page:  = First <unk> invasion of Burma = 
   
   The first <unk> invasions of Burma ( <unk> ) ( <unk> : <unk> <unk> <unk> – <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ( <unk> – <unk> ) ) were a series of military conflicts between <unk> Khan 's Yuan dynasty , division of the <unk> Empire , and the Pagan Empire that took place between <unk> and <unk> . The invasions toppled the 250 @-@ year @-@ old Pagan Empire , and the <unk> army seized Pagan territories in present @-@ day <unk> , <unk> and northern Burma to <unk> . The invasions <unk> in 250 years of political fragmentation in Burma and the rise of Tai @-@ Shan states throughout mainland Southeast Asia . 
   The Mongols first demanded tribute from Pagan in 1271 – 72 , as part of their drive to encircle the Song dynasty of China . When King <unk> refused , Emperor <unk> Khan himself sent another mission in <unk> , again demanding tribute . It too was rejected . In 1275 , the emperor ordered the <unk> government to secure the <unk> in order to block an escape path for the Song , and permitted a limited border war if Pagan contested . Pagan did contest but its army was driven back at the frontier by the <unk> Army in <unk> – 78 . After a brief lull , <unk> Khan in 1281 turned his attention to Southeast Asia , demanding tribute from Pagan , the Khmer Empire , <unk> <unk> and <unk> . When the <unk> king again refused , the emperor ordered an invasion of northern Burma . Two dry season campaigns ( <unk> – 85 ) later , the Mongols had occupied down to <unk> and <unk> , forcing the <unk> king to flee to Lower Burma . The Mongols organized northern Burma as the province of <unk> . 
   <unk> negotiations began in <unk> , and ended with <unk> finally agreeing to submit in June <unk> . The <unk> embassy , received by the emperor in Beijing in January <unk> , agreed to a treaty that acknowledged the <unk> of the Yuan dynasty or the <unk> Empire over the Pagan Empire and annual payments in taxes to the <unk> government in exchange for the evacuation of <unk> troops from northern Burma . But the treaty never really took effect as <unk> was assassinated in July <unk> , and no authority who could honor the treaty emerged . The <unk> command at <unk> now deemed the imperial order to withdraw void , and ordered an invasion of central Burma . They may not have reached Pagan , and even if they did , after having suffered heavy casualties , they returned to <unk> . 
   The Pagan Empire <unk> and anarchy ensued . The Mongols , who probably preferred the situation , did nothing to restore order in the next ten years . In March <unk> , they accepted the voluntary submission of King <unk> of Pagan although he controlled little beyond the capital city of Pagan ( <unk> ) . But <unk> was overthrown nine months later , and the Mongols were forced to intervene , leading to their second invasion in 1300 – 01 . 
   Marco Polo reported the first invasions ( <unk> – 87 ) in his <unk> , Il <unk> . The <unk> referred to the invaders as the <unk> ( after the central Asian <unk> troops that largely made up the <unk> invasion army ) ; today , the term <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) refers to the Han Chinese instead . King <unk> is <unk> remembered in <unk> history as <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> , ( " the King who <unk> from the <unk> " ) . 
   
   = = Background = = 
   
   
   = = = Pagan and <unk> = = = 
   
   In the 13th century , the Pagan Empire , along with the Khmer Empire , was one of the two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia . For much of its history , Pagan 's neighbor to the northeast was not China but the independent <unk> Kingdom and its predecessor <unk> , both with <unk> as their capital city . <unk> @-@ based kingdoms were a power in their own right , at times <unk> themselves with the <unk> Empire to their west and at other times with China 's Tang and Song dynasties . Indeed , <unk> 's mounted armies ventured deep into what is today Burma and may have been behind the founding of the medieval city of Pagan and the Pagan Dynasty itself . 
   Between the newly conquered <unk> territory and Pagan were a wide <unk> of <unk> stretching from present @-@ day <unk> , <unk> and <unk> prefectures in <unk> as well as the <unk> and <unk> regions ( presumably in present @-@ day northern Shan State ) , which Pagan and <unk> had both claimed and exercised overlapping spheres of influence . Then as now , the <unk> mostly consist of <unk> <unk> of high mountain ranges . 
   
