page:  = <unk> = 
   
   <unk> ( / <unk> / ) ( <unk> ’ al in modern <unk> <unk> ) is the ruins of an ancient city found in a <unk> in Guatemala . <unk> <unk> , a gum @-@ <unk> , reported the ruins to La <unk> , a <unk> newspaper , which named the site <unk> . After the Berlin Academy of Sciences ' magazine republished the report in 1853 , <unk> and treasure hunters began visiting the forest . Today tourism to the site may help protect the <unk> . It is one of the largest archaeological sites and urban centers of the pre @-@ Columbian Maya civilization . It is located in the archaeological region of the <unk> Basin in what is now northern Guatemala . Situated in the department of El <unk> , the site is part of Guatemala 's <unk> National Park and in 1979 it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site . 
   <unk> was the capital of a conquest state that became one of the most powerful kingdoms of the ancient Maya . Though monumental architecture at the site dates back as far as the 4th century BC , <unk> reached its <unk> during the Classic Period , c . 200 to 900 AD . During this time , the city dominated much of the Maya region politically , economically , and militarily , while interacting with areas throughout <unk> such as the great metropolis of <unk> in the distant Valley of Mexico . There is evidence that <unk> was conquered by <unk> in the 4th century AD . Following the end of the Late Classic Period , no new major monuments were built at <unk> and there is evidence that elite palaces were burned . These events were coupled with a gradual population decline , culminating with the site ’ s abandonment by the end of the 10th century . 
   <unk> is the best understood of any of the large lowland Maya cities , with a long dynastic ruler list , the discovery of the tombs of many of the rulers on this list and the investigation of their monuments , temples and palaces . 
   
   = = Etymology = = 
   
   The name <unk> may be derived from <unk> <unk> <unk> in the <unk> Maya language ; it is said to be a relatively modern name meaning " at the <unk> " . The name was apparently applied to one of the site 's ancient reservoirs by hunters and travelers in the region . It has alternatively been interpreted as meaning " the place of the voices " in the <unk> Maya language . <unk> , however , is not the ancient name for the site but rather the name adopted shortly after its discovery in the 1840s . <unk> inscriptions at the ruins refer to the ancient city as <unk> <unk> or <unk> <unk> , meaning " First <unk> " . <unk> may have come to have been called this because <unk> <unk> also came to use the same emblem glyph ; the rulers of the city presumably wanted to distinguish themselves as the first city to bear the name . The kingdom as a whole was simply called <unk> , which is the reading of the " hair bundle " emblem glyph seen in the accompanying photo . Its precise meaning remains obscure . 
   
   = = Location = = 
   
   The closest large modern settlements are Flores and Santa <unk> , approximately 64 kilometres ( 40 mi ) by road to the southwest . <unk> is approximately <unk> kilometres ( 188 mi ) north of Guatemala City . It is 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of the contemporary Maya city of <unk> and 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) northwest of <unk> . The city was located 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) southeast of its great Classic Period rival , <unk> , and 85 kilometres ( 53 mi ) northwest of <unk> 's ally <unk> , now in Belize . 
   The city has been completely mapped and covered an area greater than 16 square kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 sq mi ) that included about 3 @,@ 000 structures . The topography of the site consists of a series of parallel limestone ridges rising above swampy lowlands . The major architecture of the site is clustered upon areas of higher ground and linked by raised <unk> spanning the swamps . The area around <unk> has been declared as the <unk> National Park and the preserved area covers 570 square kilometres ( 220 sq mi ) . 
   The ruins lie among the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala that formed the <unk> of lowland Maya civilization . The city itself was located among abundant fertile upland soils , and may have dominated a natural east – west trade route across the <unk> Peninsula . <unk> trees at the <unk> park include gigantic <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) the sacred tree of the Maya ; tropical cedar ( <unk> <unk> ) , and Honduras mahogany ( <unk> <unk> ) . Regarding the fauna , <unk> , white @-@ <unk> <unk> , gray foxes , <unk> 's spider monkeys , <unk> monkeys , <unk> eagles , falcons , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , green parrots and <unk> ants can be seen there regularly . <unk> , <unk> , and cougars are also said to <unk> in the park . For centuries this city was completely covered under jungle . The average annual rainfall at <unk> is 1 @,@ <unk> millimetres ( 76 @.@ 6 in ) . 
   One of the largest of the Classic Maya cities , <unk> had no water other than what was collected from <unk> and stored in ten reservoirs . Archaeologists working in <unk> during the 20th century refurbished one of these ancient reservoirs to store water for their own use . 
   The <unk> National Park covers an area of 575 @.@ 83 square kilometres ( 222 @.@ 33 sq mi ) . It was created on 26 May 1955 under the auspices of the <unk> de <unk> e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala . 
   
