described here took place .
With the American Revolutionary War beginning , many thought it would be easy to spread the rebellion to the Province of Quebec , which had only been conquered by the British in 1759 , and whose population was seen as resentful of British rule . The American invasion of Quebec began with the arrival at Île aux Noix of the Continental Army under the command of General Philip Schuyler on September 4 , 1775 . Schuyler , who was ill at the time , eventually turned command of the army over the General Richard Montgomery , who ordered the army to besiege Fort Saint @-@ Jean , which they did on September 18 . At this fort , south of Montreal on the Richelieu River , General Guy Carleton had concentrated the few British regulars at his disposal following the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May .
= = = American situation = = =
Before turning command over to Montgomery , Schuyler drafted a proclamation addressed to the people of Quebec , encouraging them to oppose the British and assist the American cause . On September 8 Ethan Allen and Major John Brown went into the countryside between Saint @-@ Jean and Montreal with a small detachment of Americans to circulate this proclamation , meeting with James Livingston , a Patriot sympathizer at Chambly as well as with the local Caughnawaga Mohawk . Livingston eventually raised about 300 local militia , which he encamped at Pointe @-@ Olivier , below Fort Chambly . Allen and Brown returned to Île aux Noix following this tour .
Allen had long harboured the goal of taking Montreal . After he and Benedict Arnold captured Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775 , he had taken a few hundred men north from Ticonderoga to Saint @-@ Jean with the idea of capturing the fort there by surprise , and then taking Montreal . This effort was frustrated by the timely arrival of British troops at Saint @-@ Jean ; the exploit made Allen a well @-@ known figure in Montreal and the Richelieu valley .
= = = Montreal situation = = =
Following the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775 , General Carleton , with only 800 regular troops available to defend the entire province , had concentrated those troops at Fort Saint @-@ Jean , placing about 500 troops , along with about 250 militia and natives , at the fort . The remaining forces were distributed among the frontier forts along the Great Lakes , with relatively small garrisons at Montreal , Trois @-@ Rivières , and Quebec City . During the summer of 1775 he attempted to raise substantial additional militia forces from the population . These attempts met with limited success , in part because of successful American propaganda and agitation by Patriot sympathizers , especially Thomas Walker , James Price , and James Livingston . By July , Carleton was apparently satisfied with the level of militia support near Montreal , but he did little to stop the activities of the agitators , who also sent reports detailing British military preparations to the Americans .
= = Prelude = =
When Montgomery finally began the siege of Fort Saint @-@ Jean , he ordered Allen and about 30 Americans to join with Livingston 's Canadians to secure the south bank of the St. Lawrence River against attempts by Carleton in Montreal to relieve the siege . He also ordered a larger force under Brown 's command to secure the area north of the fort , and to cover the road between Saint @-@ Jean and Montreal .
Allen traveled along the southeastern banks of the Richelieu River , up to Sorel , where he crossed that river and continued up the southern shore of the St. Lawrence to Longueuil . According to Allen 's account , he met Brown there , and the two of them then hatched a plan to attack Montreal . Brown would cross the river with 200 men at La Prairie , upriver from Montreal , and Allen , with his Americans and 80 Canadians under the command of Loiseau and Duggan , two of Livingston 's captains , would cross the river at Longueuil , below the city , and the two forces would , after a prearranged signal , converge on the city itself .
= = Action = =
Allen and his men crossed the St. Lawrence on the night of the 24th , landing at Longue @-@ Pointe . The inhabitants he met there were friendly , but he posted guards on the road to Montreal to prevent news of their crossing from reaching the city . However , one man they detained managed to escape to the city and inform Carleton of Allen 's presence on the island . Brown did not cross the river . While no sources indicate why Brown failed to act , historian Justin Smith suggests that Allen in fact acted alone , and only later sought to blame Brown for the endeavour 's failure . This left Allen 's force alone and vulnerable , as it had taken three round trips with the available boats to ferry his men across the river .
Realizing he would not be able ferry everyone back across the river before troops arrived from the city , Allen chose a wooded area near the Ruisseau @-@ des @-@ Sœurs ( labelled on the map above as Ruisseau de la Gde Prairie ) , between Longue @-@ Pointe and Montreal , to make a stand . He also sent word to Thomas Walker , a British merchant and known Patriot sympathizer with a house in nearby L 'Assomption , for assistance . Walker was able to muster some men , but Allen was captured before they could lend any assistance .
When General Carleton received word that the notorious Ethan Allen was at the gates of the city , he raised the alarm . As the news spread , large numbers of people turned out . Captain John Campbell assembled a force of 34 regulars from the 26th Foot ( the entire garrison in Montreal ) , 120 Canadien and 80 English militia , 20 British Indian agents , and a few Indians , and led them out to face Allen 's force . As Campbell 's force approached , Allen instructed 10 Canadians to cover his left flank , while Duggan and another 50 Canadians were placed on the right flank . Both of these detachments fled instead of holding their positions , leaving Allen with about 50 men . Over the course of the next 90 minutes , fire was exchanged between the forces . Allen 's remaining forces were eventually broken , and , after trying to outrun the enemy , he surrendered .
= = Aftermath = =
The abortive attack on Montreal led to the full mobilization of local militia in Montreal , raising nearly 1 @,@ 000 men , but they soon began to drift away . Carleton refused to organize an expedition in relief of Fort Saint @-@ Jean , and the militia members from rural parishes eventually disbanded to attend to their harvests and the defense of their own homes . In November , the besieged fort 's commander capitulated , opening the Americans ' way to Montreal . Carleton fled the city , making his way to Quebec City , and Montgomery occupied Montreal without firing a shot on November 13 .
Allen and the other captives were brought to the city . Allen , in his account of the encounter , claims that Colonel Richard Prescott was intent on killing the captured Canadiens , but Allen interceded on their behalf , saying " I am the sole cause of their taking up arms . " Allen was imprisoned in a ship 's hold , and eventually sent to England . He spent about a year , mostly on prison ships , before he was released on parole in British @-@ occupied New York City in November 1776 , as the British authorities feared hanging him would create a martyr . He was eventually exchanged in May 1778 for Archibald Campbell , a British officer , and resumed military and political service for the nascent Republic of Vermont in 1778 .
Thomas Walker , the merchant to whom Allen had applied for assistance , was arrested in early October 1775 when twenty regulars and a dozen militia came from Montreal to his house in L 'Assomption . Walker 's house was destroyed , and he was imprisoned with the intent of sending him to England for trial . Walker was eventually freed when the Americans captured Montreal and most of the British fleet trying to escape the city .
= = Legacy = =
Ethan Allen wrote a memoir recounting his version of the circumstances of his capture , and the time of his imprisonment . This work , along with Allen 's other memoirs , were quite popular in the 19th century , going through numerous printings . A city park in the Montreal borough of Mercier @-@ Hochelaga @-@ Maisonneuve , where the action took place , is called Parc de la Capture @-@ d 'Ethan @-@ Allen .
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= Her Story ( video game ) =
Her Story is an interactive movie video game written and directed by Sam Barlow . It was released on 24 June 2015 for Microsoft Windows , OS X and iOS . In the game , players search and sort through a database of video clips from fictional police interviews , and use the clips to solve the case of a missing man . The police interviews focus on the man 's wife , Hannah Smith , portrayed by British musician Viva Seifert .
The game is Barlow 's first project since his departure from Climax Studios , after which he became independent . He wanted to develop a game that was dependent on the narrative , and avoided working on the game until he was settled on an idea that was possible to execute . Barlow eventually decided to create a police procedural game , and incorporate live action footage . He conducted research for the game by watching existing police interviews . Upon doing so , he discovered recurring themes in the suspects ' answers , and decided to incorporate ambiguity to the investigation in the game .
At release , Her Story was acclaimed by many reviewers , with praise particularly directed at the narrative , character performance , and unconventional gameplay mechanics . The game has sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies , and was nominated for multiple year @-@ end accolades , including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications .
= = Gameplay = =
Her Story is an interactive movie game , focusing on a series of seven fictional police interviews from 1994 . As the game begins , players are presented with an old desktop , which contains several files and programs . Among the programs are instructional text files , which explain the game 's mechanics . One of the programs automatically open on the desktop is the " L.O.G.I.C. Database " , which allows players to search and sort video clips within the database , of which there are 271 . The video clips are police interviews with a British woman : Hannah Smith . The interviews are unable to be watched in their entirety , forcing players to view short clips . In the interviews , Hannah answers unknown questions to an off @-@ screen detective , prompting players to decipher the context of the answers . Hannah 's answers are transcribed , and players find clips by searching in the database for words from the transcriptions , attempting to solve the case by piecing together information . As players select clips , they can enter user tags , which are then available as searchable terms . One of the files on the desktop is a database checker , which allows players to review the amount of clips that have been viewed ; as a clip is viewed , the red box in the database checker changes to green . The desktop also features the minigame Mirror Game , based on the strategy board game Reversi .
= = Plot = =
The interview tapes feature a woman who introduces herself as Hannah Smith ( Viva Seifert ) , whose husband , Simon , has gone missing , and is later found murdered . Hannah admits that the two had a difficult relationship , but has an alibi placing her in Glasgow at the time after an argument . As more pieces of the interviews are discovered , it is revealed that " Hannah " is actually two women : Hannah and Eve , identical twins separated at birth by the midwife . The twins were unaware of each other 's existence until years later , at which point they decided to act as a single person , keeping a common diary and a set of rules defining their actions as " Hannah " .
Hannah eventually began dating Simon , whom she met at a glazier where they both work . Despite their rules , Hannah sleeps with Simon and becomes pregnant , which upsets Eve , who makes an effort to get pregnant but is unable to do so ; Hannah miscarries in the eighth month . Years later , Simon meets Eve in a bar . The two begin an affair , and Eve becomes pregnant ; by this time , Hannah is infertile . On their birthday , Simon gives a handmade mirror to Hannah , but they have an argument , and Hannah reveals that she has a sister who is pregnant ; Simon realises he is the father . The following day , Eve has an argument and flees to Glasgow . Hannah , wearing Eve 's wig , confronts Simon . Unaware that she is Hannah , Simon gifts her another mirror . Hannah becomes furious , shattering the mirror and accidentally lodging it in Simon 's throat , killing him . When Eve returns , the two agree to hide Simon 's body , and use Eve 's trip to Glasgow as an alibi . At the end of the interview , Eve notes that Hannah is " gone " , and asks to speak to a lawyer .
As players uncover enough of the story , a chat window appears asking if they are finished . Once players answer affirmatively , it is revealed that they are Sarah , Eve 's daughter . The chat asks Sarah if she understands her mother 's actions , and asks to meet her outside .
= = Development = =
Her Story was developed by Sam Barlow , who previously worked on games such as Silent Hill : Origins ( 2007 ) and Silent Hill : Shattered Memories ( 2009 ) at Climax Studios . Barlow had conceived the idea of a police procedural game while working at Climax Studios , but decided to become independent to create the game , in order to develop a game that is " deep on story " . He became frustrated by publishers using kitchen sink realism as the reason behind rejecting game pitches , and found that becoming independent allowed him to create his own game of the sort . He also wished to become independent after playing games like Year Walk ( 2013 ) and 80 Days ( 2014 ) . Barlow avoided development until he had an idea that was possible to execute . " I could probably quite easily have gone and made an exploration horror game ... but I kind of knew that there would be big compromises there because of budget , " he said . Barlow spent his savings to work on the game , allowing him a year of development time . He followed through with the concept of Her Story , as it focused on an " intimate setting , dialogue and character interaction " , which he found was often dismissed in larger titles . Barlow felt particularly inspired to develop Her Story after seeing the continuous support of his 1999 game Aisle . When referring to how Her Story challenges typical game conventions , Barlow compares it to the Dogme 95 filmmaking movement , and Alfred Hitchcock 's 1948 film Rope .
Her Story was approved through Steam Greenlight , and was crowdfunded by Indie Fund . It was released on 24 June 2015 for Microsoft Windows , OS X and iOS . Barlow wanted to launch the game on all platforms simultaneously , as he was unsure where the audience would be . " If I 'd just gone for just one I 'd have lost a lot of the potential audience , " he commented . Barlow found that playing Her Story on mobile devices is a " ' sofa ' experience " . He also noted that it felt " natural " for it to be released on mobile devices , as they are regularly used to watch videos and search the internet ; similar tasks are used as gameplay mechanics in Her Story . The iPhone 's smaller pixel size of 640 × 480 as opposed to 800 × 600 led to Barlow 's doubts of a release on the platform , but he was influenced to release it upon receiving positive feedback through testing . As development neared completion , the game underwent testing , which allowed Barlow to " balance some aspects " and " polish items together " . An Android version was released on June 29 , 2016 . Her Story runs on the Unity game engine .
= = = Gameplay design = = =
Barlow 's immediate idea was to create a game involving police interviews , but he " didn 't know exactly what that meant " . He then conceived the idea to involve real video footage , and the ability to access the footage through a database interface ; he described the interface as being " part Apple II , part Windows 3 @.@ 1 and part Windows 98 " . The interface design was inspired by Barlow 's appreciation of the police procedural genre , commenting that " the conceit of making the computer itself a prop in the game was so neat " . He also compared the searching mechanic to the Google search engine , and wanted to " run with the idea " that players are " essentially Googling " . The game 's concept was inspired by the TV series Homicide : Life on the Street ( 1993 – 1999 ) , which Barlow found depicted police interviews being a " gladiatorial arena for detectives " . Barlow intentionally made the game 's opening screen to be " slightly too long " , to immediately notify players of the slow pacing that would follow .
Inspiration to work on Her Story stemmed from Barlow 's disappointment of other detectives games : he felt that L.A. Noire ( 2011 ) never allowed him to feel like " the awesome detective who was having to read things and follow up threads of investigation " , and he called the Ace Attorney series ( 2001 – present ) " rigidity " . When Barlow began development on Her Story , he added more typical game aspects , but the game mechanics became more minimalist as development progressed . The initial plan for the game was for players to work towards a definitive resolution , ultimately solving the crime . However , when Barlow tested the concept on pre @-@ existing interview transcripts of convicted murderer Christopher Porco , he began to discover themes surfacing within the interviews , particularly relating to the concept of money , which was ultimately a large factor in Porco 's trial . He took this concept of recurring themes and threads , and decided to " move beyond the clearly scripted stuff " when developing Her Story . Barlow felt that the story 's appeal was the ambiguity of the investigation , comparing Her Story to the podcast Serial ( 2014 – present ) , which he listened to late in development . He found that the attraction of Serial was the lack of a definitive solution , noting that " people lean towards certain interpretations ... what makes it interesting is the extent to which it lives on in your imagination " .
= = = Story and characters = = =
Barlow decided to feature live action footage in the game after becoming frustrated with his previous projects , particularly with the technical challenge of translating an actor 's performance into a game engine . Barlow set out to work with an actor on Her Story , having enjoyed the process while working at Climax Studio , albeit with a larger budget . He contacted Viva Seifert , whom he had intermittently worked with on Legacy of Kain : Dead Sun for a year , before its cancellation . He felt that Seifert is " very good at picking up a line and intuitively pulling a lot of the subtext into her performance " , which led him to believe that she was " perfect " for the role in Her Story . When Barlow asked Seifert to audition , he sent her a 300 @-@ page script , which he managed to reduce to 80 pages , by altering font size , as well as some dialogue ; she accepted the role . Seifert began to feel pressure midway through filming , when she realised that " the whole game is hinging " on her performance . She described the shoot as " intense " and " rather exhausting " , and felt as if she was " subtly being scrutinised " by Barlow , which helped her performance . Barlow also felt that the intensity helped Seifert 's performance , taking cues from director Alfred Hitchcock , who would upset his actors in order to achieve the greatest performance . Seifert felt that there were small nuances in her performance that may have " added some twists and turns " for players that Barlow had not anticipated . The game 's seven police interviews were filmed roughly in chronological order over five days , in a process that Barlow called " natural " . Barlow travelled to Seifert 's home county of Cornwall to film . He felt that finding the locations for the interrogation rooms was the simplest part of production , because " everywhere has crappy looking rooms " , with footage being recorded in a council building in Truro . When filming was complete , Barlow wanted to give the impression that the videos had been recorded in 1994 , but found digital filters were unable to capture this time frame appropriately . Instead , he recorded the footage through two VHS players to create imperfections in the video before digitising the video into the game .
Barlow played the part of the detectives during filming , asking scripted questions to Seifert 's character , but is never featured in Her Story . When watching police interviews for research , Barlow found himself empathising with the interviewee , which inspired him to exclude the detective from the game . He stated that the interviews typically feature " double betrayal " , in which the detectives are " pretending to be the best friend " . Barlow felt that removing the detective from the game empowers Seifert 's character , allowing players to empathise . When conducting research for Her Story , Barlow looked at the case regarding the murder of Travis Alexander , which made him consider the manner that female murder suspects are treated in interrogations , stating that they " tend to be fetishised , more readily turned into archetypes " . This was further proved to Barlow when studying the interviews of Casey Anthony and Amanda Knox ; he found that media commentary often ignored the evidence of the investigation , instead focusing on the expressions of the suspects during the interviews . Barlow conducted further research by studying texts about psychology , and the use of language .
After conceiving the game 's main mechanics , Barlow began developing the story , conducting research and " letting [ the story ] take on a life of its own " . To develop the story , Barlow placed the script into a spreadsheet , which became so large it often crashed his laptop upon opening it . He mapped out every character involved in the investigation , including their backstories and agendas . He spent about half of development creating detailed documents charting the story 's characters and events . He also determined the dates on which the police interviews would take place , and what the suspect was doing in the interim . Once he had determined the game 's concept more precisely , Barlow ensured the script contained " layers of intrigue " , in order to interest players to finish the game . Barlow often replaced words of the script with synonyms , to ensure that some clips were not associated with irrelevant words . When writing the script , Barlow generally avoided supernatural themes , but realised that it would involve a " slight dreamlike surreal edge " . Working on the script , he often found that he was " very much in the moment , writing from inside the characters ' heads " . He found it difficult to create a new idea for the story , as detective fiction has been explored many times before .
= = = Audio = = =
When searching for music to use in Her Story , Barlow looked for songs that sounded " slightly out @-@ of @-@ time " . He ultimately used eight tracks from musician Chris Zabriskie , and found that his music invoked nostalgia , and had a " modern edge " . He felt that the music " highlights the gap between the ' fake computer world ' " and the game . The " emotional intensity " of the clips also influences the music changes in Her Story . Barlow also intended to feature a song for Seifert to sing in some of the clips that fit within the game . He settled on the murder ballad " The Twa Sisters " , which he felt would trigger the mythical elements of the game . Seifert and Barlow both altered the ballad , to fit the game . Barlow intended for the sound design to be " all about authenticity " . He used an old keyboard to provide sound effects for the computer , using stereo panning for the keys to have the correct 3D position in playback .
= = = Sequel = = =
In January 2016 , Barlow confirmed that a sequel was in development , under the working title Her Story 2 . Barlow considered it a " spiritual successor " to Her Story , with a narrative unrelated to the first game , though it will continue to use full @-@ motion video as its central gameplay element .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Her Story was well received by critics . Review aggregator Metacritic calculated an average score of 91 out of 100 based on 10 reviews for the iOS version , indicating " universal acclaim " , and 86 out of 100 based on 49 reviews for the Windows version , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Metacritic ranks the game within the top 20 iOS and Windows games released in 2015 , and GameRankings ranks Her Story within its top 100 iOS games of all time . Praise was particularly directed at the game 's narrative , Seifert 's performance , and gameplay mechanics . IGN 's Brian Albert called Her Story " the most unique game I 've played in years " , and Steven Burns of VideoGamer.com named it " one of the year 's best and most interesting games " . Adam Smith of Rock , Paper , Shotgun remarked that it " might be the best FMV game ever made " ; Michael Thomsen of The Washington Post declared it " a beautiful amalgam of the cinema and video game formats " .
Critics lauded the game 's narrative . Kimberley Wallace of Game Informer wrote that the " fragmented " delivery of the story " works to its benefit " . She appreciated the subtlety of the narrative , and the ambiguity surrounding the ending . Polygon 's Megan Farokhmanesh noted that Her Story " nails the dark , voyeuristic nature of true crime " . Chris Schilling of The Daily Telegraph was impressed by the coherence of the narrative , " even when presented out of order " . Eurogamer 's Simon Parkin found the effects of the narrative to be similar to well @-@ received HBO thrillers , particularly in terms of audience attention . Stephanie Bendixsen of Good Game was disappointed that large plot points were revealed early in the game , but attributed this to the uniqueness of each players ' experience .
Seifert 's performance in the game received high praise from reviewers . GameSpot 's Justin Clark felt that the performance " anchored " the game . Katie Smith of Adventure Gamers wrote that Seifert is convincing in the role , particularly with small details such as body language , but was startled by the lack of emotion . Game Informer 's Wallace echoed similar remarks , noting that Seifert " nailed the role " . Rock , Paper , Shotgun 's Smith wrote that " the whole thing might collapse " without Seifert 's " convincing " performance . IGN 's Albert named the acting " believable " , stating that Seifert 's performance is " appropriately both grounded and absurd " . Joe Donnelly of Digital Spy wrote that Seifert 's performance has the potential to inspire similar games , and Andy Kelly of PC Gamer called the performance " understated , realistic , and complex " . Burns of VideoGamer.com felt generally impressed by Seifert 's performance , but noted some " occasional bad acting " .
The unconventional gameplay mechanics also received positive remarks from critics . Destructoid 's Laura Kate Dale felt that the game 's pacing and structure assisted the narrative , and Wallace of Game Informer found that making a connection between key points in the narrative was entertaining . Burns of VideoGamer.com praised the game 's ability to make players realise their own biases , and challenge their " sense of self " . Albert of IGN felt that the searching tool was " gratifying " , and positively contributes to the pacing of the game , while The Washington Post 's Thomsen wrote that the database mechanic created " contemplative gaps between scenes " , allowing for " poignance and power " within the narrative . Bendixsen of Good Game described the desktop as " appropriately retro " , noting that she was " drawn in immediately " .
The game sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies by 10 August 2015 ; about 60 @,@ 000 copies were sold on Windows , with the remaining 40 @,@ 000 sold on iOS .
= = = Accolades = = =
Her Story has received multiple nominations and awards from gaming publications . It won Game of the Year from Polygon , as well as Game of the Month from Rock , Paper , Shotgun and GameSpot . It received the Breakthrough Award at the 33rd Golden Joystick Awards , Debut Game and Game Innovation at the 12th British Academy Games Awards , the award for Most Original game from PC Gamer , and the Seumas McNally Grand Prize at the Independent Games Festival Awards . At The Game Awards 2015 , Her Story won Best Narrative , and Seifert won Best Performance for her role in the game . The game won Mobile Game of the Year at the SXSW Gaming Awards , the award for Mobile & Handheld at the British Academy Games Awards , awards for excellence in story and innovation at the International Mobile Gaming Awards , and Best Emotional Mobile & Handheld Game at the Emotional Games Awards , while The Guardian named it the best iOS game of 2015 @,@
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= Acrobat ( song ) =
" Acrobat " is a song by rock band U2 . It is the eleventh track on their 1991 album Achtung Baby . The critical failure of Rattle and Hum ( 1988 ) led the band to seek a harder sound in their music . The song developed from a riff created by guitarist The Edge , and is played in a 12 ⁄ 8 time signature . Thematically the song contains elements of hypocrisy , alienation , and moral confusion . " Acrobat " has never been performed live , although it was rehearsed prior to the third leg of the Zoo TV Tour .
= = Inspiration , writing , and recording = =
Lead singer Bono was influenced by the work of Delmore Schwartz when writing the lyrics of " Acrobat " , to whom the song is dedicated . The title of one of his short stories , In Dreams Begin Responsibilities , is quoted in the final verse . Bono noted the book " was on my mind when I was writing the words ... It 's hard to wrap the book up in a few lines , but Delmore Schwartz is kind of a formalist ... I 'm the opposite . I 'm in the mud as a writer , so I could do with a bit of [ Schwartz ] , and that 's why I enjoy him . " The song was developed from a riff guitarist The Edge developed during a soundcheck in Auckland , New Zealand , on the Lovetown Tour in 1989 . He noted that the beat is unusual for a U2 song , saying it " was the jumping off point , to try and do something with an unusual beat . "
Producer Daniel Lanois became disoriented with the direction U2 took " Acrobat " during its recording . Bono noted " Daniel had such a hard time on that ... he was trying to get us to play to our strengths and I didn 't want to . I wanted to play to our weaknesses . I wanted to experiment . " Bono noted that the end product " doesn 't quite get off the ground the way I 'd hoped it would . " An early mix of the track was included on some versions of the 20th anniversary reissue of Achtung Baby . The mix , titled " ' Baby ' Acrobat " , contained lyrics that were later modified to a different perspective ( " You know I 'd hit out if I only knew who to hit " instead of the final " I know you 'd hit out if you only knew who to hit " ) or scrapped entirely ( " If the sky turns to purple and the moon turns to blood / Will you dig me out when I 'm face down in the mud " ) .
The song has never been performed live , although it was rehearsed extensively in an acoustic form prior to the third leg of the Zoo TV Tour in 1992 . The end of the song segued into the beginning of " Zoo Station " , leading concert historian Pimm Jal de la Parra to speculate that it was being considered to open the set . In 2006 , The Edge said " it never became a live favourite ... I don 't think that is what people come to U2 for . " In 2012 , Willie Williams , U2 's lighting designer and concert director , described the rehearsed version as " extremely dramatic " , saying " in a stadium situation it could be argued that it might have the same dramatic impact as walking out on stage and telling the audience to fuck off . "
= = Composition and theme = =
" Acrobat " is played in a 12 ⁄ 8 time signature . The Edge noted " it 's a very Irish time signature , it 's used in a lot of traditional Irish music , but in rock and roll you don 't really hear it that much . "
U2 's 1987 album The Joshua Tree and the supporting Joshua Tree Tour brought them critical acclaim and commercial success . However , their 1988 album and motion picture Rattle and Hum precipitated a critical backlash . Although the record sold 14 million copies and performed well on music charts , critics were dismissive of it and the film . Hot Press editor Niall Stokes commented " having started out as a band in the slipstream of punk , U2 remembered what they had felt about the supergroups of the late ' 70s . Were they now about to become what they had despised ? " In the time leading up to the start of the Achtung Baby sessions , U2 listened to records which had a " hard @-@ edged industrial kind of sound " , including works by KMFDM and Sonic Youth , as well as artists such as Roy Orbison and Jacques Brel . These influences led the band to seek the creation of songs which were harder musically than their previous work , while remaining personal lyrically .
" Acrobat " is one of the most personal songs on Achtung Baby with Bono acknowledging personal weakness , contradictions , and inadequacy . The Edge noted that the song contained " a bit of venom " , likening it to " the bitter , John Lennon tradition of ' Working Class Hero ' , slightly snarling and cynical . " Bono stated " as we moved from the eighties to the nineties , I stopped throwing rocks at the obvious symbols of power and the abuse of it . I started throwing rocks at my own hypocrisy ... ' Acrobat ' [ goes ] ' Don 't believe what you hear , don 't believe what you see / If you just close your eyes / You can feel the enemy ... ' I can 't remember it , but the point is : you start to see the world in a different way , and you 're part of the problem , not just part of the solution " . In 2006 , he noted it was " a song about being a hypocrite , and I think we all can be and I certainly have been . And you know , you exact very high standards on people in the world but then you don 't live them personally " , noting the theme was most evident in the lyric " I must be an acrobat to talk like this and act like that " . Hot Press editor Niall Stokes felt The Edge 's guitar playing combined elements of " Where the Streets Have No Name " with " Bullet the Blue Sky " . Speaking of its theme he said " at its heart is an awareness of the ravages of time , and what it does to people and to relationships . But beyond that , there is the self @-@ awareness that , itself , comes only with experience ... Bono acknowledges his own weakness and inadequacy . He is more conscious now than ever before of the contradictions in his own position . " Andy Greene of Rolling Stone believed the " aggressive and venomous " song reflected Bono 's thoughts during the album sessions , saying " Nearly every lyric brims with rage ... It was a new decade and it was quite possible they were about to be dismissed as a relic of the past . "
U2 biographer Bill Flanagan credits Bono 's habit of keeping his lyrics " in flux until the last minute " with providing a narrative coherence to the album . Flanagan interpreted Achtung Baby as using the moon as a metaphor for a dark woman seducing the singer away from his virtuous love , the sun ; he is tempted away from domestic life by an exciting nightlife and tests how far he can go before returning home . For Flanagan , the final three songs on Achtung Baby — " Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " , " Acrobat " , and " Love Is Blindness " — are about how the couple deal with the suffering they have forced on each other . Hot Press writer Joe Jackson felt that the song was dominated by a theme of moral confusion . Author John Luerssen believed the song was about " the fight to persevere " . He added it " was long on piss and vinegar , as evidenced by its snarling , cynical approach . "
Craig Delancey , an Assistant Professor of Philosophy at the State University of New York , cited the conclusion of " Acrobat " as an example of how rock music can be " profoundly successful at evoking the mixture of anger and contempt that can keep you going in the face of seemingly overwhelming opposition . " He noted that " the powerful closing sentiments of Achtung Baby 's ' Acrobat ' can help us feel motivated and empowered in the face of powers that want us to feel powerless . " Timothy Cleveland , the Head of the Philosophy Department at New Mexico State University , wrote that the opening lyric was an introspection of the self . He noted " here feeling is contrasted with perceptual states that make one aware of the world around them . The ' enemy ' that one can feel is oneself . ' To feel ' in this case refers to a kind of awareness one has of oneself independent of the sensations of the outside world ... Like perceptual feeling it is a kind of direct awareness and so a kind of knowledge by acquaintance . "
Robyn Brothers felt the line " I 'd break bread and wine / If there was a church I could receive in " referenced feelings of spiritual alienation . She compared the song to " Zooropa " , stating that both reference a response to uncertainty and an unavoidable feeling of alienation . Writing for Uncut , Gavin Martin wondered if the lyric " What are going to do now it 's all been said ? / No new ideas in the house , and every book has been read " was an examination of the band 's longevity , stating " Bono sounded fragile , wounded , seeming even to ponder the band 's usefulness . " He noted that it contained references to both Holy Communion and oral sex , and compared it to " The Fly " , noting that both songs were " delivered in an amoral voice " and helped to deconstruct the prevailing image of the band . Artist Gavin Friday , a childhood friend of Bono , thought the chorus line " Don 't let the bastards grind you down " was a retaliation to the criticism of the press . Elizabeth Wurtzel of The New Yorker felt the line gave the song a political , martyr @-@ complex . She noted that it eventually " unfurls as a song about love facing the long run . It comes as a relief to discover , after all this time , that the guys in U2 are as hormonally charged and concerned with love as the rest of us . "
= = Reception = =
" Acrobat " received mixed reception from critics . The Kitchener Record felt that the song added to the band 's " tremendous presence " , saying that it showed the band 's commitment to each individual song and that it " indicates a very clear evolution in Bono 's lyricism and the band 's clear artistic focus . " Bono named it one of his favourite U2 songs , a sentiment that The Edge agreed with . Stokes said " For most writers , ' Acrobat ' would have been a slow song ... it was a brave attempt by a rock ' n ' roll band to find a distinctive , hard edge , for what was essentially another love song . " Martin rated the track 4 stars , describing it as " deliciously dark " . Steve Morse of the Boston Globe felt it was one of the album 's " exceptional love songs " . Greg Potter of The Vancouver Sun believed it " sums up Bono 's lyrical direction and mindset better than any song on the album ... alluding to the theory that true contentment must begin from within . " Jon Pareles of the New York Times had a more negative opinion of the song , calling the lyrics " pompous " . Bill Wyman of Entertainment Weekly was similarly dissenting , stating " ' Acrobat ' — formless and overwrought — is just a mess . "
The theme of moral confusion cited by Jackson was later used in U2 's song " Zooropa " , from the 1993 album of the same name . The coda in " Zooropa " features the lyric " dream out loud " , which Bono included as a reference to " Acrobat " . The phrase " dream out loud " was first used by Bono during the Lovetown Tour in 1989 , and has appeared several times in U2 's work since then , including the song " Always " — a B @-@ side to the " Beautiful Day " single released in 2000 — and being spoken by Bono in the PopMart : Live from Mexico City concert release .
During the fifth episode of the fifteenth series of Top Gear , presenter Jeremy Clarkson used " Acrobat " in his film commemorating the life of the late Formula One champion Ayrton Senna . The piece was set against a montage of Senna duelling with Nigel Mansell , including their close battle in the final laps of the 1992 Monaco Grand Prix . The song was covered by the Dutch band Kane on their 2000 live album With or Without You . A rendition by Glasvegas appears on the 2011 tribute album AHK @-@ toong BAY @-@ bi Covered .
= = Covers = =
Glasvegas reworked the song for the 2011 tribute album AHK @-@ toong BAY @-@ bi Covered . " Doing this , I was fantasising I was Bono , shades and all , " remarked singer James Allan . " I was singing the line , ' Don 't let the bastards drag you down , ' feeling determined rather than angry . Before we started , Rab ( Allan , guitarist ) said , ' What are you thinking about this U2 cover ? ' I said , ' Ach , it 'll be easy : just make it sound bigger than U2 . ' .
= = Personnel = =
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= Watford Gap services =
Watford Gap services are motorway services on the M1 motorway in Northamptonshire , England . They opened on 2 November 1959 , the same day as the M1 , making them the oldest motorway services in Britain . The facilities were originally managed by Blue Boar , a local company that had run a nearby petrol station before the M1 opened . Roadchef bought the services from Blue Boar in 1995 .
The main building was designed by Harry Weedon , the architect for Odeon Cinemas , while the layout and general buildings were designed by coordinating architect Owen Williams . The main building was not ready on opening , so food was served from temporary sheds . The restaurant opened in September 1960 , but due to the site 's reputation as a truck stop , was redesigned in 1964 to accommodate a waitress service . The services became a meeting place for rock bands in the 1960s , including the Beatles , the Rolling Stones , Pink Floyd and Jimi Hendrix , as it provided a convenient place to sit down and eat a meal in the early hours of the morning . In the 1970s , the quality of the services declined and the food came in for harsh criticism from journalists and artists , such as Roy Harper . Since purchase in 1995 , Roadchef have refurbished the premises . They have promoted its history , including the association with a north / south divide , and its regular use by 1960s rock musicians . A number of events took place to celebrate the 50th anniversary in November 2009 , including a musical about the services .
The services are named after the nearby Watford Gap , a crossing point of the limestone ridge just north of the village of Watford ; the name is unrelated to the town of Watford in Hertfordshire . Watford Gap is considered by some to be on a dividing line that separates the north and the south of England .
= = Location = =
The services are in Northamptonshire , England close to the village of Watford about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the south east of Rugby and about 75 miles ( 121 km ) to the north west of London . They are situated between junctions 16 and 17 of the M1 with a single site for each direction on the motorway linked by a footbridge . The name comes from the nearby Watford Gap , the narrowest and lowest point in the limestone ridge that crosses England diagonally from the Cotswolds to Lincoln Edge . In Roman Britain , Iter II , later named Watling Street , crossed the gap ; Thomas Telford considered the route unsuitable for coach traffic due to the presence of quicksand . Today , this is reflected in the modern road network by the A5 suddenly turning left towards Kilsby near the services . Similarly , the Grand Union Canal avoided the gap by the Crick Tunnel . Consequently , the Roman Road at Watford Gap was largely untouched by previous engineering works when the M1 was constructed , and the engineers were able to build over it .
In popular culture , the Watford Gap is often considered to be a dividing line that separates the north and the south of England . The phrase " north of the Watford gap " may be shortened to " north of Watford " , inviting confusion with the larger town of Watford further south in Hertfordshire . Roadchef have suggested that the services ' name should be included in the Oxford English Dictionary as an expression of the divide between the north and south .
= = History = =
The services , the first of its kind in the UK , opened at the same time as the new motorway on 2 November 1959 . They evolved from discussions during 1955 and 1956 by the Ministry of Transport over what facilities should be present on new motorways . Civil engineer Owen Williams visited the United States to see what existing rest areas were available , and based his designs on these . Watford Gap was chosen as one of four pilot sites , though by 1958 the Ministry had decided only this and Newport Pagnell services would open with the motorway .
The land on which the services were built belonged to the Thorntons of Brock Hall , who had owned the manor since 1625 . The family had previously attempted to block the Grand Union Canal and the main London - Birmingham railway across the gap , without success . Brock Hall was eventually sold in 1969 and converted into flats .
The structure was built on the site of derelict farm buildings . There were different designers for different parts of the service area , with Owen Williams as the coordinating architect . An ornate design for a footbridge by Clough Williams @-@ Ellis was rejected in favour of a more functional and conservative modernist design by Owen Williams . When the services opened the new buildings were incomplete so the food was served from temporary sheds . The original plan had been for trucks to use this service station and for cars to use Newport Pagnell . In practice , however , both service areas were unrestricted . The first owners of the services were Blue Boar Limited , a family company that owned a nearby petrol station on the A5 . Although the official name has always been Watford Gap , the services were colloquially called Blue Boar for some time after opening .
The original buildings at Watford Gap were designed by Harry W Weedon and Partners , already well known for their work for Odeon Cinemas . The restaurant opened in September 1960 , but the Ministry were unhappy about the services ' reputation as a truck @-@ stop , dating back to Blue Boar 's popularity with HGV drivers . They consequently redesigned the restaurant in 1964 to accommodate a waitress service , which they hoped would " lose at least some of the stigma of having been started in 1959 as primarily a commercial driver 's facility " . Food was criticised for being expensive , though Tam Galbraith disputed this , noting he could buy steak and kidney pie with chips , buttered roll and a cup of tea at Watford Gap for 4s 2d ( £ 3 @.@ 81 today ) .
By the 1970s , a combination of the recession , overpriced food , and fear of football hooligans had greatly reduced the services ' popularity . The quality of the food declined substantially and , because of its prominent location , the services became a byword for poor catering . Roy Harper wrote a song criticising the food at the Watford Gap on his 1977 album , Bullinamingvase , writing : " Watford Gap , Watford Gap / A plate of grease and a load of crap " . The owners of Watford Gap service station objected to criticism of their food , as did an EMI board member who was also a non @-@ executive director of Blue Boar . Harper defended his decision to write the song , claiming the food was " junk . Absolute junk " . In 1989 , one journalist claimed the services had some of the worst food found on the road network , adding " if I threw the toast out of the window , it would probably still be bouncing up the M1 . " Roadchef purchased the motorway businesses from Blue Boar in 1995 and have since improved facilities . In 2011 and 2012 it was rated as 3 stars by quality assessors at Visit England .
Roadchef celebrated the services ' 50th anniversary on 2 November 2009 by selling cups of tea at 1959 prices . A road sign was erected pointing to " The North " and " The South " on the same day . As part of the anniversary celebrations , local film @-@ maker and composer Benjamin Till created a musical about Watford Gap . The show featured stories from 80 people who had worked or been associated with the services , including local residents who remembered the services opening .
= = Notable visitors = =
Though the Ministry of Transport was adamant that the services should not be destinations in their own right , they did acquire a reputation for being a popular place for motorists to visit . During the 1960s , the services were a regular stopping venue for bands such as Pink Floyd and the Rolling Stones . The Beatles stopped at Watford Gap while travelling from Liverpool to gigs in the south in the early stage of their career . Jimi Hendrix heard so much about " Blue Boar " , as the services were then popularly known , that he thought it was a London nightclub . Gerry Marsden , leader of the Pacemakers regularly visited the services when touring , saying it was good for " a quick stop and a quick nosh . " The Floyd 's Nick Mason recalls Hendrix stopping off at the services at 2am , while The Zombies ' Chris White thought the services were " the feeding trough of the beat boom " . Harper claimed " everybody would meet at Watford Gap because it was the one place after a show where you were guaranteed a bit of a sit @-@ down at 2am " .
The services ' association with 1960s musicians is remembered in a set of photographs published in 2008 of the Stones stopping at Watford Gap on the way to ATV Studios , Birmingham in 1963 . In 2009 , Roadchef paid a former employee £ 1 @,@ 000 for autographs he had collected while working there , including those of Paul McCartney , Mick Jagger , Keith Richards , Brian Jones , Dusty Springfield and Cliff Richard . In July 2011 , music journalist Peter Paphides presented Late Nights at the Blue Boar , a BBC Radio 4 documentary about the connection between the services and Britain 's 1960s rock bands .
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= Walter Potter =
Walter Potter ( 2 July 1835 – 21 May 1918 ) was an English taxidermist noted for his anthropomorphic dioramas featuring mounted animals mimicking human life , which he displayed at his museum in Bramber , Sussex , England . The exhibition was a well @-@ known and popular example of " Victorian whimsy " for many years , even after Potter 's death ; however enthusiasm for such entertainments waned in the twentieth century , and his collection was finally dispersed in 2003 .
= = Early life and popularity = =
Potter 's family ran The White Lion pub in Bramber , and as a teenager , his first attempt at taxidermy was to preserve the body of his own pet canary . At the age of 19 , inspired by his sister , Jane , who showed him an illustrated book of nursery rhymes , Potter produced what was to become the centrepiece of his museum , a diorama of " The Death and Burial of Cock Robin " , which included 98 species of British birds . This was so well @-@ received that in 1861 , he opened a separate display in the summer house of the pub . While satisfying the Victorian demand for traditional stuffed animals to earn a living , Potter continued creating his dioramas and expanded into new premises in 1866 , and again in 1880 . As his museum expanded , Potter married a local girl , Ann Stringer Muzzell , and they had three children , Walter , Annie and Minnie .
Amongst his scenes were " a rats ' den being raided by the local police rats ... [ a ] village school ... featuring 48 little rabbits busy writing on tiny slates , while the Kittens ' Tea Party displayed feline etiquette and a game of croquet . A guinea pigs ' cricket match was in progress , and 20 kittens attended a wedding , wearing little morning suits or brocade dresses , with a feline vicar in white surplice . " Potter 's attention to detail in these scenes has been noted , to the extent that " The kittens even wear frilly knickers under their formal attire ! " Apart from the simulations of human situations , he had also added examples of bizarrely deformed animals such as two @-@ headed lambs and four @-@ legged chickens . Potter 's collection , billed as " Mr Potter 's Museum of Curiosities " was to build into a " world @-@ famous example of Victorian whimsy " , with special coach trips from Brighton being arranged ; and the village and Potter 's museum were so popular that an extension was built to the platform at Bramber railway station .
= = Later life , death and decline of the museum = =
Potter suffered a stroke in 1914 , from which he never fully recovered , and died at the age of 82 ; he was buried in Bramber churchyard . His museum , which by that time contained about 10 @,@ 000 specimens , was taken over by his daughter and grandson . The Victorian enthusiasm for stuffed animals had waned by the museum 's later days , and it deflected claims of animal cruelty by displaying notices stating that all the animals had died naturally and that " in any case , they were all over 100 years old " . The " Kittens ' Wedding " scene , the last created by Potter in 1890 , was shown at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 2001 as part of " The Victorian Vision " exhibition .
= = Sale of the collection = =
The museum closed in the 1970s , and , after having been moved to Brighton and then to Arundel , was sold in 1984 to the owners of Jamaica Inn , Bolventor , Cornwall , where it attracted more than 30 @,@ 000 visitors each year . The death of their taxidermist and economic considerations sapped the venture of its viability , and , when a buyer to maintain the collection intact did not come forward , it was auctioned by Bonhams in 2003 , realizing over £ 500 @,@ 000 . " The Kittens ' Wedding " was sold for £ 21 @,@ 150 , and " The Death and Burial of Cock Robin " was the highest @-@ selling item of the sale , raising £ 23 @,@ 500 . Present at the auction were Peter Blake , Harry Hill and David Bailey .
A bid of £ 1m offered by Damien Hirst for the entire collection had apparently been rejected by the auctioneers , and the owners sued Bonhams , arguing that this offer should have been accepted . Shortly after the auction , Hirst wrote to The Guardian citing some of Potter 's limitations as a taxidermist , saying " You can see he knew very little about anatomy and musculature , because some of the taxidermy is terrible — there 's a kingfisher that looks nothing like a kingfisher " He also showed appreciation for the displays : " My own favourites are these tableaux : there 's a kittens ' wedding party , with all these kittens dressed up in costumes , even wearing jewellery . The kittens don 't look much like kittens , but that 's not the point . There 's a rats ' drinking party , too which puts a different construction on Wind in the Willows . And a group of hamsters playing cricket . " About the auction , Hirst said , " I 've offered £ 1m and to pay for the cost of the auctioneer 's catalogue – just for them to take it off the market and keep the collection intact – but apparently , the auction has to go ahead . It is a tragedy . "
The White Lion pub , home of Potter 's collection , has now been renamed The Castle Hotel .