   = = = <unk> conquest of <unk> = = = 
   
   The <unk> Empire first arrived at the <unk> of the Pagan Empire in <unk> by invading the <unk> Kingdom in its attempt to outflank Song China . The <unk> armies captured the capital , <unk> , on 7 January <unk> , and went on to <unk> much of the kingdom by <unk> . 
   The arrival of the Mongols did not initially upset the existing order at the <unk> as the Mongols were intent on finishing off the Song . For the next dozen years , they consolidated their hold over the newly conquered land , which not only provided them with a base from which to attack the Song from the rear but also was strategically located on the trade routes from China to Burma and India . The Mongols set up military garrisons , manned mostly by <unk> @-@ speaking Muslims from Central Asia , in 37 circuits of the former <unk> Kingdom . 
   
   = = = Decline of Pagan = = = 
   
   By then , the Pagan Empire , despite outward appearances of calm , had been in long and slow decline since the early 13th century . The continuous growth of tax @-@ free religious wealth had greatly reduced the tax base of the kingdom . The crown had lost resources needed to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen , inviting a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges . Although it was able to put down the first batch of serious rebellions in <unk> – 60 in South <unk> and <unk> ( <unk> ) , the decline continued . On the eve of the <unk> invasions , between one and two @-@ thirds of Upper Burma 's <unk> land had been donated to religion . The crown 's ability to <unk> defenses was in serious jeopardy . 
   
   = = Prelude to war = = 
   
   
   = = = First <unk> mission ( 1271 – 72 ) = = = 
   
   The period of calm for Pagan ended in the early <unk> . By then , the Song were on the ropes , and Emperor <unk> Khan , who officially founded the Yuan dynasty on 18 December 1271 , sought to cut off the retreat of Song refugees in all directions . In Pagan 's case , he had ordered the <unk> governor of <unk> to <unk> control of the <unk> , and in January 1271 to send a mission to Pagan to demand tribute . The tribute he demanded was nominal . Given his higher priority <unk> elsewhere , the emperor was not looking to replace the regime at Pagan . At the border , the ruler of the <unk> and <unk> regions submitted to the Mongols . 
   When the <unk> envoys led by <unk> <unk> showed up , the Pagan court led by Chief Minister <unk> <unk> was well aware of the military power of the Mongols and advised King <unk> to use diplomacy . The king was furious at the demand and kept the <unk> envoys waiting for weeks . The court finally devised a compromise : the envoys were sent back without ever seeing the king . <unk> them was a <unk> envoy who carried a letter expressing friendly sentiments and the <unk> king 's wish to one day worship a Buddha tooth at Beijing . The king then promptly ordered an expedition , which retook the rebellious <unk> regions in April <unk> . The rebel leader A @-@ <unk> ( <unk> ) was brought back to Pagan . <unk> relayed the news to Beijing but did not carry out any military action . 
   
   = = = Second <unk> mission ( <unk> ) = = = 
   
   At Beijing , <unk> Khan , who was preparing an invasion of Japan , decided against a war with Pagan — for the time being . On 3 March <unk> , he sent a 4 @-@ member delegation led by an imperial ambassador , the First Secretary to the Board <unk> , to Pagan . The delegation carried a letter from the emperor . The letter says : 
   " If you have finally decided to fulfill your duties towards the All @-@ Highest , send one of your brothers or senior ministers , to show men that all the world is linked with Us , and enter into a perpetual alliance . This will add to your reputation , and be in your own interests ; for if it comes to war , who will be the victor ? <unk> well , O king , Our words . " 
   This time , the <unk> king received the imperial envoys but still refused to submit . ( The <unk> chronicles say that the king was so insulted that he had the envoys executed . But both <unk> <unk> evidence and Yuan records indicate that the envoys were not executed . ) At any rate , the imperial envoys did not get back to <unk> in due time . The newly formed <unk> government sent another delegation to investigate the whereabouts of the delegation , but the delegation could not reach Pagan because of an ongoing rebellion en route . 
   