   = = Population = = 
   
   Population estimates for <unk> vary from 10 @,@ 000 to as high as 90 @,@ 000 inhabitants , with the most likely figure being at the upper end of this range . 
   The population of <unk> began a continuous curve of growth starting in the <unk> Period ( approximately 2000 BC – AD 200 ) , with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830 , followed by a sharp decline . For the 120 square kilometres ( 46 sq mi ) area falling within the <unk> defenses of the hinterland , the peak population is estimated at <unk> per square kilometer ( <unk> per square mile ) . In an area within a 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) radius of the site core , peak population is estimated at 120 @,@ 000 ; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometer ( <unk> per square mile ) . In a region within a 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites , peak population is estimated at 425 @,@ 000 with a density of 216 per square kilometer ( 515 per square mile ) . These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive <unk> that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture . However , some archaeologists , such as David Webster , believe these figures to be far too high . 
   
   = = Rulers = = 
   
   The dynastic line of <unk> , founded as early as the 1st century AD , spanned 800 years and included at least 33 rulers . 
   
   = = History = = 
   
   
   = = = <unk> = = = 
   
   There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC , in the Middle <unk> . A <unk> of <unk> ceramics dating from about 700 @-@ 400 BC were found in a sealed <unk> , a subterranean bottle @-@ shaped chamber . 
   Major construction at <unk> was already taking place in the Late <unk> period , first appearing around 400 – 300 BC , including the building of major pyramids and platforms , although the city was still <unk> by sites further north such as El <unk> and <unk> . At this time , <unk> participated in the widespread <unk> culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time – a region that included the entire <unk> Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize . 
   Two temples dating to Late <unk> times had masonry @-@ walled <unk> that may have been <unk> @-@ vaulted , although this has not been proven . One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a <unk> background , painted in yellow , black , pink and red . 
   In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and <unk> underwent a political and cultural <unk> as its giant northern neighbors declined . At the end of the Late <unk> , the <unk> style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence <unk> , as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the <unk> and early murals at the city . 
   
   = = = Early Classic = = = 
   
   <unk> rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at <unk> . According to later hieroglyphic records , the dynasty was founded by <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> , perhaps in the 3rd century AD . At the beginning of the Early Classic , power in the Maya region was concentrated at <unk> and <unk> , in the core of the Maya <unk> . 
   <unk> may have benefited from the collapse of the large <unk> states such as El <unk> . In the Early Classic <unk> rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region , <unk> the development of other nearby Maya cities . 
   The site , however , was often at war and inscriptions tell of <unk> and conflict with other Maya states , including <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> . The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by <unk> , which rose to take <unk> 's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands . The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between <unk> and its neighbor <unk> , with <unk> recording the capture of prisoners from <unk> . 
   There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317 , when Lady <unk> <unk> conducted a <unk> @-@ ending ceremony , apparently as queen of the city . 
   
   = = = = <unk> and <unk> = = = = 
   
   The fourteenth king of <unk> was <unk> <unk> Ich 'aak ( Great Jaguar <unk> ) . <unk> <unk> Ich 'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis . Little is known about <unk> <unk> Ich 'aak except that he was killed on 14 January <unk> AD . On the same day , <unk> K ’ <unk> ’ ( Fire Is Born ) arrived from the west , having passed through El Peru , a site to the west of <unk> , on 8 January . On Stela 31 he is named as " Lord of the West " . <unk> K ’ <unk> ’ was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non @-@ Maya <unk> of a <unk> combined with an owl , a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of <unk> in the distant Valley of Mexico . <unk> Owl may even have been the ruler of <unk> . These recorded events strongly suggest that <unk> K ’ <unk> ’ led a <unk> invasion that defeated the native <unk> king , who was captured and immediately executed . <unk> K <unk> ' appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at <unk> itself ; roughly at the time of the conquest , a group of <unk> natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex . He also exerted control over other cities in the area , including <unk> , where he became king , but did not take the throne of <unk> for himself . Within a year , the son of <unk> Owl by the name of <unk> <unk> <unk> I ( First Crocodile ) had been installed as the tenth king of <unk> while he was still a boy , being enthroned on 13 September <unk> . He reigned for 47 years as king of <unk> , and remained a vassal of <unk> K <unk> ' for as long as the latter lived . It seems likely that <unk> <unk> <unk> I took a wife from the <unk> , defeated , <unk> dynasty and thus <unk> the right to rule of his son , <unk> Chan K 'awiil II . 
   <unk> <unk> , a small site 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) northeast of <unk> , was conquered by the latter during the reign of <unk> <unk> <unk> I. The site became an outpost of <unk> , shielding it from hostile cities further north , and also became a trade link to the Caribbean . 
   Although the new rulers of <unk> were foreign , their descendants were rapidly <unk> . <unk> became the key ally and trading partner of <unk> in the Maya lowlands . After being conquered by <unk> , <unk> rapidly dominated the northern and eastern <unk> . <unk> , together with smaller towns in the region , were absorbed into <unk> 's kingdom . Other sites , such as <unk> and <unk> de San José near Lake <unk> <unk> became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north . By the middle of the 5th century <unk> had a core territory of at least 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) in every direction . 
   Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of <unk> 's hinterland , joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of <unk> lying to the east and west of the city . Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south . These defenses protected <unk> 's core population and agricultural resources , <unk> an area of approximately 120 square kilometres ( 46 sq mi ) . Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose . 
   