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= Welcome to Our Neighborhood =
Welcome to Our Neighborhood is the first video album by American metal band Slipknot . It was released on November 9 , 1999 by Roadrunner Records and later reissued in DVD format on November 18 , 2003 . Characterized as a band 's home video , it features a mixture of live performances footage of the songs " Surfacing " , " Wait and Bleed " , and " Scissors " , interviews , and music video of " Spit It Out " . Additional concept imagery and interview footage is included on the film , while the DVD version features more bonus material . The video was well received by fans and entered number one on the Billboard Top Music Videos chart , and was certified platinum in February 2000 .
= = Production and release = =
Following the band 's highly successful breakthrough 1999 tour on Ozzfest , Slipknot decided to produce Welcome to Our Neighborhood with Doom Films Production . The video was directed by Thomas Mignone , and released on VHS through Roadrunner Records on November 9 , 1999 . It features the bands ' earliest videos : live performances of " Surfacing " and " Wait and Bleed " , and the " banned from MTV " video clip of " Spit It Out " — all tracks from the band 's self @-@ titled debut were released earlier that year . It also features additional concept imagery and interview footage with new lead singer Corey Taylor , guitarist Mick Thomson and percussionist Shawn Crahan , to a total of 20 minutes of video .
The publisher , Roadrunner Records , promotes the video as " a study in the roots of Slipknot " as a response to fans wanting to see what made the band " tick " . In the video , band members themselves explain in the video that " [ Welcome to Our Neighborhood ] basically [ it ’ s ] nine people working out every poison that ever affected them in their life and putting it on tape . "
A DVD version was released on November 18 , 2003 , and features bonus material of the band performing " Scissors " , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes material , and home footage filmed by the band in their hometown of Des Moines , Iowa . The seven minutes @-@ long concert footage of the track " Scissors " was filmed during the band 's appearance at Ozzfest 1999 , but has the studio version dubbed over .
= = Reception = =
The video was well received by fans and entered number one on the Billboard Top Music Videos chart , where it remained in the charts for 54 weeks . In the Billboard Top VHS Sales chart , the video peaked at number four , and remained in for 45 weeks . The video was certified gold by RIAA on December 21 , 1999 , and platinum on February 16 , 2000 . In Canada it sold over 50 @,@ 000 units , and thus it was certified gold on February 1 , 2000 . On allmovie.com , the video was described as " killer " and having a sound " as disturbing as the horrific masks they don to hide their true identities " . The video remains unrated in the US , while in it received a mature audience @-@ rating , and in the UK an over 15 one .
= = Contents = =
= = Personnel = =
Aside from their real names , members of the band are referred to by numbers zero through eight .
= = Chart positions = =
= = Release history = =
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= Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn , BWV 23 =
Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn ( You true God and Son of David ) , BWV 23 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Köthen between 1717 and 1723 for Quinquagesima Sunday and performed it as an audition piece for the position of Thomaskantor in Leipzig on 7 February 1723 . The Sunday was the last occasion for music at church before the quiet time of Lent .
Bach had at least the first three movements ready for the audition in Leipzig and may have added the substantial last movement , derived from the lost Weimarer Passion , rather late . The cantata deals with healing the blind near Jericho . An anonymous author stayed close to the gospel , having the blind man call Jesus in the first movement , and begging Jesus not to pass in the second . In the last movement Bach presents an extended version of " Christe , du Lamm Gottes " , the German Agnus Dei of the Lutheran mass . He scored the cantata for three vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble with oboes , strings and continuo .
Bach possibly led the audition performance of the work in Leipzig in the Thomaskirche on 7 February 1723 , probably after the sermon . He performed the cantata again for the same occasion on 20 February 1724 , this time reinforcing the voices by a brass choir in the final movement .
= = History and words = =
Bach probably composed the cantata in Köthen between 1717 and 1723 for Quinquagesima Sunday , the last Sunday before Lent , also known as Estomihi . He revised it , transposing it from C minor to B minor and possibly adding the last movement , to be a test piece , together with Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe , BWV 22 , for his application for the position of Thomaskantor , director of church music in Leipzig . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were taken from the First Epistle to the Corinthians , " praise of love " ( 1 Corinthians 13 : 1 – 13 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , healing the blind near Jericho ( Luke 18 : 31 – 43 ) . The authorship of the poetry is unknown . The Sunday was meaningful because it was the last chance to perform cantata music before the quiet time of Lent began .
The chorale theme assigned to Christe , du Lamm Gottes , first appeared in print in Johannes Bugenhagen 's Braunschweig church order , published in Wittenberg in 1525 . Luther assigned it then to the Kyrie eleison of his Deutsche Messe .
Bach possibly led the audition performance of the work in Leipzig in the Thomaskirche on 7 February 1723 , probably after the sermon . It is unclear whether a " test " performance of the 1723 revised version took place in Köthen before Bach 's audition . Bach performed the cantata again for the same occasion on 20 February 1724 , reinforcing the voices by a brass choir in the final movement . When he performed the cantata again between 1728 and 1731 , he returned to the original Köthen key and performed without brass .
= = Structure and scoring = =
Bach structured the cantata in four movements : a duet for soprano ( S ) and alto ( A ) , a recitative for tenor ( T ) , a chorus , and a closing chorale . He scored it for the three vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble . The duration is given as 20 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring and keys follow the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe for the version performed in 1724 , which is in B minor , uses oboes d 'amore in the first movement and brass playing colla parte with the voices in the last movement , a choir of cornett ( Ct ) and three trombones ( Tb ) ( or trombe ( Tr ) ) . According to the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , the audition version of 1723 had no reinforcement by brass , matching the scoring of the other audition piece . The originally composed version , which was not performed until 1728 , was in C minor , had oboes in the opening movement and no brass . The time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , played throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
In this cantata , Bach combines elements of ritornello and concerto writing to expand his range of structural experimentation . Although the closing chorale was a later addition , its melody is incorporated earlier in the piece , unifying the form . The theme of the text is optimistic , but the music throughout has a sense of underlying sadness . Craig Smith describes the cantata as " one of the densest and greatest " . The Bach scholar Christoph Wolff notes that the opening duet and also the duet passages on the chorus are in the style of Bach 's secular cantatas written in Köthen .
= = = 1 = = =
The opening movement , " Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn " ( You true God and Son of David ) , is " a sinewy and somewhat enigmatic quintet " for soprano and alto voices ( assuming the role of the blind man addressing Jesus ) with low active oboes and continuo . The movement is in adapted ternary form with an opening and closing " Italianate " ritornello . The soprano line includes a " drooping " motive , hinting at later harmonic and emotional development . There is a " thorny , even awkward juxtaposition of triple and duple meters " throughout the duet .
= = = 2 = = =
The tenor recitative , " Ach ! gehe nicht vorüber " ( Ah ! do not pass by ) , is similar to that for bass in Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe : they are both in major mode and accompanied by chordal strings underlying the vocal line . This movement adds an instrumental rendition of the melody of the closing chorale in oboe and violin .
= = = 3 = = =
The chorus , " Aller Augen warten , Herr " ( All eyes wait , Lord ) , is , according to the musicologist Julian Mincham , " dance @-@ like but not toe @-@ tapping , major but not ebulliently so , employing the full chorus but restrained throughout " . The form is a free rondo with interspersed extended episodes of tenor and bass duet . The opening includes the BACH motif .
= = = 4 = = =
The last movement , " Christe , du Lamm Gottes " ( Christ , Lamb of God ) , is probably older than the first three movements and may have originated in the lost Weimarer Passion from 1717 . The three calls of the Agnus Dei are all set differently , with an independent prelude and interludes by the oboes and strings , between the verses . The first verse is marked " adagio " . Instrumental motifs are derived from the hymn tune , which appears in the soprano and mostly chordal support by the lower voices . In the second verse , marked " andante " , the tune appears in a three @-@ part canon in soprano , oboes and first violin . The third verse returns to B minor . It has the tune in the soprano with polyphony in the lower voices and the instruments . The oboes play a syncopated independent role , while the strings support the voices , and the oboes in the interludes . The complex artful composition is a good preparation for Lent , the time of the Passion . Bach used it again to conclude the second version of his St John Passion in 1725 .
= = Recordings = =
The selection is taken from the listing on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website .
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= History of the metric system =
Concepts similar to those behind the metric system had been discussed in the 16th and 17th centuries . Simon Stevin had published his ideas for a decimal notation and John Wilkins had published a proposal for a decimal system of measurement based on natural units . The first practical realisation of the metric system came in 1799 , during the French Revolution , when the existing system of measure , which had fallen into disrepute , was temporarily replaced by a decimal system based on the kilogram and the metre . The work of reforming the old system of weights and measures had the support of whoever was in power , including Louis XVI . The metric system was to be , in the words of philosopher and mathematician Condorcet , " for all people for all time " . In the era of humanism , the basic units were taken from the natural world : the unit of length , the metre , was based on the dimensions of the Earth , and the unit of mass , the kilogram , was based on the mass of water having a volume of one litre or one thousandth of a cubic metre . Reference copies for both units were manufactured and placed in the custody of the French Academy of Sciences . By 1812 , due to the unpopularity of the new metric system , France had reverted to a measurement system using units similar to those of their old system .
In 1837 the metric system was re @-@ adopted by France , and also during the first half of the 19th century was adopted by the scientific community . In the middle of the century , James Clerk Maxwell put forward the concept of a coherent system where a small number of units of measure were defined as base units , and all other units of measure , called derived units , were defined in terms of the base units . Maxwell proposed three base units : length , mass and time . This concept worked well with mechanics , but attempts to describe electromagnetic forces in terms of these units encountered difficulties . By the end of the 19th century , four principal variants of the metric system were in use for the measurement of electromagnetic phenomena : three based on the centimetre @-@ gram @-@ second system of units ( CGS system ) , and one on the metre @-@ kilogram @-@ second system of units ( MKS system ) . This impasse was resolved by Giovanni Giorgi , who in 1901 proved that a coherent system that incorporated electromagnetic units had to have an electromagnetic unit as a fourth base unit .
Until 1875 , the French government owned the prototype metre and kilogram , but in that year the Convention of the metre was signed , and control of the standards relating to mass and length passed to a trio of inter @-@ governmental organisations , the senior of which was the General Conference on Weights and Measures ( in French the Conférence générale des poids et mesures or CGPM ) . During the first half of the 20th century , the CGPM cooperated with a number of other organisations , and by 1960 it had responsibility for defining temporal , electrical , thermal , molecular and luminar measurements , while other international organisations continued their roles in how these units of measurement were used .
In 1960 , the CGPM launched the International System of Units ( in French the Système international d 'unités or SI ) which had six " base units " : the metre , kilogram , second , ampere , degree Kelvin ( subsequently renamed the " kelvin " ) and candela ; as well as 22 further units derived from the base units . The mole was added as a seventh base unit in 1971 . During this period , the metre was redefined in terms of the wavelength of the waves from a particular light source , and the second was defined in terms of the frequency of radiation from another light source . Since the end of the 20th century , an effort has been undertaken to redefine the ampere , kilogram , mole and kelvin in terms of the basic constants of physics .
= = Development of underlying principles = =
The first practical implementation of the metric system was the system implemented by French Revolutionaries towards the end of the 18th century . Its key features were that :
It was decimal in nature .
It derived its unit sizes from nature .
Units that have different dimensions are related to each other in a rational manner .
Prefixes are used to denote multiples and sub @-@ multiples of its units .
These features had already been explored and expounded by various scholars and academics in the two centuries prior to the French metric system being implemented .
Simon Stevin is credited with introducing the decimal system into general use in Europe . Twentieth @-@ century writers such Bigourdan ( France , 1901 ) and McGreevy ( United Kingdom , 1995 ) credit the French cleric Gabriel Mouton ( 1670 ) as the originator of the metric system . In 2007 a proposal for a coherent decimal system of measurement by the English cleric John Wilkins ( 1668 ) received publicity . Since then writers have also focused on Wilkins ' proposals : Tavernor ( 2007 ) gave both Wilkins and Mouton equal coverage while Quinn ( 2012 ) makes no mention of Mouton but states that " he [ Wilkins ] proposed essentially what became ... the French decimal metric system " .
= = = Work of Simon Stevin = = =
During the early medieval era , Roman numerals were used in Europe to represent numbers , but the Arabs represented numbers using the Hindu numeral system , a positional notation that used ten symbols . In about 1202 , Fibonacci published his book Liber Abaci ( Book of Calculation ) which introduced the concept of positional notation into Europe . These symbols evolved into the numerals " 0 " , " 1 " , " 2 " etc .
At that time there was dispute regarding the difference between rational numbers and irrational numbers and there was no consistency in the way in which decimal fractions were represented . In 1586 , Simon Stevin published a small pamphlet called De Thiende ( " the tenth " ) which historians credit as being the basis of modern notation for decimal fractions . Stevin felt that this innovation was so significant that he declared the universal introduction of decimal coinage , measures , and weights to be merely a question of time .
= = = Work of John Wilkins = = =
In the mid seventeenth century John Wilkins , the first secretary of England 's Royal Society , was asked by the society to devise a " universal standard of measure " . In 1668 he attempted to codify all knowledge in his 621 @-@ page book An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language . Four pages of Part II in Chapter VII were devoted to physical measurement . Here Wilkins also proposed a decimal system of units of measure based on what he called a " universal measure " that was derived from nature for use between " learned men " of various nations .
Wilkins considered the earth 's meridian , atmospheric pressure and , following a suggestion by Christopher Wren and demonstrations by Christiaan Huygens , the pendulum as the source for his universal measure . He discarded atmospheric pressure as a candidate – it was described by Torricelli in 1643 as being susceptible to variation ( the link between atmospheric pressure and weather was not understood at the time ) and he discarded a meridian as being too difficult to measure ; leaving the pendulum as his preferred choice . He proposed that the length of a " seconds pendulum " ( approximately 993 mm ) which he named the " standard " should be the basis of length . He proposed further that the " measure of capacity " ( base unit of volume ) should be defined as a cubic standard and that the " measure of weight " ( base unit of weight [ mass ] ) should be the weight of a cubic standard of rainwater . All multiples and sub @-@ multiples of each of these measures would be related to the base measure in a decimal manner . In short , Wilkins " proposed essentially what became ... the French decimal metric system " .
= = = Work of Gabriel Mouton = = =
In 1670 , Gabriel Mouton , a French abbot and astronomer , published the book Observationes diametrorum solis et lunae apparentium in which he proposed a decimal system of measurement of length for use by scientists in international communication , to be based on the dimensions of the Earth . The milliare would be defined as a minute of arc along a meridian and would be divided into 10 centuria , the centuria into 10 decuria and so on , successive units being the virga , virgula , decima , centesima , and the millesima . Mouton used Riccioli 's estimate that one degree of arc was 321 @,@ 185 Bolognese feet , and his own experiments showed that a pendulum of length one virgula would beat 3959 @.@ 2 times in half an hour . Current pendulum theory shows that such a pendulum would have had an equivalent length of 205 @.@ 6 mm – using today 's knowledge of the size of the earth , the virgula would have been approximately 185 @.@ 2 mm . He believed that with this information scientists in a foreign country would be able to construct a copy of the virgula for their own use .
= = = 17th @-@ century developments = = =
Communication of metrological information was one of the issues facing mid @-@ seventeenth century savants ; many discussed the possibility of scholarly communication using a so @-@ called " universal measure " that was not tied to a particular national system of measurement . Mouton 's ideas attracted interest at the time ; Picard in his work Mesure de la Terre ( 1671 ) and Huygens in his work Horologium Oscillatorium sive de motu pendulorum ( 1673 ) both proposing that a standard unit of length be tied to the beat frequency of a pendulum .
The French Academy of Sciences ( Académie Royale des Sciences ) interest in the pendulum experiments were effectively announced by Picard in his work Mesure de la Terre . The length of a " second pendulum " was measured at a number of locations outside France , in 1671 at Uraniborg , an island 26 km north of Copenhagen and in 1672 Jean Richer measured one at Cayenne in French Guiana , 5 ° north of the equator . There was no discernible difference between the Uraniborg pendulum and the Paris one , but there was a 2 @.@ 81 mm difference between the lengths of the Cayenne pendulum and that from Paris . Cooperation with the English Royal Society showed no discernible difference between pendulums measured in London and Paris , but measurements taken at Gorée in Senegal , in West Africa were more in line with those taken at Cayenne . Meanwhile , in England , Locke , in his work An Essay Concerning Human Understanding ( 1689 ) , made references to the " philosopher 's foot " which he defined as being one third of a " second pendulum " at 45 ° latitude .
In 1686 Englishman Newton , in his book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica , gave a theoretical explanation for the " bulging equator " which also explained the differences found in the lengths of the " second pendulums " , theories that were confirmed by the Académie 's expedition to Peru in 1735 .
= = = 18th @-@ century international cooperation = = =
In the late eighteenth century proposals , similar to those of the seventeenth century for a universal measure , were made for a common international system of measure in the spheres of commerce and technology ; when the French Revolutionaries implemented such a system , they drew on many of the seventeenth @-@ century proposals .
In the early ninth century , when much of what later became France was part of the Holy Roman Empire , units of measure had been standardised by the Emperor Charlemagne . He had introduced standard units of measure for length and for mass throughout his empire . As the empire disintegrated into separate nations , including France , these standards diverged . It has been estimated that on the eve of the Revolution , a quarter of a million different units of measure were in use in France ; in many cases the quantity associated with each unit of measure differed from town to town , and even from trade to trade . Although certain standards , such as the pied du roi ( the King 's foot ) had a degree of pre @-@ eminence and were used by scientists , many traders chose to use their own measuring devices , giving scope for fraud and hindering commerce and industry . These variations were promoted by local vested interests , but hindered trade and taxation . In contrast , in England the Magna Carta ( 1215 ) had stipulated that " there shall be one unit of measure throughout the realm " .
By the mid @-@ eighteenth century , it had become apparent that standardisation of weights and measures between nations who traded and exchanged scientific ideas with each other was necessary . Spain , for example , had aligned her units of measure with the royal units of France , and Peter the Great aligned the Russian units of measure with those of England . In 1783 the British inventor James Watt , who was having difficulties in communicating with German scientists , called for the creation of a global decimal measurement system , proposing a system which , like the seventeenth @-@ century proposal of Wilkins , used the density of water to link length and mass , and in 1788 the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier commissioned a set of nine brass cylinders — a [ French ] pound and decimal subdivisions thereof for his experimental work .
In 1789 French finances were in a perilous state , several years of poor harvests had resulted in hunger among the peasants and reforms were thwarted by vested interests . On 5 May 1789 Louis XVI summoned the Estates @-@ General which has been in abeyance since 1614 , triggering a series of events that were to culminate in the French Revolution . On 20 June 1789 the newly formed Assemblée nationale ( National Assembly ) took an oath not to disband until a constitution had been drafted , resulting in the setting up , on 27 June 1789 , of the Assemblée nationale constituante ( Constituent Assembly ) . On the same day , the Académie des sciences ( Academy of Sciences ) set up a committee to investigate the reform of weights and measures which , due to their diverse nature , had become a vehicle for corruption .
On 4 August 1789 , three weeks after the storming of the Bastille , the nobility surrendered their privileges , including the right to control local weights and measures .
Talleyrand , Assemblée representative of the clergy , revolutionary leader and former Bishop of Autun , at the prompting of the mathematician and secretary of the Académie Condorcet , approached the British and the Americans in early 1790 with proposals of a joint effort to define a common standard of length based on the length of a pendulum . Great Britain , represented by John Riggs Miller and the United States represented by Thomas Jefferson agreed in principle to the proposal , but the choice of latitude for the pendulum proved to be a sticking point : Jefferson opting for 38 ° N , Talleyrand for 45 ° N and Riggs @-@ Miller for London 's latitude . On 8 May 1790 Talleyrand 's proposal in the Assemblée that the new measure be defined at 45 ° N " or whatever latitude might be preferred " won the support of all parties concerned . On 13 July 1790 , Jefferson presented a document Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage , Weights , and Measures of the United States to the U.S. Congress in which , like Wilkins , he advocated a decimal system in which units that used traditional names such as inches , feet , roods were related to each by the powers of ten . Again , like Wilkins , he proposed a system of weights based around the weight of a cubic unit of water , but unlike Wilkins , he proposed a " rod pendulum " rather than a " bob pendulum " . Riggs @-@ Miller promoted Talleyrand 's proposal in the British House of Commons .
In response to Talleyrand 's proposal of 1790 , the Assemblée set up a new committee under the auspices of the Académie to investigate weights and measures . The members were five of the most able scientists of the day — Jean @-@ Charles de Borda , Joseph @-@ Louis Lagrange , Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace , Gaspard Monge and Condorcet . The committee , having decided that counting and weights and measures should use the same radix , debated the use of the duodecimal system as an alternative to the decimal system . Eventually the committee decided that the advantages of divisibility by three and four was outweighed by the complications of introducing a duodecimal system and on 27 October 1790 recommended to the Assemblée that currency , weights and measures should all be based on a decimal system . They also argued in favour of the decimalization of time and of angular measures . The committee examined three possible standards for length – the length of pendulum that beat with a frequency of once a second at 45 ° latitude , a quarter of the length of the equator and a quarter of the length of a meridian . The committee also proposed that the standard for weight should be the weight of distilled water held in cube with sides a decimal proportion of the standard for length . The committee 's final report to the Assemblée on 17 March 1791 recommended the meridional definition for the unit of length . Borda , inventor of the repeating circle was appointed chairman . The proposal was accepted by the Assemblée on 30 March 1791 .
Jefferson 's report was considered but not adopted by the U.S. Congress , and Riggs @-@ Miller lost his British Parliamentary seat in the election of 1790 . When the French later overthrew their monarchy , Britain withdrew her support. and France decided to " go it alone " .
= = = Roles of Wilkins and Mouton = = =
In the past many writers such as Bigourdan ( France , 1903 ) and McGreevy ( United Kingdom , 1995 ) credited Mouton as the " founding father " of the metric system . In 2007 the late Australian metric campaigner Pat Naughtin investigated Wilkins ' proposal for a universal system of measurement in Wilkins ' essay , a work that pre @-@ dated Mouton 's proposal by two years . Wilkins ' proposal , unlike Mouton 's , discussed an integrated measurement system that encompassed length , volume and mass rather than just length .
Wilkins ' Essay was widely circulated at the time , but the main interest in the Essay was his proposal for a philosophical language in general rather than just a universal standard for units of measure . Subsequent interest in Wilkins ' Essay was confined mainly to those interested in the field of onomasiology rather than metrology : for example , Roget in the introduction of his Thesaurus ( 1852 ) , noted Wilkins ' Essay as being one of the leading seventeenth @-@ century works in onomasiology . British commentators of the Essay devoted little space to Wilkins ' proposals of measurement ; Vernon et al . ( 1802 ) made a passing comment on the section on measurements in an eight @-@ page study of the Essay while Wright @-@ Henderson ( 1910 ) , in a four @-@ page study of the Essay , made no comments about measurements at all .
Mouton 's proposals were taken seriously by , amongst others , the seventeenth @-@ century scientists Jean Picard and Christiaan Huygens , but a hundred years were to elapse before the French again took interest in the underlying theory of the development of systems of measure .
Shortly after the introduction of the metric system by the French , a letter by an anonymous but regular contributor to The Philosophical Magazine ( 1805 ) noted the lack of acknowledgement by the French of Wilkins ' publication . The writer accused the editors of the Encyclopédie of giving unwarranted attention to the work of Mouton and Huygens at the expense of Edward Wright who , in 1599 had proposed using the earth 's meridian as a standard , and of Wilkins who had proposed a measurement system . He took British writers to task for not " defending their countrymen " . He went on to note that there was considerable communication between scientists on either side of the Channel , particularly with Huygens and Leibniz either visiting or being members of both the Royal Society and the Académie Royale des Sciences .
= = Implementation in Revolutionary France ( 1792 – 1812 ) = =
When the National Assembly accepted the committee 's report on 30 March 1791 , the Académie des sciences was instructed to implement the proposals . The Académie broke the tasks into five operations , allocating each part to a separate working group :
Measuring the difference in latitude between Dunkirk and Barcelona and triangulating between them ( Cassini , Méchain , and Legendre )
Measuring the baselines used for the survey ( Monge , Meusnier )
Verifying the length of the second pendulum at 45 ° latitude ( de Borda and de Coulomb ) .
Verifying the weight in vacuo of a given volume of distilled water ( Antoine Lavoisier and René Just Haüy ) .
Publishing conversion tables relating the new units of measure to the existing units of measure ( Tillet ) .
On 19 June 1791 - the day before Louis XVI 's flight to Varennes - Cassini , Méchain , Legendre and Borda obtained a royal audience where the king agreed to fund both the measurement of the meridian and repeating the measurements made by Cassini 's father . The king 's authorization arrived on 24 June 1791 .
During the political turmoil that followed the king 's flight to Varennes , the reform of weights and measures and in particular the measurement of the meridian continued albeit with interruptions , though the structure of the commission changed with the changing political climate . In May 1792 Cassini , loyal to Louis XVI but not to the Revolution was replaced by Delambre and on 11 July 1792 the Commission formally proposed the names " metre " , " litre " and multipliers " centi " , " kilo " etc. to the Assembly .
Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793 and on 8 August of that year , on the eve of the Reign of Terror the new de facto government executive , the Committee of Public Safety suppressed all academies and with it the commission , requiring them to justify their existence . Antoine François , comte de Fourcroy , a member of the convention argued that the importance of reforming weights and measures was such that the work of the commission should be allowed to continue . On 11 September 1793 the commission was reconstituted as the commission temporaire .
On 7 April 1795 the metric system was formally defined in French law and provisional standards based on Cassini 's survey of 1740 adopted . On 22 October 1795 the work of the commission ( since reconstituted as a three @-@ man agence temporaire under Legendre 's directorship ) was taken over by the newly formed National Institute of Arts and Science and under the new government , the Directory , was transferred to the " Office for Weights and Measures " under the Minister of the Interior .
On 15 November 1798 Delambre and Méchain returned to Paris with their data , having completed the survey of the Dunkirk @-@ Barcelona meridian . The data was analysed and a prototype metre constructed from platinum with a length of 443 @.@ 296 lignes . At the same time a prototype kilogram was constructed – the mass of a cube of water at 4 ° C , each side of the cube being 0 @.@ 1 metres . The prototype metre was presented to the French legislative assemblies on 22 June 1799 .
= = = Decimal time ( 1793 ) = = =
The decree of 5 October 1793 introduced the Republican Calendar into France and with it decimalised time . The day was divided into 10 " decimal hours " , the " hour " into 100 " decimal minutes " and the " decimal minute " into 100 " decimal seconds " . The " decimal hour " corresponded to 2 hr 24 min , the " decimal minute " to 1 @.@ 44 min and the " decimal second " to 0 @.@ 864 s . The revolutionary week was 10 days , but there were still twelve months in a year , each month consisting of three " weeks " . Each year had five or six intercalary days to make up the total of 365 or 366 days .
The implementation of decimal time proved an immense task and under the article 22 of the law of 18 Germinal , Year III ( 7 April 1795 ) , the use of decimal time was no longer mandatory , though the Republican Calendar was retained . On 1 January 1806 , France reverted to the traditional timekeeping .
= = = Angular measure ( c . 1793 ) = = =
Although there was no specific decree regarding angular measure which was also decimalised during the 1790s , it is reported to have been used in 1794 , but was not mentioned in the metric system decree of 1795 . In particular , the repeating circle , invented in about 1787 by Borda , himself a strong proponent of decimalization , was adapted to use decimal angles .
A grade ( or gon ) was defined as being 1 ⁄ 100 of a quadrant , making 400 grades in a full circle . Fractions of the grade used the standard metric prefixes , thus one centigrade was 1 ⁄ 10000 of a quadrant , making one centigrade of longitude approximately one kilometre .
The adoption of the grade by the cartographic community was sufficient to warrant a mention in the Lexicographia @-@ neologica Gallica in 1801 and its use continued on military maps through the nineteenth century into the twentieth century . It appears not to have been widely used outside cartography . The centigrade , as an angular measure , was adopted for general use in a number countries , so in 1948 the General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) recommended that the degree centigrade , as used for the measurement of temperature , be renamed the degree Celsius . The SI Brochure ( 2006 ) notes that the gon is now a little @-@ used alternative to the degree .
= = = Draft metric system ( 1795 ) = = =
In France , the metric system of measure was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government . Article 5 of the law of 18 Germinal , Year III ( 7 April 1795 ) defined six new decimal units . The units and their preliminary values were :
The metre , for length – defined as being one ten millionth of the distance between the North Pole and the Equator through Paris
The are ( 100 m2 ) for area [ of land ]
The stère ( 1 m3 ) for volume of firewood
The litre ( 1 dm3 ) for volumes of liquid
The gramme , for mass – defined as being the mass of one cubic centimetre of water
The franc , for currency
Decimal multiples of these units were defined by Greek prefixes : " myria- " ( 10 @,@ 000 ) , " kilo- " ( 1000 ) , " hecta- " ( 100 ) and " deka- " ( 10 ) and submultiples were defined by the Latin prefixes " deci- " ( 0 @.@ 1 ) , " centi- " ( 0 @.@ 01 ) and " milli- " ( 0 @.@ 001 ) . Using Cassini 's survey of 1744 , a provisional value of 443 @.@ 44 lignes was assigned to the metre which , in turn , defined the other units of measure .
The final value of the metre was defined in 1799 when Delambre and Méchain presented the results of their survey between Dunkirk and Barcelona which fixed the length of the metre at 443 @.@ 296 lignes . The law 19 Frimaire An VIII ( 10 December 1799 ) defined the metre in terms of this value and the kilogramme as being 18827 @.@ 15 grains . These definitions enabled reference copies of the kilograms and metres to be constructed and these were used as the standards for the next 90 years .
= = = Meridianal definition = = =
The question of measurement reform in France was placed in the hands of the French Academy of Sciences who appointed a commission chaired by Jean @-@ Charles de Borda . Borda could be said to have been a fanatic for decimalization : he had designed the repeating circle , a surveying instrument which allowed a much @-@ improved precision in the measurement of angles between landmarks , but insisted that it be calibrated in " grades " ( 1 ⁄ 100 of a quarter @-@ circle ) rather than degrees , with 100 minutes to a grade and 100 seconds to a minute . The instrument was manufactured by Étienne Lenoir . For Borda , the seconds pendulum was a poor choice for a standard because the second ( as a unit of time ) was insufficiently decimal : he preferred the new system of 10 hours to the day , 100 minutes to the hour and 100 seconds to the minute .
Instead , the commission – whose members included Lagrange , Laplace , Monge and Condorcet – decided that the new measure should be equal to one ten @-@ millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator ( the quadrant of the Earth 's circumference ) , measured along the meridian passing through Paris . Apart from the obvious nationalistic considerations , the Paris meridian was also a sound choice for practical scientific reasons : a portion of the quadrant from Dunkerque to Barcelona ( about 1000 km , or one @-@ tenth of the total ) could be surveyed with start- and end @-@ points at sea level , and that portion was roughly in the middle of the quadrant , where the effects of the Earth 's oblateness were expected to be the largest .
The task of surveying the meridian arc , which was authorized by Louis XVI and which was estimated to take two years , fell to Pierre Méchain and Jean @-@ Baptiste Delambre . The task eventually took more than six years ( 1792 – 1798 ) with delays caused not only by unforeseen technical difficulties but also by the convulsed period of the aftermath of the Revolution . In the meantime , the commission calculated a provisional value from older surveys of 443 @.@ 44 lignes .
The project was split into two parts – the northern section of 742 @.@ 7 km from the Belfry , Dunkirk to Rodez Cathederal which was surveyed by Delambre and the southern section of 333 @.@ 0 km from Rodez to the Montjuïc Fortress , Barcelona which was surveyed by Méchain .
Delambre used a baseline of about 10 km in length along a straight road , located close to Melun . In an operation taking six weeks , the baseline was accurately measured using four platinum rods , each of length two toise ( about 3 @.@ 9 m ) . Thereafter he used , where possible , the triangulation points used by Cassini in his 1744 survey of France . Méchain 's baseline , of a similar length , and also on a straight section of road was in the Perpignan area . Although Méchain 's sector was half the length of Delambre , it included the Pyrenees and hitherto unsurveyed parts of Spain . After the two surveyors met , each computed the other 's baseline in order to cross @-@ check their results and they then recomputed the kilometre . Their result came out at 0 @.@ 144 lignes shorter than the provisional value , a difference of about 0 @.@ 03 % .
= = = Mètre des Archives = = =
While Méchain and Delambre were completing their survey , the commission had ordered a series of platinum bars to be made based on the provisional metre . When the final result was known , the bar whose length was closest to the meridianal definition of the metre was selected and placed in the French National Archives on 22 June 1799 ( 4 messidor An VII in the Republican calendar ) as a permanent record of the result : this standard metre bar became known as the mètre des Archives .
The metric system , that is the system of units based on the metre , was officially adopted in France on 10 December 1799 ( 19 frimaire An VIII ) and became the sole legal system of weights and measures there from 1801 .
It soon became apparent that Méchain and Delambre 's result ( 443 @.@ 296 lignes ) was slightly too short for the meridianal definition of the metre . Arago and Biot extended the survey to the island of Formentera in the western Mediterranean Sea in 1806 – 1809 , and found that one ten @-@ millionth of the Earth 's quadrant should be 443 @.@ 31 lignes : later work increased the value to 443 @.@ 39 lignes . The modern value , for the WGS 84 reference spheroid , is 1 @.@ 000 196 57 m or 443 @.@ 383 08 lignes .
Nevertheless , the mètre des Archives remained the legal and practical standard for the metre in France , even once it was known that it did not exactly correspond to the meridianal definition . When , in 1867 , it was proposed that a new international standard metre be created , the length was taken to be that of the mètre des Archives " in the state in which it shall be found " .
= = = Kilogramme des Archives = = =
On 7 April 1795 , the gramme , upon which the kilogram is based , was decreed to be equal to " the absolute weight of a volume of pure water equal to a cube of one hundredth of a metre , and at the temperature of the melting ice " . Although this was the definition of the gram , the regulation of trade and commerce required a " practical realisation " : a single @-@ piece , metallic reference standard that was one thousand times more massive that would be known as grave . This mass unit , whose name is derived from the word " gravity " , defined by Lavoisier and René Just Haüy had been in use since 1793 . Notwithstanding that the definition of the base unit of mass was the gramme ( alternatively " gravet " ) , this new , practical realisation would ultimately become the base unit of mass . A provisional kilogram standard was made and work was commissioned to determine the precise mass of a cubic decimetre ( later to be defined as equal to one litre ) of water .
Although the decreed definition of the kilogramme specified water at 0 ° C — a highly stable temperature point — the scientists tasked with producing the new practical realisation chose to redefine the standard and perform their measurements at the most stable density point : the temperature at which water reaches maximum density , which was measured at the time as 4 ° C. They concluded that one cubic decimetre of water at its maximum density was equal to 99 @.@ 92072 % of the mass of the provisional kilogram made earlier that year . Four years later in 1799 , an all @-@ platinum standard , the " Kilogramme des Archives " , was fabricated with the objective that it would equal , as close as was scientifically feasible for the day , to the mass of cubic decimetre of water at 4 ° C. The kilogramme was defined to be equal to the mass of the Kilogramme des Archives and this standard stood for the next ninety years .
Note that the new metric system did not come into effect in France until after the French Revolution , when the new revolutionary government captured the idea of the metric system . The decision of the Republican government to name this new unit the " kilogramme " had been mainly politically motivated , because the name " grave " was at that time considered politically incorrect as it resembled the aristocratic German title of the Graf , an alternative name for the title of Count that , like other nobility titles , was inconsistent with the new French Republic notion of equality ( égalité ) . Accordingly , the name of the original , defined unit of mass , " gramme " , which was too small to serve as a practical realisation , was adopted and the new prefix " kilo " was appended to it to form the name " kilogramme " . Consequently , the kilogram is the only SI base unit that has an SI prefix as part of its unit name .
= = Adoption of the metric weights and measures = =
During the nineteenth century the metric system of weights and measures proved a convenient political compromise during the unification processes in the Netherlands , Germany and Italy . In 1814 , Portugal became the first country not part of the French Empire to officially adopt a metric system . Spain found it expedient in 1858 to follow the French example and within a decade Latin America had also adopted the metric system . There was considerable resistance to metrication in the United Kingdom and in the United States , though once the United Kingdom announced its metrication program in 1965 , the Commonwealth followed suit .
= = = France = = =
The introduction of the metric system into France in 1795 was done on a district by district basis with Paris being the first district , but by modern standards the transition was poorly managed . Although thousands of pamphlets were distributed , the Agency of Weights and Measures who oversaw the introduction underestimated the work involved . Paris alone needed 500 @,@ 000 metre sticks , yet one month after the metre became the sole legal unit of measure , they only had 25 @,@ 000 in store . This , combined with other excesses of the Revolution and the high level of illiteracy made the metric system unpopular .
Napoleon himself ridiculed the metric system , but as an able administrator , recognised the value of a sound basis for a system of measurement and under the décret impérial du 12 février 1812 ( imperial decree of 12 February 1812 ) , a new system of measure – the mesures usuelles or " customary measures " was introduced for use in small retail businesses – all government , legal and similar works still had to use the metric system and the metric system continued to be taught at all levels of education . The names of many units used during the ancien regime were reintroduced , but were redefined in terms of metric units . Thus the toise was defined as being two metres with six pied making up one toise , twelve pouce making up one pied and twelve lignes making up one pouce . Likewise the livre was defined as being 500 g , each livre comprising sixteen once and each once eight gros and the aune as 120 centimetres .
Louis Philippe I by means of the La loi du 4 juillet 1837 ( the law of 4 July 1837 ) effectively revoked the use of mesures uselles by reaffirming the laws of measurement of 1795 and 1799 to be used from 1 May 1840 . However , many units of measure , such as the livre ( for half a kilogram ) , remained in colloquial use for many years .
= = = The Portuguese metric system = = =
In August 1814 , Portugal officially adopted the metric system but with the names of the units substituted by Portuguese traditional ones . In this system the basic units were the mão @-@ travessa ( hand ) |
= 1 decimetre ( 10 mão @-@ travessas =
1 vara ( yard ) |
= 1 metre ) , the canada =
1 liter and the libra ( pound ) = 1 kilogram .
= = = The Dutch metric system = = =
The Netherlands first used the metric system and then , in 1812 , the mesures usuelles when it was part of the First French Empire . Under the Royal decree of 27 March 1817 ( Koningklijk besluit van den 27 Maart 1817 ) , the newly formed Kingdom of the Netherlands abandoned the mesures usuelles in favour of the " Dutch " metric system ( Nederlands metrisch stelsel ) in which metric units were given the names of units of measure that were then in use . Examples include the ons ( ounce ) which was defined as being 100 g .
= = = The German Zollverein = = =
At the outbreak of the French Revolution , much of modern @-@ day Germany and Austria were part of the Holy Roman Empire which has become a loose federation of kingdoms , principalities , free cities , bishoprics and other fiefdoms , each with its own system of measurement , though in most cases such system were loosely derived from the Carolingian system instituted by Charlemagne a thousand years earlier .
During the Napoleonic era , there was a move among some of the German states to reform their systems of measurement using the prototype metre and kilogram as the basis of the new units . Baden , in 1810 , for example , redefined the Ruthe ( rods ) as being 3 @.@ 0 m exactly and defined the subunits of the Ruthe as 1 Ruthe |
= 10 Fuß ( feet ) =
100 Zoll ( inches ) |
= 1 @,@ 000 Linie ( lines ) =
10 @,@ 000 Punkt ( points ) while the Pfund was defined as being 500 g , divided into 30 Loth , each of 16 @.@ 67 g . Bavaria , in its reform of 1811 , trimmed the Bavarian Pfund from 561 @.@ 288 g to 560 g exactly , consisting of 32 Loth , each of 17 @.@ 5 g while the Prussian Pfund remained at 467 @.@ 711 g .
After the Congress of Vienna there was a degree of commercial cooperation between the various German states resulting in the setting of the German Customs Union ( Zollverein ) . There were however still many barriers to trade until Bavaria took the lead in establishing the General German Commercial Code in 1856 . As part of the code the Zollverein introduce the Zollpfund ( Customs Pound ) which was defined to be exactly 500 g and which could be split into 30 ' lot ' . This unit was used for inter @-@ state movement of goods , but was not applied in all states for internal use .
Although the Zollverein collapsed after the Austro @-@ Prussian War of 1866 , the metric system became the official system of measurement in the newly formed German Empire in 1872 and of Austria in 1875 . The Zollpfund ceased to be legal in Germany after 1877 .
= = = Italy = = =
The Cisalpine Republic , a North Italian republic set up by Napoleon in 1797 with its capital at Milan first adopted a modified form of the metric system based in the braccio cisalpino ( Cisalpine cubit ) which was defined to be half a metre . In 1802 the Cisalpine Republic was renamed the Italian Republic , with Napoleon as its head of state . The following year the Cisalpine system of measure was replaced by the metric system .
In 1806 , the Italian Republic was replaced by the Kingdom of Italy with Napoleon as its emperor . By 1812 , all of Italy from Rome northwards was under the control of Napoleon , either as French Departments or as part of the Kingdom of Italy ensuring the metric system was in use throughout this region .
After the Congress of Vienna , the various Italian states reverted to their original system of measurements , but in 1845 the Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia passed legislation to introduce the metric system within five years . By 1860 , most of Italy had been unified under the King of Sardinia Victor Emmanuel II and under Law 132 of 28 July 28 , 1861 the metric system became the official system of measurement throughout the kingdom . Numerous Tavole di ragguaglio ( Conversion Tables ) were displayed in shops until 31 December 1870 .
= = = Spain = = =
Until the ascent of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain in 1700 , each of the regions of Spain retained its own system of measurement . The new Bourbon monarchy tried to centralise control and with it the system of measurement . There were debates regarding the desirability of retaining the Castilian units of measure or , in the interests of harmonisation , adopting the French system . Although Spain assisted Méchain in his meridian survey , the Government feared the French revolutionary movement and reinforced the Castilian units of measure to counter such movements . By 1849 however , it proved difficult to maintain the old system and in that year the metric system became the legal system of measure in Spain .
= = = United Kingdom and the Commonwealth = = =
In 1824 the Weights and Measures Act imposed one standard ' imperial ' system of weights and measures on the British Empire . The effect of this act was to standardise existing British units of measure rather than to align them with the metric system .
During the next eighty years a number of Parliamentary select committees recommended the adoption of the metric system each with a greater degree of urgency , but Parliament prevaricated . A Select Committee report of 1862 recommended compulsory metrication , but with an " Intermediate permissive phase " , Parliament responded in 1864 by legalising metric units only for ' contracts and dealings ' . Initially the United Kingdom declined to sign the Treaty of the Metre , but did so in 1883 . Meanwhile , British scientists and technologists were at the forefront of the metrication movement – it was the British Association for the Advancement of Science that promoted the CGS system of units as a coherent system and it was the British firm Johnson Matthey that was accepted by the CGPM in 1889 to cast the international prototype metre and kilogram .
In 1895 another Parliamentary select committee recommended the compulsory adoption of the metric system after a two @-@ year permissive period , the 1897 Weights and Measures Act legalised the metric units for trade , but did not make them mandatory . A bill to make the metric system compulsory in order to enable British industrial base to fight off the challenge of the nascent German base passed through the House of Lords in 1904 , but did not pass in the House of Commons before the next general election was called . Following opposition by the Lancashire cotton industry , a similar bill was defeated in 1907 in the House of Commons by 150 votes to 118 .
In 1965 Britain commenced an official program of metrication that , as of 2012 , had not been completed . The British metrication program signalled the start of metrication programs elsewhere in the Commonwealth , though India had started its program before in 1959 , six years before the United Kingdom . South Africa ( then not a member of the Commonwealth ) set up a Metrication Advisory Board in 1967 , New Zealand set up its Metric Advisory Board in 1969 , Australia passed the Metric Conversion Act in 1970 and Canada appointed a Metrication Commission in 1971 . Metrication in Australia , New Zealand and South Africa was essentially complete within a decade while metrication in India and Canada is not complete . In addition the lakh and crore are still in widespread use in India . Most other Commonwealth countries adopted the metric system during the 1970s .
= = = United States = = =
The United States government acquired copies of the French metre and kilogram for reference purposes in 1805 and 1820 respectively . In 1866 the United States Congress passed a bill making it lawful to use the metric system in the United States . The bill , which was permissive rather than mandatory in nature , defined the metric system in terms of customary units rather than with reference to the international prototype metre and kilogram . By 1893 , the reference standards for customary units had become unreliable . Moreover , the United States , being a signatory of the Metre Convention was in possession of national prototype metres and kilograms that were calibrated against those in use elsewhere in the world . This led to the Mendenhall Order which redefined the customary units by referring to the national metric prototypes , but used the conversion factors of the 1866 act . In 1896 a bill that would make the metric system mandatory in the United States was presented to Congress . Of the 29 people who gave evidence before the congressional committee who were considering the bill , 23 were in favour of the bill , but six were against . Four of the six dissenters represented manufacturing interests and the other two the United States Revenue service . The grounds cited were the cost and inconvenience of the change @-@ over . The bill was not enacted . Subsequent bills suffered a similar fate .
