glass was first used in windows in england in the late 7th century onwards.
when was glass first used in windows in england?
the late 7th century onwards
over the centuries techniques were developed to shear through one side of a blown glass cylinder and produce thinner rectangular window panes from the same amount of glass material. this gave rise to tall narrow windows, usually separated by a vertical support called a mullion. mullioned glass windows were the windows of choice among european well-to-do, whereas paper windows were economical and widely used in ancient china, korea and japan. in england, glass became common in the windows of ordinary homes only in the early 17th century whereas windows made up of panes of flattened animal horn were used as early as the 14th century.
window
window frost (also called fern frost or ice flowers) forms when a glass pane is exposed to very cold air on the outside and warmer, moderately moist air on the inside. if the pane is not a good insulator (for example, if it is a single pane window), water vapour condenses on the glass forming frost patterns. with very low temperatures outside, frost can appear on the bottom of the window even with double pane energy efficient windows because the air convection between two panes of glass ensures that the bottom part of the glazing unit is colder than the top part. on unheated motor vehicles the frost will usually form on the outside surface of the glass first. the glass surface influences the shape of crystals, so imperfections, scratches, or dust can modify the way ice nucleates. the patterns in window frost form a fractal with a fractal dimension greater than one but less than two. this is a consequence of the nucleation process being constrained to unfold in two dimensions, unlike a snowflake which is shaped by a similar process but forms in three dimensions and has a fractal dimension greater than two.
frost