   = = = = <unk> and <unk> = = = = 
   
   In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as <unk> , whose founder K 'inich <unk> K <unk> ' Mo ' was clearly connected with <unk> . <unk> itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the <unk> dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of <unk> . K 'inich <unk> K <unk> ' Mo ' arrived in <unk> in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at <unk> . An individual known as <unk> K <unk> ' Mo ' ( lord K <unk> ' Mo ' ) is referred to in an early text at <unk> and may well be the same person . His tomb had <unk> characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior <unk> of <unk> . <unk> texts refer to him as " Lord of the West " , much like <unk> K ’ <unk> ’ . At the same time , in late 426 , <unk> founded the nearby site of <unk> , possibly sponsored by <unk> itself . The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose <unk> 's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region . The interaction between these sites and <unk> was intense over the next three centuries . 
   A long @-@ running rivalry between <unk> and <unk> began in the 6th century , with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile <unk> <unk> against each other in what has been likened to a long @-@ running war between two Maya <unk> . The kings of these two capitals adopted the title <unk> ' , a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to " high king " . 
   The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city , known only as the " Lady of <unk> " , who was very likely a daughter of <unk> <unk> Ich 'aak II . She seems never to have ruled in her own right , rather being partnered with male co @-@ rulers . The first of these was <unk> ' B <unk> , who seems to have had a long career as a general at <unk> before becoming co @-@ ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence . The Lady of <unk> herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering . It appears she was later paired with lord " Bird Claw " , who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler . . 
   
   = = = Late Classic = = = 
   
   
   = = = = <unk> hiatus = = = = 
   
   In the mid 6th century , <unk> seems to have allied with <unk> and defeated <unk> , closing the Early Classic . The " <unk> hiatus " refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large @-@ scale construction at <unk> . In the latter half of the 6th century AD , a serious crisis <unk> the city , with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture . This hiatus in activity at <unk> was long unexplained until later <unk> <unk> identified that the period was prompted by <unk> 's comprehensive defeat at the hands of <unk> and the <unk> polity in AD 562 , a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of <unk> . The badly eroded Altar 21 at <unk> described how <unk> suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562 . It seems that <unk> was an ally of <unk> in the wider conflict between that city and <unk> , with the defeat of <unk> having a lasting impact upon the city . <unk> was not sacked but its power and influence were broken . After its great victory , <unk> grew rapidly and some of <unk> 's population may have been forcibly relocated there . During the hiatus period , at least one ruler of <unk> took refuge with <unk> ' <unk> of Palenque , another of <unk> 's victims . <unk> itself <unk> during <unk> 's long hiatus period . 
   The beginning of the <unk> hiatus has served as a marker by which archaeologists commonly <unk> the Classic period of <unk> chronology into the Early and Late Classic . 
   
   = = = = <unk> and <unk> <unk> = = = = 
   
   In <unk> <unk> founded <unk> <unk> , some 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) to the southwest , as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the <unk> River . B <unk> Chan K 'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four , in 635 , and for many years served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother , the king of <unk> . Roughly twenty years later <unk> <unk> was attacked by <unk> and was soundly defeated . B <unk> Chan K 'awiil was captured by the king of <unk> but , instead of being sacrificed , he was re @-@ instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy , and attacked <unk> in <unk> , forcing <unk> <unk> Chaak , the then king of <unk> , to temporarily abandon the city . The first two rulers of <unk> <unk> continued to use the <unk> emblem glyph of <unk> , and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of <unk> itself . For some reason , B <unk> Chan K 'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of <unk> ; instead he stayed at <unk> <unk> . <unk> <unk> against <unk> <unk> in <unk> , driving B <unk> Chan K 'awiil into an exile that lasted five years . <unk> tried to encircle <unk> within an area dominated by its allies , such as El Peru , <unk> <unk> and <unk> . 
   In 682 , <unk> Chan K 'awiil I erected the first dated monument at <unk> in 120 years and claimed the title of <unk> ' , so ending the hiatus . He initiated a programme of new construction and turned the tables on <unk> when , in <unk> , he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered . After this , <unk> never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory . 
   