= = Development of a coherent metric system = =
From its inception , the metric system was designed in such a manner that the various units of measure were linked to each other . At the start of the nineteenth century , length , mass , time and temperature were the only base unit units that were defined in terms of formal standards . The beginnings of a coherent system were in place with the units of area and volume linked to the unit of length , though at the time science did not understand the concepts of base units and derived units , nor how many physical quantities were inter @-@ related . This concept , which enabled thermal , mechanical , electrical and relativistic systems to be interlinked was first formally proposed in 1861 using length , mass and time as base units . The absence of an electrical base unit resulted in a number of different electrical systems being developed in the latter half of the nineteenth century . The need for such a unit to resolve these problems was identified by Giorgi in 1901 . The SI standard which was published in 1960 defined a single coherent system based on six units .
= = = Time , work and energy = = =
In 1832 Carl @-@ Friedrich Gauss made the first absolute measurements of the Earth 's magnetic field using a decimal system based on the use of the millimetre , milligram , and second as the base unit of time . In his paper , he also presented his results using the metre and gram instead of the millimetre and milligram , also using the Parisian line and the Berlin pound instead of the millimetre and milligram .
In a paper published in 1843 , James Prescott Joule first demonstrated a means of measuring the energy transferred between different systems when work is done thereby relating Nicolas Clément 's calorie , defined in 1824 , to mechanical work . Energy became the unifying concept of nineteenth century science , initially by bringing thermodynamics and mechanics together and later adding electrical technology and relativistic physics leading to Einstein 's equation <formula> . The CGS unit of energy was the " erg " , while the SI unit of energy was named the " joule " in honour of Joule .
In 1861 a committee of the British Association for Advancement of Science ( BAAS ) including William Thomson ( later Lord Kelvin ) , James Clerk Maxwell and Joule among its members was tasked with investigating the " Standards of Electrical Resistance " . In their first report ( 1862 ) they laid the ground rules for their work – the metric system was to be used , measures of electrical energy must have the same units as measures of mechanical energy and two sets of electromagnetic units would have to be derived – an electromagnetic system and an electrostatic system . In the second report ( 1863 ) they introduced the concept of a coherent system of units whereby units of length , mass and time were identified as " fundamental units " ( now known as base units ) . All other units of measure could be derived ( hence derived units ) from these base units . The metre , gram and second were chosen as base units .
In 1873 , another committee of the BAAS that also counted Maxwell and Thomson among its members and tasked with " the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units " recommended using the CGS system of units . The committee also recommended the names of " dyne " and " erg " for the CGS units of force and energy . The CGS system became the basis for scientific work for the next seventy years .
= = = Electrical units = = =
In the 1820s Georg Ohm formulated Ohms Law which can be extended to relate power to current , potential difference ( voltage ) and resistance . During the following decades the realisation of a coherent system of units that incorporated the measurement of electromagnetic phenomena and Ohm 's law was beset with problems – at least four different systems of units were devised . In the three CGS systems , the constants <formula> and <formula> and consequently <formula> and <formula> were dimensionless .
Electromagnetic system of units ( EMU )
The Electromagnetic system of units ( EMU ) was developed from André @-@ Marie Ampère 's discovery in the 1820s of a relationship between the force between two current @-@ carrying conductors . This relationship is now known as Ampere 's law which can be written
<formula> where <formula> ( SI units )
In 1833 Gauss pointed out the possibility of equating this force with its mechanical equivalent . This proposal received further support from Wilhelm Weber in 1851 . The electromagnetic ( or absolute ) system of units was one of the two systems of units identified in the BAAS report of 1862 and defined in the report of 1873 . In this system , current is defined by setting the magnetic force constant <formula> to unity and potential difference is defined in such a way as to ensure the unit of power calculated by the relation <formula> is identical to the unit of power required to move a mass of one gram a distance of one centimetre in one second when opposed by a force of one dyne . The electromagnetic units of measure were known as the abampere , the abvolt , the abcoulomb and so on .
Electrostatic system of units ( ESU )
The Electrostatic system of units ( ESU ) was based on Coulomb 's discovery in 1783 of the relationship between the force exerted between two charged bodies . This relationship , now known as Coulomb 's law can be written
<formula> where <formula> ( SI units )
The electrostatic system was the second of the two systems of units identified in the 1862 BAAS report and defined in the report of 1873 . In this system unit for charge is defined by setting the Coulomb force constant ( <formula> ) to unity and the unit for potential difference were defined to ensure the unit of energy calculated by the relation <formula> is one erg . The electrostatic units of measure are now known as the statampere , the statvolt , the statcoulomb and so on .
Gaussian system of units
The Gaussian system of units was based on Heinrich Hertz realization , made in 1888 while verifying Maxwell 's Equations , that the CGS system of electromagnetic units to were related to the CGS system of electrostatic units by the relationship :
<formula>
Using this relationship , he proposed merging the EMU and the ESU systems into one system using the EMU units for magnetic quantities ( subsequently named the gauss and maxwell ) and ESU units elsewhere . He named this combined set of units " Gaussian units " . This set of units has been recognised as being particularly useful in theoretical physics .
Practical system of units
The CGS units of measure used in scientific work were not practical when used in engineering leading to the development of the practical system of electric units . At the time that this system of units was proposed , the dimension of electrical resistance was modelled in the EMU system as the ratio L / T and in the ESU system as its inverse – T / L.
The unit of length adopted for the practical system was 107 m ( approximately the length of the Earth 's quadrant ) , the unit of time was the second and the unit of mass an unnamed unit equal to 10 − 11 g and the definitions of electrical units were based on those of the EMU system . The names , but not the values , amp , volt , farad and ohm were carried over from the EMU system . The system was adopted at the First International Electrical Congress ( IEC ) in 1881 . The second IEC congress ( 1889 ) defined the joule and the watt at the practical units of energy and power respectively . The units were formalised as the International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units at the 1893 congress of the IEC in Chicago where the volt , amp and ohm were formally defined . The SI units with these names are very close , but not identical to the " practical units " .
= = = A coherent system = = =
The electrical units of measure did not easily fit into the coherent system using length , mass and time as its base units as proposed in the 1861 BAAS paper . Using dimensional analysis the dimensions of voltage as defined by the ESU system of units was identical to the dimensions of current as defined by the EMU system of units <formula> while resistance had the same dimensions as velocity in the EMU system of units , but had the dimensions of the inverse of velocity in the ESU system of units .
From the mid @-@ 1890s onwards Giovanni Giorgi and Oliver Heaviside corresponded with each other regarding these anomalous results . This led to Giorgi presenting a paper to the congress of the Associazione Elettrotecnica Italiana ( A.E.I. ) in October 1901 in which he showed that a coherent electro @-@ mechanical system of units could be obtained by adding a fourth base unit of an electrical nature ( ampere , volt or ohm ) to the three base units proposed in the 1861 BAAS report . This gave the constants ke and km physical dimensions and hence the electro @-@ mechanical quantities ε0 and µ0 were also given physical dimensions . His work also recognized the unifying concept that energy played in the establishment of a coherent , rational system of units with the joule as the unit of energy and the electrical units in the practical system of units remaining unchanged .
The 1893 definitions of the ampere and the ohm by the IEC led to the joule as being defined in accordance with the IEC resolutions being 0 @.@ 02 % larger than the joule as defined in accordance with the artefacts helds by the BIPM . In 1908 , the IEC prefixed the units of measure that they had defined with the word " international " , hence the " international ampere " , " international volt " etc . It took more than thirty years before Giorgi 's work was accepted in practice by the IEC . In 1946 the CIPM formally adopted a definition of the ampere based on the original EMU definition and redefined the ohm in terms of other base units . In 1960 , Giorgi 's proposals were adopted as the basis of the Système International d 'Unités ( International System of Units ) , the SI .
= = = Naming the units of measure = = =
In 1861 , Charles Bright and Latimer Clark proposed the names of ohm , volt , and farad in honour of Georg Ohm , Alessandro Volta and Michael Faraday respectively for the practical units based on the centimetre @-@ gramme @-@ second absolute system . This was supported by Thomson ( Lord Kelvin ) These names were later scaled for use in the Practical System . The concept of naming units of measure after noteworthy scientists was subsequently used for other units .
= = Convention of the metre = =
With increasing international adoption of the metre , the short @-@ comings of the mètre des Archives as a standard became ever more apparent . Countries which adopted the metre as a legal measure purchased standard metre bars that were intended to be equal in length to the mètre des Archives , but there was no systematic way of ensuring that the countries were actually working to the same standard . The meridianal definition , which had been intended to ensure international reproducibility , quickly proved so impractical that it was all but abandoned in favour of the artefact standards , but the mètre des Archives ( and most of its copies ) were " end standards " : such standards ( bars which are exactly one metre in length ) are prone to wear with use , and different standard bars could be expected to wear at different rates .
The International Conference on Geodesy in 1867 called for the creation of a new , international prototype metre and to arrange a system where national standards could be compared with it . The international prototype would also be a " line standard " , that is the metre was defined as the distance between two lines marked on the bar , so avoiding the wear problems of end standards . The French government gave practical support to the creation of an International Metre Commission , which met in Paris in 1870 and again in 1872 with the participation of about thirty countries .
On 20 May 1875 an international treaty known as the Convention du Mètre ( Metre Convention ) was signed by 17 states . This treaty established the following organisations to conduct international activities relating to a uniform system for measurements :
Conférence générale des poids et mesures ( CGPM or General Conference on Weights and Measures ) , an intergovernmental conference of official delegates of member nations and the supreme authority for all actions ;
Comité international des poids et mesures ( CIPM or International Committee for Weights and Measures ) , consisting of selected scientists and metrologists , which prepares and executes the decisions of the CGPM and is responsible for the supervision of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures ;
Bureau international des poids et mesures ( BIPM or International Bureau of Weights and Measures ) , a permanent laboratory and world centre of scientific metrology , the activities of which include the establishment of the basic standards and scales of the principal physical quantities , maintenance of the international prototype standards and oversight of regular comparisons between the international prototype and the various national standards .
The international prototype metre and kilogram were both made from a 90 % platinum , 10 % iridium alloy which is exceptionally hard and which has good electrical and thermal conductivity properties . The prototype had a special X @-@ shaped ( Tresca ) cross section to minimise the effects of torsional strain during length comparisons. and the prototype kilograms were cylindrical in shape . The London firm Johnson Matthey delivered 30 prototype metres and 40 prototype kilograms . At the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889 bar No. 6 and cylinder No . X were accepted as the international prototypes . The remainder were either kept as BIPM working copies or distributed to member states as national prototypes .
= = Twentieth century = =
At the beginning of the twentieth century , the BIPM had custody of two artefacts – one to define length and the other to define mass . Other units of measure which did not rely on specific artefacts were controlled by other bodies . In the scientific world , quantum theory was in its infancy and Einstein had yet to publish his theories of relativity . By the end of the century , a coherent system of units was in place under the control of the bodies set up by the Treaty of the Metre , the definition of the second relied on quantum theory , the definition of the metre relied on the theory of relativity , and plans were being made to relegate the international prototype kilogram to the archives .
= = = Metre = = =
The first ( and only ) follow @-@ up comparison of the national standards with the international prototype metre was carried out between 1921 and 1936 , and indicated that the definition of the metre was preserved to within 0 @.@ 2 µm . During this follow @-@ up comparison , the way in which the prototype metre should be measured was more clearly defined — the 1889 definition had defined the metre as being the length of the prototype at the definition of melting ice , but in 1927 the 7th CGPM extended this definition was to specify that the prototype metre shall be " supported on two cylinders of at least one centimetre diameter , symmetrically placed in the same horizontal plane at a distance of 571 mm from each other " . The choice of 571 mm represents the Airy points of the prototype — the points at which the bending or droop of the bar is minimized .
In 1887 Michelson proposed the use of optical interferometers for the measurement of length , work which contributed to him being awarded the Nobel Prize in 1907 . In 1952 the CIPM proposed the use of wavelength of a specific light source as the standard for defining length and in 1960 the CGPM accepted this proposal using radiation corresponding to a transition between specified energy levels of the krypton 86 atom as the new standard for the metre . By 1975 , when the second had been defined in terms of a physical phenomenon rather than the earth 's rotation and Einstein 's assertion that the speed of light was constant , the CGPM authorised the CIPM to investigate the use of the speed of light as the basis for the definition of the metre . This proposal was accepted in 1983 .
= = = Kilogram = = =
Although the definition of the kilogram remained unchanged throughout the twentieth century , the 3rd CGPM in 1901 clarified that the kilogram was a unit of mass , not of weight . The original batch of 40 prototypes ( adopted in 1889 ) were supplemented from time to time with further prototypes for use by new signatories to the Metre Convention .
During the course of the century , the various national prototypes of the kilogram were recalibrated against the International Prototype Kilogram ( IPK ) and therefore against each other . The initial 1889 starting @-@ value offsets of the national prototypes relative to the IPK were nulled. and any subsequent mass changes being relative to the IPK . A technique for steam cleaning the prototypes to remove any contaminants was developed in 1946 as part of the second recalibration .
The third periodic recalibration in 1988 @-@ 1989 revealed that the average difference between the IPK and adjusted baseline for the national prototypes was 50 μg – in 1889 the baseline of the national prototypes had been adjusted so that the difference was zero . As the IPK is the definitive kilogram , there is no way of telling whether the IPK had been losing mass or the national prototypes had been gaining mass .
= = = Time = = =
Until the advent of the atomic clock , the most reliable timekeeper available to mankind was the earth 's rotation . It was natural therefore that the astronomers under the auspice of the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) took the lead in maintaining the standards relating to time . In 1988 , responsibility for timekeeping passed to the BIPM who took on the role of coordinating a number of atomic clocks scattered around the globe . During the twentieth century it became apparent that the earth 's rotation was slowing down resulting in days becoming 1 @.@ 4 milliseconds longer each century – this was verified by comparing the calculated timings of eclipses of the sun with those observed in antiquity going back to Chinese records of 763 BC .
In 1956 the 10th CGPM instructed the CIPM to prepare a definition of the second ; in 1958 the definition was published stating that the second would be calculated by extrapolation using earth 's rotational speed in 1900 . Astronomers from the US Naval Observatory ( USNO ) and the National Physical Laboratory determined a relationship between the frequency of radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom and the estimated rate of rotation of the earth in 1900 . Their value was adopted in 1968 by the 13th CGPM .
= = = Electrical units = = =
In 1921 the Treaty of the Metre was extended to cover electrical units with the CGPM merging its work with that of the IEC . At the 8th CGPM in 1933 the need to replace the " International " electrical units with " absolute " units was raised . The IEC proposal that Giorgi 's proposal be adopted was accepted , but no decision was made as to which electrical unit should be the fourth base unit . In 1935 Sears proposed that this should be the ampere , but World War II prevented this being formalised until 1946 . The definitions for absolute electrical system based on the ampere was formalized in 1948 .
= = = Temperature = = =
At the start of the twentieth century , the fundamental macroscopic laws of thermodynamics had been formulated and although techniques existed to measure temperature using empirical techniques , the scientific understanding of the nature of temperature was minimal . Maxwell and Boltzmann had produced theories describing the inter @-@ relational of temperature , pressure and volume of a gas on a microscopic scale but otherwise , in 1900 , there was no understanding of the microscopic or quantum nature of temperature . Within the metric system , temperature was expressed in degrees Centigrade with the definition that ice melted at 0 ° C and at standard atmospheric pressure , water boiled at 100 ° C. A series of lookup tables defined temperature in terms of inter @-@ related empirical measurements made using various devices .
When , in 1948 the CGPM was charged with producing a coherent system of units of measure , definitions relating to temperature had to be clarified . At the 9th CGPM , the centigrade temperature scale was renamed the Celsius temperature scale and the scale itself was fixed by defining the triple point of water as 0 @.@ 01 ° C , though the CGPM left the formal definition of absolute zero until the 10th GCPM when the name " Kelvin " was assigned to the absolute temperature scale and triple point of water was defined as being 273 @.@ 16 ° K. In 1967 , at the 13th GCPM the degree Kelvin ( ° K ) was renamed the " kelvin " ( K ) .
Over the ensuing years , the BIPM developed and maintained cross @-@ correlations relating various measuring devices such as thermocouples , light spectra and the like to the equivalent temperatures . Increasingly the use of the Boltzmann Relationship was used as the reference point and it appears likely that in 2015 the CGPM will redefine temperature in terms of the Boltzmann constant rather than the triple point of water .
= = = Luminosity = = =
Prior to 1937 , the International Commission on Illumination ( CIE from its French title , the Commission Internationale de l 'Eclairage ) in conjunction with the CIPM produced a standard for luminous intensity to replace the various national standards . This standard , the candela ( cd ) which was defined as " the brightness of the full radiator at the temperature of solidification of platinum is 60 new candles per square centimetre " . was ratified by the GCPM in 1948 and in 1960 was adopted as an SI base unit . The definition proved difficult to implement so in 1967 , the definition was revised and the reference to the radiation source was replaced by defining the candles in terms of the power of a specified wavelength of visible light .
In 2007 the CIPM and the CIE agreed a program of cooperation with the CIPM taking the lead in defining the use of units of measure and the CIE taking the lead in defining the behaviour of the human eye .
= = = Mole = = =
The mole was originally known as a gram @-@ atom or a gram @-@ molecule – the amount of a substance measured in grams divided by its atomic weight . Originally chemists and physicists had differing views regarding the definition of the atomic weight – both assigned a value of 16 atomic mass units ( amu ) to oxygen , but physicists defined oxygen in terms of the 16O isotope whereas chemists assigned 16 amu to 16O , 17O and 18O isotopes mixed in the proportion that they occur in nature . Finally an agreement between the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ( IUPAP ) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) brought this duality to an end in 1959 / 60 , both parties agreeing to define the atomic weight of 12C as being exactly 12 amu . This agreement was confirmed by ISO and in 1969 the CIPM recommended its inclusion in SI as a base unit . This was done in 1971 at the 14th CGPM .
= = International System of Units ( SI ) = =
The 9th CGPM met in 1948 , fifteen years after the 8th CGPM . In response to formal requests made by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics and by the French government to establish a practical system of units of measure , the CGPM requested the CIPM to prepare recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement , suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention . At the same time the CGPM formally adopted a recommendation for the writing and printing of unit symbols and of numbers . The recommendation also catalogued the recommended symbols for the most important MKS and CGS units of measure and for the first time the CGPM made recommendations concerning derived units .
The CIPM 's draft proposal , which was an extensive revision and simplification of the metric unit definitions , symbols and terminology based on the MKS system of units , was put to the 10th CGPM in 1954 . In accordance with Giorgi 's proposals of 1901 , the CIPM also recommended that the ampere be the base unit from which electromechanical would be derived . The definitions for the ohm and volt that had previously been in use were discarded and these units became derived units based on the metre , ampere , second and kilogram . After negotiations with the CIS and IUPAP , two further base units , the degree kelvin and the candela were also proposed as base units . The full system and name " Système International d 'Unités " were adopted at the 11th CGPM .
During the years that followed the definitions of the base units and particularly the mise en pratique to realise these definitions have been refined .
= = = Proposed revision of unit definitions = = =
After the metre was redefined in 1960 , the kilogram remained the only SI base defined by a physical example or artefact . Moreover , after the 1996 – 1998 recalibration a clear divergence between the various prototype kilograms was observed .
At its 23rd meeting ( 2007 ) , the CGPM mandated the CIPM to investigate the use of natural constants as the basis for all units of measure rather than the artefacts that were then in use . At a meeting of the CCU held in Reading , United Kingdom in September 2010 , a resolution and draft changes to the SI brochure that were to be presented to the next meeting of the CIPM in October 2010 were agreed to in principle . The proposals that the CCU put forward were that :
in addition to the speed of light , four constants of nature — Planck 's constant , an elementary charge , Boltzmann constant and Avogadro 's number — be defined to have exact values ;
the international prototype kilogram be retired ;
the current definitions of the kilogram , ampere , kelvin and mole be revised ;
the wording of the definitions of all the base units be tightened up .
The CIPM meeting of October 2010 found that " the conditions set by the General Conference at its 23rd meeting have not yet been fully met . For this reason the CIPM does not propose a revision of the SI at the present time " ; however the CIPM presented a resolution for consideration at the 24th CGPM ( 17 – 21 October 2011 ) to agree the new definitions in principle , but not to implement them until the details have been finalised . This resolution was accepted by the conference and in addition the CGPM moved the date of the 25th meeting forward from 2015 to 2014 .
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= Sustainability =
In ecology , sustainability is the combination of the words sustain and ability . This concept makes reference to how biological systems remain diverse and productive indefinitely . Long @-@ lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems . In more general terms , sustainability is the endurance of systems and processes . The organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development , which includes the four interconnected domains : ecology , economics , politics and culture . Sustainability science is the study of sustainable development and environmental science .
Sustainability can also be defined as a socio @-@ ecological process characterized by the pursuit of a common ideal . An ideal is by definition unattainable in a given time / space but endlessly approachable and it is this endless pursuit what builds in sustainability in the process ( ibid ) . Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans and other organisms . Ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally @-@ friendly chemical engineering , environmental resources management and environmental protection . Information is gained from green chemistry , earth science , environmental science and conservation biology . Ecological economics studies the fields of academic research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems .
Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails international and national law , urban planning and transport , local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism . Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from reorganizing living conditions ( e.g. , ecovillages , eco @-@ municipalities and sustainable cities ) , reappraising economic sectors ( permaculture , green building , sustainable agriculture ) , or work practices ( sustainable architecture ) , using science to develop new technologies ( green technologies , renewable energy and sustainable fission and fusion power ) , or designing systems in a flexible and reversible manner , and adjusting individual lifestyles that conserve natural resources .
Despite the increased popularity of the use of the term " sustainability " , the possibility that human societies will achieve environmental sustainability has been , and continues to be , questioned — in light of environmental degradation , climate change , overconsumption , population growth and societies ' pursuit of indefinite economic growth in a closed system .
= = Etymology = =
The name sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere ( tenere , to hold ; sub , up ) . Sustain can mean “ maintain " , " support " , or " endure ” . Since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human sustainability on planet Earth and this has resulted in the most widely quoted definition of sustainability as a part of the concept sustainable development , that of the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations on March 20 , 1987 : “ sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs . ”
= = Components = =
= = = Three pillars of sustainability = = =
The 2005 World Summit on Social Development identified sustainable development goals , such as economic development , social development and environmental protection . This view has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing . In fact , the three pillars are interdependent , and in the long run none can exist without the others . The three pillars have served as a common ground for numerous sustainability standards and certification systems in recent years , in particular in the food industry . Standards which today explicitly refer to the triple bottom line include Rainforest Alliance , Fairtrade and UTZ Certified . Some sustainability experts and practitioners have illustrated four pillars of sustainability , or a quadruple bottom line . One such pillar is future generations , which emphasizes the long @-@ term thinking associated with sustainability .
Sustainable development consists of balancing local and global efforts to meet basic human needs without destroying or degrading the natural environment . The question then becomes how to represent the relationship between those needs and the environment .
A study from 2005 pointed out that environmental justice is as important as is sustainable development . Ecological economist Herman Daly asked , " what use is a sawmill without a forest ? " From this perspective , the economy is a subsystem of human society , which is itself a subsystem of the biosphere , and a gain in one sector is a loss from another . This perspective led to the nested circles figure of ' economics ' inside ' society ' inside the ' environment ' .
The simple definition that sustainability is something that improves " the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting eco @-@ systems " , though vague , conveys the idea of sustainability having quantifiable limits . But sustainability is also a call to action , a task in progress or “ journey ” and therefore a political process , so some definitions set out common goals and values . The Earth Charter speaks of “ a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature , universal human rights , economic justice , and a culture of peace . ” This suggested a more complex figure of sustainability , which included the importance of the domain of ' politics ' .
More than that , sustainability implies responsible and proactive decision @-@ making and innovation that minimizes negative impact and maintains balance between ecological resilience , economic prosperity , political justice and cultural vibrancy to ensure a desirable planet for all species now and in the future . Specific types of sustainability include , sustainable agriculture , sustainable architecture or ecological economics . Understanding sustainable development is important but without clear targets an unfocused term like " liberty " or " justice " . It has also been described as a " dialogue of values that challenge the sociology of development " .
= = = Circles of sustainability = = =
While the United Nations Millennium Declaration identified principles and treaties on sustainable development , including economic development , social development and environmental protection it continued using three domains : economics , environment and social sustainability . More recently , using a systematic domain model that responds to the debates over the last decade , the Circles of Sustainability approach distinguished four domains of economic , ecological , political and cultural sustainability . This in accord with the United Nations Agenda 21 , which specifies culture as the fourth domain of sustainable development . The model is now being used by organizations such as the United Nations Cities Programme. and Metropolis
= = = Shaping the future = = =
Integral elements of sustainability are research and innovation activities . A telling example is the European environmental research and innovation policy . It aims at defining and implementing a transformative agenda to greening the economy and the society as a whole so to make them sustainable . Research and innovation in Europe are financially supported by the programme Horizon 2020 , which is also open to participation worldwide .
= = Resiliency = =
Resiliency in ecology is the capacity of an ecosystem to absorb disturbance and still retain its basic structure and viability . Resilience @-@ thinking evolved from the need to manage interactions between human @-@ constructed systems and natural ecosystems in a sustainable way despite the fact that to policymakers a definition remains elusive . Resilience @-@ thinking addresses how much planetary ecological systems can withstand assault from human disturbances and still deliver the services current and future generations need from them . It is also concerned with commitment from geopolitical policymakers to promote and manage essential planetary ecological resources in order to promote resilience and achieve sustainability of these essential resources for benefit of future generations of life ? The resiliency of an ecosystem , and thereby , its sustainability , can be reasonably measured at junctures or events where the combination of naturally occurring regenerative forces ( solar energy , water , soil , atmosphere , vegetation , and biomass ) interact with the energy released into the ecosystem from disturbances .
A practical view of sustainability is closed systems that maintain processes of productivity indefinitely by replacing resources used by actions of people with resources of equal or greater value by those same people without degrading or endangering natural biotic systems . In this way , sustainability can be concretely measured in human projects if there is a transparent accounting of the resources put back into the ecosystem to replace those displaced . In nature , the accounting occurs naturally through a process of adaptation as an ecosystem returns to viability from an external disturbance . The adaptation is a multi @-@ stage process that begins with the disturbance event ( earthquake , volcanic eruption , hurricane , tornado , flood , or thunderstorm ) , followed by absorption , utilization , or deflection of the energy or energies that the external forces created .
In analysing systems such as urban and national parks , dams , farms and gardens , theme parks , open @-@ pit mines , water catchments , one way to look at the relationship between sustainability and resiliency is to view the former with a long @-@ term vision and resiliency as the capacity of human engineers to respond to immediate environmental events .
= = History = =
The history of sustainability traces human @-@ dominated ecological systems from the earliest civilizations to the present time . This history is characterized by the increased regional success of a particular society , followed by crises that were either resolved , producing sustainability , or not , leading to decline .
In early human history , the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plant and animal communities . Between 8 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago , agrarian communities emerged which depended largely on their environment and the creation of a " structure of permanence . "
The Western industrial revolution of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in fossil fuels . Coal was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity . Modern sanitation systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease . In the mid @-@ 20th century , a gathering environmental movement pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed . In the late 20th century , environmental problems became global in scale . The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non @-@ renewable energy resources .
In the 21st century , there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by the human greenhouse effect , produced largely by forest clearing and the burning of fossil fuels .
= = Principles and concepts = =
The philosophical and analytic framework of sustainability draws on and connects with many different disciplines and fields ; in recent years an area that has come to be called sustainability science has emerged .
The United Nations Millennium Declaration identified principles and treaties on sustainable development , including economic development , social development and environmental protection . The Circles of Sustainability approach distinguishes the four domains of economic , ecological , political and cultural sustainability . This in accord with the United Nations Agenda 21 , which specifies culture as the fourth domain of sustainable development .
= = = Scale and context = = =
Sustainability is studied and managed over many scales ( levels or frames of reference ) of time and space and in many contexts of environmental , social and economic organization . The focus ranges from the total carrying capacity ( sustainability ) of planet Earth to the sustainability of economic sectors , ecosystems , countries , municipalities , neighbourhoods , home gardens , individual lives , individual goods and services , occupations , lifestyles , behaviour patterns and so on . In short , it can entail the full compass of biological and human activity or any part of it . As Daniel Botkin , author and environmentalist , has stated : " We see a landscape that is always in flux , changing over many scales of time and space . "
The sheer size and complexity of the planetary ecosystem has proved problematic for the design of practical measures to reach global sustainability . To shed light on the big picture , explorer and sustainability campaigner Jason Lewis has drawn parallels to other , more tangible closed systems . For example , he likens human existence on Earth — isolated as the planet is in space , whereby people cannot be evacuated to relieve population pressure and resources cannot be imported to prevent accelerated depletion of resources — to life at sea on a small boat isolated by water . In both cases , he argues , exercising the precautionary principle is a key factor in survival .
= = = Consumption = = =
A major driver of human impact on Earth systems is the destruction of biophysical resources , and especially , the Earth 's ecosystems . The environmental impact of a community or of humankind as a whole depends both on population and impact per person , which in turn depends in complex ways on what resources are being used , whether or not those resources are renewable , and the scale of the human activity relative to the carrying capacity of the ecosystems involved . Careful resource management can be applied at many scales , from economic sectors like agriculture , manufacturing and industry , to work organizations , the consumption patterns of households and individuals and to the resource demands of individual goods and services .
One of the initial attempts to express human impact mathematically was developed in the 1970s and is called the I PAT formula . This formulation attempts to explain human consumption in terms of three components : population numbers , levels of consumption ( which it terms " affluence " , although the usage is different ) , and impact per unit of resource use ( which is termed " technology " , because this impact depends on the technology used ) . The equation is expressed :
I
= P × A × T
Where : I =
Environmental impact , P |
= Population , A =
Affluence , T = Technology
= = Measurement = =
Sustainability measurement is a term that denotes the measurements used as the quantitative basis for the informed management of sustainability . The metrics used for the measurement of sustainability ( involving the sustainability of environmental , social and economic domains , both individually and in various combinations ) are evolving : they include indicators , benchmarks , audits , sustainability standards and certification systems like Fairtrade and Organic , indexes and accounting , as well as assessment , appraisal and other reporting systems . They are applied over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales .
Some of the best known and most widely used sustainability measures include corporate sustainability reporting , Triple Bottom Line accounting , World Sustainability Society , Circles of Sustainability , and estimates of the quality of sustainability governance for individual countries using the Environmental Sustainability Index and Environmental Performance Index .
= = = Population = = =
According to the 2008 Revision of the official United Nations population estimates and projections , the world population is projected to reach 7 billion early in 2012 , up from the current 6 @.@ 9 billion ( May 2009 ) , to exceed 9 billion people by 2050 . Most of the increase will be in developing countries whose population is projected to rise from 5 @.@ 6 billion in 2009 to 7 @.@ 9 billion in 2050 . This increase will be distributed among the population aged 15 – 59 ( 1 @.@ 2 billion ) and 60 or over ( 1 @.@ 1 billion ) because the number of children under age 15 in developing countries is predicted to decrease . In contrast , the population of the more developed regions is expected to undergo only slight increase from 1 @.@ 23 billion to 1 @.@ 28 billion , and this would have declined to 1 @.@ 15 billion but for a projected net migration from developing to developed countries , which is expected to average 2 @.@ 4 million persons annually from 2009 to 2050 . Long @-@ term estimates in 2004 of global population suggest a peak at around 2070 of nine to ten billion people , and then a slow decrease to 8 @.@ 4 billion by 2100 .
Emerging economies like those of China and India aspire to the living standards of the Western world as does the non @-@ industrialized world in general . It is the combination of population increase in the developing world and unsustainable consumption levels in the developed world that poses a stark challenge to sustainability .
= = = Carrying capacity = = =
At the global scale , scientific data now indicates that humans are living beyond the carrying capacity of planet Earth and that this cannot continue indefinitely . This scientific evidence comes from many sources but is presented in detail in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the planetary boundaries framework . An early detailed examination of global limits was published in the 1972 book Limits to Growth , which has prompted follow @-@ up commentary and analysis . A 2012 review in Nature by 22 international researchers expressed concerns that the Earth may be " approaching a state shift " in its biosphere .
The Ecological footprint measures human consumption in terms of the biologically productive land needed to provide the resources , and absorb the wastes of the average global citizen . In 2008 it required 2 @.@ 7 global hectares per person , 30 % more than the natural biological capacity of 2 @.@ 1 global hectares ( assuming no provision for other organisms ) . The resulting ecological deficit must be met from unsustainable extra sources and these are obtained in three ways : embedded in the goods and services of world trade ; taken from the past ( e.g. fossil fuels ) ; or borrowed from the future as unsustainable resource usage ( e.g. by over exploiting forests and fisheries ) .
The figure ( right ) examines sustainability at the scale of individual countries by contrasting their Ecological Footprint with their UN Human Development Index ( a measure of standard of living ) . The graph shows what is necessary for countries to maintain an acceptable standard of living for their citizens while , at the same time , maintaining sustainable resource use . The general trend is for higher standards of living to become less sustainable . As always , population growth has a marked influence on levels of consumption and the efficiency of resource use . The sustainability goal is to raise the global standard of living without increasing the use of resources beyond globally sustainable levels ; that is , to not exceed " one planet " consumption . Information generated by reports at the national , regional and city scales confirm the global trend towards societies that are becoming less sustainable over time .
Romanian American economist Nicholas Georgescu @-@ Roegen , a progenitor in economics and a paradigm founder of ecological economics , has argued that the carrying capacity of Earth — that is , Earth 's capacity to sustain human populations and consumption levels — is bound to decrease sometime in the future as Earth 's finite stock of mineral resources is presently being extracted and put to use . Leading ecological economist and steady @-@ state theorist Herman Daly , a student of Georgescu @-@ Roegen , has propounded the same argument .
= = = Global human impact on biodiversity = = =
At a fundamental level energy flow and biogeochemical cycling set an upper limit on the number and mass of organisms in any ecosystem . Human impacts on the Earth are demonstrated in a general way through detrimental changes in the global biogeochemical cycles of chemicals that are critical to life , most notably those of water , oxygen , carbon , nitrogen and phosphorus .
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is an international synthesis by over 1000 of the world 's leading biological scientists that analyzes the state of the Earth ’ s ecosystems and provides summaries and guidelines for decision @-@ makers . It concludes that human activity is having a significant and escalating impact on the biodiversity of world ecosystems , reducing both their resilience and biocapacity . The report refers to natural systems as humanity 's " life @-@ support system " , providing essential " ecosystem services " . The assessment measures 24 ecosystem services concluding that only four have shown improvement over the last 50 years , 15 are in serious decline , and five are in a precarious condition .
= = Sustainable development goals = =
The Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs ) are the current harmonized set of seventeen future international development targets .
The Official Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted on 25 September 2015 has 92 paragraphs , with the main paragraph ( 51 ) outlining the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and its associated 169 targets . This included the following seventeen goals :
Poverty – End poverty in all its forms everywhere
Food – End hunger , achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture
Health – Ensure healthy lives and promote well @-@ being for all at all ages
Education – Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all
Women – Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
Water – Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
Energy – Ensure access to affordable , reliable , sustainable and modern energy for all
Economy – Promote sustained , inclusive and sustainable economic growth , full and productive employment and decent work for all
Infrastructure – Build resilient infrastructure , promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation
Inequality – Reduce inequality within and among countries
Habitation – Make cities and human settlements inclusive , safe , resilient and sustainable
Consumption – Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
Climate – Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
Marine @-@ ecosystems – Conserve and sustainably use the oceans , seas and marine resources for sustainable development
Ecosystems – Protect , restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems , sustainably manage forests , combat desertification , and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
Institutions – Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development , provide access to justice for all and build effective , accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
Sustainability – Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development
As of August 2015 , there were 169 proposed targets for these goals and 304 proposed indicators to show compliance .
The Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs ) replace the eight Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs ) , which expired at the end of 2015 . The MDGs were established in 2000 following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations . Adopted by the 189 United Nations member states at the time and more than twenty international organizations , these goals were advanced to help achieve the following sustainable development standards by 2015 .
To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
To achieve universal primary education
To promote gender equality and empower women
To reduce child mortality
To improve maternal health
To combat HIV / AIDS , malaria , and other diseases
To ensure environmental sustainability ( one of the targets in this goal focuses on increasing sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation )
To develop a global partnership for development
= = = Sustainable development = = =
According to the data that member countries represented to the United Nations , Cuba was the only nation in the world in 2006 that met the World Wide Fund for Nature 's definition of sustainable development , with an ecological footprint of less than 1 @.@ 8 hectares per capita , 1 @.@ 5 , and a Human Development Index of over 0 @.@ 8 , 0 @.@ 855 .
= = Environmental dimension = =
Healthy ecosystems provide vital goods and services to humans and other organisms . There are two major ways of reducing negative human impact and enhancing ecosystem services and the first of these is environmental management . This direct approach is based largely on information gained from earth science , environmental science and conservation biology . However , this is management at the end of a long series of indirect causal factors that are initiated by human consumption , so a second approach is through demand management of human resource use .
Management of human consumption of resources is an indirect approach based largely on information gained from economics . Herman Daly has suggested three broad criteria for ecological sustainability : renewable resources should provide a sustainable yield ( the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of regeneration ) ; for non @-@ renewable resources there should be equivalent development of renewable substitutes ; waste generation should not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment .
= = = Environmental management = = =
At the global scale and in the broadest sense environmental management involves the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , but following the sustainability principle of scale it can be equally applied to any ecosystem from a tropical rainforest to a home garden .
= = = = Atmosphere = = = =
At a March 2009 meeting of the Copenhagen Climate Council , 2 @,@ 500 climate experts from 80 countries issued a keynote statement that there is now " no excuse " for failing to act on global warming and that without strong carbon reduction " abrupt or irreversible " shifts in climate may occur that " will be very difficult for contemporary societies to cope with " . Management of the global atmosphere now involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human @-@ induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities ( see Energy below ) .
Other human impacts on the atmosphere include the air pollution in cities , the pollutants including toxic chemicals like nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , volatile organic compounds and airborne particulate matter that produce photochemical smog and acid rain , and the chlorofluorocarbons that degrade the ozone layer . Anthropogenic particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere reduce the direct irradiance and reflectance ( albedo ) of the Earth 's surface . Known as global dimming , the decrease is estimated to have been about 4 % between 1960 and 1990 although the trend has subsequently reversed . Global dimming may have disturbed the global water cycle by reducing evaporation and rainfall in some areas . It also creates a cooling effect and this may have partially masked the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .
= = = = Freshwater and oceans = = = =
Water covers 71 % of the Earth 's surface . Of this , 97 @.@ 5 % is the salty water of the oceans and only 2 @.@ 5 % freshwater , most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet . The remaining freshwater is found in glaciers , lakes , rivers , wetlands , the soil , aquifers and atmosphere . Due to the water cycle , fresh water supply is continually replenished by precipitation , however there is still a limited amount necessitating management of this resource . Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as , during the 20th century , more than half the world ’ s wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services . Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean , safe water . Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue ( harvestable ) and green ( soil water available for plant use ) water , and this applies at all scales of water management .
Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms . Scientists have warned of the possibility , under the influence of climate change , of a sudden alteration in circulation patterns of ocean currents that could drastically alter the climate in some regions of the globe . Ten per cent of the world 's population – about 600 million people – live in low @-@ lying areas vulnerable to sea level rise .
= = = = Land use = = = =
Loss of biodiversity stems largely from the habitat loss and fragmentation produced by the human appropriation of land for development , forestry and agriculture as natural capital is progressively converted to man @-@ made capital . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles and this can impact negatively on both natural and human systems . At the local human scale , major sustainability benefits accrue from sustainable parks and gardens and green cities .
Since the Neolithic Revolution about 47 % of the world ’ s forests have been lost to human use . Present @-@ day forests occupy about a quarter of the world ’ s ice @-@ free land with about half of these occurring in the tropics . In temperate and boreal regions forest area is gradually increasing ( with the exception of Siberia ) , but deforestation in the tropics is of major concern .
Food is essential to life . Feeding more than seven billion human bodies takes a heavy toll on the Earth ’ s resources . This begins with the appropriation of about 38 % of the Earth ’ s land surface and about 20 % of its net primary productivity . Added to this are the resource @-@ hungry activities of industrial agribusiness – everything from the crop need for irrigation water , synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to the resource costs of food packaging , transport ( now a major part of global trade ) and retail . Environmental problems associated with industrial agriculture and agribusiness are now being addressed through such movements as sustainable agriculture , organic farming and more sustainable business practices .
= = = Management of human consumption = = =
The underlying driver of direct human impacts on the environment is human consumption . This impact is reduced by not only consuming less but by also making the full cycle of production , use and disposal more sustainable . Consumption of goods and services can be analysed and managed at all scales through the chain of consumption , starting with the effects of individual lifestyle choices and spending patterns , through to the resource demands of specific goods and services , the impacts of economic sectors , through national economies to the global economy . Analysis of consumption patterns relates resource use to the environmental , social and economic impacts at the scale or context under investigation . The ideas of embodied resource use ( the total resources needed to produce a product or service ) , resource intensity , and resource productivity are important tools for understanding the impacts of consumption . Key resource categories relating to human needs are food , energy , materials and water .
In 2010 , the International Resource Panel , hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , published the first global scientific assessment on the impacts of consumption and production and identified priority actions for developed and developing countries . The study found that the most critical impacts are related to ecosystem health , human health and resource depletion . From a production perspective , it found that fossil @-@ fuel combustion processes , agriculture and fisheries have the most important impacts . Meanwhile , from a final consumption perspective , it found that household consumption related to mobility , shelter , food and energy @-@ using products cause the majority of life @-@ cycle impacts of consumption .
= = = = Energy = = = =
The Sun 's energy , stored by plants ( primary producers ) during photosynthesis , passes through the food chain to other organisms to ultimately power all living processes . Since the industrial revolution the concentrated energy of the Sun stored in fossilized plants as fossil fuels has been a major driver of technology which , in turn , has been the source of both economic and political power . In 2007 climate scientists of the IPCC concluded that there was at least a 90 % probability that atmospheric increase in CO2 was human @-@ induced , mostly as a result of fossil fuel emissions but , to a lesser extent from changes in land use . Stabilizing the world ’ s climate will require high @-@ income countries to reduce their emissions by 60 – 90 % over 2006 levels by 2050 which should hold CO2 levels at 450 – 650 ppm from current levels of about 380 ppm . Above this level , temperatures could rise by more than 2 ° C to produce “ catastrophic ” climate change . Reduction of current CO2 levels must be achieved against a background of global population increase and developing countries aspiring to energy @-@ intensive high consumption Western lifestyles .
Reducing greenhouse emissions , is being tackled at all scales , ranging from tracking the passage of carbon through the carbon cycle to the commercialization of renewable energy , developing less carbon @-@ hungry technology and transport systems and attempts by individuals to lead carbon neutral lifestyles by monitoring the fossil fuel use embodied in all the goods and services they use . Engineering of emerging technologies such as carbon @-@ neutral fuel and energy storage systems such as power to gas , compressed air energy storage , and pumped @-@ storage hydroelectricity are necessary to store power from transient renewable energy sources including emerging renewables such as airborne wind turbines .
= = = = Water = = = =
Water security and food security are inextricably linked . In the decade 1951 – 60 human water withdrawals were four times greater than the previous decade . This rapid increase resulted from scientific and technological developments impacting through the economy – especially the increase in irrigated land , growth in industrial and power sectors , and intensive dam construction on all continents . This altered the water cycle of rivers and lakes , affected their water quality and had a significant impact on the global water cycle . Currently towards 35 % of human water use is unsustainable , drawing on diminishing aquifers and reducing the flows of major rivers : this percentage is likely to increase if climate change impacts become more severe , populations increase , aquifers become progressively depleted and supplies become polluted and unsanitary . From 1961 to 2001 water demand doubled — agricultural use increased by 75 % , industrial use by more than 200 % , and domestic use more than 400 % . In the 1990s it was estimated that humans were using 40 – 50 % of the globally available freshwater in the approximate proportion of 70 % for agriculture , 22 % for industry , and 8 % for domestic purposes with total use progressively increasing .
Water efficiency is being improved on a global scale by increased demand management , improved infrastructure , improved water productivity of agriculture , minimising the water intensity ( embodied water ) of goods and services , addressing shortages in the non @-@ industrialized world , concentrating food production in areas of high productivity , and planning for climate change , such as through flexible system design . A promising direction towards sustainable development is to design systems that are flexible and reversible . At the local level , people are becoming more self @-@ sufficient by harvesting rainwater and reducing use of mains water .