   = = = <unk> consolidation of <unk> ( 1275 – 76 ) = = = 
   
   Meanwhile , in <unk> , the former <unk> Kingdom was officially reorganized as the Province of <unk> , with <unk> <unk> <unk> al @-@ Din Omar as governor . In May 1275 , the governor sent a report to the emperor stating that the embassy had not returned ; that the <unk> evidently had no intention of submitting ; and that war was the only way forward . 
   But the emperor rejected an outright invasion . Just coming off a disastrous Japanese campaign , the emperor was unwilling to commit the central government troops to what he considered a low priority affair . He was now focused on delivering the final blow against the Song ; the emperor ordered the <unk> provincial army to secure the <unk> in order to block the escape path of the Song refugees . He also sanctioned a limited border war if Pagan contested the takeover . As planned , the <unk> army proceeded to consolidate the <unk> in 1275 – 76 . ( Elsewhere , the main <unk> armies had captured most of the Song territory by <unk> . ) 
   By <unk> , at least one <unk> vassal state named " Gold <unk> " ( modern <unk> ) had submitted to the Mongols . Like in <unk> , the <unk> government responded by sending an army to reclaim the rebellious state ; but unlike in <unk> , the Mongols had posted a sizable garrison there . Though it was ultimately under <unk> command , many of the officers and most of the soldiers of the garrison were <unk> @-@ speaking peoples or people from the further west : Turks from <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> , but also captive soldiers from the Persian <unk> empire , the <unk> , and even <unk> from the lower <unk> . 
   
   = = Border war ( <unk> – 78 ) = = 
   
   What followed was a border war in <unk> – 78 . It was reported mainly in the Yuan dynasty chronicle and the <unk> of Marco Polo . Although the <unk> chronicles have no record of the border war , a <unk> <unk> inscription mentions the army 's defeat at <unk> . The <unk> accounts of the border war contain certain errors of location and numbers although the overall narrative is probably accurate . 
   
   = = = Battle of <unk> = = = 
   
   According to the Yuan dynasty chronicle and Marco Polo 's accounts , a <unk> army " invaded " the <unk> territory of Gold <unk> , and was defeated by the <unk> army in April <unk> . The battle took place either at the <unk> valley ( in present @-@ day <unk> Prefecture ) or 110 km southwest at <unk> ( present @-@ day <unk> , <unk> Prefecture ) , which the <unk> called <unk> . 
   The Yuan Chronicle reports that only 700 men defeated a <unk> army of 40 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 with 10 @,@ 000 horses and 800 <unk> . It also reports only one <unk> was killed , in trying to catch an elephant . According to Marco Polo , the <unk> army consisted of 12 @,@ 000 mounted <unk> , and the <unk> army numbered 60 @,@ 000 men with 2000 <unk> , " on each of which was set a tower of timber , well @-@ framed and strong , and carrying from 12 to 16 well @-@ armed fighting men . " Even then , the 40 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 figures of the <unk> army strength were likely eye estimates and may still be too high ; the Mongols may have <unk> " on the side of generosity " not to " <unk> their glory in defeating superior numbers . " 
   According to Marco Polo 's account , in the early stages of the battle , the Turkish and <unk> horsemen " took such <unk> at the sight of the <unk> that they would not be got to face the <unk> , but always <unk> and turned back , " while the <unk> forces pressed on . But the <unk> commander <unk> did not panic ; he ordered his troops to <unk> , and from the cover of the nearby <unk> , aim their bows directly at the advancing <unk> . The <unk> <unk> ' arrows threw the animals into such pain that they fled . 
   
   = = = Raid of <unk> = = = 
   
   The <unk> army pressed on after the monsoon season . In the following dry season of <unk> – 78 , c . December <unk> , a <unk> army of <unk> led by <unk> al @-@ Din , son of <unk> <unk> <unk> , advanced to <unk> , which defended the <unk> Pass . They occupied the fort and destroyed a large number of abandoned <unk> . But they found the heat excessive and returned . 
   