   = = = = <unk> after <unk> = = = = 
   
   By the 7th century , there was no active <unk> presence at any Maya site and the center of <unk> had been razed by 700 . Even after this , formal war attire illustrated on monuments was <unk> style . <unk> Chan K 'awiil I and his heir <unk> 'in Chan K 'awiil continued hostilities against <unk> and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around <unk> , extending as far as the territory around Lake <unk> <unk> . These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today . 
   In 738 , <unk> , a vassal of <unk> , <unk> 's key ally in the south , switched allegiance to <unk> , defeated <unk> and gained its own independence . It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of <unk> to bring about the collapse of <unk> 's southern allies . This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of <unk> . 
   In the 8th century , the rulers of <unk> collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis . By the late 8th century and early 9th century , activity at <unk> slowed . <unk> architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers . 
   
   = = = Terminal Classic = = = 
   
   By the 9th century , the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region , with populations <unk> and city after city falling into silence . Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused <unk> 's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself , accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and corresponding environmental decline . Construction continued at the beginning of the century , with the erection of Temple 3 , the last of the city 's major pyramids and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K <unk> in <unk> . The beginning of the 10th <unk> <unk> in 830 passed <unk> , and marks the beginning of a 60 @-@ year hiatus , probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city . During this hiatus , satellite sites traditionally under <unk> 's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the <unk> emblem glyph , with <unk> apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence . In <unk> , <unk> K 'awiil is mentioned on a stela at <unk> as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of <unk> but he is not recorded elsewhere and <unk> 's once great power was little more than a memory . The sites of <unk> and <unk> had by now inherited the once exclusive <unk> emblem glyph . 
   As <unk> and its hinterland reached peak population , the area suffered <unk> , erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels . <unk> and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost the majority of its population during the period from 830 to 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly . There is not much evidence from <unk> that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic , although an influx of refugees from the <unk> region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources . 
   In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much diminished city of <unk> , as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by <unk> Chan K 'awiil II in <unk> . This was the last monument erected at <unk> before the city finally fell into silence . The former satellites of <unk> , such as <unk> and <unk> , did not last much longer , <unk> their final monuments in <unk> . By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of <unk> 's population had deserted the city , its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple <unk> dwellings were being erected in the city 's ceremonial <unk> . The squatters blocked some <unk> in the rooms they <unk> in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non @-@ <unk> items such as musical instruments . These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them . Some monuments were <unk> and some were moved to new locations . Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared , with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for <unk> and the easier to find tombs being looted . After 950 , <unk> was all but deserted , although a remnant population may have survived in <unk> <unk> interspersed among the ruins . Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the <unk> claimed the ruins for the next thousand years . Some of <unk> 's population may have migrated to the <unk> Lakes region , which remained heavily populated in spite of a <unk> in population levels in the first half of the 9th century . 
   The most likely cause of collapse at <unk> is <unk> and agrarian failure . The fall of <unk> was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization , the city having been at the forefront of courtly life , art and architecture for over a thousand years , with an ancient ruling dynasty . However , new research regarding <unk> <unk> from the <unk> reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of <unk> . 
   