= = = = Food = = = =
The American Public Health Association ( APHA ) defines a " sustainable food system " as " one that provides healthy food to meet current food needs while maintaining healthy ecosystems that can also provide food for generations to come with minimal negative impact to the environment . A sustainable food system also encourages local production and distribution infrastructures and makes nutritious food available , accessible , and affordable to all . Further , it is humane and just , protecting farmers and other workers , consumers , and communities . " Concerns about the environmental impacts of agribusiness and the stark contrast between the obesity problems of the Western world and the poverty and food insecurity of the developing world have generated a strong movement towards healthy , sustainable eating as a major component of overall ethical consumerism . The environmental effects of different dietary patterns depend on many factors , including the proportion of animal and plant foods consumed and the method of food production . The World Health Organization has published a Global Strategy on Diet , Physical Activity and Health report which was endorsed by the May 2004 World Health Assembly . It recommends the Mediterranean diet which is associated with health and longevity and is low in meat , rich in fruits and vegetables , low in added sugar and limited salt , and low in saturated fatty acids ; the traditional source of fat in the Mediterranean is olive oil , rich in monounsaturated fat . The healthy rice @-@ based Japanese diet is also high in carbohydrates and low in fat . Both diets are low in meat and saturated fats and high in legumes and other vegetables ; they are associated with a low incidence of ailments and low environmental impact .
At the global level the environmental impact of agribusiness is being addressed through sustainable agriculture and organic farming . At the local level there are various movements working towards local food production , more productive use of urban wastelands and domestic gardens including permaculture , urban horticulture , local food , slow food , sustainable gardening , and organic gardening .
Sustainable seafood is seafood from either fished or farmed sources that can maintain or increase production in the future without jeopardizing the ecosystems from which it was acquired . The sustainable seafood movement has gained momentum as more people become aware about both overfishing and environmentally destructive fishing methods .
= = = = Materials , toxic substances , waste = = = =
As global population and affluence has increased , so has the use of various materials increased in volume , diversity and distance transported . Included here are raw materials , minerals , synthetic chemicals ( including hazardous substances ) , manufactured products , food , living organisms and waste . By 2050 , humanity could consume an estimated 140 billion tons of minerals , ores , fossil fuels and biomass per year ( three times its current amount ) unless the economic growth rate is decoupled from the rate of natural resource consumption . Developed countries ' citizens consume an average of 16 tons of those four key resources per capita , ranging up to 40 or more tons per person in some developed countries with resource consumption levels far beyond what is likely sustainable .
Sustainable use of materials has targeted the idea of dematerialization , converting the linear path of materials ( extraction , use , disposal in landfill ) to a circular material flow that reuses materials as much as possible , much like the cycling and reuse of waste in nature . This approach is supported by product stewardship and the increasing use of material flow analysis at all levels , especially individual countries and the global economy . The use of sustainable biomaterials that come from renewable sources and that can be recycled is preferred to the use on non @-@ renewables from a life cycle standpoint .
Synthetic chemical production has escalated following the stimulus it received during the second World War . Chemical production includes everything from herbicides , pesticides and fertilizers to domestic chemicals and hazardous substances . Apart from the build @-@ up of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere , chemicals of particular concern include : heavy metals , nuclear waste , chlorofluorocarbons , persistent organic pollutants and all harmful chemicals capable of bioaccumulation . Although most synthetic chemicals are harmless there needs to be rigorous testing of new chemicals , in all countries , for adverse environmental and health effects . International legislation has been established to deal with the global distribution and management of dangerous goods . The effects of some chemical agents needed long @-@ term measurements and a lot of legal battles to realize their danger to human health . The classification of the toxic carcinogenic agents is handle by the International Agency for Research on Cancer .
Every economic activity produces material that can be classified as waste . To reduce waste industry , business and government are now mimicking nature by turning the waste produced by industrial metabolism into resource . Dematerialization is being encouraged through the ideas of industrial ecology , ecodesign and ecolabelling . In addition to the well @-@ established “ reduce , reuse and recycle , ” shoppers are using their purchasing power for ethical consumerism .
The European Union is expected to table by the end of 2015 an ambitious Circular Economy package which is expected to include concrete legislative proposals on waste management , ecodesign and limits on land fills .
= = Economic dimension = =
On one account , sustainability " concerns the specification of a set of actions to be taken by present persons that will not diminish the prospects of future persons to enjoy levels of consumption , wealth , utility , or welfare comparable to those enjoyed by present persons . " Sustainability interfaces with economics through the social and ecological consequences of economic activity . Sustainability economics represents : " ... a broad interpretation of ecological economics where environmental and ecological variables and issues are basic but part of a multidimensional perspective . Social , cultural , health @-@ related and monetary / financial aspects have to be integrated into the analysis . " However , the concept of sustainability is much broader than the concepts of sustained yield of welfare , resources , or profit margins . At present , the average per capita consumption of people in the developing world is sustainable but population numbers are increasing and individuals are aspiring to high @-@ consumption Western lifestyles . The developed world population is only increasing slightly but consumption levels are unsustainable . The challenge for sustainability is to curb and manage Western consumption while raising the standard of living of the developing world without increasing its resource use and environmental impact . This must be done by using strategies and technology that break the link between , on the one hand , economic growth and on the other , environmental damage and resource depletion .
A recent UNEP report proposes a green economy defined as one that “ improves human well @-@ being and social equity , while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities ” : it " does not favor one political perspective over another but works to minimize excessive depletion of natural capital " . The report makes three key findings : “ that greening not only generates increases in wealth , in particular a gain in ecological commons or natural capital , but also ( over a period of six years ) produces a higher rate of GDP growth ” ; that there is “ an inextricable link between poverty eradication and better maintenance and conservation of the ecological commons , arising from the benefit flows from natural capital that are received directly by the poor ” ; " in the transition to a green economy , new jobs are created , which in time exceed the losses in “ brown economy ” jobs . However , there is a period of job losses in transition , which requires investment in re @-@ skilling and re @-@ educating the workforce ” .
Several key areas have been targeted for economic analysis and reform : the environmental effects of unconstrained economic growth ; the consequences of nature being treated as an economic externality ; and the possibility of an economics that takes greater account of the social and environmental consequences of market behavior .
= = = Decoupling environmental degradation and economic growth = = =
Historically there has been a close correlation between economic growth and environmental degradation : as communities grow , so the environment declines . This trend is clearly demonstrated on graphs of human population numbers , economic growth , and environmental indicators . Unsustainable economic growth has been starkly compared to the malignant growth of a cancer because it eats away at the Earth 's ecosystem services which are its life @-@ support system . There is concern that , unless resource use is checked , modern global civilization will follow the path of ancient civilizations that collapsed through overexploitation of their resource base . While conventional economics is concerned largely with economic growth and the efficient allocation of resources , ecological economics has the explicit goal of sustainable scale ( rather than continual growth ) , fair distribution and efficient allocation , in that order . The World Business Council for Sustainable Development states that " business cannot succeed in societies that fail " .
In economic and environmental fields , the term decoupling is becoming increasingly used in the context of economic production and environmental quality . When used in this way , it refers to the ability of an economy to grow without incurring corresponding increases in environmental pressure . Ecological economics includes the study of societal metabolism , the throughput of resources that enter and exit the economic system in relation to environmental quality . An economy that is able to sustain GDP growth without having a negative impact on the environment is said to be decoupled . Exactly how , if , or to what extent this can be achieved is a subject of much debate . In 2011 the International Resource Panel , hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , warned that by 2050 the human race could be devouring 140 billion tons of minerals , ores , fossil fuels and biomass per year – three times its current rate of consumption – unless nations can make serious attempts at decoupling . The report noted that citizens of developed countries consume an average of 16 tons of those four key resources per capita per annum ( ranging up to 40 or more tons per person in some developed countries ) . By comparison , the average person in India today consumes four tons per year . Sustainability studies analyse ways to reduce resource intensity ( the amount of resource ( e.g. water , energy , or materials ) needed for the production , consumption and disposal of a unit of good or service ) whether this be achieved from improved economic management , product design , or new technology .
There are conflicting views whether improvements in technological efficiency and innovation will enable a complete decoupling of economic growth from environmental degradation . On the one hand , it has been claimed repeatedly by efficiency experts that resource use intensity ( i.e. , energy and materials use per unit GDP ) could in principle be reduced by at least four or five @-@ fold , thereby allowing for continued economic growth without increasing resource depletion and associated pollution . On the other hand , an extensive historical analysis of technological efficiency improvements has conclusively shown that improvements in the efficiency of the use of energy and materials were almost always outpaced by economic growth , in large part because of the rebound effect ( conservation ) or Jevons Paradox resulting in a net increase in resource use and associated pollution . Furthermore , there are inherent thermodynamic ( i.e. , second law of thermodynamics ) and practical limits to all efficiency improvements . For example , there are certain minimum unavoidable material requirements for growing food , and there are limits to making automobiles , houses , furniture , and other products lighter and thinner without the risk of losing their necessary functions . Since it is both theoretically and practically impossible to increase resource use efficiencies indefinitely , it is equally impossible to have continued and infinite economic growth without a concomitant increase in resource depletion and environmental pollution , i.e. , economic growth and resource depletion can be decoupled to some degree over the short run but not the long run . Consequently , long @-@ term sustainability requires the transition to a steady state economy in which total GDP remains more or less constant , as has been advocated for decades by Herman Daly and others in the ecological economics community .
A different proposed solution to partially decouple economic growth from environmental degradation is the restore approach . This approach views " restore " as a fourth component to the common reduce , reuse , recycle motto . Participants in such efforts are encouraged to voluntarily donate towards nature conservation a small fraction of the financial savings they experience through a more frugal use of resources . These financial savings would normally lead to rebound effects , but a theoretical analysis suggests that donating even a small fraction of the experienced savings can potentially more than eliminate rebound effects .
= = = Nature as an economic externality = = =
The economic importance of nature is indicated by the use of the expression ecosystem services to highlight the market relevance of an increasingly scarce natural world that can no longer be regarded as both unlimited and free . In general , as a commodity or service becomes more scarce the price increases and this acts as a restraint that encourages frugality , technical innovation and alternative products . However , this only applies when the product or service falls within the market system . As ecosystem services are generally treated as economic externalities they are unpriced and therefore overused and degraded , a situation sometimes referred to as the Tragedy of the Commons .
One approach to this dilemma has been the attempt to " internalize " these " externalities " by using market strategies like ecotaxes and incentives , tradeable permits for carbon , and the encouragement of payment for ecosystem services . Community currencies associated with Local Exchange Trading Systems ( LETS ) , a gift economy and Time Banking have also been promoted as a way of supporting local economies and the environment . Green economics is another market @-@ based attempt to address issues of equity and the environment . The global recession and a range of associated government policies are likely to bring the biggest annual fall in the world 's carbon dioxide emissions in 40 years .
= = = Economic opportunity = = =
Treating the environment as an externality may generate short @-@ term profit at the expense of sustainability . Sustainable business practices , on the other hand , integrate ecological concerns with social and economic ones ( i.e. , the triple bottom line ) . Growth that depletes ecosystem services is sometimes termed " uneconomic growth " as it leads to a decline in quality of life . Minimizing such growth can provide opportunities for local businesses . For example , industrial waste can be treated as an " economic resource in the wrong place " . The benefits of waste reduction include savings from disposal costs , fewer environmental penalties , and reduced liability insurance . This may lead to increased market share due to an improved public image . Energy efficiency can also increase profits by reducing costs .
The idea of sustainability as a business opportunity has led to the formation of organizations such as the Sustainability Consortium of the Society for Organizational Learning , the Sustainable Business Institute , and the World Council for Sustainable Development . The expansion of sustainable business opportunities can contribute to job creation through the introduction of green @-@ collar workers . Research focusing on progressive corporate leaders who have integrated sustainability into commercial strategy has yielded a leadership competency model for sustainability , and led to emergence of the concept of " embedded sustainability " – defined by its authors Chris Laszlo and Nadya Zhexembayeva as " incorporation of environmental , health , and social value into the core business with no trade @-@ off in price or quality – in other words , with no social or green premium . " Laszlo and Zhexembayeva 's research showed that embedded sustainability offers at least seven distinct opportunities for business value creation : a ) better risk @-@ management , b ) increased efficiency through reduced waste and resource use , c ) better product differentiation , d ) new market entrances , e ) enhanced brand and reputation , f ) greater opportunity to influence industry standards , and g ) greater opportunity for radical innovation . 2014 research further suggested that innovation driven by resource depletion can result in fundamental advantages for company products and services , as well as the company strategy as a whole , when right principles of innovation are applied .
= = = Ecosocialist approach = = =
One school of thought , often labeled ecosocialism or ecological Marxism , asserts that the capitalist economic system is fundamentally incompatible with the ecological and social requirements of sustainability . This theory rests on the premises that :
Capitalism ’ s sole economic purpose is “ unlimited capital accumulation ” in the hands of the capitalist class
The urge to accumulate ( the profit motive ) drives capitalists to continually reinvest and expand production , creating indefinite and unsustainable economic growth
“ Capital tends to degrade the conditions of its own production ” ( the ecosystems and resources on which any economy depends )
Thus , according to this analysis :
Giving economic priority to the fulfillment of human needs while staying within ecological limits , as sustainable development demands , is in conflict with the structural workings of capitalism
A steady @-@ state capitalist economy is impossible ; further , a steady @-@ state capitalist economy is socially undesirable due to the inevitable outcome of massive unemployment and underemployment
Capitalism will , unless overcome by revolution , run up against the physical limits of the biosphere and self @-@ destruct
By this logic , market @-@ based solutions to ecological crises ( ecological economics , environmental economics , green economy ) are rejected as technical tweaks that do not confront capitalism ’ s structural failures . “ Low @-@ risk ” technology / science @-@ based solutions such as solar power , sustainable agriculture , and increases in energy efficiency are seen as necessary but insufficient . “ High @-@ risk ” technological solutions such as nuclear power and climate engineering are entirely rejected . Attempts made by businesses to “ greenwash ” their practices are regarded as false advertising , and it is pointed out that implementation of renewable technology ( such as Walmart ’ s proposition to supply their electricity with solar power ) has the effect opposite of reductions in resource consumption , viz. further economic growth . Sustainable business models and the triple bottom line are viewed as morally praiseworthy but ignorant to the tendency in capitalism for the distribution of wealth to become increasingly unequal and socially unstable / unsustainable . Ecosocialists claim that the general unwillingness of capitalists to tolerate — and capitalist governments to implement — constraints on maximum profit ( such as ecotaxes or preservation and conservation measures ) renders environmental reforms incapable of facilitating large @-@ scale change : “ History teaches us that although capitalism has at times responded to environmental movements . . . at a certain point , at which the system ’ s underlying accumulation drive is affected , its resistance to environmental demands stiffens . ” They also note that , up until the event of total ecological collapse , destruction caused by natural disasters generally causes an increase in economic growth and accumulation ; thus , capitalists have no foreseeable motivation to reduce the probability of disasters ( i.e. convert to sustainable / ecological production ) .
Ecosocialists advocate for the revolutionary succession of capitalism by ecosocialism — an egalitarian economic / political / social structure designed to harmonize human society with non @-@ human ecology and to fulfill human needs — as the only sufficient solution to the present @-@ day ecological crisis , and hence the only path towards sustainability . Sustainability is viewed not as a domain exclusive to scientists , environmental activists , and business leaders but as a holistic project that must involve the whole of humanity redefining its place in Nature : “ What every environmentalist needs to know . . . is that capitalism is not the solution but the problem , and that if humanity is going to survive this crisis , it will do so because it has exercised its capacity for human freedom , through social struggle , in order to create a whole new world — in coevolution with the planet . ”
= = Social dimension = =
Sustainability issues are generally expressed in scientific and environmental terms , as well as in ethical terms of stewardship , but implementing change is a social challenge that entails , among other things , international and national law , urban planning and transport , local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism . " The relationship between human rights and human development , corporate power and environmental justice , global poverty and citizen action , suggest that responsible global citizenship is an inescapable element of what may at first glance seem to be simply matters of personal consumer and moral choice . "
= = = Peace , security , social justice = = =
Social disruptions like war , crime and corruption divert resources from areas of greatest human need , damage the capacity of societies to plan for the future , and generally threaten human well @-@ being and the environment . Broad @-@ based strategies for more sustainable social systems include : improved education and the political empowerment of women , especially in developing countries ; greater regard for social justice , notably equity between rich and poor both within and between countries ; and intergenerational equity . Depletion of natural resources including fresh water increases the likelihood of “ resource wars ” . This aspect of sustainability has been referred to as environmental security and creates a clear need for global environmental agreements to manage resources such as aquifers and rivers which span political boundaries , and to protect shared global systems including oceans and the atmosphere .
= = = Poverty = = =
A major hurdle to achieve sustainability is the alleviation of poverty . It has been widely acknowledged that poverty is one source of environmental degradation . Such acknowledgment has been made by the Brundtland Commission report Our Common Future and the Millennium Development Goals . There is a growing realization in national governments and multilateral institutions that it is impossible to separate economic development issues from environment issues : according to the Brundtland report , “ poverty is a major cause and effect of global environmental problems . It is therefore futile to attempt to deal with environmental problems without a broader perspective that encompasses the factors underlying world poverty and international inequality . ” Individuals living in poverty tend to rely heavily on their local ecosystem as a source for basic needs ( such as nutrition and medicine ) and general well @-@ being . As population growth continues to increase , increasing pressure is being placed on the local ecosystem to provide these basic essentials . According to the UN Population Fund , high fertility and poverty have been strongly correlated , and the world ’ s poorest countries also have the highest fertility and population growth rates . The word sustainability is also used widely by western country development agencies and international charities to focus their poverty alleviation efforts in ways that can be sustained by the local populace and its environment . For example , teaching water treatment to the poor by boiling their water with charcoal , would not generally be considered a sustainable strategy , whereas using PET solar water disinfection would be . Also , sustainable best practices can involve the recycling of materials , such as the use of recycled plastics for lumber where deforestation has devastated a country 's timber base . Another example of sustainable practices in poverty alleviation is the use of exported recycled materials from developed to developing countries , such as Bridges to Prosperity 's use of wire rope from shipping container gantry cranes to act as the structural wire rope for footbridges that cross rivers in poor rural areas in Asia and Africa .
= = = Human relationship to nature = = =
According to Murray Bookchin , the idea that humans must dominate nature is common in hierarchical societies . Bookchin contends that capitalism and market relationships , if unchecked , have the capacity to reduce the planet to a mere resource to be exploited . Nature is thus treated as a commodity : “ The plundering of the human spirit by the market place is paralleled by the plundering of the earth by capital . ” Social ecology , founded by Bookchin , is based on the conviction that nearly all of humanity 's present ecological problems originate in , indeed are mere symptoms of , dysfunctional social arrangements . Whereas most authors proceed as if our ecological problems can be fixed by implementing recommendations which stem from physical , biological , economic etc . , studies , Bookchin 's claim is that these problems can only be resolved by understanding the underlying social processes and intervening in those processes by applying the concepts and methods of the social sciences .
A pure capitalist approach has also been criticized in Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change to mitigation the effects of global warming in this excerpt ...
“ the greatest example of market failure we have ever seen . ”
Deep ecology is a movement founded by Arne Naess that establishes principles for the well @-@ being of all life on Earth and the richness and diversity of life forms . The movement advocates , among other things , a substantial decrease in human population and consumption along with the reduction of human interference with the nonhuman world . To achieve this , deep ecologists advocate policies for basic economic , technological , and ideological structures that will improve the quality of life rather than the standard of living . Those who subscribe to these principles are obliged to make the necessary change happen . The concept of a billion @-@ year Sustainocene has been developed to initiate policy consideration of an earth where human structures power and fuel the needs of that species ( for example through artificial photosynthesis ) allowing Rights of Nature .
= = = Human settlements = = =
One approach to sustainable living , exemplified by small @-@ scale urban transition towns and rural ecovillages , seeks to create self @-@ reliant communities based on principles of simple living , which maximize self @-@ sufficiency particularly in food production . These principles , on a broader scale , underpin the concept of a bioregional economy . These approaches often utilize commons based knowledge sharing of open source appropriate technology .
Other approaches , loosely based around New Urbanism , are successfully reducing environmental impacts by altering the built environment to create and preserve sustainable cities which support sustainable transport . Residents in compact urban neighborhoods drive fewer miles , and have significantly lower environmental impacts across a range of measures , compared with those living in sprawling suburbs . In sustainable architecture the recent movement of New Classical Architecture promotes a sustainable approach towards construction , that appreciates and develops smart growth , architectural tradition and classical design . This in contrast to modernist and globally uniform architecture , as well as opposing solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl . Both trends started in the 1980s . The concept of Circular flow land use management has also been introduced in Europe to promote sustainable land use patterns that strive for compact cities and a reduction of greenfield land take by urban sprawl .
Large scale social movements can influence both community choices and the built environment . Eco @-@ municipalities may be one such movement . Eco @-@ municipalities take a systems approach , based on sustainability principles . The eco @-@ municipality movement is participatory , involving community members in a bottom @-@ up approach . In Sweden , more than 70 cities and towns — 25 per cent of all municipalities in the country — have adopted a common set of " Sustainability Principles " and implemented these systematically throughout their municipal operations . There are now twelve eco @-@ municipalities in the United States and the American Planning Association has adopted sustainability objectives based on the same principles .
There is a wealth of advice available to individuals wishing to reduce their personal and social impact on the environment through small , inexpensive and easily achievable steps . But the transition required to reduce global human consumption to within sustainable limits involves much larger changes , at all levels and contexts of society . The United Nations has recognised the central role of education , and have declared a decade of education for sustainable development , 2005 – 2014 , which aims to " challenge us all to adopt new behaviours and practices to secure our future " . The Worldwide Fund for Nature proposes a strategy for sustainability that goes beyond education to tackle underlying individualistic and materialistic societal values head @-@ on and strengthen people 's connections with the natural world .
= = = Human and labor rights = = =
Application of social sustainability requires stakeholders to look at human and labor rights , prevention of human trafficking , and other human rights risks . These issues should be considered in production and procurement of various worldwide commodities . The international community has identified many industries whose practices have been known to violate social sustainability , and many of these industries have organizations in place that aid in verifying the social sustainability of products and services . The Equator Principles ( financial industry ) , Fair Wear Foundation ( garments ) , and Electronics Industry Citizenship Coalition are examples of such organizations and initiatives . Resources are also available for verifying the life @-@ cycle of products and the producer or vendor level , such as Green Seal for cleaning products , NSF @-@ 140 for carpet production , and even labeling of Organic food in the United States .
= = = Topics = = =
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= Butterfly ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Butterfly " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey from her sixth studio album of the same name . It was released as the second single from the album on December 1 , 1997 by Columbia Records . The song was written by Carey and Walter Afanasieff ; both of them producing and arranging the song as well . " Butterfly " is a ballad combining elements of pop and gospel genres . Carey had originally conceived it as a house record with David Morales titled " Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) " . After realizing how personal the lyrics were and how they could be applied to Butterfly , she wrote the album 's title track with Afanasieff . On the song 's lyrics , Carey sings to someone , telling them to spread their wings and release into the world on their own , like a butterfly .
The song 's music video depicts Carey in an abandoned house , trapped in a desolate life . As the video progresses , she leaves , apparently for the first time in years , and runs into a nearby meadow . Towards the end , Carey jumps over a barbed fence and goes out into the world on a horse . The song 's lyrics and video were directly connected to Carey 's personal life at the time . " Butterfly " was performed live on the Late Show with David Letterman , Saturday Night Live and various European television programs . The song was also a permanent part of the set @-@ list during her Butterfly World Tour during 1998 . Due to current conflict with Columbia , " Butterfly " was never issued a commercial release , therefore hindering its charting ability . The song performed weakly on the charts , peaking outside the top twenty in most countries , except for New Zealand , where it peaked at number 15 . In the United States , " Butterfly " was not eligible to chart on the Hot 100 due to Billboard rules at the time .
= = Background = =
During the recording for Butterfly , Carey was in the midst of her separation from then husband , Tommy Mottola . While writing the material for the album , she wrote a house music record titled " Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) " with David Morales . When the song was finished , Carey felt there was something more she could do with the song ; the lyrics were very personal and a perfect fit for a ballad . After contemplating on the matter , Carey re @-@ wrote " Fly Away " in ballad form , and incorporated new lyrics and vocals .
" It was ' 97 and I was leaving my marriage [ to Tommy Mottola ] . which encompassed my life . I was writing the song ' Butterfly ' wishing that that 's what he would say to me . There 's a part that goes , ' I have learned that beauty / has to flourish in the light / wild horses run unbridled / or their spirit dies / you have given me the courage / to be all that I can / and I truly feel ... [ sings ] and I truly feel your heart will lead you back to me when you 're ready to land . ' At that point I really believed that I was going to go back to the marriage – I didn 't think I was going to leave forever . But then the things that happened to me during that time caused me to not go back . Had it been , ' Go be yourself , you 've been with me since you were a kid , let 's separate for a while , ' I probably would 've . "
The song was named " Butterfly " and became Carey 's " favorite and most heartfelt ballad . " Its lyrics were very personal , linking to Carey 's personal life and relationship with Mottola . Carey wrote " Butterfly " for Mottola , hoping he would say its contents to her , and choose to do what was best for her . She described the song as " the best ballad she had ever written " and credited it as the epitome of her magnum opus , which was Butterfly .
= = Composition = =
" Butterfly " is a personal ballad , which blends pop , gospel and R & B genres . It incorporates piano and drum notes , including heavy beats and grooves . As part of " layering the song , " background vocals are featured throughout the chorus and sections of the bridge . It is set in the signature common time , and is written in the key of G ♭ major . It features a basic chord progression of A ♭ -F ♭ -1 . Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the note of G ♭ 3 to the high note of A6 ; the piano and guitar pieces range from G ♭ 3 to G ♭ 5 as well . The song contains choral lyrics written by Carey , who produced the song 's melody and chorus as well . Aside from assisting with its writing and chord progression , Afanasieff co @-@ arranged and produced the track as well . In his review for the album , David Browne commented on the song 's lyrics and message " The title song , a slice of florid pop gospel , explores the old if @-@ you @-@ love @-@ someone @-@ set @-@ her @-@ free theme ; It isn 't a reach to interpret these songs as describing life with the reportedly controlling Mottola .
= = Critical reception = =
Paul Verna from Billboard gave the song a positive review , writing " the lovely ' Butterfly ' is classic Carey , from its gospel @-@ kissed ballad instrumentation and choir chants to the diva 's soaring , glass @-@ shattering performance . " Verna concluded his review of the song " This should not imply , however , that she is covering crusty old ground . The notable maturity in her lyrics and worldly warmth of her vocal reflect the growth that she has continually strived to attain . " Rick Juzwiak from Slant gave the song a mixed review , but felt it was a pivotal part of Carey 's vocal and musical transition . Juzwiak wrote " The agonizingly slow ' Butterfly , ' with its predictably soaring chorus and if @-@ it @-@ comes @-@ back @-@ it @-@ was @-@ meant @-@ to @-@ be message , would have been ignorable tripe . Here , it 's a show for the peeping . Echoes of her newly failed relationship with Mottola bounce off the gospelly song 's cheap stained glass and then garble so that it sounds like some insane document of Stockholm Syndrome . " He felt however , that the song was an important part of the album , " It isn 't just subject matter that elevates ' Butterfly ' above Carey 's usual melodrama . Carey 's vocal delivery and her willingness to experiment with it helped define the album , so it 's only appropriate that its title track is the first of many to showcase Carey 's much @-@ debated ' whisper voice . ' "
= = Chart performance = =
" Butterfly " was a moderate success on the charts , performing weakly in many music markets . In the United States , Billboard rules at the time did not allow non @-@ commercially released singles to chart on the Hot 100 . Songs were required to have been issued a commercial release in order to chart , therefore not qualifying " Butterfly . " However , due to live promotion and popularity , the song charted on the Hot 100 Airplay , peaking at number sixteen . In Canada , the song entered the RPM Singles Chart at number 57 on the RPM issue dated November 3 , 1997 , and reached its peak of number 22 on December 1 , 1997 . It was present on the chart for a total of 14 weeks .
The song 's success in Europe was very limited as well , due to its non @-@ commercial release . In the United Kingdom , the song entered the singles chart at its peak of 22 , the week of December 13 , 1997 . " Butterfly " stayed in the chart for six weeks , falling out of the chart the week of January 17 , 1998 . In France and The Netherlands , the song peaked at number 43 and 52 , respectively . In Australia , " Butterfly " cracked the top @-@ 40 , peaking at number 27 and spending a total of ten weeks on the chart . " Butterfly " charted at number 15 in New Zealand , spending seven weeks on the chart . " Butterfly " was nominated for the 1998 Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , which it lost to Sarah McLachlan 's " Building a Mystery . "
= = Music video = =
The single 's music video was co @-@ directed by Carey and Daniel Pearl . It was inspired by the Tennessee Williams play Baby Doll and a dream Carey had one night . The video begins with scenes of a man leaving his home one early morning ; only his feet are shown . Carey is first seen residing in the old abandoned house , in the middle of a large meadow . She awakes , sad and depressed , with the viewer making notice or her battered and disheveled clothing . As she walks down the stairs , Carey sits on the staircase , lamenting in agony at her loneliness . As the video climaxes , Carey is seen finally leaving the foyer , apparently for the first time in many years , escaping from the misery she once called home . As she reaches the outskirts of the property , Carey mounts a horse , which assists her in jumping over the barbed fence . After leaving , Carey is seen smiling for the first time in the video , while waiving her arms in the air .
The video drew many comparisons to the rumors of Carey 's deteriorating marriage at the time . Author Chris Nickson felt the video , like the song , served as a metaphor for the things that were taking place in her life at the time . Rumors circulated that Mottola was controlling , abusive and would even monitor Carey 's phone calls . For this reason , she is portrayed with tattered clothing and hair in the video , with the final moments showing her escape . It features Carey finally leaving the lonely and abusive marriage she once was part of , and finally breaking free into the outside world . Unlike the video , the lyrics spoke of setting your loved one free , because it is the best thing for them ; showing that their love for the person should be greater than their own happiness .
= = Remixes = =
David Morales created several dance remixes of the song — in addition to the original version of " Butterfly , " which is known as " Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) " — among them are the " Fly Away " club mix ( an extended version of " Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) " ) and Def ' B ' Fly mix ( a variation of the " Fly Away " club mix with completely re @-@ sung vocals of the original " Butterfly " ) . " Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) " reached the top twenty on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart , and a shortened version is included as an interlude on the album Butterfly . Latin remixes of " Butterfly " , influenced by the musical styles of flamenco and salsa , were also commissioned by Meme . They include " Butterfly " ( Sambatterfly ) , " Butterfly " ( Classic Bossa Nova ) , and " Butterfly " ( Meme 's extended club mix part 1 ) .
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed " Butterfly " on various American and European television programs . In the US , Carey first performed the song live on the Late Show with David Letterman , prior to an interview . Carey wore a mid @-@ length black gown for the performance , and was accompanied by three back @-@ up singers , Walter Afanasieff on piano and Randy Jackson playing the bass . On September 17 , Carey performed the song live on Saturday Night Live , alongside " My All . " The performance featured the same musicians on set , with the exception of Afanasieff , who was absent . On November 12 , Carey sang " Butterfly " live on The Oprah Winfrey Show alongside her previous hit , " Hero . " For her appearance , Carey wore a short blue skirt , and featured an array of gospel back @-@ up singers . In Europe , Carey performed the song on the popular German game show , Wetten , dass .. ? , featured only three female back @-@ up singers . In France , Carey visited the talk show , " The Hit Machine , " where she performed the song as well . After completing the song , Carey received a standing ovation .
The song was sung during her Butterfly World Tour in 1998 , a part of the set list of every show . For the performances in Japan , Carey donned a long flowing gown , and featured live back @-@ up . During the performance , large images of butterflies were projected onto the large screen behind her . The performances served as one of the closing songs on the set @-@ list . Similar props and set @-@ up were used for the following shows of the tour , with the addition on the " Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) " addition at the show 's finale . In subsequent tours , the chorus of the song was played by the band and sung by the background vocals at the end of each concert as Carey would exit the stage . In the Angels Advocate Tour an instrumental version was played as an introduction while Carey entered the stage .
= = Formats and track listings = =
American CD single
" Butterfly "
" Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Butterfly liner notes .
Mariah Carey – songwriting , co @-@ production , vocals
Walter Afanasieff – songwriting , co @-@ production
= = Charts = =
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= Confirmed Dead =
" Confirmed Dead " is the 74th episode of Lost , and was first aired the United States and Canada on February 7 , 2008 . It was the second episode of the fourth season of the serial television drama on ABC and CTV .
The episode includes the first appearances of the main characters Miles Straume and Charlotte Lewis and the supporting character Frank Lapidus . Ken Leung played Miles Straume , Rebecca Mader played Charlotte Lewis and Jeff Fahey played Frank Lapidus . The actors were given fake scenes when auditioning to limit the leak of story information or spoilers . Mader and Fahey were different from the writers ' visions of Charlotte and Frank , but the writers changed the characters to suit them . Also , the role of Miles was changed for Leung . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Drew Goddard and co @-@ producer Brian K. Vaughan and directed by co @-@ executive producer Stephen Williams .
The beginning of the episode is set on December 21 , 2004 , or 91 days after the original characters crash @-@ land on a tropical island from Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 . During the show , flashbacks introduce the island 's latest arrivals – four people from an offshore freighter who landed on the island . The main action is of John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) leading his group to the Barracks . He begins to find out why Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) is afraid of the newcomers . " Confirmed Dead " was watched by 17 million Americans and received generally positive critical reception as reviewers praised the introduction of the new characters .
= = Plot = =
The episode 's five flashbacks focus on the reactions and activities of the freighter 's crew who made contact with the Oceanic 815 survivors ; Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) is shown crying while watching a newscast confirming the deaths of all Oceanic 815 passengers . His caretaker asks why he is crying , and he answers that he does not know . Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) is a medium hired by an elderly woman to remove the ghost of her grandson from her home . After conversing with the spirit , Miles finds a hidden cache of money and drugs . Charlotte Lewis ( Rebecca Mader ) is an anthropologist who finds a polar bear skeleton bearing a Dharma Initiative collar buried in the Tunisian desert . Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) is an alcoholic who was originally scheduled to pilot flight 815 . He phones the Oceanic hotline while watching the newscast and claims that the footage of the plane wreckage being aired on television is not authentic , while Naomi Dorrit ( Marsha Thomason ) is shown in a posthumous flashback , criticizing her employer Matthew Abaddon ( Lance Reddick ) for his choice in her coworkers .
After Daniel parachutes from a failing helicopter onto the island , he uses Naomi 's phone to contact George Minkowski ( Fisher Stevens ) on the ship that he came from . The next morning , on December 22 , 2004 , two of the flight 815 survivors – Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) and Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) – help Daniel find his colleagues , as the rival group led by Locke attempts to do the same . Jack and Kate find Miles , who demands to see Naomi 's body , and ascertains that Locke killed her . Locke 's group finds Charlotte , takes her prisoner , and disposes of her tracking device . Daniel 's third colleague , helicopter pilot Frank , fires a flare into the sky , leading Jack 's group to him . Frank tells Jack 's group that he managed to land the helicopter intact . After finding out that Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) is one of the Others , Miles demands to know where Ben ( Michael Emerson ) is , as locating him is the freighter crew 's primary objective . In Locke 's group , several people become discontent with Locke 's revelation that he is following the instructions of Walt Lloyd ( Malcolm David Kelley ) , who had left the island a month earlier , and they also question why Ben is being kept alive . Locke holds him at gunpoint , and Ben starts to reveal information about the Kahana crew , specifically Charlotte 's identity and that he has a spy aboard the ship .
= = Production = =
While casting the " freighter folk " – the nickname that Lost 's executive producers / writers / show runners Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse use to refer to Daniel , Charlotte , Miles and Frank – fake names , occupations and scenes were temporarily assigned , to limit the leak of spoilers . After seeing Ken Leung guest star on HBO 's The Sopranos in April 2007 , Lindelof and Cuse wrote the role of Miles specifically for him , although it was initially reported that Leung would be playing the part of " brilliant mathematician " " Russell " . The name Miles Straume was simply chosen because the writer @-@ producers thought that " it would be cool if his name sounded like ' maelstrom ' " . Had he not taken the part , Lindelof and Cuse claim that Miles would have been scrapped and a new and very different character would have been written into the story instead . Leung , who was originally contracted as a recurring guest star , was quoted as saying that " Miles doesn 't know how to be social , which is great , because I don 't know how to be social . " Costume designer Roland Sanchez wanted to base one of the freighter folk 's clothing after that of Keith Richards , specifically a picture in which he wore a sleeveless vest , which he admired . Sanchez believed that Miles fitted the haggard look and bought an Armani Exchange jacket , cut off the sleeves and added a hood , and that this outfit helped Leung to develop Miles . Co @-@ executive producer / writer Edward Kitsis had been pitching the name " Lapidus " for years , finally naming an unseen character in the fourteenth episode of the third season Rick Lapidus . Unsatisfied , Kitsis developed the character " Frank Lapidus , Helicopter Pilot " . According to the show runners , recurring guest star Jeff Fahey " was the first and only choice for the role " . They also commended his " intense eyes " and stated that " he has exactly the right sensibilities " for the part . Frank was not envisioned with a beard , however , the writer @-@ producers allowed Fahey to keep it for the role . The writer @-@ producers have said that Frank " never takes anything at face value [ and is ] a true conspiracy nut [ who ] has probably seen every episode of The X @-@ Files , [ which will ] pay off for him " .
Rebecca Mader 's audition scene was a fake flashback and she was disappointed that it was not used for the show . The character 's name was spoiled months in advance of broadcast . Charlotte was originally envisioned as an American ; however , the writers preferred Mader 's natural English accent to her fake American accent and they changed Charlotte accordingly . Lost 's writer @-@ producers compared Mader to " a young Nicole Kidman " . During the casting process , Charlotte was described as a " successful academic " . It was falsely rumored that Kristen Bell was offered the role of Charlotte ; Bell had actually spoken to the producers about having a part ; however , no role was offered to her . Despite never having seen Lost , Mader decided that she " was not going to leave [ the auditioning ] room until [ she ] made [ Lindelof and Cuse ] fall in love with [ her ] " . Mader subsequently began to watch the first three seasons of Lost and was watching the fourth episode when she received the news that she had been chosen for the role . In the next two to three weeks , Mader – who was then signed on as a recurring guest star – watched the rest of the first three seasons , watching the third season finale a matter of hours before she began shooting her first " Confirmed Dead " scene , in which Charlotte meets Locke and his group . Mader was told little about her character by the writer @-@ producers , except that " she was sort of like a female Indiana Jones type " . Mader has found it challenging but fun to play a character with an unknown backstory and motives . Charlotte 's full name is Charlotte Staples Lewis , which is an homage to the author C.S. Lewis , best known for The Chronicles of Narnia and various books about Christianity . Lewis was one of Mader 's favorite authors as a child and found it " wicked " and " cool " for her character to be named after him . Mader also enjoyed that she only requires a small amount of hair and makeup done , saying that " I just wanted to rough it . I wanted to roll around in the mud with a gun . " Mader claims that she has " never had so much fun in [ her ] life " as when she is shooting Lost . In the episode , Charlotte 's birthday is said to be July 2 , 1979 . This led to a minor continuity error in the fifth season episode " LaFleur " , when Charlotte is depicted as being a little girl in 1974 . Executive producers Cuse and Lindelof claimed in a podcast that the original script for " Confirmed Dead " listed Charlotte 's birthday as being in 1970 and that Mader had it changed because she did not want people to think she was significantly older than she actually is . This caused a controversy when Mader later stated on her blog that Gregg Nations , the script coordinator , was the one who suggested the change . Cuse and Lindelof later conceded that she was right .
Most or all of the episode was shot from September 11 to 23 , 2007 and filming overlapped with the following episode . The Tunisian desert scene was filmed on location in Oahu , Hawaii , like the rest of the episode , at a stone quarry with industrial fans blowing fake sand . A typical Lost episode contains fifty visual effects shots . Among scenes created entirely or partially with effects are the opening scene of " Confirmed Dead " , which shows what appears to be the wreckage of 815 underwater and the scene from Daniel 's perspective as he parachutes from the helicopter to the ground . In Frank 's flashback , he drops a toy plane , which spirals into a small aquarium . This shot was not intended to use effects ; however , " it 's impossible to get a toy plane to spiral the way you want it to " , according to supervisor Mitch Suskin . A tank with still water and rocks on the bottom was filmed and the plane was added in editing . Suskin said that creating effects for " Confirmed Dead " " was slightly too leisurely " because the episode aired over four months after post @-@ production began .
In fall 2007 , Lost 's writers presented ABC executives with the story that a salvage vessel called the Christiane I looking for the Black Rock , among other things , in the Sunda Trench would come across what would appear to be the wreckage of 815 . ABC hired the Australian company Hoodlum to design a $ 3 million viral marketing alternate reality game ( ARG ) titled Find 815 . Find 815 ran from December 28 , 2007 to January 31 , 2008 , beginning with a press release issued from ABC Medianet announcing the fictitious return of the fictional Oceanic Airlines ' return to business . The ARG – apparently the largest ever – followed Sam Thomas , an Oceanic technician who had lost his girlfriend in the crash , as he received cryptic e @-@ mails from The Maxwell Group ( a division of Widmore Industries , but nonexistent in Lost ) , joined the crew of the Christiane I and ultimately uncovered 815 . Because Find 815 was produced separately from the show and without the show 's writers , it contradicts events in the TV series . In " Confirmed Dead " , 815 is found by a man not present in the game named Ron ; Thomas is not mentioned . Lindelof and Cuse dismissed the game as not being canon ( not containing genuine information within the fictional universe ) and was largely just a bonus for fans during the between @-@ seasons hiatus .
= = Reception = =
" Confirmed Dead " was watched by 15 @.@ 292 million American viewers live or recorded and watched within six hours of broadcast , ranking Lost seventh in the weekly chart . It was watched by a total of 16 @.@ 963 million viewers , including those who watched within seven days of broadcast ; this number went toward the year @-@ end season average . The episode received a 6 @.@ 5 / 16 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic . In Canada , it ranked sixth for the week with 1 @.@ 702 million viewers . In the United Kingdom , Lost was watched by 1 @.@ 2 million viewers – a larger audience than that of the season premiere . In Australia , " Confirmed Dead " brought in 853 @,@ 000 viewers , ranking seventy @-@ first for the week . American critics were sent screener DVDs of " The Beginning of the End " and " Confirmed Dead " on January 28 , 2008 with instructions not to reveal major plot points in reviews . Among the journalists who gave vague and positive reviews were Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times , Adam Buckman of the New York Post , Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune , Diane Werts of Newsday and Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle . According to Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV , " Confirmed Dead " " was met with almost universal love from the Lost fan base " and according to Jon Lachonis of UGO , the new characters were well received by the fan scene .
Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that " after an underwhelming pre @-@ credits sequence ... this sucker moved , and lots of things happened . We met our four new regulars , squeezed in useful flashbacks about [ them ] and even found out the real reason they 're on the island ... The flipside of all this business is that ' Confirmed Dead ' didn 't have the same emotional resonance as ' [ The ] Beginning of the End ' ... but you clearly can 't have everything in every episode . " Time 's James Poniewozik said that " What amazed [ him ] about this episode was the economy and precision with which it introduced ... the crew of the downed chopper from [ the freighter ] . Each got just one flashback and a little time on the island , and yet by the end of the episode , I felt I had a true handle on what they were like as individuals . " Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly thought that " Confirmed Dead " " was downright alive with fascinating new characters , mind @-@ blowing new possibilities , and exciting new theory fodder " ; however , he had heard complaints from others who received the preview screeners that they found the episode to be flawed . They considered the scene where 815 is found to be cheating the flashback formula because Daniel only experiences it by watching it on television , Frank 's safe landing of the helicopter to be a mystery , Naomi 's flashback to be cheating Lost rules because she is dead and Ben 's manipulation of Locke to be an overused storyline . E ! ' s Kristin Dos Santos exclaimed " hot damn ! " in response to the scene where 815 is found in the Sunda Trench . She also thought that " Juliet and Kate giggling at Jack 's ' wink thing ' was hilarious " and it was " awesome to see [ the pilot ] again " . Nikki Stafford of Wizard highlighted " watching Dan 's landing from his point of view . You can feel his panic as he 's free @-@ falling through the air , looks up at his parachute , looks down to see himself about to hit the trees ... it was amazing . " IGN 's Chris Carabott gave " Confirmed Dead " an 8 / 10 , writing that it " isn 't a disappointing episode by any means but it definitely suffers from being a ' setup ' episode for these four new characters " and praising the new actors by writing that " Leung does an adequate job of getting Miles ' arrogant brand of confidence across while Davies presents Faraday 's awkward mannerisms well . Fahey 's Lapidus has exceptional screen presence that even overshadows the regular cast members to an extent . " Erin Martell of AOL 's TV Squad said that " Watching ' Confirmed Dead ' was like watching my dream episode of Lost [ because ] people asked direct questions for once ... [ and ] this episode was all about the Freighties . " A day after the original broadcast , BuddyTV 's Dahl claimed that " [ the audience is ] on an epic journey , one that has been as entertaining and engrossing as any TV series has ever been " . In contrast , TV Guide 's Michael Ausiello of said that it " was thirty @-@ one flavors of awesome ... [ however ] the negatives outweighed the positives " . He had problems with Claire 's lack of grief for Charlie Pace 's ( Dominic Monaghan ) death and Jack waiting so long to find out the freighter folk 's main objective . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy gave " Confirmed Dead " three out of five stars , calling it " so @-@ so " , but commenting that " the new revelations in the episode are fairly startling and provide a momentary distraction from the frustrations . "
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= Battle of Block Island =
The Battle of Block Island ( April 6 , 1776 ) was a nighttime naval encounter between the Continental Navy , returning from a successful raid on Nassau in The Bahamas on its maiden voyage , and HMS Glasgow , a Royal Navy dispatch boat . Glasgow successfully escaped capture by a fleet of seven ships under the command of Commodore Esek Hopkins , although she sustained significant damage in the encounter .