   = = Interlude ( <unk> – 83 ) = = 
   
   Despite the <unk> military success , the control of the <unk> remained contested . Pagan did not relinquish its claim to the frontier regions , and the <unk> , apparently taking advantage of <unk> <unk> elsewhere , rebuilt their forts at <unk> and <unk> later in <unk> , posting permanent garrisons commanded by <unk> <unk> . But their control was short @-@ lived . The Great Khan 's attention turned to Southeast Asia once more in 1281 . He had had mixed success : his <unk> forces had finished off the last of the Song in 1279 but had again failed to take Japan in 1281 . That year , the <unk> emperor sent another mission to Pagan , demanding tribute yet again . The <unk> king was to send his ten senior ministers accompanied by one thousand cavalry officers to the emperor 's court . ( With <unk> , the emperor summoned the king of <unk> himself to Beijing . ) 
   At Pagan , <unk> <unk> with his court for an appropriate response but ultimately refused to submit . The <unk> court may have been counting on another limited border war but the emperor now ordered an invasion of northern Burma . ( He also ordered an invasion of <unk> , whose king too had refused to submit . ) The <unk> king 's troubles did not go <unk> elsewhere in the kingdom . In the same year , a <unk> named <unk> seized the southern port city of <unk> ( <unk> ) by killing its Pagan @-@ appointed governor . Although the king 's three sons were <unk> of the nearby Lower Burma cities ( in <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> ( <unk> ) , and <unk> ) , the king , preoccupied with much more serious threat in the north , did not ( or could not ) take any action on <unk> . 
   Throughout <unk> , the <unk> command made preparations for the upcoming invasions of <unk> and northern Burma . The objective of the Burma campaign was to take over northern Burma but no further ; the emperor did not <unk> an attack on Pagan itself . At least one army consisted of 14 @,@ 000 men of the <unk> Persian <unk> Empire under the command of <unk> <unk> was sent to <unk> to reinforce the Burma invasion force , which again was made up of Turks and other central <unk> . On the <unk> side , the king managed to raise an army although given his low standing with his vassals , he probably could not have raised a large one . By mid @-@ <unk> , a <unk> army led by generals <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> was deployed at a fort at <unk> . 
   
   = = Invasion ( <unk> – 85 ) = = 
   
   
   = = = Battle of <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = 
   
   The invasion began on 22 September <unk> . Prince <unk> was the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the invasion force ; his deputies were Vice Governor <unk> , and commander <unk> <unk> . The <unk> armies marched to the border in two columns . One column advanced along the <unk> River using over 200 boats ; the other proceeded by land and joined the first column at the <unk> fort at <unk> . The <unk> chronicles report an overwhelming number of <unk> forces laying siege to the fort although their numbers are greatly exaggerated . ( The chronicles say that the <unk> army numbered 400 @,@ 000 men while the <unk> army numbered 20 million men and 6 million horses . ) The <unk> withstood the siege for over two months but the fort fell on 3 December <unk> . 
   
   = = = Invasion of northern Burma = = = 
   
   The defeat at <unk> broke the back of <unk> defenses . The <unk> army lost several thousand men as well as senior commanders . <unk> , the next fort <unk> , fell just six days later on 9 December <unk> . The <unk> sources say that the <unk> lost 10 @,@ 000 men at <unk> . The <unk> armies pushed farther south into the <unk> valley . They took the ancient <unk> capital of <unk> , about 380 km north of Pagan on 5 February <unk> . There , the invaders paused their advance . They found the heat of the searing <unk> valley excessive , and evacuated <unk> , allowing the <unk> to return to <unk> on 10 May <unk> . But the <unk> army renewed their offensive in the following dry season . They retook <unk> , and defeated another <unk> stand south of <unk> , probably near <unk> , on 26 January <unk> , opening the way to Pagan , about 270 km south . After the defeat , the king <unk> , and fled to Lower Burma . The evacuation proved premature . The <unk> forces did not advance on Pagan as it was not part of their invasion plan . 
   The country fell into chaos . In Lower Burma , the king found himself isolated , let alone plan a counterattack . Although his sons ruled the key Lower Burma ports ( <unk> , <unk> and <unk> ) , the king did not trust any of them , and he and his court settled at <unk> , west of <unk> . Without the full support of his sons , the presence of the king and his small army impressed no one . The governor of <unk> <unk> that same year . The king managed to send two small expeditions to <unk> but they both failed . Now , the entire eastern half of Lower Burma ( <unk> and <unk> ) was in open revolt . 
   