   = = = Modern history = = = 
   
   In <unk> , the Spanish <unk> Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometres of the ruins of <unk> but did not mention them in his letters . After Spanish friar <unk> de <unk> became lost in the <unk> forests in early <unk> he described a ruin that may well have been <unk> . 
   As is often the case with huge ancient ruins , knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region . It seems that local people never <unk> about <unk> and they guided <unk> expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s . Some second- or third @-@ hand accounts of <unk> appeared in print starting in the 17th century , continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century ( Stephens and his illustrator Frederick <unk> heard rumors of a lost city , with white building tops towering above the jungle , during their 1839 @-@ 40 travels in the region ) . Because of the site 's <unk> from modern towns , however , no explorers visited <unk> until <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> , respectively the commissioner and the governor of <unk> , visited it in 1848 . Artist <unk> <unk> accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853 . Several other expeditions came to further investigate , map , and photograph <unk> in the 19th century ( including Alfred P. <unk> in 1881 @-@ 82 ) and the early 20th century . <unk> archaeologists started to clear , map and record the ruins in the 1880s . 
   In 1951 , a small airstrip was built at the ruins , which previously could only be reached by several days ' travel through the jungle on foot or mule . In 1956 the <unk> project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area . From 1956 through 1970 , major archaeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania <unk> Project . They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures . Excavations directed by Edwin M. <unk> and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969 . The <unk> Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site . In 1979 , the <unk> government began a further archeological project at <unk> , which continued through to 1984 . 
   <unk> George Lucas used <unk> as a filming location for the first Star Wars film , Episode IV : A New Hope , released in 1977 . Temple I at <unk> was featured on the reverse of the 50 <unk> <unk> . 
   <unk> is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park . A site museum has been built at <unk> ; it was completed in 1964 . 
   
   = = Site description = = 
   
   <unk> has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala . It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas . The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 metres ( 230 ft ) high , large royal palaces , in addition to a number of smaller pyramids , palaces , residences , administrative buildings , platforms and inscribed stone monuments . There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail , originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors . There are also seven courts for playing the <unk> <unk> , including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza , a unique feature in <unk> . 
   The limestone used for construction was local and <unk> on @-@ site . The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to <unk> them and were used as reservoirs , together with some <unk> natural depressions . The main <unk> were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that <unk> rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs . 
   The residential area of <unk> covers an estimated 60 square kilometres ( 23 sq mi ) , much of which has not yet been cleared , mapped , or excavated . A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. <unk> and Donald <unk> in the 1960s rings <unk> with a 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) wide trench behind a rampart . The 16 square kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 sq mi ) area around the site core has been intensively mapped ; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometres ( 48 sq mi ) ( see below ) . Population estimates place the demographic size of the site between 10 @,@ 000 and 90 @,@ 000 , and possibly 425 @,@ 000 in the surrounding area . Recently , a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is <unk> as a defensive feature . In addition , some parts of the <unk> were integrated into a canal system . The <unk> of <unk> varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and <unk> than originally thought . 
   
   = = = <unk> = = = 
   
   By the Late Classic , a network of <unk> ( <unk> ) linked various parts of the city , running for several kilometres through its urban core . These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 ( located about 750 metres ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) to the west ) and the Temple of the <unk> ( about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to the southeast ) . These broad <unk> were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archaeologists ; the Maler , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> <unk> . They assisted the passage everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams . 
   The Maler Causeway runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas @-@ relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic . 
   The <unk> Causeway runs 0 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. 
   The <unk> Causeway runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI , a distance of about 1 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 81 mi ) . 
   The <unk> Causeway runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV . 
   
   = = = Architectural groups = = = 
   
   The Great Plaza lies at the core of the site ; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple @-@ pyramids . On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis . 
   The Central Acropolis is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza . 
   The North Acropolis , together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south , is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area ; the <unk> Project excavated a massive trench across the complex , thoroughly investigating its construction history . It is a complex group with construction beginning in the <unk> Period , around 350 BC . It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period , with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures . After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform , which measured 100 by 80 metres ( 330 by 260 ft ) , gradually hiding it from view . Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD , each of them had an elaborate <unk> and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods . By the 9th century AD , 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis ; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits . The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the <unk> Period . 
   The South Acropolis is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20 @,@ 000 square metres ( 220 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . 
   The Plaza of the Seven Temples is to the west of the South Acropolis . It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples , by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side . 
   The Mundo <unk> is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples . It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the <unk> period at <unk> . The complex was organized as a large E @-@ Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples . The Mundo <unk> complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history . By AD 250 – 300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of <unk> in the Valley of Mexico , including the use of the <unk> @-@ <unk> form . During the Early Classic period ( c . 250 – 600 ) the Mundo <unk> became one of the twin <unk> of the city , the other being the North Acropolis . From AD 250 to <unk> it may have served as the royal necropolis . The Mundo <unk> complex was given its name by the archaeologists of the University of Pennsylvania ; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it . 
   Group G lies just south of the <unk> Causeway . The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace @-@ type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at <unk> . It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor , a total of 29 vaulted chambers . The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper storey . One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask . 
   Group H is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza . It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic . 
   There are nine Twin @-@ Pyramid <unk> at <unk> , one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed . They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east – west axis . These pyramids are flat @-@ topped and have <unk> on all four sides . A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids , and lying roughly <unk> from them , there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair . On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine <unk> . The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20 @-@ year ( or k <unk> ) intervals during the Late Classic . The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza . It was once thought that these complexes were unique to <unk> but rare examples have now been found at other sites , such as <unk> and <unk> , and they may reflect the extent of <unk> 's political dominance in the Late Classic . 
   Group Q is a twin @-@ pyramid complex , and is one of the largest at <unk> . It was built by <unk> <unk> <unk> II in <unk> in order to mark the end of the 17th K <unk> . Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re @-@ erected . 
   Group R is another twin @-@ pyramid complex , dated to 790 . It is close to the Maler Causeway . 
   