Several of the ship captains of the Continental fleet were criticized for their actions in the engagement , and one was dismissed as a result . Commodore Hopkins was criticized for other actions pertaining to the cruise , including the distribution of seized goods , and was eventually also dismissed from the Navy .
= = Background = =
HMS Glasgow was a sixth @-@ rate 20 @-@ gun frigate of the Royal Navy . In early April 1776 , under the command of navy captain Tryingham Howe , she was carrying dispatches from Newport , Rhode Island to the British fleet off Charleston , South Carolina . ( This fleet had been assembled to launch an assault on Charleston , which ultimately failed in the June Battle of Sullivan 's Island . )
The Second Continental Congress had established the Continental Navy in late 1775 . By February 1776 the first ships of the fleet were ready for their maiden voyage , and Commodore Esek Hopkins led a fleet of eight ships on an expedition to the Bahamas , where the British were known to have military stores . In early March , the fleet ( reduced by one due to tangled riggings en route ) landed marines on the island of New Providence and captured the town of Nassau . After loading the fleet 's ships , enlarged to include two captured prize ships , with military stores , the fleet sailed north on March 17 , with one ship dispatched to Philadelphia , while the rest of the fleet sailed for the Block Island channel . The fleet 's cruise was marked by outbreaks of a variety of diseases , including fevers and smallpox , resulting in significant reductions in crew effectiveness .
By April 4 the fleet had reached the waters off Long Island , and captured a prize , HMS Hawk , which was also laden with supplies . The next day brought a second prize , the Bolton . Hoping to catch more easy prizes , Hopkins continued to cruise off Block Island that night , forming the fleet into a scouting formation of two columns . The right , or eastern , column was headed by the USS Cabot , followed by Hopkins ' flagship , the USS Alfred , at 20 guns the largest ship of the fleet , and the left column was headed by the USS Andrew Doria , followed by the USS Columbus . Behind these came the USS Providence , with USS Fly and USS Wasp trailing further behind as escorts for the prizes . The need to provide crews for the prizes further reduced the fighting effectiveness of the fleet 's ships .
= = Battle = =
That night was an exceptionally clear night with a nearly full moon . Between 1 and 2 am on April 6 , with the fleet headed in a generally southerly direction , Andrew Doria and Glasgow spotted each other about 8 leagues ( 20 to 24 nautical miles ) southeast of Block Island . Glasgow was heading westerly , destined for Charleston . Captain Howe came about to investigate the fleet , and over the next 30 minutes closed to within hailing distance . Commodore Hopkins gave no signals during this time , so the fleet formed no battle line which resulted in a battle that Captain Nicholas Biddle of the Andrew Doria later described as " helter @-@ skelter " .
Howe first came upon the Cabot , whose captain was Esek Hopkins ' son , John . The younger Hopkins , when hailed for identification , replied , " The Columbus and Alfred , a 22 @-@ gun frigate . " An overzealous seaman on his ship then tossed a grenade onto the Glasgow 's deck , and the battle was engaged . Cabot , a lightly armed brig , fired one ineffective broadside of six @-@ pounders . Glasgow countered with two broadsides with its heavier weaponry , killing Cabot 's master , wounding Hopkins , and disabling her steering . As she drifted away , the Alfred came up to engage Glasgow , and the two engaged in a broadside duel . A shot from Glasgow early in the action broke the lines to Alfred 's tiller ; her temporary loss of steering exposed her to raking fire . Her drift also made it difficult for the Andrew Doria to join the action , who also had to maneuver to avoid the drifting Cabot . The Providence held back , and Columbus was eventually able to join the action late , but her fire was so wild that little to no damage was done to Glasgow .
With Glasgow now exposed to fire from three ships , Howe decided to break off the battle in order to avoid being boarded , and made sail for Newport . Despite extensive damage to sail and rigging , he pulled away from the pursuing fleet , which was fully laden with its captured goods . After several hours of chase , lasting into daylight , Hopkins called off the chase to avoid an encounter with the British squadron at Newport . His only prize was Glasgow 's tender , which the fleet brought to anchor in New London , Connecticut on April 8 .
= = Aftermath = =
The Glasgow suffered only four casualties , one killed and three wounded . This count demonstrated the poor quality of the Continental fleet 's gunnery : all of the casualties were due to musket fire . Aboard the Cabot there were four killed and seven wounded , and the Alfred had six each killed and wounded ; Andrew Doria 's drummer was also wounded .
Although Continental Congress President John Hancock praised Hopkins for the fleet 's performance , its failure to capture the Glasgow gave opponents of the Navy in and out of Congress opportunities for criticism . Nicholas Biddle wrote of the action , " A more imprudent , ill @-@ conducted affair never happened . " Abraham Whipple , captain of the Columbus , endured rumors and accusations of cowardice for a time , but eventually asked for a court martial to clear his name . Held on May 6 by a panel consisting of officers who had been on the cruise , he was cleared of cowardice , although he was also criticized for errors of judgment . John Hazard , captain of the Providence , was not so fortunate . Charged with a variety of offenses by his subordinate officers , including neglect of duty during the Glasgow action , he was convicted by court martial and forced to surrender his commission .
Commodore Hopkins came under scrutiny from Congress over matters unrelated to this action . He had violated his written orders in sailing to Nassau instead of Virginia and the Carolinas , and he had distributed the goods taken during the cruise to Connecticut and Rhode Island without consulting Congress . He was censured for these transgressions , and dismissed from the Navy in January 1778 after further controversies , including the fleet 's failure to sail again ( a number of its ships suffered from crew shortages , and also became trapped at Providence , Rhode Island by the British occupation of Newport late in 1776 ) .
Glasgow , suffering from the battle and having dumped her dispatches , returned to Newport . She was found to be in bad enough shape that she was made as seaworthy as possible and sent to Portsmouth for repairs . Her mission was reassigned to Nautilus , another ship in the Newport squadron .
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= Celebration ( Madonna album ) =
Celebration is the third greatest hits album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna , and the final release under her contract with Warner Bros. Records , her record company since 1982 . The release follows her two previous greatest hits albums , The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) and GHV2 ( 2001 ) . The compilation was released in many different formats including a one @-@ disc edition and a deluxe double disc . A compilation DVD , entitled Celebration : The Video Collection , was released to accompany the audio versions . The album includes three new tracks , the title track which is included on all versions , " Revolver " which is included on the deluxe editions and " It 's So Cool " which is included as a bonus track on some of the iTunes Store deluxe digital versions . A fourth track , " Broken " , was recorded for the album but not used ; eventually it was released in 2012 as a limited edition promotional vinyl single for fanclub members .
Celebration was appreciated by contemporary critics who noted the vastness of Madonna 's back @-@ catalogue . The album debuted at the top of the charts in Belgium , Canada , Ireland , Italy , Mexico and the United Kingdom . Madonna became tied with Elvis Presley as the solo artist with the most number @-@ one albums in the United Kingdom . In the United States , it debuted at number seven in the Billboard 200 ; in other nations , it also debuted within the top ten , peaking in the top three in most of them . The title track was released as the first single of the album . It became Madonna 's 40th number @-@ one song on Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Songs chart . " Revolver " was released as the second single from the album in some territories , but did not achieve significant commercial success .
= = Background = =
On March 18 , 2009 , Madonna 's publicist Liz Rosenberg announced the plans for the release of a greatest hits package by September . She also added that Madonna had plans to go to the studio and record new material for the album . The next day , Madonna 's manager , Guy Oseary , asked fans on his Twitter for input regarding the track listing of the greatest hits album . It was later confirmed that she wrote three new tracks for the album , with Paul Oakenfold being confirmed as producer for two of the new songs . Attitude magazine reported in an interview with Oakenfold that the tracks he produced with Madonna are called " Broken ( I 'm Sorry ) " and " Celebrate " . He stated that the new music is " lyrically classic Madonna with an edgy modern sound . " Her official website also confirmed the presence of the track " Revolver " , featuring rapper Lil Wayne , when they announced the final track listing for the CD and DVD on August 26 , 2009 . With The Times , Madonna shared her thoughts on the release :
The song comes first . And all of those other things that people remember , the imagistic things , are secondary , or certainly not as important . But I think I ’ ve become pretty good at sussing out when people 's opinions of my work are coming from what they think of me personally . You just have to do your thing and then let it go out into the world . The rest , you 're not in control .
On July 22 , 2009 , Warner Bros. Records officially announced the release date as September 28 , 2009 and confirmed the name of the album as Celebration through Madonna 's official website . The compilation was available in a case of two , as well as a single CD . The songs on the album were re @-@ mastered and chosen by Madonna and her fans , while covering the whole expanse of her career . A DVD titled Celebration : The Video Collection was released which included several music videos of Madonna that have never appeared on a DVD before . It includes the completed video of the single " Celebration " . The cover for Celebration was created by street pop artist Mr. Brainwash who is best known for " throwing modern cultural icons into a blender and turning it up to eleven " . Celebration was made available for pre @-@ order on iTunes Store on September 1 , 2009 , to coincide with the music video release of " Celebration " . The standard ( 1 disc ) and deluxe editions ( 2 discs ) are available , as well as an iTunes exclusive Premium Edition which includes each track available on the 2 @-@ Disc Edition , as well as a new track entitled " It 's So Cool " , and thirty MP4 music videos .
= = Critical reception = =
Celebration received a score of 84 / 100 at Metacritic , indicating " universal acclaim " from music critics . Sarah Crompton from The Daily Telegraph gave the collection four out of five stars and said : " Madonna 's Celebration shows just how consistently she delivers the goods , with tracks such as ' Music ' , ' Ray of Light ' , ' Frozen ' and ' Don 't Tell Me ' " , with " only a couple of [ songs ] which feel dispensable . " Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine gave the compilation four out of five stars and commented that " functionally , what Madonna and fans are really celebrating with the release of Celebration is the hard proof that Madonna 's back catalogue is now so immense and so varied that she can release a behemoth , two @-@ disc greatest hits package that shoehorns in 36 songs and still manages to significantly short @-@ change the singer 's legacy " , though also noticing that " the album is missing songs , doesn 't always include the right ones , [ and ] seems to have been sequenced by a not particularly intuitive Genius playlist . " Tim Sendra from Allmusic praised that " the collection does a fine job of living up to the title — it 's certainly a celebration of Madonna 's career and includes some of the most celebratory and thrilling pop music ever created . " While reviewing the double @-@ disc deluxe edition version of the album , he commented : " The 34 @-@ track double @-@ disc Deluxe Edition has an easier time of it than the single @-@ disc 18 @-@ track release does . "
Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone noted that " Celebration kicks off with pure bliss and never lets up . It 's a dizzying , nonchronological spin through the Madonna years , years it makes you feel lucky to be living through . Her hitmaking genius is unmatched and [ ... ] undiminished . " , though calling the omission of " Angel " " just plain crazypants . " Lean Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly commented that the album " holds up surprisingly well " . Joey Guerra from Houston Chronicle praised the album saying " every song on Celebration defines a moment in time , a radio sing @-@ along , a twirl under the glitterball . It 's a pulsing testament to Madonna 's often @-@ overlooked pop prowess , from the scrappy electro beginnings of ' Everybody ' and ' Burning Up ' to the retro @-@ disco swirl of ' Beautiful Stranger ' and ' Hung Up ' , still a hands @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air highlight . "
Alan Woodhouse from NME was unfavorable in his review about the compilation , reckoning Madonna 's career as two distinct phases , them being her " 80s output " and her later career , or " phaze two " , summarising by saying that " Madonna clearly thinks this collection represents a celebration of her longevity [ ... ] in reality all it does it expose her more recent failings " , though Woodhouse also called it " unfair to say Madge hasn ’ t touched magic since 1990 " before naming " Hung Up " and " Ray of Light " . Douglas Wolk , from Pitchfork Media , reviewed the album in the same light , also comparing her early work with the later days , stating that " ' Hung Up ' is really the only song from the post @-@ GHV2 period that 's lodged in the American pop consciousness " , concluding with saying that " [ Madonna ] deserves a retrospective more interesting than this haphazard piece of contract @-@ filling product . " , though being positive about the opening sequence , calling that " incredibly strong , a convincing argument for her genius . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , Celebration debuted at number seven , with 72 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . It was present on the chart for a total of 12 weeks and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on November 23 , 2009 , indicating shipment of 500 @,@ 000 units . In April 2010 , the album got a boost in sales from the Glee episode titled The Power of Madonna . The album re @-@ entered the Billboard 200 at position 85 with sales of 6 @,@ 000 and a 219 % gain . In February 2012 after her appearance on the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show , the album again entered the Billboard 200 at number 24 with sales of 16 @,@ 000 copies and a 1 @,@ 341 % gain from previous week . In Canada , the album debuted at the top of the Canadian Albums Chart , with sales of 17 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia and New Zealand , Celebration debuted at numbers eight and two on the official charts , respectively . It was certified gold in both Australia and New Zealand , by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , indicating shipements of 35 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 500 copies respectively . The album also debuted at number one position on the Gfk Chart @-@ Track albums chart in Ireland , earning a platinum certification from the Irish Recorded Music Association ( IRMA ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies of the album .
In the United Kingdom , Celebration debuted at number one , selling 77 @,@ 000 copies in the first week . It became Madonna 's eleventh number @-@ one release on the UK Albums Chart , tying her with Elvis Presley as the solo act with the most number @-@ one albums in the British chart history . The album was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipment of 300 @,@ 000 copies across the United Kingdom . According to the Official Charts Company , Celebration has sold 370 @,@ 231 copies in the United Kingdom as of February 2013 . From 2009 to 2012 , the album had three separate chart runs within the top 100 of the albums chart . It re @-@ entered the chart again on March 1 , 2015 , at number 38 with sales of 2 @,@ 476 copies , following the release of her single " Living for Love " from 13th studio album , Rebel Heart . The album also reached the top of the charts in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Denmark , Germany and Italy , while in Austria , Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Finland , Netherlands , Norway , Portugal , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland the album debuted within the top ten of the official charts . In France the album debuted atop the French Compilation Albums Chart , and receiving a platinum certification from Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies . It also debuted at number one on Billboard 's European Top 100 Albums chart , topping the chart for four consecutive weeks . Celebration was certified double platinum by Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) for shipments of 120 @,@ 000 copies . In total , Celebration sold over a million copies across Europe , earning a platinum certification from the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) . In Japan , Celebration reached a peak of number three on the Oricon albums chart and was placed at number 47 on the Oricon year end rankings , selling 177 @,@ 194 copies , and earning a gold certification . In terms of units , it is estimated that Celebration has sold about four million copies worldwide .
= = Singles = =
" Celebration " was the first single from the compilation . A first preview of the song was added on the performance for " Holiday " on her 2009 leg of the Sticky & Sweet Tour . It was to be released to radio stations on August 3 , 2009 . However , the single leaked on to the internet , so the date was changed to July 31 , 2009 . The digital download was also released on this date due to the leak . Remixes of the song were released to dance clubs on July 24 , 2009 . " Celebration " received mixed reviews from contemporary critics . The song reached the top of the charts in countries like Finland , Italy and Sweden , while reaching the top @-@ ten in other European nations . It became Madonna 's fifty @-@ fifth entry to the Billboard Hot 100 and her fortieth number @-@ one song on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart .
On December 11 , 2009 it was confirmed by Madonna 's official website that " Revolver " would be released as the second and final single off the album in some territories . The digital maxi single was released in many countries on December 29 , 2009 , followed by a CD maxi single in the US in late January 2010 and a 12 " vinyl single in early February 2010 . Contemporary critics gave a mixed review of the song . Some praised the chorus line " My love 's a revolver " while others felt that it was underwhelming and not on par with Madonna 's previous songs . " Revolver " has charted in the lower regions of the official charts of Belgium , Canada , Finland and the United Kingdom while reaching number four on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart of United States . This was Madonna 's last single of the 2000s .
The track , " It 's So Cool " , debuted on the official charts of Finland , Italy and Sweden at numbers 8 , 20 and 30 respectively , due to digital downloads . " Broken " , the fourth song recorded for the album but not used , was written and produced by Madonna and Oakenfold , with additional writing from Ian Green and Ciaran Gribbin . " Broken " was given to Madonna 's fanclub Icon 's official members as a free 12 " vinyl , as a part of their membership . It was eventually given to members in late 2012 .
= = Track listings = =
= = Formats = =
CD Standard edition – 18 tracks edition , this version contains the album edit version of " Frozen " and not the full album version which is on the deluxe edition
CD Deluxe edition – 36 tracks edition on two discs
LP – 36 tracks edition on four LP vinyl discs
Digital download – 18 tracks edition , this version contains the album edit version of " Frozen " and not the full album version which is on the deluxe edition
Digital Deluxe – 37 tracks edition with bonus remix of " Celebration "
iTunes Store Deluxe edition – 38 tracks edition including a bonus track remix of " Celebration " and " It 's So Cool "
iTunes Deluxe video edition – 68 tracks edition , including 38 audio tracks ( including bonus material : " It 's So Cool " and a remix of " Celebration " ) and 30 music videos
Amazon Deluxe edition – 38 tracks edition with two bonus remixes of " Celebration "
DVD – 47 music videos on two DVD discs
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Uncanny Stories ( magazine ) =
Uncanny Stories was a pulp magazine which published a single issue , dated April 1941 . It was published by Abraham and Martin Goodman , who were better known for " weird @-@ menace " pulp magazines that included much more sex in the fiction than was usual in science fiction of that era . The Goodmans published Marvel Science Stories from 1938 to 1941 , and Uncanny Stories appeared just as Marvel Science Stories ceased publication , perhaps in order to use up the material in inventory acquired by Marvel Science Stories . The fiction was poor quality ; the lead story , Ray Cummings ' " Coming of the Giant Germs " , has been described as " one of his most appalling stories " .
= = Publication history = =
Although science fiction had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . After 1931 , when Miracle Science and Fantasy Stories was launched , no new science fiction magazines appeared until August1938 , when Abraham and Martin Goodman , two brothers who owned a publishing company with multiple imprints , launched Marvel Science Stories . The Goodmans ' magazines included several " weird @-@ menace " pulps — a genre known for incorporating sex and sadism , with story lines that placed women in danger , usually because of a threat that appeared to be supernatural but was ultimately revealed to be the work of a human villain . The influence of the " sex and sadism " side of the Goodman 's portfolio of magazines was apparent in Marvel Science Stories : it was not strictly a weird @-@ menace pulp , but authors were sometimes asked to add more sex to their stories than was usual in the science fiction field at the time .
Marvel Science Stories ceased publication with its April 1941 issue , and the Goodmans brought out the only issue of Uncanny Stories the same month . Like Marvel Science Stories , it was edited by Robert O. Erisman . The quality of the fiction was very poor — sf historian Mike Ashley comments that Ray Cummings ' lead story , " Coming of the Giant Germs " , was " one of his most appalling stories " . Ashley speculates that the only reason the magazine was issued was to use up some remaining material that had been acquired for Marvel Science Stories , perhaps because at this time the Goodmans were beginning to focus much more on the growing comic @-@ book market .
In addition to Ray Cummings , contributors included David H. Keller , F.A. Kummer , R. DeWitt Miller , and Denis Plimmer . The story titles were not as strongly oriented towards sex as some of the other Goodman publications , which included titles such as " Blood @-@ Brides of the Lusting Corpses " , but Erisman did spice up some of the titles : for example , he changed Keller 's story " The Chestnut Mare " to " Speed Will Be My Bride " .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Uncanny Stories was in pulp format , 112 pages , and priced at 15 cents ; the only issue was numbered volume 1 , number 1 . The publisher was Manvis Publications of New York ; the editor was Robert O. Erisman .
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= Paper Dove =
" ' Paper Dove " is the twenty @-@ second and final episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on May 16 , 1997 . The episode was written by Ted Mann and Walon Green , and directed by Thomas J. Wright . " Paper Dove " featured guest appearances by Barbara Williams and Mike Starr .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) takes his family for holiday in Virginia , not realizing that he has been followed by an old stalker who is manipulating a local serial killer to lure Black into action . " Paper Dove " is a two @-@ part episode , with the story continuing in the second season opening episode " The Beginning and the End " .
" Paper Dove " features the first appearances of Maxine Miller and Ken Pogue , who would become minor recurring guests in the series ' third season ; it also marks the first on @-@ screen appearance of the " Polaroid Man " , credited as " The Figure " , who had been an unseen presence since " Pilot " . The episode 's central antagonist is based on a composite of several real life murders , including Edmund Kemper and Jeffrey Dahmer .
= = Plot = =
Millennium Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) travels with his wife Catherine ( Megan Gallagher ) and daughter Jordan ( Brittany Tiplady ) to visit Catherine 's parents in Arlington County , Virginia . Also present are Catherine 's sister Dawn ( Barbara Williams and her husband Gil . In Maryland , Henry Dion ( Mike Starr ) follows a woman home and murders her ; he is later visited by a strange man hiding his face behind dark glasses — it becomes apparent that this is the man who has been sending Black threatening polaroid pictures . Dion thanks the man ( Paul Raskin ) for finding the victim for him , but is chided for not committing the murder while Black was in the area . Dion takes the corpse into the woods to bury it , all the while speaking to it as though in conversation .
Catherine 's father , Tom Miller ( Ken Pogue ) , tells Black about two friends of his whose son was convicted of killing his wife . The father , C. R. Hunziger , is dying of pancreatic cancer , but maintains his distance from his son over the crime ; his wife Adele , however , still believes her son to be innocent . Black visits the terminal Hunziger , hoping to change his mind , but the elderly man holds his position . Adele gives Black a folder full of documents relating to the case , which Black reviews . His knowledge of offender profiling leads him to believe that the convicted man , Malcom , is innocent ; however the conviction was secured with a substantial level of physical evidence .
Black also learns of the murder in Maryland , and connects it to the killings of four other women in the locale . Ignoring the protestations of his wife , Black leaves to investigate the parkland where one of the earlier bodies was uncovered . A park ranger discusses that case with him , telling Black that the body was found by an unidentified rambler . Black believes this man was the murderer . Elsewhere , Dion returns home , where he is belittled and emasculated by his overbearing mother , Marie ( Linda Sorensen ) .
Black and several former colleagues of his from the Federal Bureau of Investigation decide to taunt the killer into coming forward , giving a press release describing him as cowardly . A furious Dion calls the police to rebut this , betraying his identity . Police arrive at his home to arrest him , finding him sitting , covered in blood , on the kitchen floor beside his mother 's body . He is apprehended , clearing Malcom Hunziger of wrongdoing . Black and his family return home to Seattle . Black carries his daughter from the airport to their car , while Catherine waits to collect their luggage . The man who had helped Dion stands to one side , watching the family . As Black returns to help Catherine with the suitcases , she has disappeared , leaving behind only an origami dove given to her by her mother .
= = Production = =
" Paper Dove " was written by Ted Mann and Walon Green , and directed by Thomas J. Wright . Wright had previously directed four episodes of the first season — " Dead Letters " , " The Wild and the Innocent " , " The Thin White Line " and " Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " — and would go on to direct a further twenty @-@ one episodes over the series ' run . Wright would also go on to direct " Millennium " , the series ' crossover episode with its sister show The X @-@ Files . " Paper Dove " was Mann 's last script for the series , having penned three others earlier in the season ; the episode was also the only one to have been written by Green .
The character of Henry Dion appears to be a composite of several real life serial killers . His fondness for conversing with his victims ' bodies and the gregarious demeanour shown during this seems to be based on Milwaukee @-@ based murderer Jeffrey Dahmer , who would also , like Dion , document his victims photographically . The habit of photographing victims , and the notion of killing women to use them as props , stems from killer Henri Nadeau , who murdered several women in order to use them as mannequins for his photography . The use of an overbearing matriarchal figure as a stressor harkens to Edmund Kemper , who was driven to kill young women by his hatred of his mother , who he eventually murdered before turning himself in ; both Dion and Kemper cut their mother 's vocal folds from their throats after killing them .
Maxine Miller and Ken Pogue both make their first appearances as Catherine Black 's parents Justine and Tom Miller in this episode ; the pair would later reprise their respective roles in several episodes of the third season , including " The Innocents " , " Exegesis " , and " Seven and One " . The character played by Paul Raskin , credited here as " The Figure " , would return in the second season opening episode " The Beginning and the End " , which continues the storyline from " Paper Dove " , although the character would by then be credited as " Polaroid Man " , played instead by Doug Hutchison . The character had been a presence in the series since " Pilot " , but had previously only been alluded to without being seen .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Paper Dove " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on May 16 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 6 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 6 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 6 @.@ 4 million households , and left the episode the sixty @-@ third most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a B + , calling it " a damned odd episode to end a season on , if still an effective one " . VanDerWerff felt that " Paper Dove " represented " the deepest the show has pulled us into a killer ’ s subconscious " , making it " one of the most bone @-@ chilling episodes Millennium has come up with so far " . VanDerWerff compared elements of the episode , most notably the relationship between the character of Henry Dion and his mother , to the works of filmmaker David Lynch , particularly his television series Twin Peaks . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , noting that it " caps off the series sensationally " . Gibron also praised Starr 's guest role , describing it as " a stellar interpretation " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Paper Dove " four stars out of five . Shearman felt that the series found a comfortable " tonal nuance " in the episode that worked for it , but felt that by the end of the first season none of the supporting cast had been developed well enough to play against Henriksen 's Frank Black , noting " there are half a dozen actors who could be termed regulars ... but without exception they remain functional ciphers " .
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= Dunnottar Castle =
Dunnottar Castle ( Scottish Gaelic : Dùn Fhoithear , " fort on the shelving slope " ) is a ruined medieval fortress located upon a rocky headland on the north @-@ east coast of Scotland , about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Stonehaven . The surviving buildings are largely of the 15th and 16th centuries , but the site is believed to have been fortified in the Early Middle Ages . Dunnottar has played a prominent role in the history of Scotland through to the 18th @-@ century Jacobite risings because of its strategic location and defensive strength . Dunnottar is best known as the place where the Honours of Scotland , the Scottish crown jewels , were hidden from Oliver Cromwell 's invading army in the 17th century . The property of the Keiths from the 14th century , and the seat of the Earl Marischal , Dunnottar declined after the last Earl forfeited his titles by taking part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715 . The castle was restored in the 20th century and is now open to the public .
The ruins of the castle are spread over 1 @.@ 4 hectares ( 3 @.@ 5 acres ) , surrounded by steep cliffs that drop to the North Sea , 50 metres ( 160 ft ) below . A narrow strip of land joins the headland to the mainland , along which a steep path leads up to the gatehouse . The various buildings within the castle include the 14th @-@ century tower house as well as the 16th @-@ century palace . Dunnottar Castle is a scheduled monument , and twelve structures on the site are listed buildings .
= = History = =
= = = Early Middle Ages = = =
A chapel at Dunnottar is said to have been founded by St Ninian in the 5th century , although it is not clear when the site was first fortified , but in any case the legend is late and highly implausible . Possibly the earliest written reference to the site is found in the Annals of Ulster which record two sieges of " Dún Foither " in 681 and 694 . The earlier event has been interpreted as an attack by Brude , the Pictish king of Fortriu , to extend his power over the north @-@ east coast of Scotland . The Scottish Chronicle records that King Domnall II , the first ruler to be called rí Alban ( King of Alba ) , was killed at Dunnottar during an attack by Vikings in 900 . King Aethelstan of Wessex led a force into Scotland in 934 , and raided as far north as Dunnottar according to the account of Symeon of Durham . W. D. Simpson speculated that a motte might lie under the present caste , but excavations in the 1980s failed to uncover substantive evidence of early medieval fortification . The discovery of a group of Pictish stones at Dunnicaer , a nearby sea stack , has prompted speculation that " Dún Foither " was actually located on the adjacent headland of Bowduns , 0 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 31 mi ) to the north .
= = = Later Middle Ages = = =
During the reign of King William the Lion ( ruled 1165 – 1214 ) Dunnottar was a center of local administration for The Mearns . The castle is named in the Roman de Fergus , an early 13th @-@ century Arthurian romance , in which the hero Fergus must travel to Dunnottar to retrieve a magic shield . In May 1276 a church on the site was consecrated by William Wishart , Bishop of St Andrews . The poet Blind Harry relates that William Wallace captured Dunnottar from the English in 1297 , during the Wars of Scottish Independence . He is said to have imprisoned 4 @,@ 000 defeated English soldiers in the church and burned them alive . In 1336 Edward III of England ordered William Sinclair , 8th Baron of Roslin , to sail eight ships to the partially ruined Dunnottar for the purpose of rebuilding and fortifying the site as a forward resupply base for his northern campaign . Sinclair took with him 160 soldiers , horses , and a corps of masons and carpenters . Edward himself visited in July , but the English efforts were undone before the end of the year when the Scottish Regent Sir Andrew Murray led a force that captured and again destroyed the defences of Dunnottar .
In the 14th century Dunnottar was granted to William de Moravia , 5th Earl of Sutherland ( d.1370 ) , and in 1346 a licence to crenellate was issued by David II . Around 1359 William Keith , Marischal of Scotland , married Margaret Fraser , niece of Robert the Bruce , and was granted the barony of Dunnottar at this time . Keith then gave the lands of Dunnottar to his daughter Christian and son @-@ in @-@ law William Lindsay of Byres , but in 1392 an excambion ( exchange ) was agreed whereby Keith regained Dunnottar and Lindsay took lands in Fife . William Keith completed construction of the tower house at Dunnottar , but was excommunicated for building on the consecrated ground associated with the parish church . Keith had provided a new parish church closer to Stonehaven , but was forced to write to the Pope , Benedict XIII , who issued a bull in 1395 lifting the excommunication . William Keith 's descendents were created Earls Marischal in the mid 15th century , and they held Dunottar until the 18th century .
= = = 16th century rebuilding = = =
Through the 16th century the Keiths improved and expanded their principal seats : at Dunnottar and also at Keith Marischal in East Lothian . James IV visited Dunnottar in 1504 , and in 1531 James V exempted the Earl 's men from military service on the grounds that Dunnottar was one of the " principall strenthis of our realme " . Mary , Queen of Scots , visited in 1562 after the Battle of Corrichie , and returned in 1564 . James VI stayed for 10 days in 1580 , as part of a progress through Fife and Angus , during which a meeting of the Privy Council was convened at Dunnottar . During a rebellion of Catholic nobles in 1592 , Dunnottar was captured by a Captain Carr on behalf of the Earl of Huntly , but was restored to Lord Marischal just a few weeks later .
In 1581 George Keith succeeded as 5th Earl Marischal , and began a large scale reconstruction that saw the medieval fortress converted into a more comfortable home . The founder of Marischal College in Aberdeen , the 5th Earl valued Dunnottar as much for its dramatic situation as for its security . A " palace " comprising a series of ranges around a quadrangle was built on the north @-@ eastern cliffs , creating luxurious living quarters with sea views . The 13th @-@ century chapel was restored and incorporated into the quadrangle . An impressive stone gatehouse was constructed , now known as Benholm 's Lodging , featuring numerous gun ports facing the approach . Although impressive , these are likely to have been fashionable embellishments rather than genuine defensive features .
= = = Civil wars = = =
In 1639 William Keith , 7th Earl Marischal , came out in support of the Covenanters , a Presbyterian movement who opposed the established Episcopal Church and the changes which Charles I was attempting to impose . With James Graham , 1st Marquess of Montrose , he marched against the Catholic James Gordon , 2nd Viscount Aboyne , Earl of Huntly , and defeated an attempt by the Royalists to seize Stonehaven . However , when Montrose changed sides to the Royalists and marched north , Marischal remained in Dunnottar , even when given command of the area by Parliament , and even when Montrose burned Stonehaven .
Marischal then joined with the Engager faction , who had made a deal with the king , and led a troop of horse to the Battle of Preston ( 1648 ) in support of the royalists . Following the execution of Charles I in 1649 , the Engagers gave their allegiance to his son and heir : Charles II was proclaimed king , arriving in Scotland in June 1650 . He visited Dunnottar in July 1650 , but his presence in Scotland prompted Oliver Cromwell to lead a force into Scotland , defeating the Scots at Dunbar in September 1650 .
= = = The Honours of Scotland = = =
Charles II was crowned at Scone Palace on 1 January 1651 , at which the Honours of Scotland ( the regalia of crown , sword and sceptre ) were used . However , with Cromwell 's troops in Lothian , the honours could not be returned to Edinburgh . The Earl Marischal , as Marischal of Scotland , had formal responsibility for the honours , and in June the Privy Council duly decided to place them at Dunnottar . They were brought to the castle by Katherine Drummond , hidden in sacks of wool . Sir George Ogilvie ( or Ogilvy ) of Barras was appointed lieutenant @-@ governor of the castle , and given responsibility for its defence .
In November 1651 Cromwell 's troops called on Ogilvie to surrender , but he refused . During the subsequent blockade of the castle , the removal of the Honours of Scotland was planned by Elizabeth Douglas , wife of Sir George Ogilvie , and Christian Fletcher , wife of James Granger , minister of Kinneff Parish Church . The king 's papers were first removed from the castle by Anne Lindsay , a kinswoman of Elizabeth Douglas , who walked through the besieging force with the papers sewn into her clothes . Two stories exist regarding the removal of the honours themselves . Fletcher stated in 1664 that over the course of three visits to the castle in February and March 1652 , she carried away the crown , sceptre , sword and sword @-@ case hidden amongst sacks of goods . Another account , given in the 18th century by a tutor to the Earl Marischal , records that the honours were lowered from the castle onto the beach , where they were collected by Fletcher 's servant and carried off in a creel ( basket ) of seaweed . Having smuggled the honours from the castle , Fletcher and her husband buried them under the floor of the Old Kirk at Kinneff .
Meanwhile , by May 1652 the commander of the blockade , Colonel Thomas Morgan , had taken delivery of the artillery necessary for the reduction of Dunnottar . Ogilvie surrendered on 24 May , on condition that the garrison could go free . Finding the honours gone , the Cromwellians imprisoned Ogilvie and his wife in the castle until the following year , when a false story was put about suggesting that the honours had been taken overseas . Much of the castle property was removed , including twenty @-@ one brass cannons , and Marischal was required to sell further lands and possessions to pay fines imposed by Cromwell 's government .
At the Restoration of Charles II in 1660 , the honours were removed from Kinneff Church and returned to the king . Ogilvie quarrelled with Marischal 's mother over who would take credit for saving the honours , though he was eventually rewarded with a baronetcy . Fletcher was awarded 2 @,@ 000 merks by Parliament but the sum was never paid .
= = = Whigs and Jacobites = = =
Religious and political conflicts continued to be played out at Dunnottar through the 17th and early 18th centuries . In 1685 , during the rebellion of the Earl of Argyll against the new king James VII , 167 Covenanters were seized and held in a cellar at Dunnottar . The prisoners included 122 men and 45 women associated with the Whigs , an anti @-@ Royalist group within the Covenanter movement , and had refused to take an oath of allegiance to the new king . The Whigs were imprisoned from 24 May until late July . A group of 25 escaped , although two of these were killed in a fall from the cliffs , and another 15 were recaptured . Five prisoners died in the vault , and 37 of the Whigs were released after taking the oath of allegiance . The remaining prisoners were transported to Perth Amboy , New Jersey , as part of a colonisation scheme devised by George Scot of Pitlochie . Many , like Scot himself , died on the voyage . The cellar , located beneath the " King 's Bedroom " in the 16th @-@ century castle buildings , has since become known as the " Whigs ' Vault " .
Both the Jacobites ( supporters of the exiled Stuarts ) and the Hanoverians ( supporters of George I and his descendents ) used Dunnottar Castle . In 1689 during Viscount Dundee 's campaign in support of the deposed James VII , the castle was garrisoned for William and Mary with Lord Marischal appointed captain . Seventeen suspected Jacobites from Aberdeen were seized and held in the fortress for around three weeks , including George Liddell , professor of mathematics at Marischal College . In the Jacobite Rising of 1715 George Keith , 10th Earl Marischal , took an active role with the rebels , leading cavalry at the Battle of Sheriffmuir . After the subsequent abandonment of the rising Lord Marischal fled to the Continent , eventually becoming French ambassador for Frederick the Great of Prussia . Meanwhile , in 1716 , his titles and estates including Dunnottar were declared forfeit to the crown .
= = = Later history = = =
The seized estates of the Earl Marischal were purchased in 1720 for £ 41 @,@ 172 , by the York Buildings Company who dismantled much of the castle . In 1761 the Earl briefly returned to Scotland and bought back Dunnottar only to sell it five years later to Alexander Keith , an Edinburgh lawyer who served as Knight Marischal of Scotland . Dunnottar was inherited in 1852 by Sir Patrick Keith @-@ Murray of Ochtertyre , who in turn sold it in July 1873 to Major Alexander Innes of Cowie and Raemoir for about £ 80 @,@ 000 . It was purchased by Weetman Pearson , 1st Viscount Cowdray , in 1925 after which his wife embarked on a programme of repairs . Since that time the castle has remained in the family , and has been open to the public , attracting 52 @,@ 500 visitors in 2009 .
Dunnottar Castle , and the headland on which is stands , was designated as a scheduled monument in 1970 . In 1972 twelve of the structures at Dunnottar were listed . Three buildings are listed at category A as being of " national importance " : the keep ; the entrance gateway ; and Benholm 's Lodging . The remaining listings are at category B as being of " regional importance " . The Hon. Charles Anthony Pearson , the younger son of the 3rd Viscount Cowdray , currently owns and runs Dunnottar Castle which is part of the 210 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 52 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ) Dunecht Estates . Portions of the 1990 film Hamlet , starring Mel Gibson and Glenn Close , were shot there .
= = Description = =
Dunnottar 's strategic location allowed its owners to control the coastal terrace between the North Sea cliffs and the hills of the Mounth , 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) inland , which enabled access to and from the north @-@ east of Scotland . The site is accessed via a steep , 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) footpath ( with modern staircases ) from a car park on the coastal road , or via a 3 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) cliff @-@ top path from Stonehaven . Dunnottar 's several buildings , put up between the 13th and 17th centuries , are arranged across a headland covering around 1 @.@ 4 hectares ( 3 @.@ 5 acres ) . The dominant building , viewed from the land approach , is the 14th @-@ century keep or tower house . The other principal buildings are the gatehouse ; the chapel ; and the 16th @-@ century " palace " which incorporates the " Whigs ' Vault " .
= = = Defences = = =
The approach to the castle is overlooked by outworks on the " Fiddle Head " , a promontory on the western side of the headland . The entrance is through the well @-@ defended main gate , set in a curtain wall which entirely blocks a cleft in the rocky cliffs . The gate has a portcullis and has been partly blocked up . Alongside the main gate is the 16th @-@ century Benholm 's Lodging , a five @-@ storey building cut into the rock , which incorporated a prison with apartments above . Three tiers of gun ports face outwards from the lower floors of Benholm 's Lodging , while inside the main gate , a group of four gun ports face the entrance . The entrance passage then turns sharply to the left , running underground through two tunnels to emerge near the tower house . Simpson contends that these defences are " without exception the strongest in Scotland " , although later writers have doubted the effectiveness of the gun ports . Cruden notes that the alignment of the gun ports in Benholm 's Lodging , facing across the approach rather than along , means that they are of limited efficiency . The practicality of the gun ports facing the entrance has also been questioned , though an inventory of 1612 records that four brass cannons were placed here .
A second access to the castle leads up from a rocky cove , the aperture to a marine cave on the northern side of the Dunnottar cliffs into which a small boat could be brought . From here a steep path leads to the well @-@ fortified postern gate on the cliff top , which in turn offers access to the castle via the Water Gate in the palace . Artillery defences , taking the form of earthworks , surround the north @-@ west corner of the castle , facing inland , and the south @-@ east , facing seaward . A small sentry box or guard house stands by the eastern battery , overlooking the coast .
= = = Tower house and surrounding buildings = = =
The late 14th @-@ century tower house has a stone @-@ vaulted basement , and originally had three further storeys and a garret above . Measuring 12 by 11 metres ( 39 by 36 ft ) , the tower house stood 15 metres ( 49 ft ) high to its gable . The principal rooms included a great hall and a private chamber for the lord , with bedrooms upstairs . Beside the tower house is a storehouse , and a blacksmith 's forge with a large chimney . A stable block is ranged along the southern edge of the headland . Nearby is Waterton 's Lodging , also known as the Priest 's House , built around 1574 , possibly for the use of William Keith ( died 1580 ) , son of the 4th Earl Marischal . This small self @-@ contained house includes a hall and kitchen at ground level , with private chambers above , and has a projecting spiral stair on the north side . It is named for Thomas Forbes of Waterton , an attendant of the 7th Earl .
= = = The palace = = =
The palace , to the north @-@ east of the headland , was built in the late 16th century and early to mid @-@ 17th century . It comprises three main wings set out around a quadrangle , and for the most part is probably the work of the 5th Earl Marischal who succeeded in 1581 . It provided extensive and comfortable accommodation to replace the rooms in the tower house . In its long , low design it has been compared to contemporary English buildings , in contrast to the Scottish tradition of taller towers still prevalent in the 16th century . Seven identical lodgings are arranged along the west range , each opening onto the quadrangle and including windows and fireplace . Above the lodgings the west range comprised a 35 @-@ metre ( 115 ft ) gallery . Now roofless , the gallery originally had an elaborate oak ceiling , and on display was a Roman tablet taken from the Antonine Wall . At the north end of the gallery was a drawing room linked to the north range . The gallery could also be accessed from the Silver House to the south , which incorporated a broad stairway with a treasury above .
The basement of the north range incorporates kitchens and stores , with a dining room and great chamber above . At ground floor level is the Water Gate , between the north and west ranges , which gives access to the postern on the northern cliffs . The east and north ranges are linked via a rectangular stair . The east range has a larder , brewhouse and bakery at ground level , with a suite of apartments for the Countess above . A north @-@ east wing contains the Earl 's apartments , and includes the " King 's Bedroom " in which Charles II stayed . In this room is a carved stone inscribed with the arms of the 7th Earl and his wife , and the date 1654 . Below these rooms is the Whigs ' Vault , a cellar measuring 16 by 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 52 by 15 ft ) . This cellar , in which the Covenanters were held in 1685 , has a large eastern window , as well as a lower vault accessed via a trap @-@ door in the floor . Of the chambers in the palace , only the dining room and the Silver House remain roofed , having been restored in the 1920s . The central area contains a circular cistern or fish pond , 16 metres ( 52 ft ) across and 7 @.@ 6 metres ( 25 ft ) deep , and a bowling green is located to the west . At the south @-@ east corner of the quadrangle is the chapel , consecrated in 1276 and largely rebuilt in the 16th century . Medieval walling and two 13th @-@ century windows remain , and there is a graveyard to the south .
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= Raid on Griessie =
The Raid on Griessie was a British attack on the Dutch port of Griessie ( later renamed Gresik ) on Java in the Dutch East Indies in December 1807 during the Napoleonic Wars . The raid was the final action in a series of engagements fought by the British squadron based in the Indian Ocean against the Dutch naval forces in Java , and it completed the destruction of the Dutch squadron with the scuttling of three ships of the line , the last Dutch warships in the region . The British squadron — under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Edward Pellew — sought to eliminate the Dutch in an effort to safeguard the trade route with China , which ran through the Straits of Malacca and were in range of Dutch raiders operating from the principal Javan port of Batavia . In the summer of 1806 , British frigates reconnoitred Javan waters and captured two Dutch frigates , encouraging Pellew to lead a major attack on Batavia that destroyed the last Dutch frigate and several smaller warships . Prior to the Batavia raid however , Dutch Rear @-@ Admiral Hartsinck had ordered his ships of the line to sail eastwards , where they took shelter at Griessie , near Sourabaya .