   = = Peace negotiations ( <unk> – 87 ) = = 
   
   
   = = = <unk> = = = 
   
   Given his precarious position , <unk> decided to buy time , and sue for peace with the Mongols . In November / December <unk> , the king ordered his generals <unk> <unk> and <unk> Bo to enter into ceasefire negotiations . The <unk> commanders at <unk> , who had organized northern Burma as a protectorate named <unk> ( Chinese : <unk> ; Wade – Giles : <unk> @-@ <unk> ) , agreed to a ceasefire but insisted on a full submission . They repeated their 1281 demand that the <unk> king send a formal delegation to the emperor . The two sides had reached a tentative agreement by 3 March <unk> , which calls for a full submission of the Pagan Empire , and central Burma to be organized as the province of <unk> ( Chinese : <unk> ; Wade – Giles : <unk> @-@ Chung ) . After a long <unk> , the king agreed to submit but wanted the <unk> troops to withdraw . In June <unk> , he sent an embassy led by Shin <unk> <unk> , a learned monk , to the emperor 's court . 
   
   = = = Treaty of Beijing = = = 
   
   In January <unk> , the embassy arrived at Beijing , and was received by the Yuan emperor . The <unk> delegation formally acknowledged <unk> <unk> of their kingdom , and agreed to pay annual tribute tied to the agricultural output of the country . ( Indeed , the tribute was no longer nominal . ) In exchange , the emperor agreed to withdraw his troops . For the emperor , the Burma campaign was the only bright spot ; his other Southeast Asian expeditions had gone badly . He did not want to invest more troops <unk> the rest of the kingdom . He preferred a vassal ruler . The <unk> embassy arrived back at <unk> in May <unk> , and reported the terms to the king . 
   
   = = = <unk> = = = 
   
   But the agreement broke down a month later . In late June , the defeated king and his small retinue left their temporary capital for Pagan . But on 1 July <unk> , the king was captured en route and assassinated by his second son <unk> , the Viceroy of <unk> . Anarchy ensued . Each region in the country which had not <unk> broke away . No successor to <unk> , who could honor and enforce the terms of the treaty of Beijing , emerged . Indeed , a king would not emerge until May <unk> . 
   
   = = <unk> intervention ( <unk> ) = = 
   
   Given the chaos , the governor of <unk> ignored the imperial orders of evacuation . The <unk> army commanded by Prince <unk> @-@ sin <unk> , a grandson of the emperor , marched south toward Pagan . According to mainstream traditional ( British colonial era ) scholarship , the <unk> army ignored the imperial orders to evacuate ; fought its way down to Pagan with the loss of 7000 men ; occupied the city ; and sent out <unk> to receive homage , one of which reached south of <unk> . But not all colonial period scholars agreed with the assessment as none of the contemporary <unk> / Chinese records specifically mentioned the conquest of Pagan or the temporary <unk> of the conquest . 
   Recent research shows that the <unk> forces most probably never reached Pagan . They were held at bay by the <unk> defenses led by commanders <unk> , <unk> and <unk> , and probably never got closer than 160 km north of Pagan . ( An inscription dated 16 February <unk> by the three brothers claimed that they defeated the <unk> army . ) Even if the Mongols did reach Pagan , the damage they inflicted was probably minimal . At any rate , the <unk> army suffered heavy casualties , and retreated north to <unk> . They remained there as the treaty was now void . 
   