   = = = Structures = = = 
   
   There are thousands of ancient structures at <unk> and only a fraction of these have been excavated , after decades of archaeological work . The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids , labelled Temples I - VI , each of which support a temple structure on their <unk> . Some of these pyramids are over 60 metres ( 200 feet ) high . They were numbered <unk> during the early survey of the site . It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years . 
   Temple I ( also known as the Temple of <unk> <unk> or Temple of the Great Jaguar ) is a funerary pyramid dedicated to <unk> Chan K <unk> , who was <unk> in the structure in AD <unk> , the pyramid was completed around 740 – 750 . The temple rises 47 metres ( 154 ft ) high . The massive <unk> that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king , although little of this decoration survives . The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey <unk> of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962 . Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people , finely carved and rubbed with <unk> , as well as <unk> and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink . The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers , each behind the next , with the <unk> spanned by wooden <unk> fashioned from multiple beams . The outermost <unk> is plain but the two inner <unk> were carved , some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown , while others were taken to museums in Europe . 
   Temple II ( also known as the Temple of the Mask ) it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 metres ( 125 ft ) high . Like other major temples at <unk> , the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the <unk> spanned by wooden <unk> , only the middle of which was carved . The temple was dedicated to the wife of <unk> Chan K <unk> , although no tomb was found . The queen 's portrait was carved into the <unk> spanning the doorway of the summit shrine . One of the beams from this <unk> is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York . 
   Temple III ( also known as the Temple of the Jaguar Priest ) was the last of the great pyramids to be built at <unk> . It stood 55 metres ( 180 ft ) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof <unk> , possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD <unk> . The temple shrine possesses two chambers . 
   Temple IV is the tallest temple @-@ pyramid at <unk> , measuring 70 metres ( 230 ft ) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb . Temple IV marks the reign of <unk> ’ in Chan <unk> ( Ruler B , the son of Ruler A or <unk> Chan K 'awiil I ) and two carved wooden <unk> over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid ’ s summit record a long count date ( 9 @.@ 15 @.@ 10 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 ) that corresponds to CE <unk> ( <unk> 1994 : 169 ) . Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century , and as it currently stands is the tallest pre @-@ Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at <unk> may originally have been taller , as may have been one of the structures at El <unk> . 
   Temple V stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler . The temple stands 57 metres ( 187 ft ) high , making it the second tallest structure at <unk> - only Temple IV is taller . The temple has been dated to about AD 700 , in the Late Classic period , via <unk> analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of <unk> <unk> <unk> in the second half of the 7th century . 
   Temple VI is also known as the Temple of the <unk> and was dedicated in AD <unk> . It is notable for its 12 @-@ metre ( 39 ft ) high roof @-@ comb . <unk> of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof @-@ comb . The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is <unk> . 
   Temple 33 was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of <unk> Chan K 'awiil I ( known as <unk> 48 ) in the North Acropolis . It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway . Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added , with its own masks and decorated panels . During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions , the stairway was demolished and another royal burial , of an unidentified ruler , was set into the structure ( <unk> 23 ) . While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb ( <unk> 24 ) was inserted into the rubble core of the building . The pyramid was then completed , standing 33 metres ( 108 ft ) tall . The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archaeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction . 
   Structure 34 is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by <unk> Chan K 'awiil II over the tomb of his father , <unk> <unk> <unk> I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine , the rooms situated one behind the other . 
   Structure <unk> @-@ 43 is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza , built over a pre @-@ existing twin pyramid complex . It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry <unk> and three <unk> , the fourth ( south ) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side . The building has a <unk> @-@ <unk> platform profile , modified from the original style found at <unk> . In fact , it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer <unk> with El <unk> and <unk> than with <unk> itself . The vertical <unk> panels are set between sloping <unk> panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols . Large flower symbols are set into the sloping <unk> panels , related to the Venus and star symbols used at <unk> . The roof of the structure was decorated with <unk> although only fragments now remain , showing a monstrous face , perhaps that of a jaguar , with another head emerging from the mouth . The second head possesses a <unk> tongue but is probably not that of a snake . The temple , and its associated ballcourt , probably date to the reign of <unk> <unk> Chaak or that of his son <unk> Chan K 'awiil I , in the later part of the 7th century . 
   Structure <unk> @-@ 49 possesses a clear <unk> @-@ linked architectural style ; it has <unk> , an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region , and a <unk> @-@ <unk> façade ; it dates to the 4th century AD . It is located near to the Lost World pyramid . 
   Structure <unk> @-@ 53 is a small <unk> @-@ style platform that dates to about AD 600 . It had <unk> on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure . 
   The Lost World Pyramid ( Structure <unk> @-@ 54 ) is the largest structure in the Mundo <unk> complex . It lies in the southwest portion of <unk> ’ s central core , south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late <unk> ; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un @-@ impacted by later building activity at <unk> . By the end of the Late <unk> this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region . It attained its final form during the reign of <unk> <unk> Ich 'aak in the 4th century AD , in the Early Classic , standing more than 30 metres ( 98 ft ) high with <unk> on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from <unk> materials . Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration , the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex <unk> to the layout that defines the so @-@ called E @-@ Groups , identified as solar observatories . 
   Structure <unk> @-@ 96 is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples . It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull @-@ and @-@ <unk> motifs . 
   Group <unk> @-@ 16 is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated . It lies a few hundred metres south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks , <unk> murals , relief sculptures and buildings with <unk> characteristics . 
   The Great Plaza Ballcourt is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis . 
   The Bat Palace is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III . It has two <unk> , with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey , which has been restored . The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows . 
   Complex N lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III . The complex dates to AD 711 . 
   