On the morning of 5 December 1807 , a second raiding squadron under Pellew appeared off Griessie and demanded that the Dutch squadron in the harbour surrender . The Dutch commander — Captain Cowell — refused , and seized the boat party that had carried the message . Pellew responded by advancing up the river and exchanging fire with a Dutch gun battery on Madura Island , at which point the governor in Surabaya overruled Captain Cowell , released the seized boat party and agreed to surrender the ships at anchor in Gresik harbour . By the time Pellew reached the anchorage , however , Cowell had scuttled all of the ships in shallow water , and Pellew was only able to set the wreckage on fire . Landing shore parties , the British destroyed all military supplies in the town and demolished the battery on Madura . With the destruction of the force in Griessie , the last of the Dutch naval forces in the Pacific were eliminated . British forces returned to the region in 1810 with a large scale expeditionary force that successfully invaded and captured Java in 1811 , temporary removing the last Dutch colony east of Africa .
= = Background = =
In 1804 , at the start of the Napoleonic Wars , a powerful French squadron operating from Batavia harbour on the Dutch island colony of Java attacked a large and valuable British merchant convoy sailing from China near the Straits of Malacca in the Battle of Pulo Aura . The French attack was a failure , but the threat posed to British trade passing through the Strait of Malacca by French or Dutch warships had been clearly demonstrated . Determined to eliminate this threat , the commander of Royal Navy forces in the Indian Ocean — Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Edward Pellew — ordered frigates to reconnoitre Dutch naval activity in the East Indies during the summer of 1806 . The Dutch maintained a small squadron in the region under Rear @-@ Admiral Hartsinck , principally intended to operate against pirates , consisting of three 68 @-@ gun ships of the line , three frigates and a number of smaller vessels . Despite the obsolete nature of many of these ships , they nevertheless constituted a threat to British trade and Pellew 's frigates raided Dutch harbours and merchant shipping extensively during their patrols .
At the Action of 26 July 1806 , a Dutch convoy sailing along the southern coast of Celebes was attacked and defeated by one of Pellew 's reconnaissance frigates , HMS Greyhound . Among the captured ships was the Dutch frigate Pallas and two large merchant vessels . Three months later , the frigate HMS Caroline entered Batavia harbour itself , seizing the Dutch frigate Maria Riggersbergen at the Action of 18 October 1806 . These successes encouraged Pellew to conduct a larger scale operation , launching a major Raid on Batavia harbour on 27 November 1806 . As his large squadron sailed into the bay , the surviving Dutch ships were driven on shore to avoid capture , boarding parties under Admiral Pellew 's son Captain Fleetwood Pellew completing the destruction by setting the wrecks on fire .
A number of vessels , including all of the Dutch ships of the line , had escaped the raid . Hartsinck had sought to divide his forces shortly before Pellew 's attack and consequently sent a number of vessels eastwards along the Javan coast under an American @-@ born Dutch officer named Captain Cowell . Cowell 's force eventually sheltered in a protected anchorage at the town of Griessie near Sourabaya , 570 mi ( 500 nmi ; 920 km ) to the west of Batavia . There the squadron rapidly deteriorated so that one ship of the line — Kortenaar — had to be broken down into a sheer hulk and two others — Pluto and Revolutie — were disarmed , their cannon transferred into batteries on shore .
Admiral Pellew was unable to return to Java early in 1807 , as his ships were dispersed on separate operations across the Indian Ocean , some deploying as far west as the Red Sea . However , during the summer responsibility for the blockade of the French island bases of Île Bonaparte and Isle de France ( now Mauritius ) passed from Pellew to Rear @-@ Admiral Albemarle Bertie at the Cape of Good Hope and Pellew was once again free to concentrate against the remainder of the Dutch squadron . During the absence of his main force , Admiral Pellew had sent two frigates into Javan waters : Caroline under Captain Peter Rainier and HMS Psyche under his son Captain Fleetwood Pellew . These ships rapidly established the location and the state of the Dutch ships of the line , and then separated to raid Dutch merchant shipping , Psyche having considerable success at Semarang on 31 August when Captain Pellew destroyed two Dutch vessels , and captured three , including the Dutch 24 @-@ gun corvette Scipio , which the British renamed Samarang .
= = Pellew at Griessie = =
When news of the Dutch whereabouts reached Admiral Pellew at Malacca , he immediately assembled a force from nearby warships , including his flagship HMS Culloden under Commander George Bell , ship of the line HMS Powerful under Fleetwood Pellew , [ Note A ] the frigates Caroline under Commander Henry Hart and HMS Fox under Captain Archibald Cochrane and the small vessels HMS Victor under Lieutenant Thomas Groube , HMS Samarang under Lieutenant Richard Buck , HMS Seaflower under Lieutenant William Fitzwilliam Owen and HMS Jaseur under Lieutenant Thomas Langharne . The squadron was accompanied by the transport Worcester , which carried 500 men from the 30th Regiment of Foot under Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Lockhart for any landing operations that might be required .
Sailing from Malacca on 20 November , Pellew 's squadron passed along the Javan coast for 15 days , reaching Panka Point on 5 December and sending a boat under a flag of truce into Griessie with instructions for the Dutch commander to surrender his ships . Captain Cowell refused , and ordered the boat party to be arrested . He then sent a Dutch officer aboard Culloden to inform Pellew of his actions . In response , Pellew determined to attack the port and ordered that Culloden and Powerful be lightened by the removal of unnecessary stores to enable them to sail into the shallow straits . On 6 December , the British squadron moved steadily towards Griessie through the Madura Strait , coming under fire from heated cannonballs from a battery of nine cannon situated at Sambelangan on Madura Island . Returning fire with his full squadron , Pellew rapidly silenced the battery without loss or significant damage to his ships and as the squadron approached Griessie , a message from the civilian governor in Sourabaya reached Pellew , reversing Cowell 's orders , releasing the captured boat party and unconditionally surrendering the ships in the harbour .
On 7 December , Pellew agreed formal terms for the surrender of Revolutie , Pluto , Kortenaar and the Dutch East Indiaman Rustloff that were anchored in Griessie . However , when British boats entered the harbour it was discovered that Cowell had issued orders for all four ships to be scuttled , their wrecks protruding from the shallow water . Unable to remove the ships , Pellew ordered their remains burnt , while British landing parties spread throughout the town , burning the military stores and destroying the cannon that had been removed from the ship . Another landing party took possession of the remains of the battery at Sambelangan and demolished it . British operations were complete by 11 December and Pellew then ordered the squadron to withdraw and return to India .
= = Aftermath = =
The final operation of Pellew 's Java campaign , completed with minimal casualties on either side , saw the eradication of the Dutch naval presence in the East Indies for the remainder of the war . With the Dutch removed , British attention turned to the French Indian Ocean islands , which were blockaded and captured during the Mauritius campaign of 1809 – 1811 . Once Mauritius had been captured , British forces returned to the East Indies , expeditionary forces overwhelming the Dutch defenders on several islands , Java falling last . By that time , Pellew was serving in the Mediterranean and British control of the Indian Ocean was assured , the British remaining in possession of the East Indies until they were returned to the Netherlands following the capture of Napoleon and the Anglo @-@ Dutch Treaty of 1814 signed at the Convention of London . The East Indies were handed over in 1816 after Napoleons final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 .
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= El Hatillo Municipality , Venezuela =
El Hatillo Municipality ( Spanish : Municipio El Hatillo ) is an administrative division of the State of Miranda , Venezuela ; along with Baruta , Chacao , Libertador and Sucre , it is one of the five municipalities of Caracas , the capital of Venezuela . It is located in the southeastern area of Caracas , and in the northwestern part of the State of Miranda .
The seat of the municipal government is El Hatillo Town , founded in 1784 by Don Baltasar de León , who was instrumental in the area 's development . Although the town had its origins during the Spanish colonisation , the municipality was not established until 1991 . In 2000 – the year after a new constitution was enacted in Venezuela – some of the municipality functions were delegated to a consolidated mayor 's office called Alcaldía Mayor , which also has some authority over the other four municipalities of Caracas .
El Hatillo preserves some of its colonial architecture , including an 18th @-@ century parish church and a unique Romanian Orthodox Church . The municipality also has a rich artistic culture , with at least two important musical festivals celebrated yearly , and numerous holiday celebrations reflecting the heritage of El Hatillo . The culture , the pleasant temperature , the rural landscape , and the gastronomy of the municipality have made it a place of interest for visitors to the city , and a desirable place to live . The municipality receives a part of its income from tourism , an activity that is promoted by the government .
Although commercial areas are growing rapidly , agriculture remains a foundation of the economy in the rural areas of the southern part of El Hatillo . The business sector remains mostly underdeveloped , causing heavy employee movement in and out of the municipality – a problem that has made the transportation infrastructure of El Hatillo very congested .
= = History = =
In the 16th century , when the Spanish colonisation in the area began , El Hatillo was inhabited by the Mariches , an indigenous people possibly related to the Kalina ( Caribs ) . Cacique Tamanaco was the leader of these tribes , known for resisting the Spanish colonisation . As the colonisation developed , the indigenous inhabitants were killed ; by order of Caracas 's founder Diego de Losada , Tamanaco was also murdered .
In 1752 , Don Baltasar de León García arrived to El Hatillo from Cádiz , Spain , having just completed a prison term at La Carraca , Spain , for opposing ( with his father ) the monopoly rules of Guipuzcoana Company , which was in charge of maintaining exclusive trade between Spain and Venezuela . Don Baltasar founded El Hatillo Town , becoming one of the most significant contributors to its early development . Don Baltasar focused on making El Hatillo a strong , united and independent community , aiming to establish the area as a distinct parish from Baruta , on which El Hatillo depended . He accomplished this on June 12 , 1784 , when the governor and the bishop agreed to declare El Hatillo autonomous and under the direction of Don Baltasar , in front of 180 Canary @-@ descendant families ; this date is accepted as the foundation date of El Hatillo Town .
That same year , Don Baltasar and his brother @-@ in @-@ law donated their properties to the town , and an engineer assisted in the urban planning , which included grid streets and a parish church . The church was built to honor Santa Rosalía de Palermo , who Baltasar believed had saved him from a plague that killed his father in prison . In 1803 , at the age of 79 , Don Baltasar was unexpectedly killed in a horse accident .
In 1809 , landlord and Lieutenant Colonel Manuel Escalona achieved the separation of El Hatillo from Petare , another suburb of Caracas , making it a different Tenientazgo de Justicia – a type of administrative division at the time . On April 19 , 1810 , Escalona enjoined the town to the movement of independence under Simón Bolívar , becoming another important person in the history of the municipality .
Ana Francisca Pérez García , Don Baltasar 's wife , was a noteworthy woman in El Hatillo , attending to community children , elders and ill citizens . She donated a considerable amount of money for the construction of a hospital in Petare after the 1812 earthquake ; this hospital is currently known as the Pérez de León de Petare Hospital .
One of the most ambitious urbanisation projects in El Hatillo since its founding was the neighborhood called La Lagunita . In the 1950s and 1960s , La Lagunita S.A. constructed a " functional , futuristic and comfortable " residential zone . To encourage people to settle in the area , each parcel included a membership to Lagunita Country Club , which was officially opened in 1964 . Brazilian landscape designer Roberto Burle Marx contributed to this project , constructed on the 4 @.@ 3 million m ² hacienda that once belonged to former Venezuelan president , Eleazar López Contreras . La Lagunita has since become a wealthy neighborhood of El Hatillo .
Although El Hatillo has been independent from Petare since 1809 , it later became part of Sucre Municipality , where Petare is located . On November 19 , 1991 , Miranda 's Legislative Assembly gave El Hatillo full autonomy , making it an independent municipality ; this decision was issued in Gaceta Oficial on January 17 , 1992 . In 1993 , Mercedes Hernández de Silva was elected the first mayor of El Hatillo . Since 2000 , the Alcaldía Mayor manages some of the functions of the municipality .
= = Geography = =
El Hatillo Municipality lies at the southeast area of the city of Caracas and at the northwest corner of the State of Miranda ; it is one of the state 's 21 municipalities . El Hatillo is also within the jurisdiction of the Alcaldía Mayor , which has power over three adjacent municipalities of Miranda , and over Libertador Municipality in the Capital District . These five municipalities make up the city of Caracas . El Hatillo has a land size of 114 square kilometres ( 44 sq mi ) – the third largest municipality in the capital .
The municipality 's natural southern boundary is the Turgua range , spanning east to west and separating El Hatillo from the Baruta and Paz Castillo municipalities . Parallel to Turgua in the north is the Sabaneta range ; the Prepo stream runs between the two ranges . North of the Sabaneta range , the Prepo stream feeds into the Tusmare stream , which ends in the Guaire river .
La Guairita stream flows into the Guaire in northeastern El Hatillo . The Guaire river is the eastern limit of the municipality , separating it from Sucre and Paz Castillo in the southeastern sector of El Hatillo . La Guairita serves as the northern boundary between El Hatillo and the municipalities of Baruta and Sucre . Limiting Baruta to the west , the boundaries of the municipality follow El Volcán , Pariaguán , La Mata and other peaks until they meet Turgua range in southeastern El Hatillo .
The tallest peak in El Hatillo is Picacho de El Volcán ( Spanish for " Peak of the Volcano " ) , at 1 @,@ 490 meters ( 4 @,@ 888 ft ) above sea level , from where radio , television and telecommunication antennas serve Caracas . Despite its name , the mountain has had no recorded volcanic history . Other significant mountains in El Hatillo are Gavilán at 1 @,@ 148 metres ( 3 @,@ 766 ft ) , Topo de El Paují at 1 @,@ 245 metres ( 4 @,@ 085 ft ) and Topo de Piedras Pintadas at 1 @,@ 196 metres ( 3 @,@ 924 ft ) .
= = = Environment = = =
El Hatillo , at a higher altitude than the neighboring municipalities of Caracas , has slightly cooler weather than nearby downtown Caracas . The average temperature is between 21 and 24 degrees Celsius ( 70 – 75 ° F ) . At the highest elevations , the temperature can decrease to 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) and the atmosphere may have constant fog . The mean precipitation is 997 @.@ 3 millimeters a year ( 39 inches ) ; annual values can range from 800 to 1 @,@ 500 millimeters ( 32 in to 59 in ) . The average humidity index is 75 % ; similar to the rest of Venezuela , the rainy season is May through November , while all other months are considered the dry season . The winds are north alizé trade winds .
Concentrated near water bodies , the vegetation in most of El Hatillo is dense forests , occupying around 30 % of the surface . Smaller plants like shrubs take around 9 % and herbs occupy a similar percentage . In 1972 , the forests of El Hatillo were declared a protected zone of the metropolitan area of Caracas .
The municipality is home to a wide range of bird species , with more than two hundred registered , including sparrowhawks , eagles , falcons , and owls . Birdwatching in the area is promoted by the authorities of Miranda , who have also supported conservation of these species .
= = Demographics = =
In the 16th century , the indigenous Mariches were killed by the explorers ; when the development of El Hatillo began , Spaniards from the Canary Islands settled in the area . Families from Madeira , Portugal also immigrated to El Hatillo , working largely in agriculture in La Unión neighborhood . As of 2001 , 86 % of the inhabitants of El Hatillo were born in Venezuela ; the largest group not born in Venezuela was from Colombia with 4 @.@ 2 % of the population , followed by Spain with 2 @.@ 0 % , Italy with 1 @.@ 0 % , the United States with 1 @.@ 0 % , and Portugal with 0 @.@ 8 % .
In the 2001 National Institute of Statistics census , El Hatillo Municipality had 54 @,@ 225 inhabitants , but demographics show a rapidly rising population . With the progressive demographic increase , El Hatillo 's population is no longer exclusive to any particular ethnic group . In 2001 there were 997 births in El Hatillo , equivalent to a rate of 18 @.@ 4 births per one thousand citizens . The death rate for that same year was 2 @.@ 9 per one thousand citizens . 2001 data shows that there is an average of 21 @.@ 3 years of potential life lost . The main cause of death according to 1999 data was cancer , followed by heart disease and murder .
Data for 2000 shows that the largest age group to be 15- to 19 @-@ year @-@ olds , representing 9 @.@ 5 % of El Hatillo 's population ; for every 100 females there are 94 @.@ 2 males . The unemployment rate in 2001 was 6 @.@ 1 % , ranking fourth lowest among the twenty @-@ one municipalities in Miranda .
As of 2001 , there were 18 @,@ 878 homes in El Hatillo , of which 13 @,@ 545 were occupied ; the remaining homes were either unoccupied , occasionally used , under construction , or for sale . An average of four people made up each household . Regarding wealth , 74 @.@ 7 % of the population was above poverty level , 21 @.@ 5 % was poor , and 3 @.@ 8 % were extremely poor . According to the 2001 census , each household in the municipality received an average of 1 @,@ 316 @,@ 906 Venezuelan bolívares ( 1316 @.@ 906 bolívares fuertes ) per month , equal to US $ 1 @,@ 832 at the time , or US $ 21 @,@ 984 per year .
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Although there are no defined limits for the neighborhoods of El Hatillo , the government website divides the municipality into urban and rural . Concentrated in the northern region of the municipality , the urban neighborhoods are El Hatillo Town , El Calvario , La Lagunita , Alto Hatillo , La Boyera , Las Marías , Oripoto , Los Pomelos , Los Naranjos , Los Geranios , La Cabaña , Cerro Verde , Llano Verde , Colinas , Vista El Valle , Los Olivos , and El Cigarral . The rural localities of the municipality are located in southern El Hatillo ; these are La Unión , Corralito , Turgua , La Hoyadita , Sabaneta , La Mata , Caicaguana , and Altos de Halcón .
= = Economy = =
The economy of El Hatillo Municipality consists of three sectors : the commercial sector , which has been growing along with the population increase and is primarily represented by shopping malls and retail stores around the urban areas ; agricultural , in the southern half of the municipality and existing since the founding of El Hatillo ; and tourism , which contributes significantly to El Hatillo 's income and is promoted by the government .
El Hatillo is an accessible day visit destination for people from Caracas ; the municipality is only 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) southeast of downtown Caracas but in the mountains removed from the congested Caracas valley ; thus , development has focused on day tourism . The central town square – Plaza Bolívar – and its surroundings are well maintained , and the municipal government offers bus trips around the narrow streets for viewing the colonial architecture of the town . Handcrafted souvenirs and products are popular purchases , offered at local artisan shops , and there are numerous restaurants . There are at least three cultural centers in the municipality that attract tourists and residents to music festivals and art expositions .
To support the increasing population , numerous shopping malls have been built in the municipality . Neighborhoods like La Lagunita , Los Naranjos and El Hatillo Town now offer large scale shopping malls with multiplex movie theaters . Since the 1980s , the older typical houses of El Hatillo Town have been converted to shops and restaurants , while preserving their colonial architecture .
Employment possibilities within El Hatillo – a bedroom community of Caracas – are reduced ; businesses in the municipality are almost strictly commercial , and the economy has not expanded in other directions . Office space underdevelopment has resulted from a lack of land for large scale office construction , making it costly to locate large offices or businesses in the area . Those seeking employment in offices or larger businesses must look outside of El Hatillo , contributing to the high traffic to , from , and in El Hatillo .
= = Law and government = =
Venezuelan law specifies that municipal governments have four main functions : executive , legislative , comptroller , and planning . The executive function is managed by the mayor , who is in charge of representing the municipality 's administration . The legislative branch is represented by the Municipal Council , composed of seven councillors , charged with the deliberation of new decrees and local laws . The comptroller tasks are managed by the municipal comptroller 's office , which oversees accountancy . Finally , planning is represented by the Local Public Planning Council , which manages development projects for the municipality .
El Hatillo has had five mayors through 2014 . Mercedes Hernández de Silva was the first mayor of the municipality , serving from 1993 until 1996 . Succeeding her , Flora Aranguen was Mayor from 1996 until 2000 . That same year , Alfredo Catalán was elected mayor and reelected in 2004 . On November 23 , 2008 Myriam Do Nascimento was elected mayor . She served in that capacity until 2013 , when David Smolansky succeeded her as mayor .
The 2007 president of the Municipal Council is Leandro Pereira , supported by the political party Justice First . All but one of the seven councillors belong to political parties opposed to President Hugo Chávez 's administration . There is also a Legislative Commission , presided over by councillor Salvador Pirrone in 2007 . The commission 's job is to assist the municipality in legal matters , such as the creation of new laws and decrees .
On March 8 , 2000 – the year after a new constitution was introduced in Venezuela – it was decreed that the Metropolitan District of Caracas would be created , and that some of the powers of El Hatillo Municipality would be delegated to the Alcaldía Mayor , which would also govern the Baruta , Libertador , Sucre and Chacao municipalities . Each of the five municipalities is divided into parishes ; El Hatillo has only one , the Santa Rosalía de Palermo Parish , sometimes called Santa Rosalía de El Hatillo Parish or simply El Hatillo Parish .
In December 2006 , as a part of a constitutional reform , Chávez proposed a reorganisation of the municipal powers . Chávez mentioned his reform plans again in his January 2007 presidential inauguration , suggesting a new form of subdivision — communal cities — in which mayors and municipalities would be replaced by communal powers .
= = = Crime = = =
Relative to the other Caracas municipalities , El Hatillo has the region 's lowest crime rate . Data from 2003 shows that 53 @,@ 555 crimes occurred within the five municipalities of Caracas , but only 418 ( about 0 @.@ 78 % ) took place within El Hatillo . El Hatillo 's population is significantly lower than that of its sister municipalities ; viewing 2003 crime data relative to 2001 census data , El Hatillo had an annual rate of 7 @.@ 7 crimes for every one thousand citizens , while the average of the five Caracas municipalities was 19 @.@ 4 for every one thousand citizens . The main police force in El Hatillo is the municipal police , sometimes referred to as Poli @-@ Hatillo . Other police forces can also intervene in the municipality , including the Metropolitan Police , and the Miranda State Police .
= = Education = =
The municipality has one higher education facility – Nueva Esparta University , a 30 @,@ 000 square meters ( 323 @,@ 000 sq ft ) institution located in Los Naranjos . Nueva Esparta school was founded in 1954 , but the private university was not constructed until 1989 .
El Hatillo offers free public education , with a total of seventeen primary education schools ; eleven are public and six are private . Nineteen preschools exist : ten public and nine private . Data for secondary education is incomplete ; there are five private secondary schools in the municipality , but the number of public secondary schools is unavailable . Government data shows each educational stage separately , but an individual facility may contain preschool , primary and secondary education . The 2001 census shows enrollment of 8 @,@ 525 students during the 2000 – 2001 school year ; by the end of the school year , 8 @,@ 149 had passed .
= = Culture = =
The most significant icon in the culture of El Hatillo is Santa Rosalía de Palermo . The church adjacent to the plaza in the center block of El Hatillo Town is named after this saint , and the only parish in the municipality also carries her name . The community is largely Catholic ; local shops carry many religious handcrafted products , and the municipality is the site of the Santa Rosa de Lima Seminary , formerly San José Seminary . In El Hatillo – and throughout Venezuela – images of Jesus and Mary are part of the art and culture .
Don Baltasar de León and his wife , Ana Francisca , are remembered for founding and developing El Hatillo . Manuel Escalona is recognised for including El Hatillo in the 19th century independence movement ; as in the rest of Venezuela , Simón Bolívar is considered a hero .
= = = Heritage = = =
Santa Rosalía de Palermo – born in Palermo , Italy – is the patron saint of El Hatillo . Rosalía was recognised in 1624 when her remains were discovered in a cave , brought to the Cathedral of Palermo , and displayed through the streets of Palermo during a plague . Within three days , the plague ended ; Rosalía was credited with saving many from the plague and proclaimed patron saint of the city .
Years later , El Hatillo 's founder also believed that Santa Rosalía had protected him from an infection . During the Guipuzcoana scandal in Venezuela , Baltasar 's father , Juan Francisco de León , and his sons were held prisoners in Cádiz . Juan Francisco died as a consequence of smallpox , but Don Baltasar completed his years in prison and then moved to El Hatillo . Baltasar brought the legacy of Santa Rosalía de Palermo to El Hatillo , believing she protected him from the pestilence that killed his father in Cádiz .
Part of El Hatillo 's culture has grown around Santa Rosalía ; she is believed to be the one who takes care of the people and protects El Hatillo from any pandemic that could hit the area . Don Baltasar 's most evident inclusion of Rosalía into El Hatillo 's culture occurred at least twice : first in 1776 , when El Calvario chapel was built and dedicated to the Saint ; and then in 1784 , when a bigger parish church named Iglesia Santa Rosalía de Palermo was constructed .
= = = Regional celebrations = = =
In addition to the nationwide activities celebrating Christmas , the New Year , Carnival , and Easter , El Hatillo has a number of celebrations unique to the region . Since the 1766 founding of El Hatillo , a week @-@ long festival honoring Santa Rosalía de Palermo ( Spanish : Fiestas Patronales en honor a Santa Rosalía de Palermo ) is held in September featuring parades , Catholic masses , and traditional games , concluding with the traditional release of balloons accompanied by fireworks . On Holy Thursday , an image of the crucified Christ is decorated with flowers and paraded around El Hatillo 's Plaza Bolívar in the Jesus Christ Procession . Since 1938 , Carnival has been celebrated in El Hatillo with dancing , parades , and the election of a Carnival Queen in Plaza Bolívar . The founding of El Hatillo is commemorated on June 12 with organised activities including traditional games , mass , and balloons . A tradition having religious and agricultural significance has been celebrated every May since the beginning of the twentieth century . The third Sunday of May is the festival of Dama antañona , in which residents pay homage to the women of El Hatillo , with typical food and gifts .
= = = Art = = =
The Cultural and Social Center El Hatillo , El Hatillo Art Center , and El Hatillo Atheneum are the local centers of artistic activity . In 2006 , Dave Samuels inaugurated the annual International Music Festival of El Hatillo at the El Hatillo Art Center ; Samuels was followed by Simón Díaz , Steve Smith , Serenata Guayanesa , Mike Stern and other notable musicians . Since 1999 , the El Hatillo Jazz Festival has attracted visitors to the municipality to hear national and foreign jazz artists .
El Hatillo 's art culture is rich with handcrafted products . Pottery is a common souvenir for tourists , and there are many artisans devoted to ceramics and pottery in the municipality . The Turgua Group is an artist collective of almost twenty potters and blacksmiths , founded in 1992 by Guillermo Cuellar , an internationally known potter . The group has two exhibitions a year , which have expanded from pottery exposition to jewelry , photography , woodwork , drawing and weaving .
In May 2005 , the local government collaborated with the Japanese Embassy to organise Japan Cultural Week , an exposition held in the Art Center featuring bonsai , origami , kimonos , martial arts , anime and other manifestations of the Japanese culture . The event offered free workshops for learning these Japanese arts . Continuing cultural promotion in the municipality , the III Salón de Fotografía El Hatillo – a photography contest for children , amateur and professional photographers – was organised in October 2005 .
= = = Cuisine = = =
The cuisine industry in El Hatillo has grown along with the commercial development of the municipality . A September 2006 article in Estampas – a weekly Venezuelan magazine – described the culinary arts of El Hatillo , noting that El Hatillo offers the usual Venezuelan table , as well as new gastronomic developments . The TV chef Yuraima Blanco opened the Culinary Art Gallery in El Hatillo , where diners can enjoy a variety of food . There are also typical cachapa restaurants and cafés , as well as other restaurants with a fusion of foreign and national food . According to Estampas , a well @-@ known local restaurant called " Mauricio 's " mixes Swiss and French food with Caribbean gastronomy . El Hatillo also offers many varieties of confectionery , such as churros , pastry and ice cream . There are a variety of other restaurants in El Hatillo , offering such diverse cuisine as German and Thai food .
= = = Sports = = =
Lagunita Country Club is one of the most important sports facilities in the municipality . The club offers tennis and swimming , but it is best known for its golf course , the home of the 1974 WGC @-@ World Cup . Designed by Dick Wilson , the club began with temporary headquarters in 1959 , opening officially in 1964 . Lagunita Country Club played an important role in the development of La Lagunita neighborhood – an ambitious urban project , which has become one of the wealthiest areas of Caracas .
Hiparión is another club located in El Hatillo ; according to the Venezuelan Census of Cultural Heritage , this equestrian facility from the 1930s was originally used for horse trips , but it later became a place for the training and caring of horses . The Club Hiparión is internationally known for its equestrian training .
Located at the highest point of the Municipality lies El Volcan , a small mountain of about 1500 meters from sea level . This mountain has a Downhill course that has about 500 meters of vertical drop , it is used by hundreds of riders a day during dry and wet weather , mostly on weekends . The course is open to the public and riding is neither specifically allowed nor prohibited by law . The trails are also used by hikers all week long . Shuttles are about 10 Venezuelan bolivars per trip , they run from the parking lot of a Farmatodo drug store in La Boyera , up to the summit using public avenues and paved roads , taking from 15 minutes to 30 minutes depending on traffic on the area . The course apart from being used mostly for recreational purpose , also has been used for irregularly scheduled downhill races due to the lack of organisation in the riders community .
= = = Tourism and recreation = = =
The hub of activity in El Hatillo Town is Bolívar Plaza ( Spanish : Plaza Bolívar ) , a garden square encompassing the central block in the town of El Hatillo . Constructed in 1785 , the Plaza was originally called Plaza Mayor or Plaza del Mercado . In 1911 , a bust honoring Manuel Escalona was placed in the square , which was renamed in his honor . In 1952 , the bust was replaced with a statue of Simón Bolívar , and the plaza was again renamed after the Venezuelan hero . Across from the Bolívar Square is the 18th century Santa Rosalía de Palermo Church , which was declared a National Historic Monument in 1960 .
Between El Hatillo and La Lagunita is the smaller Manuel Escalona Plaza ( Spanish : Plazoleta Manuel Escalona ) , another urban monument displaying the bust of Escalona that formerly occupied Bolívar Square . Sucre Plaza ( Spanish : Plaza Sucre ) – graced since 1915 with a ceiba tree at its center – is in the southern part of town ; this was historically where people tied their mules while frequenting The Four Corners , and it is also known as Plaza La Ceiba . The Four Corners ( Spanish : Las Cuatro Esquinas ) was a convenient social gathering spot in El Hatillo , comprising a general store , hardware shop , gambling place and bar .
La Lagunita is the site of the San Constantino and Santa Elena Romanian Orthodox Church . The building is an architectural work from the 16th century , brought from Romania , made completely from oak and fir woods , and detailed with more than 40 @,@ 000 individually placed and carved tiles . It is one of only 15 churches of its type remaining in the world , and one of only two outside of Romania , the other being in Switzerland .
For children , the Caicaguana hacienda in La Lagunita houses the Expanzoo , where visitors can see and touch exotic animals . The zoo is recognised for offering unique employment opportunities ; the workers are from families with few resources , and the staff include the mentally ill . The Baby Zoo is another place for children to interact with animals ; visitors can feed and touch the animals , ride horses and rent the location for special events . More interaction with nature can be experienced by visiting the Morro la Guairita park in El Cafetal – commonly known as the Indian Caves ( Spanish : Cuevas del Indio ) – a system of 22 natural openings in the mountain , and the only place in Caracas where rock climbing is permitted . Guided tours are available , and views of El Ávila can be enjoyed while ascending the park .
= = Transportation = =
The mountainous terrain and geographic features of El Hatillo have made it difficult to extend the Caracas Metro to southeast Caracas , so the main transportation methods in the municipality are private vehicles and road public transportation . An extension of the Metro – Line 5 – has been proposed , but construction has not been initiated as of 2007 ; phase 2 of Line 4 is still under construction . Urban planning in the municipality has been unorganised ; news archives show that at least since 1998 , neighbors have been complaining about the dense traffic caused by new residential and commercial construction , yet new or enhanced alternative roads to resolve the traffic problems have not been completed . A south beltway suggested 25 years ago has not been constructed due to its high cost . However , as of January 2006 , a new route that will connect La Lagunita with Macaracuay – a neighborhood in northeast Caracas – is under construction and is planned to be completed in 2010 ; according to Mayor Catalán , 23 % of El Hatillo 's inhabitants will eventually use this transit way . Its cost was estimated in early 2006 as US $ 19 @,@ 572 @,@ 000 .
Local solutions – such as the proposed Metro extension line and the road connecting La Lagunita and Macaracuay – may improve the traffic congestion around El Hatillo , but the traffic issue affects all of Caracas . It is estimated that one million vehicles transit Caracas daily , causing a collapse of the transportation network . Automobiles travel at an average speed of 15 km / h ( 9 mph ) on the streets and highways of Caracas . There are numerous factors contributing to the traffic problem in Caracas . According to the Venezuelan Society of Transportation Engineers , a city should allocate 20 % of its public area to transportation ; in Caracas , less than 12 % is allocated . In 2004 , fifty thousand new vehicles were sold in Caracas . In 2005 , sixty thousand more were sold , and as of November , 2006 , seventy thousand more had been sold . In five years , 250 thousand more cars are circulating in Caracas on roadways that have not increased proportionally to the increase in the number of cars . Further , public transportation is not fully reliable ; an average trip in the city using mass transit takes around ninety minutes .
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= Tabloid Junkie =
" Tabloid Junkie " is a pop song performed by American recording artist Michael Jackson . The song appeared as the eleventh track on Jackson 's ninth studio album , entitled HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , which was released in 1995 as a two @-@ disc set . The song was written , composed , and produced by Michael Jackson , Jimmy Jam ( James Harris III ) and Terry Lewis .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics . " Tabloid Junkie " is a pop @-@ rock song , with lyrics that pertain to media bias and negative coverage of rumors about Jackson and his personal life , similar to previous songs recorded by Jackson . " Tabloid Junkie " is the seventh song on HIStory : Past , Present And Future , Book I to be aimed at the media . The track was not released as a single .
= = Background = =
Similarly to " Leave Me Alone " ( 1987 ) and HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I album tracks , " They Don 't Care About Us " , " Scream " and " This Time Around " , amongst others , " Tabloid Junkie " , co @-@ written by Jackson , shows Jackson 's dissatisfaction with the media , particularly the tabloids , because of the bias and negative media coverage of false rumors and the 1993 child sexual abuse accusations made against him . Ever since the late 1980s , Jackson and the press did not have a good relationship . In 1986 , the tabloids ran a story claiming that Jackson slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber to slow the aging process , with a picture of him lying down in a glass box ; Jackson stated that the story was untrue . When Jackson bought a pet chimpanzee Bubbles , the media viewed it as evidence of Jackson 's increasing detachment from reality .
It was reported that Jackson had offered to buy the bones of Joseph " The Elephant Man " Merrick ; Jackson stated that the story was false . These stories inspired the nickname " Wacko Jacko " , which Jackson acquired the following year , and would come to despise . Jackson stopped leaking untrue stories to the press , so the media began making up their own . In 1989 , Jackson released the song and music video " Leave Me Alone " , a song about his perceived victimization at the hands of the press . The video shows Jackson poking fun at both the press and himself . In the video , there are newspapers with bizarre headlines , Jackson dancing with the bones of " The Elephant Man " , and an animated nose with a scalpel chasing it across the screen .
In August 1993 , the relationship between Jackson and the press soured entirely when he was accused of child sexual abuse . Although never charged with a crime , Jackson was subject to intense media scrutiny while the criminal investigation took place . Complaints about the coverage included the media using sensational headlines to draw in readers and viewers when the content itself did not support the headline , accepting leaked material from the police investigation and of Jackson 's alleged criminal activity in return for money , a lack of objectivity and using headlines that strongly implied Jackson 's guilt . At the time , Jackson said of the media coverage , " I will say I am particularly upset by the handling of the matter by the incredible , terrible mass media . At every opportunity , the media has dissected and manipulated these allegations to reach their own conclusions . " Jackson began taking painkillers , Valium , Xanax and Ativan to deal with the stress of the allegations made against him . When he left the United States to go into rehabilitation , the media showed him little sympathy .
= = Composition = =
" Tabloid Junkie " is credited as a pop — funk song , that is similar to New Jack Swing . Throughout the song , Jackson sings in a quick @-@ voice , which some music critics viewed as Jackson " not singing " but " harrumphing " . It is a plea to the public to not believe everything in the tabloids ; and the lyrics are about media bias and sensational journalism about Jackson and in general . This can be heard in lyrics such as , " Just because you read it in the magazine or see it on the TV screen don 't make it factual " .
Jackson uses the song to criticize journalists , commenting " with your pen you torture men " , describing how he was affected by the media coverage about him , and " speculate to break the one you hate " , describing how reporters used sensational writing to mislead people and cast him in a negative view .
" Tabloid Junkie " is played in the key of A ♭ minor and in common time signature . It has heavy beats throughout with Jackson beatboxing throughout . Jackson 's voice range is from C ♭ 4 to B ♭ 7 . The songs tempo is moderate and its metronome is 111 beats per minute .
= = Reception = =
" Tabloid Junkie " received primarily positive reviews from contemporary music critics . James Hunter , a writer for Rolling Stone , described " Tabloid Junkie " , as well as " Scream " , another track from the album , as being " two adventurous Jam and Lewis thumpers " that " work completely " , commenting that " Jackson 's slippery voice is caught in mammoth funk @-@ rock constructions " . Hunter noted that the " choruses of ' Tabloid Junkie ' in particular sing out with quick @-@ voiced warnings about the failings of media truth . " Robert Christgau , a film and music critic , who gave the album * * Honorable Mention ( ) , listed " Tabloid Junkie " as being one out of two of the albums highlights . Jim Farber , of the New York Daily News , commented that " Tabloid Junkie " sounded " like virtual satires " of the " beat @-@ heavy sound devised " by Jam and Lewis in the 1980s .
David Browne , of Entertainment Weekly , noted that " Tabloid Junkie , " comes as " close to transcendence as anywhere on the album " and described the chorus , " Just because you read it in the magazine or see it on the TV screen don 't make it factual " as Jackson 's " grabbiest , most driven refrain in years . " Although Browne praised the song , he commented , " The rest of the song , however , is mucked up with fake tabloid @-@ TV snippets about his ' life , ' and on the verses Jackson 's delivery is so terse ( he 's not singing , he 's harrumphing ) that his lyrics are all but obliterated . Handed a golden opportunity , he throws it all away — but then , it wouldn 't be the first time . " Deepika Reedy , of The Daily Collegian , described the " rust in songs " like " Tabloid Junkie " as having a " raw aspect " that Jackson " hasn 't approached since a near @-@ miss with ' Billie Jean ' . " Patrick Macdonald , of The Seattle Times , noted that " Tabloid Junkie " was a " disingenuous attack on sensational news stories " about Jackson , remarked that most of stories were " planted " by Jackson himself .
= = Track listing = =
Album track :
" Tabloid Junkie " - 4 : 32
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= Slade 's Case =
Slade 's Case was a case in English contract law that ran from 1596 to 1602 . Under the medieval common law , claims seeking the repayment of a debt or other matters could only be pursued through a writ of debt in the Court of Common Pleas , a problematic and archaic process . By 1558 the lawyers had succeeded in creating another method , enforced by the Court of King 's Bench , through the action of assumpsit , which was technically for deceit . The legal fiction used was that by failing to pay after promising to do so , a defendant had committed deceit , and was liable to the plaintiff . The conservative Common Pleas , through the appellate court the Court of Exchequer Chamber , began to overrule decisions made by the King 's Bench on assumpsit , causing friction between the courts .
In Slade 's Case , a case under assumpsit , which was brought between judges of the Common Pleas and King 's Bench , was transferred to the Court of Exchequer Chamber where the King 's Bench judges were allowed to vote . The case dragged on for five years , with the judgment finally being delivered in 1602 by the Chief Justice of the King 's Bench , John Popham . Popham ruled that assumpsit claims were valid , a decision called a " watershed " moment in English law , with archaic and outdated principles being overwritten by the modern and effective assumpsit , which soon became the main course of action in contract cases . This is also seen as an example of judicial legislation , with the courts making a revolutionary decision Parliament had failed to make .
= = Background = =
Under the medieval common law , there was only one way to resolve a dispute seeking the repayment of money or other contract matters ; a writ of debt , which only the Court of Common Pleas could hear . This was archaic , did not work against the executors of a will and involved precise pleading ; a minor flaw in the documents put to the court could see the case thrown out . By the middle of the 16th century lawyers had attempted to devise an alternative using the action of assumpsit , which was technically a type of trespass due to deceit . The argument was based on the idea that there was an inherent promise in a contract to pay the money , and that by failing to pay the defendant had deceived the plaintiff . By 1558 the lawyers had succeeded , with the Court of King 's Bench agreeing to hear cases under this piece of legal fiction . The judges of the Common Pleas , however , a more traditional group , rejected this argument and only accepted cases where an actual promise had been made in addition to the contract .
The action of assumpsit had several advantages over a writ of debt ; the plaintiff could count on always having a jury , while in writs of debt the defendant could rely on wager of law , where he produced twelve people to swear he did not owe the plaintiff money and had the case dismissed . In addition , it worked for executory agreements , not just normal contracts . In 1585 a new form of the Court of Exchequer Chamber was set up , an appellate court where the Common Pleas judges held a majority , and regularly began to reverse King 's Bench judgments which were based on assumpsit . This , and the conflict between the King 's Bench and the Common Pleas as a whole , was problematic ; a plaintiff at assizes could not be sure which sort of judge his case would come before , lending uncertainty to the law . Boyer suggests that , in this environment , the Chief Justice of the King 's Bench John Popham deliberately provoked the Common Pleas to resolve the matter , and did so through Slade 's Case .
= = Facts = =
John Slade was a grain merchant , who claimed that Humphrey Morley had agreed to buy a crop of wheat and rye from him , paying £ 16 , and had reneged on the agreement . He brought the case before the Assizes in 1596 , where it was heard by two judges ; one of the Common Pleas , and one of the King 's Bench . It was heard under assumpsit , and the jury found that Morley indeed owed Slade money . Before a judgment could be issued , Popham had the case transferred to an older version of the Court of Exchequer Chamber , which , sitting in Serjeant 's Inn , allowed the King 's Bench judges to sit .
Edward Coke was counsel for Slade , arguing that the King 's Bench had the power to hear assumpsit actions , along with Laurence Tanfield , while Francis Bacon and John Doddridge represented Morley . The quality of legal argument was high ; Bacon was a " skillful , subtle intelect " capable of distinguishing the precedent brought up by Coke , while Doddridge , a member of the Society of Antiquaries , knew the records even better than Coke did . Coke , rather than directly confronting opposing counsel , made a twofold argument ; firstly , that the fact that the King 's Bench had been allowed to hear assumpsit actions for so long meant that it was acceptable , based on institutional inertia , and second that , on the subject of assumpsit being used for breaches of promise , that the original agreement included an implied promise to make payment .
The case continued for five years ; at one point , the judges let the matter continue for three years because they could not reach a decision . Eventually , in November 1602 , Popham issued a judgment on behalf of the court which stated " Firstly , that every contract executory implies in itself a promise or asumpsit . Secondly , that although upon such a contract an action of debt lies , the plaintiff may well have an action in the case upon the assumpsit . " Coke , in his report of the case ( published in 1604 ) reports that the judgment was unanimous , while more modern commentators such as Boyer assert that it was narrow , most likely 6 to 5 , with the dividing line being between the King 's Bench judges and Common Pleas .
= = Judgment = =
Lord Popham CJ held that Slade could sue , and was successful . He said the following .
= = Significance = =
The impact of the case was immediate and overwhelming . Ibbetson considers Slade 's Case to be a " watershed " moment , in which the archaic and conservative form of law was overwritten by a modern , more efficient method . Assumpsit became the dominant form of contract cases , with the door " opened wide " to plaintiffs ; Boyer suggests this was perhaps " too wide " . In his Commentaries on the Laws of England , William Blackstone explained that this was the reason why the Statute of Frauds was subsequently passed in 1677 :
The case is particularly notable as an example of judicial legislation , with the judges significantly modernising the law and moving it forward in a way Parliament had not considered . As a side impact , Coke 's arguments were the first to define consideration . The conservative outlook of the Common Pleas soon changed ; after the death of Edmund Anderson , the more activist Francis Gawdy became Chief Justice of the Common Pleas , and other Common Pleas judges , many of whom were uncertain but had followed Anderson 's lead in the case , changed their mind .
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= The Last of Us Remastered =
The Last of Us Remastered is an action @-@ adventure survival horror video game developed by Naughty Dog and published by Sony Computer Entertainment . An enhanced port of 2013 's The Last of Us , Remastered was released for the PlayStation 4 worldwide in July 2014 . Among minor gameplay additions , the game features enhanced graphics and rendering upgrades including increased draw distance , an upgraded combat mechanic and higher frame rate .
The game is set twenty years after an outbreak destroyed much of civilization , exploring the possibility of a fungus infecting humans . The single @-@ player story follows Joel , tasked with escorting the young Ellie across a post @-@ apocalyptic United States , in an attempt to create a potential cure against the infection to which Ellie is immune . Players make their way through various locations , fighting against the Infected and hostile human survivors . The multiplayer lets up to eight players engage in cooperative or competitive game matches . To accommodate Remastered 's technical enhancements , Naughty Dog spent months developing the game , beginning upon the release of The Last of Us .