   = = Aftermath = = 
   
   The disintegration of the Pagan Empire was now complete . But the Mongols refused to fill in the power vacuum they had created . They would send no more expeditions to restore order . The emperor apparently had no interest in committing troops that would be required to <unk> the fragmented country . Indeed , his real aim all along may have been " to keep the entire region of Southeast Asia broken and fragmented . " It would be another two years until one of <unk> 's sons , <unk> , emerged as king of Pagan in May <unk> . But the new " king " controlled just a small area around the capital , and had no real army . The real power in central Burma now rested with the three commander brothers . 
   The uneasy arrangement would persist until <unk> . The Mongols continued to occupy northern Burma to <unk> as the province of <unk> ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) but ended the fictional central Burma province of <unk> on 18 August <unk> . Meanwhile , the power struggle in central Burma continued with the three brothers <unk> consolidating support . To check their rising power , <unk> submitted to the Mongols in January <unk> , and was recognized by the Yuan emperor <unk> Khan as King of Pagan on 20 March <unk> . The emperor also gave Chinese titles to the brothers as subordinates of <unk> . The brothers resented the new arrangement as it directly reduced their power . On 17 December <unk> , the three brothers <unk> <unk> , and founded the <unk> Kingdom . The <unk> forced the <unk> government to intervene again , leading to the second <unk> invasion of Burma ( 1300 – 01 ) . The invasion failed . Two years later , on 4 April <unk> , the Mongols abolished the province of <unk> ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) , evacuated <unk> , and returned to <unk> . 
   
   = = Legacy = = 
   
   The war was one of several near simultaneous wars <unk> by the <unk> Empire and the Yuan dynasty in the late 13th century . Though it was never more than a minor frontier war to the Mongols , the war set off a series of enduring developments in Burma . The invasions <unk> in a period of political fragmentation , and the rise of Tai @-@ Shan states throughout mainland Southeast Asia . 
   
   = = = Age of political fragmentation = = = 
   
   The immediate result of the war was the collapse of the Pagan Empire . However , the war merely accelerated the collapse but did not cause it . Pagan 's disintegration was " in fact more prolonged and <unk> . " The kingdom had been in long gradual decline since the early 13th century . Had Pagan possessed a stronger central government , the collapse could have been temporary , and the country “ could have risen again ” . But the dynasty could not recover , and because the Mongols refused to fill the power vacuum , no viable center emerged in the immediate aftermath . As a result , several minor states fought it out for supremacy for the better part of the 14th century . It was only in the late 14th century that two relatively strong powers emerged in the <unk> basin , restoring some semblance of normalcy . The vast region surrounding the <unk> valley would continue to be made up of several small Tai @-@ Shan states well into the 16th century . 
   
   = = = Rise of Tai @-@ Shan states = = = 
   
   Perhaps the most enduring legacy of the <unk> invasions was the emergence of Tai @-@ Shan states in mainland Southeast Asia . The Tai @-@ Shan people who came down with the <unk> invasions stayed . By the early 14th century , several Tai @-@ Shan states had come to dominate a vast region from present @-@ day <unk> to northern and eastern <unk> to northern and central Thailand and Laos . Their rise was encouraged by the Mongols , who viewed the states as a useful <unk> between <unk> and the rest of Southeast Asia . The Mongols , who were still trying to incorporate <unk> into the central administration , were unwilling or unable to make necessary sustained investments to bring the vast regions south of <unk> into the fold . ( The integration of <unk> itself into “ China <unk> ” was to take several more centuries , and continues to today . ) As such , from the newly formed Tai @-@ Shan states in western and central Southeast Asia to Dai Viet and <unk> in eastern Southeast Asia , the Mongols elected to receive nominal tribute . Though the rulers of these states were technically governors of the Yuan government , they were the native chieftains , “ who would have ruled there in any case , and they did as they pleased . ” 
   
   = = = <unk> of China on the <unk> border = = = 
   
   The war also marked the arrival of China at the <unk> of Burma . The old <unk> Kingdom , known to the <unk> as <unk> ( <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> , after <unk> Raj ) was now a <unk> Chinese province . ( The <unk> now called the new powers at <unk> " <unk> " after the <unk> @-@ speaking soldiers of <unk> . Over the years , the term <unk> came to be used to refer to the Han Chinese . Today , King <unk> is remembered as <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> , ( " the King who fled from the <unk> [ Chinese ] ) . ) From a <unk> standpoint , the <unk> – Chinese presence in <unk> pushed the Shan migrations in the direction of Burma ( and parts of the Khmer Empire ) . The raids by various Shan states into Upper Burma would continue until the mid @-@ 16th century . 
   
   = = Mongolia – <unk> relations = = 
   
   During the official visit by the President <unk> <unk> to <unk> in November 2013 , <unk> San Suu <unk> , the <unk> of National League for Democracy , said this was the first ever <unk> mission since the Mongols came 730 years earlier . 
   
   