   = = = <unk> = = = 
   
   Altar 5 is carved with two nobles , one of whom is probably <unk> Chan K 'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman . Altar 5 was found in Complex N , which lies to the west of Temple III . 
   Altar 8 is sculpted with a bound captive . It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the <unk> <unk> de <unk> y <unk> in Guatemala City . 
   Altar 9 is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive . It is located in front of Temple VI . 
   Altar 10 is carved with a captive tied to a <unk> . It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q , a twin @-@ pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion . 
   Altar 35 is a plain monument associated with Stela 43 . The stela @-@ altar pair is <unk> located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV . 
   
   = = = <unk> = = = 
   
   At <unk> , beams of <unk> wood were placed as <unk> spanning the inner <unk> of temples . These are the most elaborately carved wooden <unk> to have survived anywhere in the Maya region . 
   <unk> 3 from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century . It was in almost perfect condition and depicts <unk> 'in Chan K 'awiil seated on a <unk> . 
   
   = = = Stelae = = = 
   
   Stelae are carved stone shafts , often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs . A selection of the most notable stelae at <unk> follows : 
   Stela 1 dates to the 5th century and depicts the king <unk> Chan K 'awiil II in a standing position . 
   Stela 4 is dated to AD <unk> , during the reign of <unk> <unk> <unk> after the intrusion of <unk> in the Maya area . The stela displays a mix of Maya and <unk> qualities , and deities from both cultures . It has a portrait of the king with the <unk> Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican <unk> under the other . His helmet is a simplified version of the <unk> War <unk> . Unusually for Maya sculpture , but typically for <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> is depicted with a frontal face , rather than in profile . 
   Stela 5 was dedicated in <unk> by <unk> 'in Chan K 'awiil . 
   Stela 6 is a badly damaged monument dating to <unk> and bears the name of the " Lady of <unk> " who celebrated the end of the 4th K <unk> in that year . 
   Stela 10 is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged . It described the accession of <unk> ' B <unk> in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career , including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument . 
   Stela 11 was the last monument ever erected at <unk> ; it was dedicated in <unk> by <unk> Chan K 'awiil II . 
   Stela 12 is linked to the queen known as the " Lady of <unk> " and king <unk> ' B <unk> . The queen is described as performing the year @-@ ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king . 
   Stela 16 was dedicated in 711 , during the reign of <unk> Chan K 'awiil I. The sculpture , including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text , are limited to the front face of the monument . It was found in Complex N , west of Temple III . 
   Stela 18 was one of two stelae erected by <unk> <unk> <unk> I to celebrate the k <unk> @-@ ending of AD <unk> . It was re @-@ erected at the base of Temple 34 , his funerary shrine . 
   Stela 19 was dedicated in 790 by <unk> <unk> <unk> II . 
   Stela 20 was found in Complex P , in Group H , and was moved to the <unk> <unk> de <unk> y <unk> in Guatemala City . 
   Stela 21 was dedicated in <unk> by <unk> 'in Chan K 'awiil . Only the bottom of the stela is intact , the rest having been <unk> in ancient times . The surviving sculpture is of fine quality , consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text . The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI . 
   Stela 22 was dedicated in <unk> by <unk> <unk> <unk> II in the northern enclosure of Group Q , a twin @-@ pyramid complex . The face of the figure on the stela has been <unk> . 
   Stela 23 was broken in antiquity and was re @-@ erected in a residential complex . The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so @-@ called " Lady of <unk> " , a daughter of <unk> <unk> Ich 'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right , being paired with male co @-@ rulers . It dates to the early 6th century . 
   Stela 24 was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in <unk> , accompanied by Altar 7 . Both were broken into fragments in ancient times , although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments . 
   Stela 26 was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34 , underneath a broken masonry altar . The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken , probably at the beginning of the Late Classic . Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine . 
   Stela 29 bears a Long Count ( 8 @.@ 12 @.@ 14 @.@ 8 @.@ 15 ) date equivalent to AD <unk> , the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands . The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the <unk> emblem glyph . It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right , holding the head of an underworld jaguar god , one of the patron deities of the city . The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later , the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III , to be uncovered by archaeologists in 1959 . 