The game received critical acclaim . Reviewers were impressed with the graphics upgrades , praising all of the enhancements and additions . It also became a commercial success , selling over one million units within its first month .
= = Gameplay = =
The Last of Us Remastered changes little from the basic gameplay of the original version . As such , it is an action @-@ adventure survival horror game that uses a third @-@ person perspective . The game involves gunfights , melee combat and a cover system . For most of the game , players control Joel ; Ellie and other companions are controlled by the artificial intelligence . Remastered uses the DualShock 4 's touchpad to navigate inventory items , and the light bar signals health , scaling from blue to orange and red when taking damage . In addition , audio recordings found in the game world can be heard through the controller 's speaker ; the original version forced players to remain in a menu while the recordings were played . The game 's Photo Mode allows players to capture images of the game by pausing gameplay and adjusting the camera freely . In the menu , players have the ability to watch all cutscenes with audio commentary featuring creative director Neil Druckmann , Troy Baker and Ashley Johnson , who portrayed Joel and Ellie , respectively .
= = Development = =
In March 2014 , information concerning a release of The Last of Us on PlayStation 4 was leaked . This was followed by the appearance of the game , titled The Last of Us Remastered on the PlayStation Store on April 9 , 2014 ; Naughty Dog announced the game on the same day . This enhanced version of the game features an increased draw distance , character models of higher resolution , improved lighting and shadows , and an upgraded combat mechanic . It runs a native 1080p resolution at 60 frames per second , with the option to lock the game at 30 frames per second . At E3 2014 , Sony announced that the game would be released on July 29 , 2014 . Some of the downloadable content from The Last of Us is bundled with Remastered , including Left Behind and some multiplayer maps , while others require a separate purchase .
In Remastered , character textures were increased by a factor of four , shadows were doubled and a new lighting process was implemented . The motion blur when turning the camera , used to hide slower loading textures , was reduced , and the game 's environments look " crisper " . In addition , new settings were introduced to allow players to customize the game 's audio channels , and the loading times were reduced , due to the game streaming from the hard drive as opposed to the disc . One of the biggest developmental challenges was fitting all content onto one Blu @-@ ray Disc . The changing of the in @-@ game textures , and the inclusion of Left Behind , were the cause for this difficulty . According to lead developer Christian Gyrling , Remastered " looked broken up until a week before shipping " .
Development on Remastered began shortly following the release of The Last of Us in June 2013 . Though initially under light development , the team began working harder on Remastered when they saw the demand for it ; work on the game 's code did not begin until a larger team was introduced to Remastered in February 2014 . As development on the original game ended , the programmers expected that the game would be ported to the PlayStation 4 , but planning and preparation did not begin until The Last of Us had launched . The team aimed at creating a " true " remaster , maintaining the " same core experience " and not changing any large story or gameplay elements . For the game 's frame rate , the team was initially split , with some preferring 30 frames per second rather than 60 ; when the game was running at the latter , the whole team became convinced . The team that worked on Remastered was significantly smaller than the team for The Last of Us ; in particular , the team did not include any designers , which led to various design issues remaining from the original game . Druckmann attributed this to the fact that Remastered was developed as a recreation of the original , altering only technical and graphical aspects .
= = Reception = =
Like the original version , The Last of Us Remastered was met with critical acclaim . Metacritic calculated an average score of 95 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 69 critics . GameRankings assigned an average score of 96 % based on 43 reviews .
The game 's enhanced graphics received positive reactions . Colin Moriarty of IGN felt that the graphical fidelity of Remastered was an improvement over The Last of Us , despite the latter being " the most beautiful game [ he 'd ] seen on any console " . GamesRadar 's David Houghton echoed this statement , calling the visuals " jaw @-@ dropping " . VideoGamer.com reiterated the graphical improvement over the original game , particularly praising the increased draw distance and improved lighting technology . Liam Martin of Digital Spy also felt that the lighting system improves the gameplay and makes the game " feel even more dangerous " . Game Informer 's Tim Turi stated that the game is " even more breathtaking " than The Last of Us . Matt Swider of TechRadar appreciated the minor detail changes and the technical improvements . The Independent 's Jack Fleming felt that the original game 's visual flaws were enhanced in Remastered , but greatly complimented the updated graphics regardless .
Many reviewers considered the technical enhancements , such as the increased frame rate , a welcome advancement from the original game . Turi of Game Informer felt that the frame rate " dramatically elevate [ s ] " the game above the original . Jim Sterling of The Escapist complimented the upgraded frame rate , commenting that the original frame rate is a " noticeably inferior experience " . IGN 's Moriarty stated that , though the change was initially " jarring " , he appreciated it through further gameplay . Tom Hoggins of The Daily Telegraph echoed these statements , feeling as though the increased frame rate heightened the intensity of the gameplay . Metro 's David Jenkins felt that the increased frame rate is almost imperceptible , though stating that it is " definitely an improvement " . Philip Kollar of Polygon appreciated the game 's improved textures and loading times .
The addition of Photo Mode was well received . TechRadar 's Swider named the mode as a standout feature , while IGN 's Moriarty complimented the availability to capture " gorgeous " images using the feature . The adjustment of the controls received praise , with Moriarty of IGN particularly approving the DualShock 4 's triggers . Swider of TechRadar felt that the additional controls result in a better functioning game , while Digital Spy 's Martin felt that it improves the game 's combat , commenting that it " increase [ s ] this sense of immersion " . Reviewers also appreciated the inclusion of the DLC and the audio commentary . These features led The Escapist 's Sterling to dub Remastered as " the definitive version of the game " .
By August 2014 , The Last of Us Remastered had sold one million copies . It is one of the best @-@ selling PlayStation 4 games . The game was nominated for Best Remaster at The Game Awards 2014 , and received an honorable mention for Best Technology at the 15th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards .
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= Leigh , Greater Manchester =
Leigh is a town in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , Greater Manchester , England , 7 @.@ 7 miles ( 12 km ) southeast of Wigan and 9 @.@ 5 miles ( 15 @.@ 3 km ) west of Manchester city centre . Leigh is situated on low @-@ lying land to the north west of Chat Moss .
Historically a part of Lancashire , Leigh was originally the centre of a large ecclesiastical parish covering six vills or townships . When the three townships of Pennington , Westleigh and Bedford merged in 1875 forming the Leigh Local Board District , Leigh became the official name for the town although it had been applied to the area of Pennington and Westleigh around the parish church for many centuries . The town became an urban district in 1894 when part of Atherton was added . In 1899 Leigh became a municipal borough . The first town hall was built in King Street and replaced by the present building in 1907 .
Originally an agricultural area noted for dairy farming , domestic spinning and weaving led to a considerable silk and , in the 20th century , cotton industry . Leigh also exploited the underlying coal measures particularly after the town was connected to the canals and railways . Leigh had an important engineering base . The legacy of Leigh 's industrial past can be seen in the remaining red brick mills – some of which are listed buildings – although it is now a mainly residential town , with Edwardian and Victorian terraced housing packed around the town centre . Leigh 's present @-@ day economy is based largely on the retail sector .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Leigh is derived from the Old English leah which meant a place at the wood or woodland clearing , a glade and subsequently a pasture or meadow , it was spelt Legh in 1276 . Other recorded spellings include Leech , 1264 ; Leeche , 1268 ; Leghthe , 1305 ; Leght , 1417 ; Lech , 1451 ; Legh , 16th century . As its name denotes it was a district rich in meadow and pasture land , and the produce of its dairies , the Leigh cheese , was formerly noted for its excellence . Westleigh , the west clearing , has been named Westeley in 1237 , Westlegh in 1238 and also Westlay in Legh in 1292 . Pennington has been spelt Pininton and Pynynton in 1246 and 1360 , Penynton in 1305 , Pynyngton in 1351 and 1442 and Penyngton in 1443 , the ending ton or tun denotes an enclosure , farmstead or manor in Old English . Bedford , the ford of Beda , probably through Pennington Brook gave its name to this part of Leigh . Spellings include Beneford from 1200 – 21 and Bedeford in 1200 and 1296 .
= = = Early history = = =
The earliest signs of human activity in Leigh are evidenced by a Neolithic stone axe found in Pennington and a bronze spearhead from south of Gas Street . A single Roman coin was found at Butts in Bedford . After the Roman departure from Britain , and into the history of Anglo @-@ Saxon England , nothing was written about Leigh . However evidence for the presence of Saxons in what was a sparsely populated and isolated part of the country is provided by local township place names that incorporate the Old English suffix leah , such as Leigh , Tyldesley , Shakerley and Astley .
= = = Townships = = =
In the 12th century the ancient parish of Leigh was made up of six townships , including Pennington , Bedford , Westleigh , Atherton , Astley , and Tyldesley cum Shakerley . Weekly markets were held by the parish church and a cattle fair held twice @-@ yearly .
Bedford manor was mentioned in documents in 1202 when it was held by Sir Henry de Kighley whose family held it until the 16th century , but never actually lived there . The Shuttleworths , landowners from the 14th century , were another prominent Bedford family . Richard Shuttleworth married a daughter of the Urmstons from Westleigh and brought part of the Westleigh inheritance to Bedford . This family lived at Shuttleworth House , or Sandypool Farm as it is also known , which is south of the Bridgewater Canal near to the old manor house , Bedford Hall , which survives today as a Grade II listed building . Another prominent Bedford family , the Sales of Hope Carr Hall , had a great deal of influence in Bedford for over 400 years , and owned more land than the Shuttleworths . The family were recusants and secretly kept the " old faith " when Roman Catholicism was subject to civil or criminal penalties . Hope Carr Hall was moated as was nearby Brick House .
The manor house of Westleigh was at Higher Hall and existed in Richard I 's time ( 1189 – 1199 ) . In 1292 Sigreda , the heiress of the manor , married Richard de Urmston , and the manor passed to the Urmston family and remained there until the last of the male Urmstons died in 1659 . It was later abandoned because of mining subsidence and Westleigh Old Hall became the manor by repute . The Ranicars and the Marsh families lived here . Westleigh Old Hall was another Leigh hall that had a moat .
The Pennington family owned Pennington Hall from about 1200 until they were replaced by the family of Bradshaw or Bradshaigh in 1312 . The Bradshaws held the manor until 1703 when John , the last of the male line died . Pennington Hall was rebuilt in 1748 by the then owner Samuel Hilton and in 1807 sold to the Gaskell family of Thornes , Wakefield , who let it to a succession of tenants . Around 1840 James Pownall , one of the founder members of the silk manufacturing firm of Bickam and Pownall was tenant . Later occupants were Charles Jackson , cotton manufacturer , Jabez Johnson , and F.W. Bouth founder of Bouth 's Mill in 1862 , The last resident was brewer , George Shaw . On 3 December 1919 George Shaw & Co Ltd offered the hall and grounds to the people of Leigh . The gift was accepted and opened to the public on 25 August 1920 . The hall was converted to a museum and art gallery in 1928 but was demolished in 1963 . The grounds are now Pennington Park .
= = = Civil War = = =
Leigh was divided in its allegiance during the English Civil War , some of the population supporting the Royalists ' cause while others supported the Parliamentarians . A battle was fought in the town on 2 December 1642 , when a group of Chowbenters , men from neighbouring Atherton , beat back and then routed Cavalier troops under the command of James Stanley , the 7th Earl of Derby . Sir Thomas Tyldesley of Myerscough and Morleys Hall , Astley , was killed on 25 August 1651 at the Battle of Wigan Lane and is buried in the Tyldesley Chapel in Leigh Parish Church . The Earl of Derby passed through Leigh again in 1651 , when he spent his last night in the King 's Arms , before going on to his execution outside Ye Olde Man & Scythe Inn in Bolton .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
At the end of the 16th century , although agriculture and the dairy industry , particularly the production of Leigh cheese , sometimes known as Leigh Toaster , were important , spinning and weaving began to develop as a cottage industry . Work was brought from Manchester by agents who brought work weekly often to an inn , and where they collected the finished cloth . At first this work was done to supplement the income of local farmers and their families . The cloth woven in Leigh was fustian , a sort of rough corduroy , and by the end of the 17th century middlemen , fustian masters , were dealing directly with weavers and selling the finished cloth in Manchester . It is a tradition in the town that a local man , Thomas Highs , was the inventor of a spinning jenny and the water frame in the 1760s , the latter invention being pirated by Richard Arkwright , who subsequently made a fortune from the patent royalties . These 18th @-@ century improvements to the spinning process meant that weavers were in great demand. but as power looms were introduced in factories in Manchester there was less work for the handloom weavers and there was serious unemployment in the town . In 1827 silk weaving began in Leigh , either as the result of a dispute or a labour shortage in the Middleton silk industry . William Walker was a middleman who opened the first silk mill in Leigh in 1828 , and others quickly followed , including James Pownall and Henry Hilton , whose mill survived until 1926 . Several cotton mills were built in Leigh after the mid @-@ 1830s , and some silk mills converted to cotton after 1870 .
The Leigth Feight took place on 14 August 1839 . The chartists had called for a strike at a time when there was social unrest over high levels of unemployment and the high cost of living . A mob of at least 2 @,@ 000 gathered in Leigh . About 400 – 500 workers from Chowbent threatened to burn down Hayes Mill . A detachment of troops from Haydock was called out and special constables sworn in by the local magistrate . The Riot Act was read by Squire Thomas Withington of Culcheth Hall and for a while the mob dispersed but reassembled later . Many were injured in the fighting that took place and arrests were made . Those arrested were severely punished , while others ensured that radicalism continued in Leigh , leading eventually to electoral reform and universal suffrage .
The large multi @-@ storey spinning mills came later , and five survive today . There were mill complexes at Kirkhall Lane and Firs Lane in Westleigh , Pennington and Bedford . Leigh Spinners is a Grade II * listed building . Mather Lane Mill close to the Bridgewater Canal is a Grade II listed building . More than 6 @,@ 000 people were employed in textiles in Leigh in 1911 .
= = = Coal mining = = =
There had been drift mines in Westleigh since the 12th century but during the second half of the 19th century it became possible to mine the deeper seams and coal began to be an important industry and coal mining became the largest user of labour after the textile industry in Leigh . Parsonage Colliery , the last mine to be sunk in Leigh , was one of the deepest mines in the country , going down to over 3 @,@ 000 ft ( 900 m ) . The extent of the mining in Parsonage Colliery increased in the 1960s with the driving of a tunnel ( the Horizon Tunnel ) , which accessed previously inaccessible seams around 6 ft ( 2 m ) high that were easy to work on compared to the previous seams of coal of 3 ft ( 1 m ) or less . The seams were wet , and a series of pumps was used to remove the water into underground canals before it was finally pumped into the canal at Leigh . The winding engine at Parsonage was a steam engine , fuelled by methane extracted from the mine , while the neighbouring Bickershaw Colliery had a superior electric system . In 1974 , the two were linked underground , and all coal was wound up at Bickershaw , which had better winding facilities , while Parsonage was used for supplies . The entire Lancashire Coalfield is now closed to deep mining , although several open @-@ cast mines are still in operation elsewhere in the county .
Mining disasters in Leigh included the explosion of firedamp which caused the deaths of 38 miners at Bedford Colliery on 13 August 1886 . There were several accidents at Bickershaw Colliery , but the most serious was in 1932 , when 19 men were drowned in the sump at the bottom of the shaft after an overwind of the cage .
List of coal mines operating in Leigh
= = = Manufacturing = = =
Other notable industry included the tractor factory of David Brown Limited , which was located in Leigh following the acquisition in 1955 of Harrison , McGregor and Guest 's Albion range of farm machinery products . Rope @-@ manufacture was another local industry : Mansley 's Rope works on Twist Lane made rope by hand , using a rope walk . The factory burnt down in 1912 . Anchor Cables had a large works close to the Bridgewater Canal . The company was bought by Callender 's Cables , in 1903 , later to become British Insulated Callender 's Cables ( BICC ) , and now part of Balfour Beatty . Another major 20th century employer was Sutcliffe Speakman , which made activated carbon and brick @-@ making equipment .
= = Governance = =
Leigh is covered by four electoral wards , Atherleigh , Leigh East , Leigh South and Leigh West , of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan . Each ward elects three councillors to the 75 @-@ member metropolitan borough council , Wigan 's local authority . As of 2009 , all twelve ward councillors for Leigh , including Leader of the Council , Lord Smith of Leigh , are members of the Labour Party who control the council .
Historically , Leigh 's townships formed part of the Hundred of West Derby , a judicial division of southwest Lancashire . Pennington , Westleigh and Bedford were three of the six townships or vills that made up the ancient parish of Leigh . The townships existed before the parish .
Under the terms of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 the townships formed part of the Leigh Poor Law Union , which was established on 26 January 1837 and was responsible for an area covering the whole of the ancient parish of Leigh and part of Winwick . There were workhouses in Pennington , Culcheth , Tyldesley and Lowton , but they were replaced by Leigh Union workhouse at Atherleigh in the 1850s . In 1875 Leigh Local Board of Health was established , covering the areas of the former Bedford , Pennington and Westleigh Local Boards of Health . In 1894 the area of the Local Board , together with part of Atherton township , became Leigh Urban District , which was granted honorific borough status in 1899 becoming the Municipal Borough of Leigh . In 1969 there was an exchange of very small areas with Golborne Urban District . Following the Local Government Act 1972 , the Municipal Borough of Leigh was abolished and its territory granted as part of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , a local government district of Greater Manchester . In 1998 , an area ( Lately Common ) was further ceded to the Warrington borough – one of the few parts of England to have been in three different counties since the mid @-@ 20th century : Lancashire , then Greater Manchester , then Cheshire .
Leigh 's MP is Andy Burnham who has represented the parliamentary seat for Leigh for the Labour Party since the 2001 General Election . Between 10 June 2009 and the 2010 General Election he was Secretary of State at the Department of Health . At the 2010 General Election Burnham retained the Leigh seat with 24 @,@ 295 votes and a majority of 15 @,@ 011 , representing 51 @.@ 3 % of the vote . Burnham was re @-@ elected MP for the Leigh constituency in 2015 with 24 @,@ 312 votes which was 53 @.@ 9 % of the total vote cast .
= = Geography = =
Leigh is low @-@ lying ; land to the south and east , close to Chat Moss , is 50 feet ( 15 m ) above mean sea level . The highest land , to the north and west , rises gently to 125 feet ( 38 m ) . Astley and Bedford Mosses are fragments of the raised bog that once covered a large area north of the River Mersey and along with Holcroft and Risley Mosses are part of Manchester Mosses , a European Union designated Special Area of Conservation . The area is in the River Mersey Basin ; drained into the Mersey by several streams , including the Westleigh and Pennington Brooks that join others flowing through Bedford to form the Glaze Brook . The southeast of the town has alluvial and peaty soils , but the rest is loam overlaying sandstone , or coal measures in the north . There is magnesian limestone in Bedford and neighbouring Astley . Mining subsidence and flooding have caused the formation of " flashes " to the south and west of the town , the largest of which is south of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in Pennington . Pennington Flash Country Park is a 490 @-@ acre ( 200 ha ) country park and nature reserve with a 170 @-@ acre ( 69 ha ) flash or lake .
Leigh is crossed by the Bolton to St Helens Road high road , an old packhorse route that became a Turnpike Trust in 1762 . The A579 road bypasses the town centre using the line of the Bolton and Leigh Railway . The Bridgewater Canal and the Leigh Branch of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal cross the town west to east , the canals meeting at Leigh Bridge just south of the town centre . In the 1930s the A580 " East Lancashire Road " was built crossing to the south of the town .
= = Demography = =
At the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , according to the Office for National Statistics , the Urban Subdivision of Leigh was part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area and had a total resident population of 43 @,@ 006 , of which 20 @,@ 990 ( 48 @.@ 8 % ) were male and 22 @,@ 016 ( 51 @.@ 2 % ) were female , with 18 @,@ 270 households . The settlement occupied 884 hectares ( 3 @.@ 41 sq mi ) , compared with 858 hectares ( 3 @.@ 31 sq mi ) in the 1991 census . Its population density was 48 @.@ 65 people per hectare compared with an average of 40 @.@ 20 across the Greater Manchester Urban Area . The median age of the population was 37 , compared with 36 within the Greater Manchester Urban Area and 37 across England and Wales .
The majority of the population of Leigh were born in England ( 95 @.@ 92 % ) ; 2 @.@ 10 % were born elsewhere within the United Kingdom , 0 @.@ 95 % within the rest of the European Union , and 1 @.@ 47 % elsewhere in the world .
Data on religious beliefs across the town in the 2001 census show that 85 @.@ 5 % declared themselves to be Christian , 7 @.@ 6 % said they held no religion , and 0 @.@ 6 % reported themselves as Muslim .
Most of Leigh is within the Warrington & Wigan Travel to Work Area ( TTWA ) , whilst part of the eastern side of the town is within the Manchester TTWA . The entire town is within the Manchester Larger Urban Zone .
At the time of the 2001 Census , there were 19 @,@ 051 people ( 44 @.@ 3 % ) in employment who were resident within Leigh . Of these , 18 @.@ 36 % worked within the wholesale and retail trade , including repair of motor vehicles ; 21 @.@ 60 % worked within manufacturing industry ; and 11 @.@ 99 % worked within the health and social work sector . 45 @.@ 16 % of households owned a single car or van , with 30 @.@ 77 % owning none . The average car ownership per household was 0 @.@ 98 , compared with 0 @.@ 93 across the Greater Manchester Urban Area .
= = = Population change = = =
= = Economy = =
Leigh has a traditional town centre with daily outdoor and indoor markets . Part of the town centre is pedestrianised and there are local independent and multiple retailers . The Spinning Gate Centre in the centre of town has about thirty retail units . A retail park developed on the old Parsonage Colliery site is within walking distance of the town centre .
Opened in 2008 Leigh Sports Village has an 11 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stadium ( anchored by Leigh Centurions and shared with the reserves of Blackburn Rovers ) , an athletics arena for Leigh Harriers , facilities for Leigh East Rugby League Club , a college campus , hotel , leisure retail and business facilities for the community . In 2011 a Morrisons store opened at the sports village .
Another regeneration project on the site of the former Bickershaw Colliery complex which closed in 1992 will redevelop the site and canal side with a country park and housing . In 2011 " The Loom " a £ 50million retail development opened on the north side of the Bridgewater Canal with a seven @-@ screen cinema , Tesco Extra store , Nando 's , Frankie and Benny 's and The Real China restaurants .
= = Landmarks = =
Major landmarks in Leigh are the red sandstone parish church and across the civic square , Leigh Town Hall and its associated shops on Market Street . The Grade II listed Obelisk that replaced the original market cross is also situated here . Many town centre buildings including the Boar 's Head public house are in red Ruabon or Accrington bricks , often with gables and terracotta dressings . There are several large multi @-@ storey cotton mills built along the Bridgewater Canal that are a reminder of Leigh 's textile industry but most are now underused and deteriorating despite listed building status . Leigh 's War Memorial by local architect J.C. Prestwich is at the junction of Church Street and Silk Street and is a Grade II listed structure . St Joseph 's Church and St Thomas 's Church on opposite sides of Chapel Street are both imposing churches using different materials and styles .
= = Transport = =
Historically Leigh was well connected to the local transport infrastructure , but with the closure of the railway in 1969 this is no longer the case . Public transport is co @-@ ordinated by the Transport for Greater Manchester . There are bus services operated by First Greater Manchester , Jim Stones , Maytree Travel , Diamond Bus North West , Stagecoach Manchester and Network Warrington from Leigh bus station to many local destinations including Wigan , Bolton , Warrington , Manchester and St Helens . There had been suggestions to reopen the railway via Tyldesley to Manchester , but a guided busway scheme was chosen for the route ; this decision was not universally popular .
= = = Canals = = =
The Bridgewater Canal was extended from Worsley to the middle of Leigh in 1795 . In 1819 the fifth Leeds and Liverpool Canal Act was passed for the construction of the Leigh Branch and by 1820 the Leigh branch canal was cut from the Leeds and Liverpool Canal at Poolstock , Wigan to meet the Bridgewater at Leigh Bridge , giving access from Leigh to all parts of Lancashire , Yorkshire and the Midlands .
= = = Railways = = =
Leigh was the southern terminus of the 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 km ) long Bolton and Leigh Railway . George Stephenson carried out the survey for the line . It opened between Bolton and William Hulton 's coal mines at Chequerbent for freight on 1 August 1828 and to the terminus at the Leeds and Liverpool Canal at Leigh in March 1830 . Passengers were carried from 13 June 1831 . The first locomotive on the line was an 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 called the Lancashire Witch . The railway station was at Westleigh . Later the line was extended southwards to Pennington . Atherleigh opened in 1935 . The line was closed to passenger traffic on 29 March 1954 , and later closed completely .
In 1861 the London and North Western Railway revived powers granted to the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway to build a railway from Manchester via Eccles and Tyldesley to Wigan with a branch to Kenyon Junction on the Liverpool to Manchester Line via Leigh and Pennington . There was a station , originally named Bedford Leigh to serve the town . The railway crossed the town on a viaduct which has since been largely demolished . It was closed in May 1969 , leaving the town without a railway : after the reopening of Mansfield and Corby railway stations , Leigh is now one of the largest towns in Great Britain without a railway station . Numerous colliery lines crossed the town , but with the closure of the collieries these were no longer required .
The nearest railway station is at Atherton , 3 miles ( 5 km ) miles to the north , with trains to Wigan and Manchester operated by Northern , leaving the bus station as Leigh 's only public transport link .
= = = Trams and trolley buses = = =
In 1900 , a Bill authorising the South Lancashire Tramways Company to construct over 62 miles ( 100 km ) of tramway in southern Lancashire was given Royal Assent . However , by November 1900 the South Lancashire Electric Traction and Power Company had acquired the shares . The first section of tramway opened on 20 October 1902 between Lowton and Four Lanes Ends via Leigh and Atherton . The company got into financial difficulty and in turn became Lancashire United Tramways later Lancashire United Transport . On 16 December 1933 , the last tram service ran from Leigh to Four Lane Ends and the next day trolley buses took over . An Act of 4 August 1920 authorised Leigh Municipal Borough to run buses . A garage built on Windermere Road was soon outgrown and replaced by one on Holden Road . The corporation had a fleet of 70 vehicles during World War II .
Work on the Leigh @-@ Salford @-@ Manchester Bus Rapid Transit guided busway commenced in 2012 and the busway opened in 2016 .
= = Education = =
Leigh Grammar School existed in 1655 but its foundation is unclear . The building was next to the churchyard , but the school moved to Manchester Road in 1931 . Leigh Girls ' Grammar School was established in 1921 , but both schools were abolished by the then Secretary of State for Education , Shirley Williams , in the 1976 Education Act . Leigh high schools include Bedford High School , and Westleigh High School . Pupils also attend schools in Atherton , Lowton , Golborne and Astley . Wigan and Leigh College provides post @-@ 16 education .
= = Religion = =
The St Mary the Virgin Church has been in existence since the 12th century and probably much earlier . It was once known as the Church of St Peter at Westleigh in Leigh , and straddles the boundary between the old townships of Westleigh and Pennington , the nave and churchyard being in Westleigh and the chancel in Pennington . Its early history is tied up with the Westleigh and Urmston families . The dedication changed to St Mary the Virgin in the 14th century . The church tower , said to have been built in 1516 , is all that remains of the medieval structure , which was replaced by the present church after becoming unsafe . Paley and Austin of Lancaster designed the present church , the foundation stone was laid in 1871 and the church consecrated in 1873 . The church is built in red sandstone it is a Grade II listed building .
There are now parish churches in each of the old townships . The first St Thomas 's Church in Bedford was consecrated in 1840 and replaced by the present church in 1909 . The church is built of Accrington red brick with Runcorn red sandstone facings , it was designed by J. S. Crowther . Christ Church , Pennington , designed by architect E. H. Shellard , was built in Yorkshire stone and was consecrated in 1854 . The site to the south of the canal was a rapidly growing area at this time . It is Grade II listed . Westleigh St Paul , founded in 1847 is on Westleigh Lane . Westleigh St Peter , a Grade II * listed building by Paley and Austin , built in brick with red sandstone dressings , was founded 1881 is on Firs Lane .
The first Catholic chapel was built in Bedford on the corner of Mather Lane and Chapel Street in 1778 and this lasted until it was replaced in 1855 by St Joseph 's Church by architect Joseph Hansom . A growing Catholic population in the area led to the building of Our Lady of the Rosary in Plank Lane in 1879 , Twelve Apostles in 1879 and Sacred Heart in 1929 . Other denominations catered for include Wesleyan , Independent , Primitive , Welsh and United Methodists . There are also Unitarian , Baptist and Jehovah 's Witness places of worship in the town .
= = Sport = =
Leigh has a professional rugby league team – Leigh Centurions – whose main claim to fame is beating Leeds 24 – 7 in the 1971 Challenge Cup final at Wembley Stadium . The club played in the Super League in the 2005 season . Leigh has several amateur clubs , including Leigh East and Leigh Miners Rangers .
The town had a semi @-@ professional football team , Leigh Genesis ( formerly Leigh RMI ) , which ceased operations at a senior level in June 2011 . The most successful amateur club is Leigh Athletic , which currently plays in the Manchester Football League .
Leigh also has an athletics club , Leigh Harriers AC , founded in 1909 , and a Rugby Union club , Leigh RUFC , based at Round Ash Park , which gained promotion in 2007 , to RFU league North 2 ( West ) , and is current holder of the Lancashire Trophy which it won in May 2008 for the third consecutive year . Attached to the club is a crown green bowling section which runs several teams in local bowling leagues . Leigh has two cricket clubs : Leigh Cricket Club play in the ECB Premier League Liverpool Competition , and Westleigh Cricket Club , have two senior and 4 junior teams playing in the Bolton and District Cricket Association .
= = Culture = =
Many of Leigh 's old halls have been demolished but the sites of Lilford Park , once the grounds of Atherton Hall , a gift to Leigh from Lord Lilford in 1914 and Pennington Park , the grounds of Pennington Hall which was demolished in 1963 after being used as a museum , are open to the public .
Leigh 's wealth as an industrial town resulted in many outlets for the entertainment of its population , including theatres , cinemas and public houses . In 1908 the Hippodrome Theatre on Leigh Road was built on the site of Walker 's silk mill of 1827 , this subsequently became a cinema , first the Odeon , later the Classic . Another theatre , the Theatre Royal , was built on Lord Street which later became the Leigh Casino Club . The Palace Cinema was built in 1913 on Railway Road and the assembly rooms above the Conservative Club , were converted to a cinema known as the Sems in 1908 . Brewery Lane is a reminder that there was once a brewery in Bedford belonging to George Shaw & Co . The old Leigh College and Library on Railway Road was built between 1894 and 1896 by the Leigh Literary Society to designs by J. C. Prestwich and J. H. Stephen . The present library was built in 1971 between the parish church and town hall .
= = Notable people = =
Sir John Lennard @-@ Jones , Sir Peter Maxwell Davies and Pete Shelley were old pupils of Leigh Grammar School . Rhythm and blues singer and musician Georgie Fame was born in Leigh in 1943 . Thomas Burke , operatic tenor , was born in 1890 and attended St Joseph 's School . The author of " Goodbye , Mr Chips " , James Hilton was also born in Leigh . A local businessman of the same name became chairman of Leigh RLFC after World War II and the club 's former ground , Hilton Park , was named after him . The female sculptor Mary Pownall ( 1862 @-@ 1937 ) was born and raised in Leigh .
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= 2006 Riga summit =
The 2006 Riga summit or the 19th NATO Summit was a NATO summit held in the Olympic Sports Centre , Riga , Latvia from 28 to 29 November 2006 . The most important topics discussed were the War in Afghanistan and the future role and borders of the alliance . Further , the summit focused on the alliance 's continued transformation , taking stock of what has been accomplished since the 2002 Prague Summit . NATO also committed itself to extend further membership invitations in the upcoming 2008 Bucharest Summit . This summit was the first NATO summit held on territory of a former USSR republic .
= = Security measures = =
The summit was held in the Olympic Sports Centre , Riga . Roads in the center of Riga were closed down and parking was not allowed at the airport or at several roads , out of fear for car bombs . About 9000 Latvian police officers and soldiers took care of the Summit 's security , while more than 450 other airmen from seven European NATO countries were called upon to ensure a no @-@ fly zone above the summit in an operation called Operation Peaceful Summit . This enhanced ongoing Baltic Air Policing activities with additional aircraft , communications and maintenance support .
= = Summit = =
All agreements were not actually made in the North Atlantic Council meeting , but in fact it was made in Istanbul Summit , 2003 , except for the signing of the missile defense contract which happened on 28 November . The Council meeting was held on 29 November .
= = = Main topics = = =
While the tensions between NATO members from the build @-@ up to the invasion of Iraq had dissipated , the NATO summit , and the months preceding the summit , were marked by divisions between the United States and the United Kingdom on the one side and France , Germany , Italy and Spain on the other . Two rifts existed , one about the military contributions to the war in Afghanistan , and the other concerning whether or not NATO should assume a more global role .
= = = = War in Afghanistan = = = =
Before and during the summit US president George W. Bush , British prime minister Tony Blair , Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper and Dutch Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende made a plea to European NATO members to make more troops available for deployment in Afghanistan , remove the national caveats ( i.e. national restrictions on how , when and where forces can be used ) and start sending its troops into the conflict @-@ ridden south of the country . According to Supreme Allied Commander Europe ( SACEUR ) General James L. Jones it was not the lack of combat troops and the caveats were the problem , but the lack of adequate helicopters and military intelligence to support airlift and on @-@ the @-@ ground operations .
While the NATO countries in question refused to participate in the fighting in the south , they agreed to remove some of these national caveats , and in an emergency situation all national caveats should cease to exist , meaning that every ally should come to the aid of the forces that require assistance . A number of NATO member states also pledged to provide additional assets , including fighters , helicopters , infantry companies as well as training teams that will mentor the Afghan National Army . NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer said that the removal of some of the caveats meant that some 20 @,@ 000 of the 32 @,@ 000 NATO troops in ISAF are made " more usable " for combat duties and that 90 % of the formal mission requirements were now filled . Military sources however told reporters at the summit that these caveats never existed in emergency situations , adding that it would be a strange alliance where one country 's soldiers refused to support their allies in an emergency . NATO leaders also backed a French proposal to set up a " contact group " to coordinate action concerning Afghanistan , but the United States had reservations about France 's proposal to include Iran , which has considerable influence over the west of Afghanistan , in the proposed contact group due to the dispute over Iran 's nuclear programme . The group was modelled on the one set up for the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s .
Political scientist Joseph Nye commented that " while the Riga summit relaxed some of these caveats to allow assistance to allies in dire circumstances , Britain , Canada , the Netherlands , and the US are doing most of the fighting in southern Afghanistan , while French , German , and Italian troops are deployed in the quieter north . It is difficult to see how NATO can succeed in stabilizing Afghanistan unless it is willing to commit more troops and give commanders more flexibility . " The controversy surrounding the differences in contributions to Afghanistan indeed remained after the summit . For instance , during March 2007 British commanders accused the NATO members that refused to fight in the conflict @-@ ridden south ( in non @-@ emergency situations ) as causing " huge resentment " and a sense of betrayal , and undermined the credibility of the alliance . They added that despite the earlier pleas for reinforcements or to have " operational caveats " removed , some countries , notably France and Germany , were still not heeding their requests .
Besides the above discussion about contributions and caveats , the summit was noticed to paint an optimistic picture of the war in Afghanistan and Afghanistan 's future . For instance , NATO Secretary @-@ General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer said that " real progress " had been made in Afghanistan and that this was the main highlight of the summit . He strongly disagreed with visions of " doom and gloom , " and added that five years after the defeat of the Taliban regime , Afghanistan had become a democratic society that is " no longer a threat to the world . " He also believed that the defeat of the insurgency was only a matter of time , stating that the war in Afghanistan " is winnable , it is being won , but it is not yet won because , of course , we have many challenges in Afghanistan . " In his opinion , these challenges included besides military engagement mainly reconstruction and development work .
= = = = Role of NATO = = = =
The second , more fundamental rift , concerned a discussion about whether NATO should form close relationships with countries far beyond NATO 's borders , in particular Australia , Japan and South Korea . The United States and some other NATO members pressed for a closer relationship with these countries . R. Nicholas Burns , Under Secretary for Political Affairs explained the US proposal : " We seek a partnership with them so that we can train more intensively ( ... ) and grow closer to them because we are deployed with them . Australia , South Korea and Japan are in Afghanistan . They have all been in Iraq ( ... ) [ and ] in the Balkans . " It was however not clear how far this plan would have gone in practice , but the US insisted they were not seeking to turn NATO into a global alliance : membership would not be offered to the prospective new partners . The idea of a " global " NATO however was strongly opposed by France , which considers NATO a regional defence alliance that should not spread its wings too far over the globe . The French Defence Minister Michele Alliot @-@ Marie summarized the position of France as follows : " The development of a global partnership could ... dilute the natural solidarity between Europeans and North Americans in a fuzzy entity [ and it would ] send a bad political message , that of a campaign launched by the West against those who don 't share their ideas . What a pretext we would offer to those who promote the idea of a clash of civilisations . " The summit did not reach a satisfying consensus on the future role of NATO and it was considered an exercise in " papering over cracks " , much more than it was ever a serious effort to decide on the future borders and core purposes . As a consequence the debate continued after the summit .
= = = Other topics = = =
= = = = Kosovo = = = =
At the Riga summit , NATO members confirmed the role of NATO @-@ led KFOR in the ensuring of a stable security environment there . This is perceived to be a reference to the possible United Nations decision in favour of independence . Because Serbia strongly opposes the break @-@ away of Kosovo , the resulting tensions between Serbia and Kosovo could create instability in the region .
= = = = Enhanced cooperation with non @-@ members = = = =
Enhanced cooperation with non @-@ member states closer at home was less controversial and two offers were made : an extension of Partnership for Peace membership , and a training initiative .
Partnership for Peace ( PfP ) membership was offered to Bosnia and Herzegovina , Montenegro and Serbia . NATO hoped that this would bring these countries more into the Euro @-@ Atlantic community as the PfP is a programme of practical bilateral cooperation between individual Partner countries and NATO , thereby allowing Partner countries to choose their own priorities for cooperation . It is expected that PfP membership is for these three countries the first step towards NATO membership . As a result , the PfP offer sparked the anger of the UN tribunal trying suspected war criminals from the Balkans .
NATO launched a Training Cooperation Initiative offering to share NATO training expertise with its Mediterranean Dialogue ( MD ) countries ( Mauritania , Morocco , Algeria , Tunisia , Egypt , Israel and Jordan ) and Istanbul Cooperation Initiative ( ICI ) countries . The initial phase included expanding those countries ' participation in relevant existing NATO training and education programmes , and the establishment of a Middle East faculty at the NATO Defense College in Rome . As a second phase , NATO would consider supporting the establishment of a Security Cooperation Centre in the region , to be owned by the MD and ICI countries , with regional funding and NATO assistance . Senior NATO staff have tended to highlight this project as evidence of NATO 's forward thinking and its desire to avoid becoming party to a " clash of civilizations " .
= = = = Comprehensive Political Guidance = = = =
Comprehensive Political Guidance ( CPG ) , a policy document that had been agreed by Defence Ministers in June 2006 and an addition to the 1999 Strategic Concept document , was formally endorsed during the summit . The CPG intends to provide a framework and political direction for NATO 's continuing transformation in the coming 10 to 15 years . More specifically , the document expresses the belief that the principal threats to the Alliance in the coming decades are terrorism , proliferation , failing states , regional crises , misuse of new technologies , and disruption of the flow of vital resources . According to this document , the Alliance should adapt to these new threats and sets out the Alliance vis @-@ a @-@ vis capability issues , planning disciplines and intelligence for the next 10 to 15 years , including among others the need for joint expeditionary forces and the capability to deploy and sustain them over long periods of time . The document further underlined that NATO 's forces should be able to conduct a variety of missions , from high to low intensity , and emphasized the likelihood that NATO will need to carry out a greater number and range of smaller operations . The CPG also confirmed the principle that 40 % of the member states ' military forces must be redeployable , and 8 % must constantly be on operations abroad . This principle makes it , among other things , possible to effectively compare the contributions made by various states , irrespective of the size of their populations .
The CPG policy document is regarded as self @-@ contradictory for at least two reasons . Firstly , it identified the two greatest threats to NATO as terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction ( WMD ) , whilst simultaneously reaffirming the 1999 Strategic Concept as " remaining valid " despite the fact that it barely mentioned these threats . Secondly , the document states that collective defence remains the core purpose of NATO , but at the same time emphasizes potential NATO contributions to conflict prevention and crisis management , and the potential planning and management of missions like that in Afghanistan . The Riga Declaration even described the capability for such missions as NATO 's " top priority " . Additionally , Jaap de Hoop Scheffer wanted and expected a new Strategic Concept to be debated and agreed upon by 2008 , reinforcing already existing views that the CPG will most likely last much less than the 10 to 15 years as the guiding policy document .
= = = = Energy security = = = =
The Riga summit was the first NATO summit which underscored the need for energy security , following the Russia @-@ Ukraine gas dispute . The " Riga Summit Declaration " ( par . 45 ) stated that " Alliance security interests can also be affected by the disruption of the flow of vital resources " and that it supported " a coordinated , international effort to assess risks to energy infrastructures and to promote energy infrastructure security . " It further states that NATO leaders " direct the Council in Permanent Session to consult on the most immediate risks in the field of energy security , in order to define those areas where NATO may add value to safeguard the security interests of the Allies and , upon request , assist national and international efforts . " Radio Free Europe reports that an unnamed diplomatic source told that several NATO leaders , including Latvian president Vaira Vike @-@ Freiberga , had tried to make arrangements for bilateral talks concerning this topic with Russian president Vladimir Putin during the summit , but Putin instead attended the CIS energy summit in Minsk , Belarus on 28 November 2006 . In contrast , The Independent reported that the summit was marred by a diplomat fracas over an invitation to President Vladimir Putin and that he was eventually not invited , and that Putin as a result threatened that he would visit Latvia for the first time since independence during the summit in order to upstage the summit . It was even proposed that Putin could honour French president Jacques Chirac , who was at the summit and whose 74th birthday coincided with the summit , by visiting Latvia . He later made clear that this would not go ahead .
= = = = 2008 membership invitations = = = =
The NATO Heads of State and Government congratulated the efforts of the three Balkan states currently in NATO 's Membership Action Plan : Albania , Croatia and Macedonia , and declared that the Alliance intends to extend further invitations to these countries during the 2008 Bucharest Summit , on condition that these countries meet NATO standards . The Alliance also affirmed that NATO remained open to new European members under Article X of the North Atlantic Treaty , but remained largely silent on the prospects of Georgia and Ukraine , two countries that had declared membership as a goal , as the summit limited itself to noting the efforts of both countries to conduct an " intensified dialogue " with NATO . Nevertheless , Estonian Prime Minister Andrus Ansip said after the summit that he had discussed Georgia 's membership with US president Bush on 28 November . He further added that in his view Georgia had " very good chances " to join NATO if the planned reforms would continue and that a Membership Action Plan , the next necessary step on Georgia 's way towards membership , was only " a small step away " . Preceding the summit , it was expected that Ukraine was on a fast track to membership : it was believed that Ukraine would have received an invitation to a Membership Action Plan during the summit , followed by an invitation to join in 2008 and membership in 2010 . According to political scientist Taras Kuzio the summit showed that Georgia rapidly moved ahead of Ukraine in its drive to join NATO , even though it joined the Intensified Dialogue program a year later than Ukraine , because president of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko failed to support a pro @-@ Western Orange revolution coalition following the Ukraine 's parliamentary elections of March 2006 . In other words , Ukraine showed more ambivalence in its desire to join NATO , whereas in Georgia the pro @-@ Western Rose Revolution coalition remained united .
= = = = NATO Response Force = = = =
NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer announced that the NATO Response Force was finally fully operational since all capabilities necessary were in place . The force is believed to be capable of performing missions worldwide across the whole spectrum of operations ( such as evacuations , disaster management , counterterrorism , and acting as " an initial entry force " ) and can number up to 25 @,@ 000 troops and should be able to start to deploy after five days ' notice and sustain itself for operations lasting 30 days or longer if resupplied . The heads of state and government also agreed to share the costs of airlift for the short notice deployments of the Response Force .
= = = = 2010 Theatre Missile Defence = = = =
In September 2006 , NATO selected an international consortium led by Science Applications International Corporation ( SAIC ) to build an Integration Test Bed for the Alliance 's future Active Layered Theatre Missile Defence ( ALTBMD ) capability . After two months of negotiations , ALTBMD Programme Manager , General ( Ret ) Billard , and SAIC contracting Officer , Mr. Robert Larrick , signed the contract on the first day of NATO 's Riga Summit . This decision was based on an unpublished report agreed upon earlier by NATO ministers following a study into the feasibility of theatre missile defences .
This programme is one of three programmes that NATO is pursuing in the area of missile defence . The contract puts the Alliance on track for having , by 2010 , a system to protect troops on missions against ballistic missiles . The contract is worth approximately 75 million EUR for work that would be conducted over a period of six years . The theatre missile defence would be a multi @-@ layered system of systems , comprising early warning system sensors , radar and various interceptors . While NATO member countries would provide the sensors and weapon systems , NATO itself would develop a commonly funded NATO architecture to integrate all of these elements . The development of the ALTBMD system was agreed by NATO members in large part because it is limited . NATO members are deeply divided about the multi @-@ tiered BMD architecture promoted by the US Missile Defense Agency ( MDA ) .
= = Views on the summit = =
For the three former USSR republics Latvia , Estonia and Lithuania such a high @-@ level event was held for the first time in the region . As a consequence it held a symbolic meaning . It is perceived to have increased the visibility of these three Baltic states as NATO members .
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= Chicago bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics =
The Chicago bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics was an unsuccessful bid , first recognized by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) on September 14 , 2007 . The IOC shortlisted four of the seven applicant cities — Madrid , Spain ; Tokyo , Japan ; Rio de Janeiro , Brazil ; and Chicago , United States ; over Baku , Azerbaijan ; Doha , Qatar ; and Prague , Czech Republic — on June 4 , 2008 , during a meeting in Athens , Greece . This was followed by an intensive bidding process which finished with the election of Rio de Janeiro at the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen , Denmark , on October 2 , 2009 .
In Chicago 's bid , the games would have been held from July 22 to August 7 , with the Paralympics held between August 12 and August 28 . The bid plan emphasized use of Chicago Park District parks to host the games , but other existing facilities such as Soldier Field and McCormick Place would have hosted events . The bid included a plan for North Side , Downtown Loop and South Side celebration locations that would have had high @-@ definition LED screens for unticketed visitors . The bid noted that there was a very high concentration of event locations and training facilities close to each other and that the majority of event sites were clustered together . Thus , the vast majority of athletes would have been close to their competitions .
Chicago earned a general score of 7 @.@ 0 during the Applicant phase , after a detailed study of the Applicant Files received by the IOC Working Group on January 14 , 2008 . Between April 4 and April 7 , 2009 , the IOC Evaluation Commission , led by Nawal El Moutawakel , arrived in Chicago to assess the conditions of the city . The Commission attended technical presentations , participated in question @-@ and @-@ answer sessions about the Candidature File , and made inspections in all the existing venues across the city . Though considered a favorite entering the voting process , and despite personal appeals from such high @-@ profile Chicagoans as U.S. President Barack Obama , Michelle Obama , Hillary Clinton , and Oprah Winfrey , Chicago was eliminated on the first ballot in IOC voting on October 2 , 2009 , with 18 votes in a three @-@ round exhaustive ballot of the IOC .
The United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) selected Chicago over Houston , Los Angeles , Philadelphia and San Francisco as its candidate city to host the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2016 Summer Paralympics on April 14 , 2007 . This is the city 's third failure , after two failed attempts for the 1952 and the 1956 Summer Olympics ( and fourth overall attempt , as Chicago won the 1904 Olympics , but they were moved to St Louis as the World 's Fair was there and threatened to host a competing competition if the Olympics were not moved ) . Numerous Olympic Games in North America , including the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , Canada , hurt Chicago 's bid . It would have been the ninth Olympics hosted in the United States , after the 1904 , 1932 , 1984 and 1996 Summer Olympics ; and the 1932 , 1960 , 1980 and 2002 Winter Olympics .
= = USOC city selection = =
Initially , five American cities vied for the 2016 Olympics : Chicago , Houston , Los Angeles , Philadelphia , and San Francisco . The USOC 's chairman at the time , Peter Ueberroth , visited all potential host cities during April and May 2006 . He visited Chicago on May 10 . On July 26 , 2006 , the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) narrowed its list of American applicant cities to three : Chicago , Los Angeles and San Francisco . San Francisco withdrew its application on November 13 , 2006 after the San Francisco 49ers pulled out of a deal for the construction of a new stadium that would be the centerpiece of the games .
The final stage of the USOC internal selection occurred on April 14 , 2007 , at Washington , D.C. ' s Embassy Row Hotel , where the two remaining bid cities , Chicago and Los Angeles , made a last 40 @-@ minute presentation to the USOC board members . At about 21 : 00 UTC , Chicago was announced as the winner of the United States bid for the 2016 Olympic Games by Ueberroth .
= = Bid details = =
Chicago has had prior experience with Olympic bids . In 1901 , the city was unanimously chosen by the IOC to stage the 1904 Summer Olympics , but the Games were moved to St. Louis to coincide with the 1904 World 's Fair . Chicago also bid for the 1952 and 1956 Summer Olympics , without success . Mayor of Chicago Richard M. Daley visited Beijing – host city of the 2008 Summer Olympics – on May 15 , 2006 , where he collected information on hosting . The bidding process for the 2016 Olympic Games was officially launched on May 16 , 2007 .
In June 2007 , Olympic bid committee Chairman and CEO , Patrick G. Ryan announced that David P. Bolger was appointed chief operating officer and Rick Ludwig as chief financial officer .
The Chicago 2016 Olympic bid committee announced the details of the Olympic bid application on January 15 , 2008 . 22 of the 27 Olympic venues will be in four clusters within 15 km of the Olympic Village . Five new venues and eleven temporary venues would have been built for the games at a cost $ 49 @.@ 3 million ; these construction costs , and the costs of the games were to be borne by the private sector , with the government financing the infrastructure .
The bid committee filed a 600 @-@ page candidacy file with the IOC in Lausanne , Switzerland on February 12 , 2009 . The file responded to 227 questions given to each candidate city . On February 13 , the candidacy file with the final version of Chicago 's 2016 Olympic plan was publicly released .
Chicago 's bid was supported by major preliminary corporate commitments , philanthropic efforts by wealthy Chicagoans , promised planning participation by a wide range of community and government leaders , and the enthusiasm of the citizenry . Local support for the bid on the South Side , particularly in the Washington Park and Woodlawn community areas , was divided . Ben Joravsky , a Chicago Reader columnist , was one of the strongest critics of the Chicago 2016 bid . However , 2007 opinion polls indicated 76 percent public support . In 2009 , as the final selection approached , opponents of the bid became vocal even though organizers seemed to be pleased with the bid 's progress and presentation . Peter Ueberroth stated , " Chicago is going in the right direction , and we are impressed by that . "
Long @-@ time Chicago resident and current President of the United States Barack Obama was a supporter of Chicago 's bid since its inception and noted his support during his Presidential election victory speech in Grant Park . President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama traveled to Denmark to support Chicago 's bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics . Michael Jordan was an unofficial spokesman for Chicago 's bid . Chicago media mogul Oprah Winfrey and Olympic champion Michael Phelps had been widely promoting the bid since the 2008 Summer Olympics .
The bid plan emphasized use of Chicago Park District parks ( Washington Park , Burnham Park , Lincoln Park , Douglas Park and Grant Park ) . In addition , existing facilities such as Soldier Field and McCormick Place would have hosted events . In addition to the event sites , the bid included North side , downtown Loop and South Side celebration locations in Lincoln and Grant Parks as well as the Midway Plaisance respectively that would have had JumboTrons for unticketed visitors . The bid noted the high concentration of event locations ; the majority of event sites would have been clustered together .
= = = Financing = = =
Ueberroth and members of the national committee met with Daley on May 10 , 2006 , for the initial assessment . Daley appointed business executive Patrick G. Ryan of Aon Corporation , part @-@ owner of the Chicago Bears , to lead the city 's bid process , especially in areas of corporate participation in fundraising .
Mayor Daley said on May 10 , 2006 that the Olympics " cannot become a financial burden to the taxpayers of Chicago and Illinois . " " The goal is to have the Olympics be totally privately funded and we have unparalleled support from the business community , " a mayoral spokeswoman said in July 2006 . Daley insisted that no tax money would be used to pay for the city to host the 2016 Summer Olympic Games and said funding from the private sector and federal dollars for security and infrastructure would cover the costs . " Tax money isn 't paying for it , " Daley said on February 7 , 2009 . " The federal government pays for security , which is the highest cost of the Olympics ... The other thing they pay for is infrastructure ... There 's no city tax money whatsoever ... We are very strong in that position ... in the regard to having that be sponsored by the private sector and others . " In previous years , Daley opposed possible bids for the 2008 and 2012 Olympic Games owing to former international committee financial @-@ guarantee requirements . The 2016 financial guarantee requirements were not initially formalized .
Early cost estimates hovered at $ 5 billion , with $ 1 @.@ 1 billion for the lakeside Olympic Village and an additional estimated $ 366 million for a temporary 80 @,@ 000 seat Olympic Stadium to be built in Washington Park . Nonetheless , the proposed budget was small in comparison to the Beijing Olympics , which are estimated to have cost $ 40 billion . Further , the 2004 Olympic games in Athens , initially budgeted to cost $ 2 @.@ 4 billion , in fact cost $ 9 billion . On April 11 , 2007 , former Governor of Illinois Rod Blagojevich proposed $ 150 million in state funding to help secure the bid to the USOC for Chicago . Current Governor Pat Quinn stated that he would be willing to support any funding necessary to secure the Olympics for Chicago . By April 14 , over $ 35 million in cash and $ 13 million in goods had been pledged , including donations in excess of $ 100 @,@ 000 from at least 225 individuals and corporations . Chicago had strong allies to pursue federal funds for security and transportation : U.S. Senator Dick Durbin was the second in command among Democratic Senators as the Whip , and former Senator Barack Obama had become the President of the United States . The city announced a $ 500 million insurance policy against cost overruns and revenue shortfalls .
= = = Venues = = =
Despite the current lack of an Olympic stadium , Chicago has dozens of existing sport venues : Soldier Field , United Center , U.S. Cellular Field , Wrigley Field , Allstate Arena in Rosemont , Sears Centre in Hoffman Estates , and Toyota Park in Bridgeview . Venues at Loyola University Chicago , Northwestern University , the University of Chicago , the University of Illinois at Chicago , Chicago State University , Northern Illinois University , and the University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , among others , were also available and had been mentioned in early news reports as possibilities . Northerly Island and the lakefront along Lake Michigan would have hosted all beach and water events . The McCormick Place convention center , the second largest in the world , was the planned venue for indoor events like judo and weightlifting , as well as hosting all press offices , while Archery and the medals podium were slated for Grant Park .
Preliminary soccer matches would have been played in several venues , of which a few were slated to have been temporarily renamed in line with the IOC prohibition against corporate naming rights sponsorships to be used for venue names . These venues included MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford , New Jersey ( which would have been temporarily renamed " New York Field " for the Olympics ) ; the Rose Bowl in Pasadena , California ; Lincoln Financial Field ( " Philadelphia Field " ) in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ; the Edward Jones Dome in St. Louis , Missouri ( " St. Louis Dome " ) ; FedExField in Landover , Maryland ( " Landover Field " ) ; and TCF Bank Stadium ( " Minneapolis Stadium " ) , a new stadium which opened in September 2009 on the campus of the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis , Minnesota .
Swimming events were originally planned to be held in the West Side 's Douglas Park , but in a December 2008 plan revision the swimming events would have moved to Washington Park and a velodrome for track and BMX cycling events would have moved from Northerly Island to Douglas Park . The Cycling hub will be in Madison , Wisconsin .
While some venues might have changed at short notice , the Chicago 2016 Bid Book indicated that the following venues would have been permanently constructed : an Aquatic Center , the Olympic Stadium ( to a limited long @-@ term degree ) , a Canoe / Flatwater / Rowing area at Monroe Harbor , a Canoe / Kayak @-@ Slalom Course , a velodrome in Douglas Park , and Field Hockey Fields in Jackson Park .
= = = = Rowing = = = =
The Monroe Harbor would have been enlarged with a $ 60 @-@ million breakwater to accommodate an approximately 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) course for rowing events . This would have enabled rowing competitions to take place on a course running from Northerly Island to about Randolph Street . This course would have featured a picturesque Chicago Loop skyline backdrop for television viewing , which by 2016 might have included the Chicago Spire , if it was completed . In order to accommodate the Olympics , all non @-@ Olympic watercraft would have been required to vacate Monroe Harbor for a year . Canoeing events would have been held in the former location of Meigs Field on Northerly Island near the Adler Planetarium . Historically , this site staged some venues for the 1933 World 's Fair .
= = = = Stadium = = = =
The Olympic Stadium would have been built in Washington Park , a site listed on the National Register of Historic Places in the Washington Park community area of the same name on the city 's south side . Chicago initially proposed building a temporary 80 @,@ 000 @-@ seat track stadium adjacent to Soldier Field and having the two stadiums host dual Opening and Closing Ceremonies . However , the final proposal called for a $ 366 million temporary stadium to be built in Washington Park . The stadium would have been replaced by a 10 @,@ 000 seat multi @-@ use venue after the games . The smaller post @-@ Olympic stadium would have been more in line with public interest in restoring the historic park after the games . The new stadium would have featured a high @-@ tech reflective sheathing material to accommodate huge TV picture projections on its outside walls . The temporary stadium would not have had concessions inside the stadium , unlike permanent local venues , although concessions were planned outside the stadium . The stadium would have featured a basic oval shape , but it would also have adhered to Olympic design rules which dictate that there must be an overhanging lip at one end to cover dignitaries and the media . IOC president Jacques Rogge praised Chicago 's design in November 2007 as a possible " blueprint for the future " , reflecting the desire of the IOC to make the games both more affordable and to have a smaller ecological footprint on the host city .
= = = = Olympic Village = = = =
The Olympic Village for housing athletes during the games would have been a $ 1 @.@ 1 @-@ billion series of newly constructed lakefront buildings that would have been converted to rental and condominium units after the games . The village was to be located immediately south of McCormick Place , which was expected to host 11 event venues , on a current truck parking lot between South Lake Shore Drive and the Illinois Central Railroad tracks in the Near South Side and Douglas community areas . At the time , the parking lot was being used to stage events at McCormick Place . The village was slated to have pedways over Lake Shore Drive . This location was meant to enable 88 % of the Olympic athletes to be within 15 minutes of their competition venue .
Initially , the Olympic Village was to be located entirely on the McCormick Place truck yards , but in November 2006 , The Michael Reese Hospital site became listed for sale . Planners determined that the Hospital site would likely have been superior in terms of lower cost and more successful urban planning implementation . In November 2007 , Mayor Daley announced a plan to acquire the 37 @-@ acre ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) site , and the following June the hospital decided that it would cease operations . In July 2008 the city announced its official bid for the property : The city planned to borrow $ 85 million to buy the Michael Reese Hospital campus , near 31st and King Drive , from its current owner , Medline Industries . Medline would only get $ 65 million , because the company agreed to make a $ 20 million “ charitable contribution ” back to the city . The city would use that $ 20 million to pay up to five years of interest on its $ 85 million debt , demolish the hospital , and clean up the site . Then sometime in the next couple years it planned to sell the site for at least $ 85 million to a developer or developers , who in turn were expected to build a complex big enough to house about 15 @,@ 000 Olympians . After the games the developer would sell or rent out the units .
In September 2008 , the city realized it had underestimated demolition and environmental cleanup costs , which put the transaction at risk . Additionally in September the Associated Press reported a recalcitrant property owner may force the hospital site to be abandoned . These problems needed resolution by the bid committee by February 2009 , the date which bid books were due . That month , the city requested a renegotiation of terms and within a week Michael Reese hospital filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy . In December 2008 , new terms for the deal became public . Although original financing plans included no taxpayer funding , the late deal was only possible with $ 500 million of taxpayer participation via a guarantee by the city to cover possible revenue shortfall and $ 45 million for Chicago Police Department costs . In addition , in early 2008 , records were uncovered that show the campus of Michael Reese Hospital to have been designed , in large part , by one of the twentieth century 's most well @-@ respected modernist architects , Walter Gropius . Thus , the plan for the Olympic Village battled the growing belief that preserving the old hospital campus would be better from an urban planning and historic preservation standpoint , and also rose questions about financing the village . In addition , the planned demolition of 28 buildings put the sustainability record the city was attempting to create in question .
= = = Sports culture = = =
Chicago benefited from a strong sports culture . On August 1 , 2006 , it was named Best Sports City in the US by Sporting News . Chicagoans are famous for their rabid support of their home teams : the Chicago Bears , Chicago Bulls , Chicago Cubs , Chicago White Sox , Chicago Blackhawks , Chicago Wolves , and more recently , Chicago Sky ( WNBA ) , Chicago Fire , the Chicago Red Stars ( the new women 's soccer team ) , and the Chicago Machine . Other events such as the Chicago Marathon , one of the five World Marathon Majors , will also play a part in Chicago 's Olympic @-@ planning process .
= = = Experience = = =
Chicago has hosted major and historic world gatherings in the past , including the famous 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition , the 1933 Century of Progress Exposition and the 1959 Pan American Games , as well as matches for the 1994 FIFA World Cup soccer tournament . Chicago has also hosted the most United States presidential nominating conventions . Chicago was scheduled to host the 1904 Summer Olympics , but the games were instead relocated to St. Louis to coincide with its Louisiana Purchase Exposition , more commonly known as the Saint Louis World 's Fair . Chicago was also the first host of the Special Olympics in 1968 .
More recently , Chicago hosted the Gay Games VII in July 2006 , and the 2007 AIBA Boxing Championships in October 2007 . The championships were a qualifying event for the 2008 Summer Olympics and a chance for Chicago to showcase its staging skills to IOC members . AIBA head Dr. Ching @-@ kuo Wu enthused the tournament was the " best ever " , especially considering the short six @-@ month lead time Chicago had to organize the games .
= = = Logo = = =
On May 16 , 2007 , Chicago was informed that its logo , a representation of a torch with the flames reminiscent of Chicago 's skyline , violated IOC rules against using Olympic torch imagery . Bidding rules prohibit logos containing the Olympic symbol , motto , flag or other imagery including a flame , torch or medal . Chicago agreed to revise the logo . The current redesigned logo was released on September 19 , 2007 . Using the same color palette , a unique six @-@ pointed Chicago star represents a compass pointing in all directions reaching out to the world . Each point represents an Olympic value : Hope , Respect , Harmony , Friendship , Excellence and Celebration . The warm colors initially represented in the flame ( or top ) of the image refer to the sun , the cool colors represent the green parklands and blue waters of Lake Michigan . Initially beneath the logo were the words " Applicant City " . Both logos were designed by Chicago @-@ based design firm VSA Partners .
Chicago not only changed its logo , but relaunched its campaign . It changed its motto from " Stir the soul " to " Let friendship shine " . Chicago used social media more than any other city bidding , and was keen to make 2016 a ‘ New Media Olympics ’ . It established a number of groups on Facebook , and on September 29 , 2009 the bid 's official page surpassed 100 @,@ 000 members ; it also used Flickr and Twitter .
Chicago City Council alderman Edward M. Burke proposed that a fifth star be added to the Flag of Chicago if the city won its bid for the Olympic games in 2016 .
= = = Bid factors = = =
The bid relied on Chicago 's strength in medical services and doping control , security , accommodations , transportation , technology and media operations . The city 's transportation infrastructure includes the Chicago Transit Authority , which operates a vast network of buses and elevated / subway ' L ' trains , and the Metra and South Shore Line commuter rail services that connects more than 230 suburban destinations to Chicago . These transportation options would have allowed public transit access to the Games for city residents and people throughout northeastern Illinois into northern Indiana and southern Wisconsin .
Chicago 's main airport , O 'Hare International Airport is the second @-@ busiest airport in the world . The Chicago region is served by two other major commercial airports , Midway and Milwaukee 's General Mitchell International Airport , along with several smaller airports . The city is served by all major worldwide airlines , and O 'Hare is an international hub for both American and United Airlines , while Midway is a hub for domestic carrier Southwest Airlines . There is also a considerable network of rail lines and interstate highways in the region . Chicago has over 30 @,@ 000 hotel rooms in the immediate downtown area alone , and it has the largest skilled @-@ labor workforce in the US catering to conventions and other large @-@ scale media events .
Chicago is in the Central Time Zone ( UTC − 5 during the summer months ) , which is very is well @-@ suited to North American television coverage . The NBC television network with its sister cable broadcasters is by far the largest media vendor and contract purchaser of the Olympic Games .
= = Domain name dispute = =
Trademark controversies arose for " Chicago2016.com " and " Tokyo2016.com " , when both were registered in 2004 by entrepreneur Stephen Frayne Jr . , an MBA student at the Kellogg School of Management ; he also claimed around 40 other domain names whose city / year format mimicked the way Olympic Games are marketed . Frayne 's stated intent for the site was a " comprehensive , balanced discussion " of the benefits and pitfalls of holding the Olympics in Chicago ; the Chicago 2016 committee contended that his real intent was to profit from cybersquatting . The Chicago Olympic bid organization , which had been using Chicago2016.org as its official web site , sought control of Chicago2016.com through a complaint filed with an international arbitration organization . Attempts by the USOC to have the World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) release the names failed . Frayne sued in the U.S. District Court in Chicago , seeking an injunction against the arbitration proceedings . On September 25 , 2008 , the WIPO arbitration panel granted Frayne 's motion to suspend and terminate proceedings setting up a battle in the federal court in the Northern District of Illinois .
The Olympic bid candidature documentation published by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) states that each bid must " ... provide documentation indicating that appropriate measures have been taken to register domain names that are of value to your candidature such as ' [ City ] 2016 ' followed by extensions .com .net .org as well as the country code concerned . "
= = Outcome = =
= = = Outlook = = =
Chicago made the Candidate city shortlist in June 2008 as one of four finalists to host the 2016 Olympic games . Its technical ranking by the IOC was 7 @.@ 0 ; generally beyond the 6 @.@ 0 minimum threshold , but trailing behind Tokyo and Madrid 's bids . ( Technical qualities are only part of the final selection process . ) The final selection from Madrid , Spain ; Rio de Janeiro , Brazil was made on October 2 , 2009 , in Copenhagen , Denmark .
In 2007 , USOC head Peter Ueberroth contended that Chicago was in " third or fourth place " , with a need to focus more on the international relations rather than just having a stronger technical bid . In September 2009 , the IOC gave a written evaluation of the venues , budgets , transportation plans and public support . Chicago 's bid was not federally underwritten , unlike other bid cities , which concerned the IOC , given declining tax revenue during a major recession in the US economy . Nevertheless , with Chicago 's strong hosting of the AIBA Boxing Championships which exposed the city to many IOC members , the city was cited as a current favorite , and one member claimed the Games were " theirs to lose . " Chicago also successfully hosted the 2006 Gay Games , another multinational sporting event . Both events were planned with short lead times .
In April 2009 , the Chicago 2016 bid committee was the first of the four finalists to host the 13 @-@ member IOC Evaluation Commission . They presented twenty films to the committee . Among the video spokespersons were Hillary Clinton ( raised in suburban Chicago ) and Michael Jordan . In addition to meeting with bid organizers , the IOC commission met with bid opposition groups when they visited . After the IOC commission left Chicago , the Chicago City Council approved an Olympic Community Agreement ordinance that was drafted by Alderman Toni Preckwinkle . The agreement committed 30 percent of Olympic Village units to affordable housing conversion and guarantees women and minorities a portion of Olympic @-@ related contracts . Former Illinois Senate President Emil Jones derided the agreement as an inadequate deal . Some Chicago residents opposed to the Chicago bid , particularly because of the financial implications of the undertaking to Chicago residents , launched a website called " chicagoansforrio.com " to persuade the IOC to give the Olympics to Rio instead . In a public poll , Chicago residents were almost evenly divided on the bid , with 47 % supporting and 45 % not supporting .
= = = IOC vote = = =
On October 2 , 2009 , Chicago was knocked out in the first round of voting , and the Olympics went to Rio de Janeiro , despite some high profile backers , such as US President Barack Obama and Chicago @-@ based television hostess Oprah Winfrey , going to Copenhagen to support the bid .
Since balloting is secret and IOC members rarely share their voting tendencies , there has been much speculation as to why Chicago lost the Olympic bid so early in the process . Michelle Higgins on The New York Times blog argued that an overly restrictive passport and visa policy was one such reason . CBS 2 Chicago 's website suggested that anti @-@ Americanism may have contributed . Bid CEO Patrick Ryan was quoted in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times as saying " bloc voting " and assumptions by others in the IOC that Chicago had enough votes to make it to the second round of voting led to its early demise . The same article hinted at fractious relations , noted by The Seattle Times , between the IOC and USOC over the corporate background of the USOC executives and the " inordinate " share of revenue that they receive .
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= Interstate 470 ( Kansas ) =
Interstate 470 ( I @-@ 470 ) is a 13 @.@ 72 @-@ mile ( 22 @.@ 08 km ) loop highway that bypasses the downtown area of Topeka , Kansas . I @-@ 470 begins at an interchange with Interstate 70 in western Topeka and heads generally southeast , running concurrent with U.S. Route 75 ( US @-@ 75 ) . The concurrency with US @-@ 75 ends 5 @.@ 74 miles ( 9 @.@ 24 km ) later at the Burlingame Road interchange . I @-@ 470 becomes part of the Kansas Turnpike at its junction with Interstate 335 . From there , the highway heads generally northeast through the southeastern sections of Topeka . After traveling 7 @.@ 03 miles ( 11 @.@ 31 km ) as the Kansas Turnpike , I @-@ 470 reaches its eastern terminus with Interstate 70 . The highway has annual average daily traffic values as high as 43 @,@ 000 west of Gage Boulevard to as low as 10 @,@ 370 near the eastern terminus with Interstate 70 . As an interstate highway , Interstate 470 is a part of the United States National Highway System . The non @-@ turnpike portions of the highway are maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation , while the turnpike portion is maintained by the Kansas Turnpike Authority .
The Kansas Turnpike was opened in the 1950s , comprising the eastern portion of the route . In the late 1950s construction began on the western portion of I @-@ 470 , and on October 21 , 1960 , the western section of I @-@ 470 was dedicated and opened to traffic . In 1982 , Interstate 470 was designated as " Martin Luther King Jr . Memorial Highway " . The routing of I @-@ 470 has not changed since the completion of the highway .
= = Route description = =
= = = Free segment = = =
Interstate 470 begins on the west side of Topeka at an interchange with I @-@ 70 , US @-@ 40 , and K @-@ 4 . US @-@ 75 approaches the interchange from the east and joins I @-@ 470 . The two routes head southeastward along the western edge of the city . Along this stretch of the Interstate , there are three interchanges ; Huntoon / Wanamaker , 21st , and 29th / Fairlawn . Because of both the southeast @-@ to @-@ northwest alignment of the road and the proximity of two cross @-@ streets , the Huntoon / Wanamaker and 29th / Fairlawn interchanges are each made up of two half @-@ diamond interchanges , with entrances and exits on two different streets depending on direction . At the Huntoon / Wanamaker interchange , traffic leaving eastbound I @-@ 470 is deposited onto Huntoon Street . Vehicles merging onto eastbound I @-@ 470 must access the entrance ramp from Wanamaker Road . The intersection of Huntoon and Wanamaker is adjacent to the freeway . The 29th / Fairlawn interchange is constructed similarly to the Huntoon / Wanamaker interchange , while the 21st Street interchange is a standard diamond interchange . Through southern Topeka , I @-@ 470 / US @-@ 75 curve to the east @-@ southeast where they intersect Gage Boulevard . Further southeast , US @-@ 75 splits away from I @-@ 470 at a complex interchange with Burlingame Road . Just east of the US @-@ 75 interchange , a trumpet interchange provides access to Topeka Boulevard .
= = = Kansas Turnpike segment = = =
The highway then passes through a toll plaza and merges onto the Kansas Turnpike , starting the tolled portion of the highway . This junction also marks the northern end of I @-@ 335 . I @-@ 470 and the Kansas Turnpike head northeast towards I @-@ 70 . The tollway continues northeastward through southeastern Topeka , passing near to Lake Shawnee and eventually reaching I @-@ 470 's terminus at I @-@ 70 , which the turnpike carries east .
= = Maintenance = =
The non @-@ turnpike portion of the freeway is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) . As part of this role , KDOT surveys traffic on Kansas highways in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . In 2011 , KDOT calculated that as few as 10 @,@ 400 vehicles used I @-@ 470 daily along the Kansas Turnpike near the I @-@ 70 interchange and as many as 41 @,@ 300 vehicles used I @-@ 470 daily between the Gage Boulevard interchange and the 29th Street interchange . The portions of I @-@ 470 that are part of the Kansas Turnpike fall under the purview of the Kansas Turnpike Authority , which is responsible for operating and maintaining the Kansas Turnpike . Being part of the Interstate Highway System , the entirety of I @-@ 470 is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The section of I @-@ 470 that now runs along the Kansas Turnpike was opened in 1956 , and was the first part of I @-@ 470 to be built . After the founding of the Interstate Highway System that same year , several Interstate freeways were planned through Topeka , including I @-@ 70 and I @-@ 470 . Construction began on I @-@ 470 after I @-@ 70 's completion to Topeka . The segment of the I @-@ 470 freeway from the I @-@ 70 interchange to the Kansas Turnpike , most of which is concurrent with US @-@ 75 , was built by Koss Construction Company and was under construction until 1960 . On October 21 , 1960 , the western section of I @-@ 470 was dedicated by the state highway department and the Kansas Turnpike Authority and opened to traffic . Since completion of the freeway , the route has not been changed . In 1982 , Interstate 470 was dedicated as " Martin Luther King Jr . Memorial Highway " .
= = Exit list = =
The exits on the Kansas Turnpike portion of I @-@ 470 follow the Turnpike 's mileposts . The entire route is in Topeka , Shawnee County .
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= Pizza cheese =
Pizza cheese encompasses several varieties and types of cheeses and dairy products that are designed and manufactured for use specifically on pizza . These include processed and modified cheese such as mozzarella @-@ like processed cheeses and mozzarella variants . The term can also refer to any type of cheese suitable for use on pizza . The most popular cheeses used in the preparation of pizza are mozzarella ( accounting for about 30 % ) , provolone , cheddar and Parmesan . Emmental , Romano and ricotta are often used as toppings , and processed pizza cheeses manufactured specifically for pizza are mass @-@ produced . Some mass @-@ produced pizza cheeses are frozen after manufacturing and shipped frozen .
Processed pizza cheese is manufactured to produce optimal qualities in browning , melting , stretchiness and fat and moisture content . Several studies and experiments have analyzed the impact of vegetable oil , manufacturing and culture processes , denatured whey proteins and other changes to create ideal and economical pizza cheeses . In 1997 it was estimated that annual production of pizza cheese products was 2 billion pounds in the United States and 200 million pounds in Europe , and in 2000 demand for the product in Europe was increasing by 8 % per year . The trend of steadily @-@ increasing production and consumption of mozzarella and pizza cheese continued into the first decade of the 21st century in the United States .
= = Varieties and types = =
The International Dictionary of Food and Cooking defines pizza cheese as " a soft spun @-@ curd cheese similar to Mozzarella made from cow 's milk ... " that is " ... used particularly for pizzas and contains somewhat less water than real Mozzarella ... " Most are at least 95 percent Mozzarella , with different moisture and fat densities . Cheese for frozen pizzas may be comminuted , in which the cheese is processed into minute granules or fragments . Low @-@ moisture Mozzarella can be formulated specifically for pizza . Cheese may be processed into blocks , from which the product can be grated , made into granules or sliced for use on pizza or other foods . Pizza cheese frequently consists of a blend of two or more cheeses , such as low @-@ moisture Mozzarella or Provolone . Low @-@ moisture Mozzarella was first manufactured in dairy factories in the Midwestern United States , and was originally called " pizza cheese " . Compared to standard Mozzarella , low @-@ moisture Mozzarella has a firmer texture , is easier to grate , has better browning and melting characteristics , and is less perishable .
Globally , Mozzarella is the most popular pizza cheese . However , it has been estimated that in the United States only 30 % of all pizza cheese used is actual Mozzarella . Provolone is the second most popular one . Cheddar may be mixed with Mozzarella to preserve chewiness . Grated Parmesan may be added to the top of a pizza , and typically does not melt well when cooked . A diverse variety of processed pizza cheeses are produced , including analogue cheese . Provel is one example . Other pizza cheeses include Emmental , Romano and Ricotta for calzones or as a topping .
Several cheeses may be mixed together in its formulation , and each has individual browning and blistering characteristics . For example , a combination of Mozzarella and Cheddar may blister less when cooked compared to other combinations , because cheddar has less elasticity , while Mozzarella and provolone may brown less compared to other combinations .
= = = Processed pizza cheeses = = =
Pasteurized and processed pizza cheese dairy products that are designed to melt well and remain chewy are used on many mass @-@ produced pizzas in North America and the United Kingdom . These types of cheeses are referred to as analogue ( or analog ) pizza cheese In the book Technology of Cheesemaking , editors Law and Tamimethat state that analogue pizza cheese appears to be the leading type of cheese analogue produced globally . Each year in the United States , 700 million frozen pizzas are sold , three @-@ quarters of which contain cheese substitutes .
Analogue pizza cheeses may be formulated for processing with less sophisticated cheese @-@ making equipment than is required for Mozzarella cheese , such as using simple mixing and molding . They tend to have a soft texture and once melted , may have a slightly " stringy " quality when pulled or bitten into . They may lack in a fusion , or melting together of the shredded product when cooked , in which the cheese gels together . New stabilizer systems have been developed that have helped to enable the creation of analogue pizza cheeses .
An example of a processed pizza cheese is Provel , which uses Cheddar , Swiss , and Provolone cheeses as flavorants . Some analogue types are made with casein , a by @-@ product of milk , and vegetable oil , rather than milk fat . Casein @-@ based Mozzarella @-@ like imitation processed cheeses prepared using rennet are also used as a Mozzarella substitute on frozen pizzas .
In some instances , the production of analogue pizza cheese can be similar to the production of cream cheese , although production may be different and homogenization may be avoided . In some varieties , the product is heated to remain at a specific temperature and for a specific amount of time , which causes the proteins in the mix to gelatinize . During this process , salts in the mix serve to emulsify it and thus improve the meltability of the final product . The heated product is then placed in packaging such as bags @-@ in @-@ boxes while still hot , as it is more easily handled in this state compared to when in a solid state . During packaging , these types of pizza cheeses are then quick @-@ cooled to avoid browning of the product , which can occur vis @-@ a @-@ vis the Maillard reaction .
= = Research and development = =
Manufacturers and academics have conducted studies and experiments in an effort to improve the stretchiness , melting characteristics , browning , fat content and water retention of pizza cheese . Several patents exist for specialized varieties of pizza cheese and for its processing . A study by Rudan and Barbano found that the addition of a thin layer of vegetable oil atop low- and reduced @-@ fat pizza cheese increased meltability and reduced browning and dehydration when the product was cooked , but the texture remained overly chewy and tough . A study by Perry ( et al . ) found various methods to heighten the melt of low @-@ fat pizza cheese by increasing its moisture , including the use of pre @-@ acidification , fat @-@ replacers , and exopolysaccharide starter cultures as well as higher pasteurization temperatures .
Manufacturers aim for a moisture content of 50 @-@ to @-@ 52 percent and a fat @-@ in @-@ dry @-@ matter content of 35 @-@ to @-@ 40 percent . A study published in the International Journal of Food & Science Technology found that a 12 @.@ 5 : 87 @.@ 5 blend of vetch milk and bovine milk improved stretchiness and melting characteristics . Vetch is a legume that has seeds which are similar to lentils . An experiment published in the International Journal of Dairy Technology suggested that the level of galactose , a monosaccharide sugar that is less sweet than glucose and fructose , can be reduced using different culture techniques . An article in the International Journal of Food Engineering found that trisodium citrate , a food additive used to preserve and add flavor to foods , slightly improved the preferred qualities of pizza cheese . Research published in Dairy Industries International suggested that denatured whey proteins increased moisture retention , but that the improvements were very slight and not economically worthwhile relative to the minor improvements .
Some consumers prefer pizza cheese with less browning , which can be achieved using low @-@ moisture part @-@ skim Mozzarella with a low galactose content . Some varieties derived from skim mozzarella variants were designed not to require aging or the use of fermentation starter . Others can be produced through the direct acidification of milk , which may be used in place of bacterial fermentation .
= = Production and business = =
In the United States , the production and consumption of Mozzarella and pizza cheese in the United States steadily increased in the mid @-@ 20th century , and this trend has continued into the first decade of the 21st century . In the U.S. , several hundred million pounds of pizza cheese is consumed annually . In 1997 , it was estimated that annual production of the product was 1 million tons ( 2 billion pounds ) in the United States and 100 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 98 @,@ 000 long tons ; 110 @,@ 000 short tons , 220 @,@ 460 @,@ 000 pounds ) in Europe . It has been estimated that 30 % of all pizza cheese used in the United States is Mozzarella cheese . As of 2000 , demand for the product was growing in Europe by 8 percent per year .
Mass @-@ produced pizza cheese is used by the foodservice industry , quick service restaurants , and other industries and businesses . The world 's largest manufacturer of pizza cheese , Leprino Foods Company , processes 600 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 590 @,@ 000 long tons ; 660 @,@ 000 short tons , 1 @,@ 322 @,@ 760 @,@ 000 pounds ) a year . Leprino Foods holds patents for some specialized Mozzarella production processes that enable the quick manufacture of the product . One such product is a frozen shredded cheese used for pizza that is created in a few hours from milk . Other U.S. companies also mass @-@ produce pizza cheese , which is shipped in a frozen state . As of 2000 , Glanbia is the largest producer of pizza cheese in Europe . Some retail and commercially mass @-@ produced frozen pizzas have cheese stuffed into the pizza crust .
= = Use by region = =
Significant amounts of pizza cheese are used in Europe , Australia , New Zealand and the United States . Whole milk mozzarella is popular in pizzas in the East and Southwest regions of the U.S. , while one survey showed that Provolone was more popular on the east and west coast . Cheddar may be used more in the Eastern and Southern regions of the U.S. Provel cheese is typically used in the preparation of St. Louis @-@ style pizza in the U.S.
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= Bridgeoporus =
Bridgeoporus is a fungal genus in the family Polyporaceae . A monotypic genus , it contains the single polypore species Bridgeoporus nobilissimus , first described to science in 1949 . Commonly known both as the noble polypore and the fuzzy Sandozi , this fungus produces large fruit bodies ( or conks ) that have been found to weigh up to 130 kilograms ( 290 lb ) . The upper surface of the fruit body has a fuzzy or fibrous texture that often supports the growth of algae , bryophytes , or vascular plants .
This species is found in the Pacific Northwest region of North America where it grows on large ( at least 1 m diameter ) specimens of noble fir ( Abies procera ) , Pacific silver fir ( Abies amabilis ) , or western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ) . Bridgeoporus nobilissimus causes a brown rot in its tree hosts . Genetic analysis shows that the fungus is more prevalent than fruit body distribution indicates .
= = Taxonomy = =
Bridgeoporus nobilissimus was named for William Bridge Cooke , who originally described the species as Oxyporus nobilissimus in 1949 . The fungus was discovered in Clackamas County , Oregon , in 1943 by brothers Ali and Fred Sandoz . Foresters called the species Fomes fuzzii @-@ sandozii , referring to the collectors and the fuzzy surface texture of the conk . Several collections were made in Oregon and Washington in subsequent years . A large specimen was collected in Lewis County , Washington in 1946 that weighed about 300 pounds ( 140 kg ) and measured 56 inches ( 140 cm ) by 37 inches ( 94 cm ) . Cooke learned of the fungus in 1948 while visiting Daniel Elliot Stuntz , who kept one of the large fruit bodies that he and Alexander H. Smith had previously collected in Mount Rainier National Park . This fruit body served as the type collection .
Species of genus Oxyporus cause white rot in their host trees . Cooke placed the fungus in this genus by despite not knowing definitively what type of rot it caused ; he considered it to be closely related to Oxyporus populinus . In 1955 , polypore specialist Josiah Lincoln Lowe transferred O. nobilissimus to Fomes , before the concept of this genus was narrowed . In 1996 the new genus Bridgeoporus was circumscribed by Harold Burdsall , Tom Volk and Joseph Ammirati to accommodate this species , in order to rectify incompatibilities with placements in Fomes and Oxyporus . In particular , genus Oxyporus features true cystidia arising from the subhymenium ( the supportive hyphae underlying the hymenium ) , whereas B. nobilissimus has pseudocystidia ( sterile structures arising deep in the subhymenium and protruding into the hymenium ) .
Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial small @-@ subunit rDNA sequences suggests that B. nobilissimus , which belongs in the hymenochaetoid clade , is closely related to the genera Oxyporus and Schizopora . The hymenochaetoid clade includes wood @-@ decaying species previously classified variously in the families Corticiaceae , Polyporaceae and Stereaceae .
= = Description = =
Bridgeoporus nobilissimus has perennial , imbricate , sessile fruit bodies that measure 30 – 140 cm ( 12 – 55 in ) by 25 – 95 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 37 @.@ 4 in ) by 30 – 100 cm ( 12 – 39 in ) . From 1966 to 1990 , this species was designated the largest pore fungus in the Guinness Book of World Records . Three fruit body shapes are associated with the fungus , depending largely on the location of the fruiting on the host tree . Hoof @-@ shaped and shelf @-@ like conks are located on the sides of hosts ; short , oblong @-@ topped conks with tapering pore surfaces occur on the main roots of the host ; and centrally substipitate ( conical ) conks are found on the tops of stumps . The cap surface of young fruit bodies are covered with a dense mat of white mycelial fibers ( up to several millimeters long ) that in age darken in color and often become stuck together at their tips . Although the surface is typically brown or darker , it may appear green due to epiphytic associations with algae such as Coccomyxa or Charicium species . Bryophytes or sometimes vascular plants grow on the upper surface of the conk . The texture of the fruit body is fibrous ; it is rubbery and tough when fresh , but becomes hard and brittle when it is dry . The pores on the underside of the fruit body are round , approximately 2 per mm . The tubes comprising the pores becomes strafified , layering over each other with each successive year of growth . There is a 2 – 3 mm @-@ thick layer of sterile tissue between pore layers , and mature tube layers are 2 – 7 mm long .
Microscopically , B. nobilissimus is characterized by hyphae with a septum , pseudocystidia originating from the trama , closely appressed hyphae in bundles ( fascicles ) on the upper surface of the fruit body . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are 12 – 18 by 4 – 10 µm in size , pear @-@ shaped , and four @-@ spored . The roughly ovoid Basidiospores are 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 µm , hyaline , smooth , and have thin walls .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies ( also called conks ) of Bridgeoporus are found singly or sometimes in overlapping layers on old trees ( 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) diameter at breast height ) of noble fir ( Abies procera ) , and more rarely Pacific silver fir ( Abies amabilis ) or western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ) . It has also been recorded growing on a snag of redwood . Other tree species often found in B. nobilissimus habitats include Douglas @-@ fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) , western redcedar ( Thuja plicata ) , and western hemlock . Common shrubs at these sites include salal ( Gaultheria shallon ) , Sitka alder ( Alnus sinuata ) , rhododendron ( Rhododendron macrophyllum ) , and Alaska blueberry ( Vaccinium ovalifolium ) . The use of molecular genetic techniques has demonstrated that the fungus also lives in Douglas fir , western hemlock , and western redcedar , although its fruit bodies have not been seen on these hosts .
The fungus has been found in the Cascade Range in Washington and Oregon , the Coast Range on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington , and in Redwood National Park in northern California . Specimens have been found at elevations of 1 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 – 1 @,@ 220 m ) . Because the fungus feeds on both dead and living wood , it is both parasitic and saprophytic . B. nobilissimus fruit bodies do not occur on fallen logs or other forms of dead wood lacking roots or some connection to a root system . Conks have been found growing on the still @-@ living roots of an upturned , windthrown tree , while a once @-@ living conk died within several years after the host tree was uprooted by a fallen tree .
= = Conservation = =
Threats to Bridgeoporus nobilissimus include extirpation of known and unknown habitats by logging , fire , or other disturbances , and forestry practices that lead to the loss of large @-@ diameter Abies procera and Abies amabilis trees and large @-@ diameter stumps and snags in managed forests . Due to the scarcity of its mature tree hosts , B. nobilissimus was listed in 1995 as an endangered species by the Oregon Natural Heritage Program , making it the first of the fungi to be listed as endangered by any private or public agency in the United States . It is the sole fungus in category A of the survey and management guidelines for fungi under the Northwest Forest Plan , meaning pre @-@ disturbance surveys and site management are needed before developing areas known to harbor the fungus . There were 13 known sites with the fungus before 1998 ; extensive surveying in the Pacific Northwest increased this number to 103 sites by 2006 . Although it is infrequently observed , the fungus is more abundant than fruit body appearance indicates . Using genetic markers to detect the fungus mycelium in hosts , researchers found that B. nobilissimus was present at low to moderate levels and widespread in forest stands containing at least a single visible fruit body . It was detected in trees of all sizes , and in species not previously thought to harbor the fungus . B. nobilissimus may require decades of mycelial growth in its host before fruit body production is initiated . The fungus has not been successively grown in vitro despite several attempts .
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