   Stela 30 is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus . Its style and iconography is similar to that of <unk> , one of the more important of <unk> 's enemies . 
   Stela 31 is the accession monument of <unk> Chan K 'awiil II , also bearing two portraits of his father , <unk> <unk> <unk> , as a youth dressed as a <unk> warrior . He carries a <unk> in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of <unk> , the <unk> war god . In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and <unk> buried . Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at <unk> . A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument , the longest to survive from the Early Classic , which describes the arrival of <unk> K <unk> ' at El Peru and <unk> in January <unk> . It was also the first stela at <unk> to be carved on all four faces . 
   Stela 32 is a fragmented monument with a foreign <unk> @-@ style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god <unk> , including his <unk> eyes and <unk> headdress . 
   Stela 39 is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex . The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of <unk> <unk> Ich 'aak , holding a flint axe in his left hand . He is <unk> the figure of a bound , richly dressed captive . The monument is dated to AD <unk> . The text on the back of the monument describes a <unk> ritual to celebrate a <unk> @-@ ending . The stela also names <unk> <unk> Ich 'aak I 's father as K 'inich <unk> <unk> . 
   Stela 40 bears a portrait of Kan <unk> and dates to AD 468 . 
   Stela 43 is paired with Altar 35 . It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV . 
   
   = = = <unk> = = = 
   
   <unk> 1 is a tomb in the Lost World complex . A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb , with the handle formed from three @-@ dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two @-@ dimensional body painted on the <unk> . 
   <unk> 10 is the tomb of <unk> <unk> <unk> . It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis . The tomb contained a rich array of offerings , including ceramic vessels and food , and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king . A dog was also <unk> with the deceased king . <unk> in the tomb were <unk> and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and <unk> styles . Among the offerings was an incense @-@ <unk> in the shape of an elderly underworld god , sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands . The tomb was sealed with a <unk> vault , then the pyramid was built on top . 
   <unk> 48 is generally accepted as the tomb of <unk> Chan K <unk> . It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis . The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two <unk> who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler . The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457 , probably the date of either the death or interment of the king . The king 's skeleton was missing its skull , its <unk> and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact . 
   <unk> 85 dates to the Late <unk> and was enclosed by a platform , with a primitive <unk> vault . The tomb contained a single male skeleton , which lacked a skull and its <unk> . The dynastic founder of <unk> , <unk> <unk> ' Xook , has been linked to this tomb , which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis . The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being <unk> by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers . The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle . The missing head was replaced by a small <unk> mask with shell @-@ <unk> teeth and eyes and bearing a three @-@ pointed royal <unk> . This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare <unk> lowland Maya portrait of a king . Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine , a <unk> shell and twenty @-@ six ceramic vessels . 
   <unk> 116 is the tomb of <unk> Chan K 'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid , below the level of the Great Plaza . The tomb contained rich offerings of <unk> , ceramics , shell and works of art . The body of the king was covered with large quantities of <unk> ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads , as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king . One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate <unk> mosaic vessel with the <unk> bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself . 
   <unk> 195 was flooded with mud in antiquity . This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely <unk> away by the time the tomb was excavated , leaving <unk> in the dried mud . Archaeologists filled these <unk> with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K 'awiil , the wooden originals long gone . 
   <unk> 196 is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a <unk> mosaic vessel topped with the head of the <unk> God . 
   
   